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Iran's massive April 13 attack was meant to settle scores for the blow that it suffered when, 12 days before, Israel assassinated two Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) generals and five other officers, three of whom directed operations in Yemen, Iraq, and Lebanon. With some of its highest-ranking officers eliminated in one fell swoop on what was legally Iranian sovereignty territory, the IRGC was determined to show on the home and regional fronts that it is still a potent and lethal fighting machine. The purpose of Iran's assault was not only to make Israel pay, but also to blot out the shame for what IRGC leaders experienced as a day that will live in infamy.The task facing Iran was how to retaliate without inviting a wider war with Israel and especially the United States. The regime's effort to address this dilemma was not hidden from public view. Indeed, in the days leading up to its retaliation the semi-official press was full of warnings not to fall into "Netanyahu's trap." But if Tehran's perception that Israel's April 1 assault was designed to produce an overreaction by Iran, its retaliation has created new realities and new risks. Iranian leaders insist that the attack has forged a "new equation" for deterrence and thus are hoping—or praying—that, in the words of a statement issued by Iran's U.N. delegation, "the matter can be deemed concluded." But whether Tehran can sustain this new reality and also avoid a wider conflagration will depend on at least two other key players: the United States and Israel.The regional arena: Sustaining resistance before April 1The highest-ranking Iranian officer killed on April 1 was Brigadier General Mohammad Reza Zahedi, an IRGC Al-Quds Force commander who played a major role in coordinating Iran's "resistance" strategy with armed groups in Lebanon, Syria, Yemen, the West Bank and Gaza. To appreciate the symbolic and strategic significance of this loss for Iran, it should be noted that in 1998 Zahedi was appointed commander of the IRGC Quds Lebanon Force by Major General Qassem Soleimani, the architect of Iran's regional security, who was killed on January 2020 by a U.S. drone strike outside Baghdad airport. In the three years following his killing, the regime appointed a series of commanders in a determined bid to sustain its resistance strategy.Zahedi's role in this effort was pivotal, especially after he was named as the Al Quds Force Syria and Lebanon commander, succeeding Seyyed Razi Mousavi, who was assassinated in December 25, 2023, by Israeli air strike. In short, Zahedi was killed in a line of IRGC commanders, all of whose deaths the regime failed to prevent. While he and the other IRGC officers who died next to him were celebrated as "martyrs," Israel's superior technological and military capacities made their sacrifice possible. In a long shadow war that has come into the full light of direct Israeli-Iranian conflict, Iranian leaders had good cause to worry that Israel has had the deadly upper hand. This concern was in fact amplified when, in the aftermath of Hamas's October 7 "Al-Aksa Storm" atrocities and Israel's ensuing military onslaught, Iranian leaders within or close to the ruling circles of the regime warned that by failing to respond forcefully through its regional partners, Iran's capacity to deter Israel had been greatly weakened. Nevertheless, the question was how to shore up what might be called a "no war, no peace" resistance strategy that still depended on maintaining this increasingly precarious formula.Seeking to sustain this balancing act, Esmail Qani, the chief of Iran's Al-Quds Forces, together with, IRGC Commander in Chief Major General Hossein Salami, met with militia commanders from Yemen, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria in Tehran in February. "At the end," one source reported, "all the participants agreed that Israel wanted to expand the war and falling in that trap should be avoided as it will justify the presence of more U.S. troops in the region." Not long after, Iran persuaded its allies in Iraq to cease attacks on U.S. forces. As for the Lebanon front, Iran pressured Hezbollah to modulate the escalating tit-for-tat strikes between it and Israel. In this way, Tehran tried to sustain the basic if increasingly precarious rules of the deterrence game with Israel.Iran retaliates: Creating a new (and old) resistance equilibrium?Apart from the huge strategic loss that it inflicted by directly hitting IRGC leaders on what was in effect Iranian sovereign territory, Israel's April 1 attack violated those very rules. Henceforth, the nature of the "trap" facing Iran was more direct and menacing because it seemed that Israel was now determined to compel Iran to respond in ways that would open the door to a wider conflict not only with Jerusalem but also potentially with Washington as well.Thus, an adviser to President Ebrahim Raisi issued a statement warning "the U.S. leadership not to get dragged into Netanyahu's trap." But at the same time, commentaries in the semi-official press cautioned against a "suicidal reaction" and urged Iran's leaders to "behave wisely," given "the potential pitfalls of unrestrained aggression against Iran." These op-eds seemed to imply that Iran's retaliation would –or should --create a new balance of deterrence with Israel that protects Iran without inviting a large military conflict.After April 13: New risks and dangers for Iran and IsraelIt is still too early to tell whether Iran has succeeded in reestablishing a new sweet (or bitter) spot that will enable it to hurt its enemies while avoiding all-out war. It could be that by targeting its 300 or so missiles and drones at Israeli military targets –an assault that with the exception of one young Bedouin girl who was wounded, failed to produce a single civilian or military casualty--Iran has actually achieved its purpose. Paradoxically, Israel's success--with the support of the U.S. and other countries--in destroying the vast majority of these missiles may have helped to redefine a new, if perhaps even more dangerous, rulebook for Israel-Iran deterrence. Statements by IRGC leaders show that they are hoping this is true and that "with this operation as complete, this operation has ended."At the same time, however, Iran's retaliation has created new dynamics that should worry its leaders. The role that the U.S., together with France and Britain (and quite possibly several Arab states including Jordan), played in knocking out Iranian drones and missiles has created a new reality. Hence forth, Israel's deterrent capacity is inextricably linked to a military partnership with the U.S. and, in effect, some of its Western allies. This fact has grabbed the attention of Iran's leaders, who, prior to and after their assault, openly warned Washington to "stay out of it." Now that the U.S.—and the Biden White House-- is very much in it, Iran will have to carefully contemplate how to retool resistance.Moreover, Tehran's attack has refocused global and regional attention away from Gaza and onto Iran. In the coming days and weeks, it is possible that the U.N. Security Council will convene not to push for a Gaza ceasefire, but rather to press for a new resolution focusing on the consequences of Iran's April 13 attack. This, of course, will be good news for the government of Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu but will make Iran's leaders nervous.And yet the new reality created by Iran's attack poses hard choices for Israel. That its deterrent capacity is now tied to the U.S. could constrain Israel's leaders. Indeed, Biden telegraphed this message in a discussion with Netanyahu in which he reportedly affirmed U.S. support while not only warning Israel not to retaliate in ways that would escalate the conflict but also asserting that Washington would not be a partner to any Israeli military retaliation on Iran.Nor will the administration allow the Israel-Iran conflict to deflect it from pushing for a Gaza ceasefire. Biden distrusts and dislikes Netanyahu today as much or more than ever, a sentiment that was probably reinforced by Israel's April 1 attack on the Iranian consulate in Damascus. For even if it was not designed to pull the U.S. into battle with Iran, it has created what Marxists might call an "objective" trap that the White House is struggling to avoid. Moving forward, the administration might redouble its quest for a diplomatic solution to the Gaza war (and Palestinian- Israeli conflict) even as it warily watches an Iranian regime that hopes that it has a new recipe for deterrence that will allow Tehran to have its resistance kabob and eat it too.

