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Heffernan offers data on the trading, economic, & political power of the European Union (EU). Organizational expansion is shown by a list of historical stages in European integration. Criteria for EU membership & details of evolving enlargement are cited. An explanation of the EU's contemporary functions & characteristics includes review of the creation of the Council of Europe & events moving the organization from the ECSC (European Coal & Steel Community) to the Maastricht treaty. Examination of the EU's interdependence considers the influence of the two world wars on European integration. There is reflection on conflict over integration & development as well as intergovernmentalism & supranationalism. The question, "How is the EU governed?" delves into the European Council's functions & the European Commission's composition. Legislative & executive systems are outlined. Fast periods of integration are listed & compared with slower, more conflictive epochs. Historical perspective of the EU covers the specificity of Western Europe & the role of intergovernmental bargaining. 12 References. M. C. Leary

"The European Union (EU) has encouraged democratic development in a number of post-communist states. This article examines the extent of EU involvement in Ukraine and its results. It notes that there has been a substantial disconnect between the rhetoric of Ukraine's 'European Choice' and authoritarian trends in the country. Ukraine signed a series of agreements with the EU, but membership in the organization was never offered. The EU's interest in Ukraine, however, was rather meager and it never gained means to have much leverage. As authoritarianism became more pronounced, the EU began to disengage from the country. The article argues that part of the problem was that the EU never applied political conditionality to Ukraine as it had with other states. The 'Orange Revolution' opens up new possibilities and challenges, and the EU now must come to grips with a more democratically and Western-oriented leadership." (author's abstract)

Argues that the neocorporatist model of labor politics that was initially developed by early integration theorists, & applied by particular nation-states in the 1950s & 1960s, was never realized at the European Union (EU) level -- primarily because, in contrast to the nation-state level, labor continued to be underorganized & thus could not stimulate an interaction effect between capital, the state, & itself. The underorganization of labor is traced to wide regional disparities in Europe & corresponding differences in national labor movements. Other causes for the failure of the neocorporatist model in EU integration efforts include the presence of the Council of Ministers, which worked to halt any attempt by supranational bodies to organize interests, & the strength of national corporatist efforts. Three trends indicate that the restoration of neocorporatism at either the national or supranational level is unlikely: (1) an increasing differentiation of social structures & collective interests in advanced capitalist societies; (2) market instability & volatility; & (3) changing roles & structures of interest associations. The future of interest politics at the nation-state & EU levels in light of this context is discussed. D. M. Smith

Reflection on the development of the European Union (EU) is enhanced by a chronology of pivotal historic events. Definitions of key terms are provided. The goal of examining reasons for the EU's evolution, administration, & dominant political system is stated. Other queries regard the EU's purpose, the nature of its relationship with & effect on member states, & its efficacy. A definition of the term "politics" is pursued. There is iteration of Finer's list of nation-state attributes. Exploration of the notion of legitimately exercised power includes reproduction of Beetham & Lord's set of criteria determining legality, justifiability, & legitimation. An overview of questions of governance links models of the EU, an intergovernmental model, & a supranational model. 18 References. M. C. Leary

The lack of democracy in the European Union (EU) has traditionally been examined as an institutional problem, but it is argued here to be a manifestation of the widespread disagreement about what constitutes the essential character of the EU. To make this point, the historical particularity of the EU is taken into account, the EU's governmental structures are discussed, & the conditions for democracy in the EU are compared to those in a sovereign state. The new instruments that the Maastricht Treaty sets up to work against the democratic deficit -- most notably, the concepts of subsidiarity, regionality, & EU citizenship -- are also examined & found wanting. M. Maguire

Recent debate on the existence of democratic processes in the European Union (EU) has provoked more questions than answers. The difficulty of choosing a suitable model for comparison is cited along with the need for the EU to use increasingly democratic means. Lord explores the means by which democratic government may reliably reflect public wishes. It is asserted that more democracy in the EU could mean less legitimacy. Means of avoiding this problem are explored via a list of methods for institutionalizing democracy & a comparison of intergovernmental & supranational approaches. Also considered are the idea of democratizing the EU by a "consociational" method & monitoring governors. Examples of deeper democratization's impact on national & populist representation are given. European elections & the European Parliament (EP) are examined for their ability to herald results of the proposed change. There is discussion of the powers of executive formation & dismissal & of the EP's legislative power. The possibilities attending strengthening of the EP, popular election of an EU executive, & Swiss-style referendums are analyzed. 1 Table, 40 References. M. C. Leary

"Development Policy and European Union Politics" published on by Oxford University Press.