В даній статті розкрито особливості підвищення якості молочної продукції товаровиробників України згідно Європейських стандартів якості. Здійснено аналіз відповідності молоко-сировини товаровиробників високим стандартам забезпеченості та якості, які являються нормою для провідних виробників світу, досліджено якість молоко-сировини закупленого переробними підприємствами від аграрних підприємств та ціновий механізм молокопереробних підприємств. За результатами досліджень виявлено, що найважливішими проблемами в Україні на ринку молочної продукції є недостатність пропозиції молока та переважною мірою низька його конкурентоспроможність та якість. Проведено комплексну оцінку виробництва молочної продукції підприємствами України і виявлено, що представлені підприємства мають потенціал щодо виробництва молоко-сировини, проте потребують інвестицій та державної допомоги. Встановлено, що ефективність молочних фермерів залежить від конкурентоспроможності продуктів, пропонованих споживачам. Оцінка конкурентоспроможності сировинного молока необхідна для прийняття обґрунтованих рішень щодо виробництва та реалізації молочної продукції в Україні та за кордоном, зменшення закупівлі аналогічної імпортної продукції з підвищення якості та конкурентоспроможності продукції у виробників сировини. Доведено, що національний ринок молока можливо утримати лише високоефективним товаровиробникам, які мають можливість створювати всі необхідні технологічні умови для його виробництва, та вести постійний контроль щодо його якості, а також необхідно взяти напрям на створення високотоварних та технологічних молочних ферм, які б відповідали сучасним вимогам виробництва молока. Кооперація сільськогосподарських підприємств, організація сімейних ферм і переробників молочної сировини, з урахуванням досвіду розвинутих країн світу, вирішить проблему виробництва якісної молочної сировини і дасть можливість отримати їй прибутки. ; These scientists point out that the market situation in Ukraine is favorable for the dairy industry functioning and the country has the appropriate prerequisites for its development: favorable climate, large areas of agricultural land, soil fertility, historical experience in farming, qualified staff and significant dairy market capacity. However, the authors reveal the presence of significant problems in the development of Ukrainian dairy subcomplex enterprises which requires further research in the industry development in the current conditions. The aim of the paper is to analyze and assess the main factors of raw milk competitiveness in accordance with the European quality requirements on the dairy complex of Ukraine, as well as analyze the problems of its development and ways to solve them.Currently, dairy enterprises production in Ukraine meet the high quality standards of the EU only partially. Therefore, the main task for Ukrainian producers is to ensure the high quality of both raw milk and the processed products. In addition, antibiotics and palm oil, pesticides, plant substitutes, milk substitution with water, etc. must be excluded from dairy products. According to the statistics, the total consumption fund in Ukraine, including exports and imports, is 9.33 million tons of milk. If we divide this figure by 42 million people of Ukraine, we get 221 kg of milk per capita. But if we divide the real figures - 6.68 million tons - by the real figure for the Ukrainian population - 36 million people - we will see that the consumption level is much lower - 185 kg per capita. Milk production decreased by almost 3.6% in Ukraine during the year. This drop was the most noticeable in cream and butter production, so it is not surprising that this niche was quickly filled by the importers.But what impedes Ukrainian milk industry development in the domestic market and its entering the foreign market? The only reason is low level of milk production. In Ukraine, the volumes in 2019 fell below 10 million tons for the first time. These data are confirmed by the recently published "Forecast of milk production in Ukraine by 2030: methods and calculations" submitted by Olha Kozak, a researcher at the Department of Economics of Agricultural Production and International Integration of the National Research Center "Institute of Agrarian Economics". According to the expert, the internal shortage of the product in 2019 was indicated primarily by the growth of the purchase price for raw milk, which for the last three months of 2019 was almost in line with the world prices or 10-15% higher than in the previous year. In October 2019, the price reached the maximum in hryvnia for the period of Ukraine's independence. Some experts in this field claim that our milk is more expensive than in Belgium, and this is nonsense.The experts predict a record decline in raw materials for 2020. In 2020, these processes will only intensify, causing structural changes in all components of the dairy food system. The situation will also be complicated by the abolition of the Second Grade milk since January 1, 2020, which is provided by the new DSTU "3662: 2018" Raw cow's milk. Specifications". This implies that processing companies will not receive about 1 million tons of second-grade milk.Dairy food producers are embarrassed as they can not compete with the UE plants in terms of prices. Recently, which was attended by Vadym Chagarovsky, the Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Dairy Enterprises Union spoke at the Forum Dairy Business 2019 held in Kyiv. The expert claimed that it is necessary to work out a special development strategy for the period until 2025 in order to save the industry. The document will provide for a change in marketing strategies and, in particular, the definition of target export markets.Currently, Ukraine has implemented a system of food safety and quality control focused on the ultimate result. That is, individual product samples are selected for analysis by the controller. In case of positive results, the good quality of products is confirmed and the whole batch is subject to sale [1]. However, this approach does not guarantee complete safety and absolute product quality. 19 million tons of milk were produced by Ukrainian enterprises and about 5 tons were produced by the population20 years ago. According to these indicators, we were among the top ten world milk producers and, despite the problems with its quality, milk was suitable for processing. Therefore, development of dairy farming in Ukraine requires, above all, operating with real numbers. This is the only way the government can see the real state of this sector. And, by the way, the biggest error is in the amount of milk supplied by the population. The identification of cattle kept in small private farms could settle this problem and provide tracking real numbers and exercising effective control.Thus, the main problems of the milk market in Ukraine are insufficient milk supply and, above all, its low competitiveness and quality. According to some experts, the competitiveness of milk depends on its quality by 80%. At present, raw milk producers are not responsible for the microbiological and hygienic indicators of the EU countries. Since 2004, the quality of milk supplied to processing plants in Ukraine is regulated by the requirements of DSTU 3662-97 "whole cow's milk". Procurement requirements. In 2007, this standard was changed and a additional Extra grade was introduced. In the EU, the main document which sets requirements for food quality and safety is the Regulation (EU) № 853/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 defining specific rules for the hygiene of foodstuffs.The growing demands on dairy products quality has been an important trend in milk production: in July 2018 DSTU 3662: 2015 "Raw cow's milk. Specifications" was adopted. According to the document, there are three types of milk on the market: "extra", "higher" and "first". However, it was decided afterwards to leave the "second" grade until early 2020 to give farmers time to modernize production [6]. Over the next two years, it will be approved for processing into animal feed, casein, etc.Milk price has not only to reimburse the costs of its production, but to stimulate the growth of its production and contribute to increasing the profitability of its production as well. In addition, raw milk prices include the costs of milk processing enterprises, which cannot increase the price for milk and dairy products due to low solvency of consumers. More than that, the price increase may lead to a reduction in consumption.Increasing the competitiveness of raw milk producers is an important direction in the development of dairy industry enterprises in Ukraine. To achieve this aim they need to develop a set of measures aimed at increasing the productivity of cows, gradual increasing the livestock, especially in agricultural enterprises, increasing milk production and improving its quality characteristics through highly efficient technologies on an innovative basis, taking into account world experience. For this purpose the following steps must be taken: to restore and reconstruct the existing large livestock farms and complexes; increase the efficiency of selection work; to improve the conditions of the animals farming, milking and raw milk cooling system; set up modern large dairy complexes with highly productive animals and a well-established system of raw milk quality assurance; to consolidate raw milk producers with milk processing enterprises which will contribute to pricing policy regulation; to provide effective state support for producers; to introduce resource saving technologies into production in order to reduce resource costs and improve milk quality; to create a new technical and technological base that will meet the modern requirements for milk production; to learn from the experience of other countries; to improve the quality of milk by combating counterfeiting. Thus, the сurrent problems of raw milk producers competitiveness increase are challenging and relevant, and government measures aimed to meet high standards of dairy products safety and quality are the rule for the world's leading producers.

From the 1970s onwards, the development programs promoted by key global actors have gone through significant transformations. The industrial-expansion projects of the post-colonial era have been replaced with a set of actions increasingly focused on agriculture and rural areas. At the same time, the neoliberal policies carried out since the 1980s have deeply affected the global dynamics related to food production and distribution, giving rise to the birth of a new food regime that is driven by new modalities of regulation and new extractive strategies based on global value chains and transnational corporations. Despite the increases in productivity and the decline in food prices linked to these processes, the world economy has not managed to recover the levels of growth prior to the crisis of the 1970s. On the contrary, the neoliberal reaction to this crisis has generated a growing disillusionment towards development, fuelled also by the awakening of greater sensitivity to the ecological issues raised by environmental movements from as early as the 1960s. This "legitimacy crisis" of development, in turn, has led multilateral organisations to redefine their strategic objectives and to develop a new language. Thus, concepts such as "sustainable development" and "food security" have become increasingly important, until assuming the crucial role they currently play within the United Nations 2030 Agenda. The article provides a critical reading of the recent trajectories of agrarian change and rural development, as well as of the food narratives produced by the actors of global governance, particularly focusing on the "sustainability discourse" which inspired the United Nations 2030 Agenda. The authors point out the importance of analysing the dominant discourse and policies surrounding food production and distribution in the light of capitalist restructuring arising from the recurrent accumulation crises. In doing so, they put into dialogue food regimes analysis with world-ecology theory. The departing assumption is that capitalism – as a system characterised by a specific combination of class relations, territorial power and nature – has relied on the expansion and deepening of the frontier of accumulation, needing to continuously identify new effective ways to combine the exploitation of labour with the free appropriation of the work of human and extra-human nature. In this sense, "cheap nature" – following Jason Moore's definition – represents at once a prerequisite of capitalist development and a historical product of evolving strategies of accumulation reproducing a metabolic rift between humans and nature. These strategies are always based on a specific international division of labour and determined by global economic and geopolitical dynamics. At the same time, they are also characterised by changing patterns of (semi)proletarisation, as well as by ways of organizing nature whose constant renewal is crucial for the reproduction of capitalism. What truly distinguishes the current global scenario from the past is the "end of cheap nature", i. e. the exhaustion of the frontiers and the value relationships that have historically allowed for a reduction in the cost of four fundamental elements: labor, food, energy and raw materials. Against this phenomenon, by looking at the recent trajectories of the accumulation strategies underlying food production and distribution, two main dynamics emerge: the first one is hinged on a reconfiguration of extractivism based on natural resources dispossession and land concentration processes, as well as on a cost-reduction strategy based on labour exploitation; the second one can be portrayed as the reflex of a new governmental approach to development according to which the formal reunification of the producers with some basic means of production is functional to their inclusion into the global value-chains ruled by the agri-business corporations. Leveraging the neoliberal rhetoric of self-entrepreneurship, this second dynamic put into practice a sort of "indirect proletarisation", in which the incitement of the individual creative and productive capabilities accompanies the implementation of new mechanisms of control based on the provision of credit and other inputs, as well as on the proliferation of standardisation procedures, practices of patenting of nature, and technological control. Under these premises, the authors read the food security discourse embedded in the UN 2030 Agenda as an attempt to elude the socioecological contradictions inherent in capitalism, which ends up providing a sort of ideological legitimacy to the aforementioned dynamics, thereby engendering new explosive contradictions. The article is divided into three sections. The first one retraces the transformations that the capitalist world-ecology has experienced from the 1970s onwards from a food regimes approach. The second section aims to deconstruct the discursive practices underlying the United Nations 2030 Agenda, as well as to bring to light the ambiguities and contradictions inherent in development policies inspired by the concepts of 'sustainable development' and 'food security'. In the last section, the authors use the world-ecology perspective to interpret ongoing agrarian change dynamics. In seeking to revitalise the neoliberal development model, the authors argue, the dominant food narratives use scarcity as a pretext to extend and intensify the logics of the market, turning it into a universal principle for the regulation of human and extra-human nature. Dominant food policies aim to elude the problems deriving from the exhaustion of the frontier logic underlying the historical evolution of capitalism through the creation of a new spatiality and a new way of organising nature. Yet, this operation exacerbates the tension between capital's inclination towards the commodification/monetisation of ever new areas outside the sphere of production and its need to keep relying on extended sources of unpaid work of human and extra-human nature. The lack of new effective solutions to this tension is, in turn, feeding a combination of contrasting tendencies. While it produces a deepening of the mechanisms of control and exploitation driven by global market logics, it also nourishes processes of de-globalisation, along with a set of phenomena which recall the dynamics described by Karl Polanyi's theory of the "double movement". At the same time, it has also constituted a fertile ground for the emergence of new conflicts, counter-narratives and anti-systemic movements for food sovereignty and agroecology. The authors come to the conclusion that the reorganisation of the food regime in XXI century world-ecology will be highly affected by the responses provided to the ongoing pandemic crisis, thus representing an important opportunity for each of the aforementioned tendencies to gain ground over the others. ; A partir de un análisis crítico de la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible, este artículo se propone evidenciar los nexos que unen los discursos dominantes sobre alimentos y agricultura con las dinámicas socioecológicas que subyacen a las transformaciones y a la crisis del capitalismo contemporáneo. El supuesto inicial es que el capitalismo —en cuanto ecología-mundo— debe su supervivencia a la posibilidad de identificar continuamente nuevas y efectivas formas de combinar la explotación del trabajo asalariado con la apropiación gratuita de la naturaleza humana y extrahumana. Esto implica que la crisis en la que el capitalismo se halla hoy en día representa también la crisis de una forma específica de organizar la naturaleza. Más precisamente, es una crisis que tiene sus raíces en el "fin de la naturaleza barata", es decir en el agotamiento de las fronteras y de las relaciones de valor que han permitido reducir periódicamente el coste del trabajo, de los alimentos, de la energía y de las materias primas. Frente a este fenómeno, las reacciones adoptadas por los principales actores de la gobernanza global han propiciado una reconfiguración general de las estrategias de acumulación vinculadas a la producción y distribución de alimentos. Como muestra el artículo, uno de los principales pivotes en torno al cual actualmente giran estas estrategias es representado por las políticas que se inspiran en los conceptos de "desarrollo sostenible" y "seguridad alimentaria", tal y como están articulados en la Agenda 2030. Nuestra tesis es que detrás de estos mismos conceptos es posible detectar una racionalidad de gobierno que pretende eludir los problemas que surgen de las contradicciones socioecológicas inherentes al capitalismo mediante el establecimiento de nuevas relaciones de valor y nuevas maneras de organizar y producir la naturaleza. Esta operación, sin embargo, exacerba la tensión entre la inclinación del capital a la mercantilización y monetización de nuevas áreas situadas al margen de la esfera productiva y su necesidad de poder seguir contando con amplias fuentes de naturaleza gratuita y trabajo no remunerado. La imposibilidad de devolver el excedente ecológico a niveles que permitan iniciar una nueva fase de expansión, por un lado, da lugar a una intensificación de los procesos de explotación impulsados por la lógica de los mercados globales y, por otro lado, hace cada vez más evidente la crisis del modelo neoliberal de desarrollo, alimentando algunas contratendencias que con la emergencia pandémica parecen destinadas a alcanzar un nivel de madurez más elevado. La primera parte del artículo reconstruye las recientes transformaciones de la economía-mundo capitalista a través de las lentes proporcionadas por el análisis de los regímenes agroalimentarios. La segunda parte se propone deconstruir las prácticas discursivas subyacentes a la Agenda 2030 y poner de relieve las ambigüedades y contradicciones inherentes a las políticas de desarrollo inspiradas en los conceptos de "desarrollo sostenible" y "seguridad alimentaria". La última parte utiliza la perspectiva de la ecología-mundo para exponer con mayor profundidad las tesis del artículo.