Contemplation of expansion takes into account the European Union (EU)'s original ideals. The EU's formation & growth, 1951-1995, is charted along with cautionary projections, including those made by Jacques Delors, on growth. There is discussion of the costs of enlargement, models of EU development, & the EU's commitment to & conditions for expansion. Considered consequences of enlargement include conflict over accession & the need for institutional reform. Post-Cold War integration is compared with previous conditions & with prospects for integrating current applicants. The process of reaching an agreement on new conditions for membership, 1991-1995, is reviewed. Figures on individual Eastern European countries' populations & economies are given. There is listing of EU conclusions regarding applicant states' eligibility for membership & of concerns that arose regarding issues of agriculture, single market implementation, environmental standards, transport, nuclear safety, & border disputes. Potential admission of Mediterranean countries is contemplated. Proposed shifts in the EU's practices, institutions, & policies are laid out. 2 Tables, 4 Figures, 13 References. M. C. Leary

"The Council of Ministers of the European Union" published on by Oxford University Press.

Is the European Union (EU) a state, an international organ, or a new example of "postsovereign" power & administration? An attempt to determine the EU's role is made through examination of community law for its relation to European integration. The community legal system, including recent adaptations & cases, is reviewed. There is exploration of legal pluralism & the development of the relationship between community law & the European Court of Justice (ECJ), along with the roles of member state administrators, institutions, European law, community law, enlargement, & social context. The ECJ's position regarding sexual equality is viewed. Consideration of community law & regulatory order are heightened by citation of the Cassis de Dijon case of 1979. Debate over the EU's role regarding maintenance of order & security is elucidated. Development of the Justice & Home Affairs branch of the EU is detailed, considering its jurisdiction, policies, conflicts, & potential. 18 References. M. C. Leary

Cram attempts to clarify the integration that is central to the European Union (EU). Scholarship by Spinelli, Deutsch, & Haas is cited, with the author leaning toward the last's view of integration as an organic, ongoing, & formative experience for participating nations. There is consideration of integration as the creation of a supranational political union that might outstrip & end in conflict with the momentum of individual nations. Haas's "spillover" theory is delineated. Examination of the issue of control of integration involves review of neofunctionalism & its critics, including Hoffmann. The shift of politics from between member states to within the EU has led to specialized zones of "high politics." It is suggested that the goal of determining the EU's identity may be partially satisfied by comparing it with nations or federal states. A look at the EU policy process further aids dissection, with the author focusing on the evolution of formal rules, informal aspects of policy, an outline of the policy process, examples of agenda-setting, the decision-making role of the Council of Ministers, & factors involved in implementation, enforcement, & specific policy areas. Majone's interpretation of the EU as a regulatory state is included. 20 References. M. C. Leary

Laffan illuminates the European Union (EU)'s governance by describing its budget-making process & politics. The primary functions of budgets are listed along with the EU's budget amounts, 1973-1998. There is a brief review of the budget of the EU's predecessor, the European Coal & Steel Community, 1952-1969, budgetary crises & conflicts, 1970-1986, & the institutionalization of the budget, 1987-1999. Data on budget creation & management are enriched by information on macronegotiations, the annual budget cycle, 1990's expansion, auditing, the discharge procedure, & means of addressing fraud. Future budgetary planning & conflicts are revealed by details of Agenda 2000, proposal formatting, & negotiations within the EU's councils. Ways in which the budgeting process embodies EU's goals of integration & representation are explored. The need for stabilization, accountability, & flexibility is addressed. 4 Tables, 1 Figure, 2 References. M. C. Leary