Global Governance has been increasingly used in the study of International Relations which, thanks to its versatility and utility, has generated an expansion of its conceptual, methodological, and practical scope. Regional governance is a useful derivation because it makes it easier to understand, from a more precise perspective, how global issues with local repercussions are solved. In this sense, the article shows that security governance in Latin America is characterized by enduring balance of power practices, geopolitics, and mistrust between different parties. At the same time there is coexistence between the historical intention to establish security communities, to find resolutions to controversies, and to solve disputes through institutional instruments, principles, and values that favor peaceful means. In other words, in the region we are in the presence of a hybrid security governance, with practices that evolve over time in accordance with three key factors: the behavior of States and other agents, the capacity of institutions to overcome structural and conjunctural challenges, and finally, the effects of changes in perceptions of organized crime and other ideological and political challenges. Therefore, this article consists of three parts. In the first, the definitions and scope of global governance will be reviewed. Subsequently, its utility will be validated for the comprehension of regional orders and the characteristics that are forged there. Finally, it will be used to expose the hybrid characteristics in Latin America throughout the 21st century. Traditionally, since its inception as a scientific discipline, the explanations provided by International Relations,have been the subject of multifaceted debates. In fact, it was through these great debates, sometimes theoretical and in other cases methodological, that the discipline grew in terms of academic and research production, as well as in the political scope for decision-making. This led to the creation of a true field of study, which took as its initial object of study the area of war and peace between nations, before later moving on to cooperation, the environment, and other issues of the contemporary international agenda. Likewise, governance has been an ideal vehicle to give greater scope and heterogeneity to explanations of processes and empirical events, ones which go beyond traditional theoretical approaches such as realism, institutional liberalism or constructivism. Along the same lines, this progressive academic production has stimulated the specialization and concentration of governance in regional orders, since it allows a clearer reflection on the historical patterns of behavior among the members. This offers a more nuanced explanation of the challenges present,the responses required for structural or conjunctural issues, and the eventual emergence of distinctive elements between different groups. Security governance has mainly focused on four challenges to solve. First, the expansion of the research agenda to specific contexts; second, the greater attention that academic production should give to the relationship between intergovernmental organizations and other non-state actors in defined spaces; third, the predominance of explanations on security in the Euro-Atlantic region and, finally, the need to further link the security governance agenda to debates on region and regionalism. In the same way, the construction and specific behaviors developed in the regions cannot be detached from global dynamics. In this sense, regardless of the geographical character of a region such as Europe or South America, these are mainly political factors, as Hurrell well recognizes, that regional dynamics are a historical social construction, which has been politically contested and criticized. with the intention of recognizing patterns of continuity and transformation, which facilitate the identification of dynamics that particularize and distinguish between them. In this sense, Latin America has not neglected the use of governance, as a concept and as a valid analysis methodology to understand the distinctive characteristics that have made up a particular set of elements that, on the one hand, endure over time and, on the other hand, have recently changed. When referring to security, the opposing points of view show the emergence and incipient development of a heterogeneous, incomplete, and controversial governance. The main objective of this article, based on a hybrid and eclectic approach, will be to understand the evolution of the concept of governance and establish the characteristics of security for Latin America. Thus, in matters of security governance, this article highlights the hybrid character from two lines of argument; on the one hand, there are defenders of a vision based on geopolitics, the balance of power and the latent tension between states; and on the other, there is one more oriented to analyze security characteristics from a constructivist, associative and cooperative perspective. Indeed, Adler and Greve presented an interesting initial reflection on the subject, in the sense that both are necessary for the holistic understanding of the movements, not always ascending, that states carry to equip themselves with instruments and mechanisms that enable them. They allow you to live together in a more harmonious and peaceful way. First, some authors situate regional governance in mainly realistic terms, in which the dynamics of balance of power between states continue to prevail two hundred years after independence. They underline, for example, realities of ungovernability, while a series of specific variables, among which at least five stand out: first, the old geopolitical tensions between states continue to determine situations of conflict and mistrust; secondly, the competencies of individual and personal leaders in provision of common goods and dispute resolution stand out. Third, regional disputes have continued to be fueled both by internal competition - that is, between the states of the region - and, at the same time, by permissiveness in the face of the influence of external powers; Fourth, the importance of the quality of democracy for the countries of the region, which facilitates internal governance processes and strengthening the rule of law and, finally, the link between security and the economy in terms of economic development, that is, the effect of economic independence and economic autonomy in strengthening state security. Second, there is the most interpretive line of reflection on reality, highlighting that beyond the instruments of power and geopolitical, political processes and new ideological realignments must be understood, in which the following variables can be highlighted: first, the internal factors that condition or reinforce the international action of the States; second, the regional redefinition based on the creation of alternative multilateral forums, beyond the OAS, such as CELAC, UNASUR or ALBA, in which there are also components not only of trade and integration, but also of security and, finally, the little regional cooperation in security with low institutional, political and budgetary density. ; La gobernanza global es un enfoque que se incorpora con mayor interés en el estudio de las Relaciones internacionales. Su versatilidad y utilidad amplían el alcance conceptual, metodológico y práctico de la disciplina, lo cual permite investigar y explicar las interacciones y procesos en ocasiones poco claros que se producen entre actores de distinta naturaleza. Desde esta aproximación, la Gobernanza se ha erigido como una herramienta que amplía las explicaciones de los enfoques conceptuales y metodológicos tradicionalmente utilizados, en otras palabras, la gobernanza es un enfoque multidisciplinario y reflexivo que logra desvanecer fronteras interpuestas por los lentes teóricos convencionales y adicionalmente genera nuevas comprensiones entre lo global y lo local. Con base en lo anterior, se ha abierto y estimulado la utilización de la gobernanza al estudio de los órdenes regionales, pues aquellos se encargan de gestionar la agenda internacional, variada y compleja, ubicándose en un punto medio entre dinámicas globales y afectaciones locales. En ese sentido, ha contribuido a fortalecer una comprensión holística de los patrones históricos de comportamiento entre los miembros que los conforman, otorgándole mayor profundidad, ampliación y reflexividad a los procesos y desafíos allí presentes, así como a las respuestas requeridas a disyuntivas estructurales y coyunturales que evolucionan o emergen. En ese sentido, América Latina ha vivido en los últimos veinte años importantes transformaciones en la forma en la que se relacionan los estados y otros actores. La agenda de seguridad no ha sido ajena al fenómeno, por el contrario, el estudio de la gobernanza de seguridad se ha insertado como una categoría adicional de estudio. Así las cosas, la seguridad contemporánea emerge de una combinación entre estructuras políticas, sociales y culturales, que reflejan tendencias históricas, así como nuevos marcos de comprensión analítica, generando un espacio gris, híbrido y heterogéneo. El objetivo central de este artículo es establecer aquellas variables teóricas y prácticas necesarias para el estudio de la gobernanza híbrida de seguridad en América Latina a lo largo del siglo XXI a partir de un enfoque metodológico analítico, ecléctico y situado que señale los elementos distintivos y al mismo tiempo disputados o enfrentados que le han dado forma a la región. Se señala entonces que, la gobernanza híbrida seguirá alterando las definiciones tanto de seguridad como de región, conforme se alteren las dinámicas de poder, los principios y valores que guían el comportamiento de los agentes involucrados y la eficacia que tengan las organizaciones regionales para la gestión de los desafíos presentes y futuros. Para lo anterior, este escrito consta de tres partes. En la primera, se hará una revisión exhaustiva de las definiciones y alcance de la gobernanza global para así facilitar la comprensión sobre su utilidad teórica, revisando algunas críticas. Posteriormente se validará su beneficio para formular nuevos marcos de comprensión acerca de los órdenes regionales y las características que allí se forjan y, finalmente, se empleará para mostrar cómo ha consolidado una estructura heterogénea, disputada y conflictiva que no se ha terminado de completar o de desarrollar en América Latina.

During the last five years, Bolivia received more than $US 3,000 million in foreign aid and more than $US 3,500 million in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The country also received debt relief with a net present value of $US 1,300 million and implemented a National Poverty Reduction Strategy. During the same period, however, the GDP growth rate fell from an average level of 4.7% between 1993 and 1998 to an average level of 1.7% between 1999 and 2002, relative and absolute poverty increased, and the fiscal deficit increased to 8.7% of GDP in 2002. These numbers suggest that neither foreign aid, nor debt relief, nor FDI has the capacity to increase growth rates and reduce poverty in Bolivia. This, however, is not necessarily true. It could be the case that without these positive shocks, the situation would have been even worse due to other negative shocks. The only way to separate the effects of different shocks is to use a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, where the effects of changes in one variable can be analyzed while holding all other exogenous variables constant. The model used for this project contains a variety of sectors and household types which permits the analysis of aggregate effects on the GDP growth rate, the balance of payments, the fiscal deficit, etc, as well as distributional effects indicating who benefits and who is hurt by different policies. The distributional analysis is of particular importance when poverty is a main concern since aggregate GDP growth does not necessarily reduce poverty. Estimations by UDAPE indicate that the elasticities of poverty with respect to changes in GDP are extremely low in Bolivia: Only 0.3% in rural areas and 0.6% in urban areas[1]. This means that during the last decade, growth in Bolivia has clearly not been pro-poor, despite the stated emphasis on poverty reduction. During the period 1998-2002, Bolivia received on average $614 million in foreign aid per year. For the period 2003-2006, there are commitments implying that this amount will increase to $872 million per year, which means an increase in the level of annual foreign aid of $258 million. This report used the CGE model to simulate the effect of additional foreign donations of $258 million per year for four years, after which the level of aid returns to its "normal" level. Such a simulation allows us to see the effects of the initial expansion, the effect of the subsequent contraction, as well as the long run effects after the temporary increase in foreign aid.The effects of this extra aid will obviously depend on how the money is used. Applying the combination of public spending and public investment that we consider most likely, the simulations show an increase in the GDP growth rate of approximately 1 percentage point per year during the four years of extra aid, but when the extra aid disappears, the growth rates return to their normal levels. It is important to stress that public investment in the model is assumed to produce public goods, which increase the productivity of everybody. The extra aid has a corresponding positive effect on average incomes of the households for four years, but those who benefit most are skilled workers who are already among the richest in Bolivia, while the biggest and poorest group in Bolivia, the rural small-holders, are worse off every year during and after the extra aid, compared to the base scenario (without extra aid). This means that foreign aid, despite the very best intentions, tends to increase inequality and deepen poverty. This is not due to project failure at the micro level, but rather to adverse secondary effects at the macro level. It is perfectly possible that all aid projects are successful at the micro level, while the impacts at the macro level remain very close to zero. This paradox between the success of projects at the micro level and the lack of success at the macro level can be explained by the following arguments: First, aid projects distract resources away from other activities. Even when projects are 100% funded by foreign donations (the assumption used in the simulations), the project will use human resources which, in the absence of the project, could have been applied elsewhere. Since foreign aid projects usually skim the cream in terms of local human resources, this may imply a large social opportunity cost. This effect is particularly important in Bolivia, where the public sector (with the heavy support of foreign aid) is so attractive that few professionals are interested in working in the private, productive sector. And since this system appears to be relatively permanent, the new generations of students are demanding education that qualifies them to be politicians and bureaucrats, while few students are planning on working in the private sector, and much less create their own enterprises. Besides, not all aid projects are fully financed by donations, the majority of projects are financed by loans, and those that include a donation component, usually requires counterpart financing. This means that aid projects not only distract scarce human resources away from other activities, but also scarce financial resources. The second adverse macroeconomic effect arises through the real appreciation of the exchange rate that invariably follows from a large influx of dollars into the economy. This negatively affects most exporting sectors as their products become relatively more expensive on the international markets, and it negatively affects domestic producers of tradable goods as they have to compete with cheaper imports. The result is a reduction in the domestic production of tradable goods. Theoretically, the Central Bank could neutralize this effect by increasing its reserves of dollars or by paying off foreign debt, but this is unlikely to happen as most aid is tied to specific projects. The fact that the macroeconomic effects of foreign aid on monetary indicators tend to be small and temporary does not imply that foreign aid is useless. Many non-monetary indicators of well-being have increased substantially during the period, especially the indicators related to school enrollment, health, water, and sanitation. The Bolivian government is well aware of the asymmetry between progress in the provision of basic services and the lack of progress in the capacity of the population to increase its incomes: The real per capita income in Bolivia is practically the same as it was 50 years ago, despite the advances in education, health and basic services. The government is therefore changing the focus of its Poverty Reduction Strategy, laying more emphasis on the productive sectors. Fourteen sub-sectors with a high employment generation capacity have been selected for particular interventions in terms of infrastructure, market access, technical assistance, training, etc. Ten of these sub-sectors are part of modern agriculture, a sector whose expansion, according to our CGE analysis, would be beneficial not only because it raises average incomes, but also because it improves the income distribution. This is in contrast to the hydrocarbon sector and the mining sector, whose expansions tend to worsen the income distribution. Another sector whose expansion is highly desirable from a poverty reduction viewpoint, is the one producing consumer goods, usually through small and medium sized enterprises. The expansion of this sector would benefit the two big groups of poor households in Bolivia: the rural small-holders and the urban informals, and thus have a beneficial effect on both rural and urban poverty. In order to generate the largest and most sustainable impact possible of future foreign aid, it is recommended that donors and the government revise projects in three dimensions: First, they should check to which extent the projects create true public goods that increase the productivity of large groups of people, and to which extent they just generate short run activities which substitute for other, and possibly more sustainable, activities. The larger the public good component, the better the long run impact. Second, they should evaluate whether the projects help reduce the scarcity of skilled workers. It is the scarcity of skilled workers and the abundance of unskilled workers that generate high inequality in Bolivia, and projects which improve the quality of unskilled workers would tend to have a positive effect on the distribution of income in Bolivia and thus a beneficial effect on poverty. Third, they should check which sectors are likely to benefit or suffer from different projects, as the expansion of the sectors modern agriculture, coca, and consumer goods will have a much better impact on poverty than the expansion of mining, hydrocarbons, and formal services. It is often difficult to predict the impact of specific projects, and particularly difficult to assess how big the public good component of the project is. In order to learn from the past, it would be interesting to make a detailed retrospective analysis of past aid projects in Bolivia, evaluating which public goods have been created and what has been their impact on productivity. Specifically, donor agencies could provide a complete list of projects completed during the year 2000, and an independent team could analyze the project documentation and visit the project site some years after conclusion in order to evaluate the impact of the project. With a sample of 60-100 projects, it would be possible to make a statistical analysis, identifying what kind of projects would be most likely to generate not only positive impacts at the micro level but also at the macro level.

This dissertation tries to present a critical analysis of conflicts over contested forms of urban transformation and urban policies in the metropolitan area of Rome and Berlin (comparative analysis developed in co-tutoring research thesis). In particular it focuses on the reclaiming of the "right to the city" debate that is witnessing a renewed interest, among urban social movements and academics, due to what happened in the streets, among the urban social movements, in the "rebel cities" (Harvey, 2012), in the last decade. The conflicts selected for the two compared city contexts took place over contested "indeterminate territories" and "urban voids." As yet "indeterminate," these places allow unveiling the generative conflict on different meanings of the city. In these processes the "urban void" plays a key role because, according to Borret (2009), the "empty" can be seen as a productive element in the urban public space, as it is not tied to a single interpretation or intention. The bottom-up and grassroots practices proposed, experimented, developed over these spaces are intended as strategy of resistance/opposition to not-negotiated politics in a framework of economic crisis and urban austerity increasingly producing side effects including gentrification and social exclusion and the welfare state crisis. In response to this the movements of insurgent citizenship are organized in many forms: from tenants' organizations activists, who oppose gentrification and evictions in former working class neighbourhoods of Berlin (Holm, 2010) and calling for more public policies capable to combat speculation and address disinvestment in the subsidized housing sector; to movements of housing struggle in Rome claiming the access to more affordable places in the context of the strong housing crisis; to autonomous movements subtracting spaces from the capitalist logic of the market competitiveness and the speculation (in the case of Berlin and Rome) for living and for social, political, artistic and recreational activities (Membretti, 2003; Holm, Kuhn, 2011; Pruijt, 2012); to urban social movements trying to oppose the privatization of parts of the city considered a "common good", using various state-driven mechanisms to advance their causes against civic policies, projects, and regulatory measures, that are considered detrimental to the city's public space, such as the groups of citizens reclaiming co-/self-managed public spaces and services (e.g. Gualini, Majoor, 2007, for Amsterdam; Gualini, 2008, for Berlin; Pask, 2010 in the case of Vancouver; Teatro Valle, 2012, in the case of Rome; Vitale, 2007 and Gualini 2014 several cases). In summary, the limits of urbanism based on competitive growth and profit have been emphasized by numerous critical and theoretical practices that have developed theories capable of analysing the issue to a higher level of argumentations, including systemic and ideological aspects, from the point of view of all the actors involved. These intellectual resources, can be useful «for those institutions, movements and actors aiming [.] to promote alternative forms of urbanism, radically democratic, socially just and sustainable» (Brenner, Marcuse, Mayer, 2009). The interesting element is the capacity of these communities to propose, experiment and develop, through forms of social struggles and collective/cooperative action, alternatives to what are considered as unsustainable strategies of urban transformations (mostly based on the substitution/reduction of public resources), analysing power relationships, negotiation of conflicts and participation in institutional planning practice. Doing so, some of these forms of spatial contestation, such as the "transitional reappropriated spaces" (Growth and Corijn, 2005) –on which the research focus- have shown in recent years a programmatic capacity and a proactive potential in suggesting and implementing "Public Policies from the Bottom" (Paba, 2010): e.g. "banking and financial policies" through the activation of forms of microcredit; "training and educational policies" offering a wide range of free or very affordable courses; "policies of management and recycling of waste, housing policies, policies to support youth and women entrepreneurship, policies addressing the problems of immigration, cultural and sports policies"; "architectural heritage renewal policies", and others. These two European cities have faced so a renewed interest in the phenomenon of "reclaiming" of urban physical spaces that was carried on by social movements and wilfully appropriated by citizens using "appropriation" as a legitimate tactic of protest. Moreover, these radical participated practices have been a tool that enables experimentation and implementation of grassroots alternatives embodying a series of dynamics of "insurgent (re)appropriation" of urban space and self-production and provision of collective resources. Doing so, these informal actors and grassroots groups, organized in new forms of urban social movements, experimenting more progressive understanding of the mechanisms of space and social reproduction, started reclaiming the idea of "commons" and together with it the role that a third subject, a collective subject (different from a single private investor or the State and public institutions), could play in a direct management of what are intended to be collective properties/resources. In the two cities contexts analysed citizens have implemented a set of new strategies. Among them: new forms of self-help collective housing, self-/co-managed public spaces and the definition of urban commons. The research analyse some relevant cases of insurgent reappropriation/reclaiming of urban public spaces making a comparison between two cities historically characterized by organized forms of social struggle and grassroots transitional space reappropriations. Which is the value of such alternative experiences? Can these grass-root experiments of self-management and DIY renovation contribute to the production of new operative strategies for: public housing stock; heritage management; alternative forms of welfare; the development of more sustainable urban transformation practices and public space management? Analysing the evolution of the same pattern in forms of contestation, it permits to investigate how/if these practices have stand the chance to be facilitated, hampered, or co-opted, during the time and how each of these have had/can have an impact upon contemporary policymaking in political economy and if they have been/can be able to influence a change in the welfare policies and urban agenda. ; Diese Dissertation versucht, eine kritische Analyse von Konflikten unstrittener Erscheinungsformen städtischer Transformation und Politik im metropolitanem Raum von Rom und Berlin zu präsentieren (vergleichende Analyse entwickelt im gemeinsamen Tutoring der Forschungsthese). Der Fokus dieser Dissertation liegt insbesondere auf dem Zurückerobern (Reclaiming) der "Recht auf Stadt"-Debatte, die ein erneuertes Interesse unter städtischen sozialen Bewegungen und Akademiker*innen erweckt und beobachtet, basierend auf Protesten in den Strassen und der Entwicklung der sozialen Bewegungen der letzten Dekade in den "rebellischen Städten" (Harvey, 2012). Die analysierten Konflikten in den zwei vergleichenden Städten finden auf umstrittenen "ungeklärten/unbestimmten Territorien" und verlassenen, leer stehenden Räumen und Grundstücken statt. "Unbestimmte Territorien" offenbaren den generativen Konflikt unterschiedlicher Bedeutung und Interessen der Stadt. In diesen spielen die leer stehenden Gebäude und Orte eine besondere Rolle, weil, laut Borret (2009), das Leere als ein produktives Element im städtischen öffentlichen Raum gedeutet und gesehen werden kann, nicht gebunden und vordefiniert an eine einzige Interpretation oder Absicht. Die in diesen Räumen vorgeschlagenen, entwickelten, ausprobierten Praktiken der Basisbewegungen können als Strategie von Widerstand und Opposition gegen eine (nicht ausgehandelte) Politik im Rahmen der ökonomischen Krise und städtischen Austerität mit zunehmenden Auswirkungen wie Gentrifizierung, sozialer Exklusion und Krise des Sozialstaates, gesehen werden. Als Antwort darauf haben sich die rebellischen Bürger*innen Bewegungen (insurgent citizenship) auf vielfältige Weise organisiert: von Mieter*innen/Aktivist*innen Organisationen, die der Gentrifizierung und den (Zwangs)-Räumungen in den ehemaligen Arbeiter*innenvierteln Berlins widerstehen (Holm, 2010) und zu mehr öffentlicher Politik auffordern, die fähig sei, der Spekulation sowie der Desinvestition im subventionierten Wohnungsbausektor entgegen zutreten; bis hin zu Bewegungen der Wohnungskämpfe (housing struggle) in Rom, die Zugang zu mehr bezahlbarem Wohnraum im Kontext der Wohnungsmarktkrise fordern; autonomen Bewegungen, die Orte und Räume aus der kapitalistischen Logik der Marktwettbewerbfähigkeit und der Spekulation für Wohnraum (an den Beispielen von Berlin und Rom), soziale, politische, künstlerische und Erholungsaktivitäten herausbrechen (Membretti, 2003; Holm, Kuhn, 2011; Pruijt, 2012); und städtischen sozialen Bewegungen, die versuchen, der Privatisierung von Teilen der Stadt, was als Allgemeingut verstanden wird, zu widerstehen - in Form unterschiedlicher staatlich bedingter Mechanismen, um deren Anliegen, was als schädlich gegenüber dem öffentlichen städtischen Raum betrachtet wird, gegen staatliche Politik, Projekte und Regulatorien zu untermauern, wie die Gruppen von Bürger*innen, die co-/selbst-organisierte öffentliche Räume und Service zurückerobern (z.B. Gualini, Majoor, 2007, für Amsterdam; Gualini, 2008, für Berlin; Pask, 2010 für Vancouver; Teatro Valle, 2012, für Rom; Vitale, 2007 und Gualini 2014 in einigen Fällen). Zusammenfassend sind die Grenzen des Urbanismus, basierend auf konkurrierendem Wachstum und Profit, erkennbar und hervorgehoben von zahlreichen kritischen und theoretischen Praktiken, die Theorien entwickelten, fähig das Thema auf einem höheren Level der Argumentation, inklusive systemischer und ideologischer Aspekte, zu analysieren - und zwar aus den Persektiven aller Involvierten Akteur*innen. Diese intellektuellen Mittel können nützlich für "diese Institutionen, Bewegungen und Akteur*innen sein, welche alternative Formen des Urbanismus, radikaler Demokratie, sozial und nachhältig vorantreiben möchten" (Brenner, Marcuse, Mayer, 2009). Das interesante Element ist die Fähigkeit dieser Communities und Gemeinschaften, durch Formen sozialer Kämpfe , und kollektiven/kooperativen Aktivitäten, Alternativen zu nicht nachhaltiger städtischer Transformation vorzuschlagen, zu entwickeln und auszuprobieren sowie Machtstrukturen, die Aushandlung von Konflikten und die Partizipation in institutionalisierter Städteplanung und Praxis zu analysieren. Diese zwei europäischen Städte haben das Interesse des Phänomens Reclaiming, des Zurückeroberns städtischer physischer Räume erweckt, ausgeführt von sozialen Bewegungen und bewußt übernommen von der Bürger*innenschaft als Aneignung und legitime Form und Taktik von Protest. Zudem sind diese radikale partizipativen Praktiken ein Werkzeug, dass Experimentation und Umsetzung basisorganisierter Alternativen ermöglicht und demzufolge eine Serie von rebellischen aneignenden Dynamiken des städtischen Raumes sowie Eigenproduktion und Bereitstellung kollektiver Resourcen verkörpert. Diese informellen Akteur*innen und Basisgruppen, organisiert in neuen Formen städtischer sozialer Bewegungen, experimentierend in progressivem Verstehen der Mechanismen von Raum und sozialer Reproduktion, begannen die Idee von Commons zusammen mit der Rolle eines dritten Subjekts, eines kollektiven Subjekts, zurück zuerobern. Sie können eine direkte Verwaltung und Organisierung als kollektive Resource und kollektives Eigentum ausfüllen. In den Kontexten der beiden analysierten Städten haben die Bürger*innen eine Reihe neuer Strategien realisiert. Dazu zählen: Neue Formen der kollektiven Häuser und Wohnraum-Selbsthilfe, Selbstorganisierte öffentliche Räume und die Definition von städtischen Commons. Die Forschungsanalyse analysiert einige relevante Fälle rebellischer Wiederaneignung/Zurückeroberungen öffentlicher städtischer Räume und vergleicht zwei Städte, die historisch betrachtet von organisierten Formen sozialer Kämpfe und Basis-transitionaler Raumaneignung gekennzeichnet sind. Was ist der Wert, der Nutzen solcher alternativer Erfahrungen? Können diese grass-root-Experimente der Selbst-Organisierung und DIY Renovation zu der Produktion neuer operativer Strategien für den öffentlichen Wohnraum- und Häuser Bestand; des Bauerbe-Managements; der alternativen Formen von Wohlstand; der Entwicklung mehr nachhaltiger städtischer Transformations Praktiken und öffentlicher Raum Managements beitragen?

Máster Universitario en Gestión de Riesgos Financieros ; La crisis financiera internacional fue la encargada de poner de relieve la urgente necesidad de contar con un marco normativo a nivel europeo hasta entonces inexistente. Éste, debía contar con una serie de instrumentos con la potestad para intervenir en aquellas entidades financieras atrapadas en problemas económicos y financieros de una forma ágil y sobre todo, con el menor coste posible para los contribuyentes. Para ello, en el año 2014 se aprobó un código normativo único, la directiva de recuperación y resolución de entidades de créditos – la DRRB –con la que nacía la Unión Bancaria. Con posterioridad, el Gobierno español aprobó la ley que transpone la directiva europea al derecho nacional. Los pilares de la Unión Bancaria son, el Mecanismo Único de Supervisión, el Mecanismos Único de Resolución y el Sistema de Garantía de Depósito Europeo. A su vez, el bail-in puede considerarse una de las piedras angulares dentro del marco de resolución. El Mecanismo Único de Supervisión presenta toda la normativa regulatoria requerida con el fin en que todas las entidades de crédito cuenten con una igualdad de trato y poder alcanzar la estabilidad financiera. El Mecanismo Único de Resolución es el encargado de presentar una serie de instrumentos de resolución como por ejemplo el establecimiento de planes de acción que se puedan seguir para preservar una estabilidad financiera. En este ámbito, la ley exige que la autoridad de resolución preventiva deberá elaborar – siempre bajo la dirección de la Junta Única de Resolución a nivel europeo y bajo colaboración con cada banco – un plan de resolución en el que se describan una serie de acciones que, en caso de necesidad, la autoridad de resolución ejecutiva (FROB) pueda aplicar con el fin de resolver una entidad financiera. Un proceso de resolución dará comienzo en el momento en que, a criterio del supervisor competente – y previa consulta al BdE y al FROB – un banco sea inviable o exista previsión en que lo vaya a ser en un futuro a corto plazo. El abanico de instrumentos que ofrece el segundo pilar de la Unión Bancario - y donde la clave se encuentra en que, bajo ningún concepto, se podrá presuponer la existencia de un apoyo financiero público - es amplio y abarca desde la venta del negocio, hasta la transmisión de activos o pasivos a una entidad puente, pasando por la transmisión de activos o pasivos a una sociedad de gestión de activos. No obstante, el instrumento más novedoso y que a priori cuenta con altas expectativas de éxito para un futuro cercano es la recapitalización interna o bail-in. El bail-in – recogido en la disposición adicional decimocuarta de nuestra ley, siendo la misma una réplica del art. 43 de la DRRB – consiste en una internalización de los costes de la quiebra de una entidad financiera, sin impactar – como ha ocurrido en los años anteriores – en las arcas públicas y por tanto, en los contribuyentes. El fin es ofrecer una mayor protección de los depositantes, a la vez que una ruptura del círculo vicioso entre la deuda soberana y bancaria existente y una mayor seguridad en la preservación de las funciones críticas o esenciales que presentan las entidades financieras. En el año 2012, la entidad Bankia S.A., llevó a cabo una recapitalización con el fin de alcanzar un objetivo de capital mínimo regulatorio que le permitiese poder seguir operando en el mercado. Sin embargo, dicha recapitalización fue externa, ya que se empleó dinero público para poderse realizar; lo que es conocido como un bailout. Bankia no contaba suficientes instrumentos de deuda que pudieran convertirse en capital de la entidad. Por ello, la Unión Bancaria, y precisamente para evitar que situaciones similares se repitan, exige a día de hoy un ratio, conocido como el MREL, que representa un % mínimo de capital sobre el balance con el que toda entidad europea deberá contar para poder seguir operando en el mercado. Si un banco cumple con dichas cantidad, podrá, en un momento determinado, recapitalizarse internamente sin necesidad de recurrir a ayudas del Estado. El Sistema de Garantía de Depósitos Europeo, por su parte se encuentra en proceso de construcción y no será hasta el año 2024 que se conozcan los efectos directos de dicho pilar de la Unión Bancaria. A pesar del trabajo y el esfuerzo que queda por realizar para alcanzar una unión completa, y aunque la Unión Bancaria represente la mayor cesión de soberanía en Europa desde la creación del Euro - idea que no termina de convencer a todos los Estados Miembros - parece que la Unión Europea, con la puesta en marcha de estos mecanismos y con un objetivo común, está logrando hacer de una necesidad, una virtud para todos los europeos. ; The international financial crises lead to the urgent need for a European legal framework that had never existed before. Its purpose was to offer new instruments with the power of intervening in those financial entities that were trapped in economic and financial difficulties in a quick and efficient way. The idea was to create a methodology to solve the problems of the entities with a much lower cost for their contributors. With this purpose, a single rulebook was drafted in 2014 called The EU Bank Recovery and Resolution Directive (BRRD), which gave birth to the European Banking Union. Later on, the Spanish Government passed the Directive into a National Law. The European Banking Union counts on three main pillars; the Single Supervision Board, the Single Resolution Board and the European Deposit Insurance Scheme. The Single Supervision Board presents the required legal basis, which has the aim of achieving an equal treatment for all the entities and of building a long-lasting European financial stability. The Single Resolution Board is in charge of presenting resolution instruments such as for example the presentation of action plans that should lead to a financial stability. The law expects the preventive resolution authority to draft a resolution plan with its actions described that could potentially be used by the FROB authority in order to solve a financial entity. A process of resolution has to start when a bank meets its point of non-viability or is about to do so in a near future. The number of instruments that are offered by this second pillar of the European Banking Union is broad. Moreover, the key is that none of them are going to use public money to solve their financial or economic problems. Such mechanisms include the internal recapitalization, also known as the process of bail-in. The process of bail-in, under the fourteenth additional provision of the Spanish Law, which basically replicates what article 43 of the BRRD states, consists of an internalization of the costs of the entity without any public help, to the contrary of what used to be done years ago. The aim is to offer a greater protection of the deposits as well as to break the vicious circle of the sovereign and banking debt that exists currently. In 2012, the Bankia S.A. entity carried out a recapitalization process in order to obtain a minimum objective capital that would allow it to continue to operate in the market. However, that recapitalization was external – what is also known as a process of bailout – since public money was used for it. By that time, Bankia did not have enough debt instruments that could be converted into capital inside its own entity. It was to prevent this exact kind of situations that the European Banking Union decided to require a minimum rate, i.e. the MREL that would ensure that an entity had a minimum % of its balance sheet ready to be used for an internal recapitalization in case of need; without having to count on any public help. The European Deposit Insurance Scheme has not been completed yet. Therefore, it is not until 2024 that one will be able to appreciate its direct effects on the European Union. Even though a lot of work and effort still has to be made to achieve a complete European Banking Union, and even though this has been the greatest transfer of sovereignty in Europe – after the creation of the Euro – it seems that the European Union will be able to achieve this goal and will manage to create a virtue out of a need for Europe as whole.

[spa] El objeto de la tesis consiste en un estudio sobre el control de la legalidad de los convenios colectivos negociados poEl objeto de la tesis consiste en un estudio sobre el control de la legalidad de los convenios colectivos negociados por empresarios y trabajadores para regular las condiciones de trabajo y de productividad.La tesis se centra en el papel que desempeña la Autoridad laboral en el actual marco legal de la negociación colectiva contenido en el Titulo III del la Ley 8/1980, de 10 de marzo, del Estatuto de los Trabajadores, que desarrolla en la indicada materia el articulo 37.1 de la Constitución española.Concretamente, se estudia el trámite de control de la legalidad contenido en el articulo 90.5 de la meritada ley, en relación con lo dispuesto en el articulo 160 y siguientes del Real Decreto Legislativo 521/1990, de 27 de abril, texto articulado de la Ley de Procedimiento Laboral (articulo 136 del Real Decreto Legislativo 1568/1980, de 13 de junio, texto refundido de la Ley de Procedimiento Laboral anteriormente vigente).La tesis se inicia con el comentario de los antecedentes históricos y legislativos en razón de la fuerza de arrastre histórico que los mismos tienen sobre nuestro ordenamiento laboral vigente y, muy especialmente, en lo atinente al intervencionismo del Estado en el ámbito de las relaciones colectivas de trabajo y, singularmente, en el campo de la negociación colectiva.Seguidamente, se analiza la intervención de la Autoridad laboral en materia de convenios colectivos durante el proceso negociador celebrado por empresarios y trabajadores y con posterioridad a la firma de los referidos convenios colectivos.El estudio se detiene en la fase de control administrativo de los convenios colectivos estatutarios ejercido por la Autoridad laboral, y, en especial, en el trámite de control de la legalidad de los mismos establecido en el citado articulo 90.5 del Estatuto de los Trabajadores.Sigue con el examen del papel que desempeña la Autoridad jurisdiccional y más concretamente con el análisis de la normativa procesal, anterior y vigente de aplicación al caso, dada la reciente reforma de la Ley de Procedimiento Laboral.La tesis se apoya, por su trascendencia, en las opiniones emanadas de la doctrina iuslaboralista y en los juicios dimanantes de la jurisprudencia social y constitucional.Caracterizado el convenio colectivo paradigmático como norma exponente del principio de autonomía de las partes, surge evidente la intromisión que puede generar la intervención de In Autoridad laboral en el proceso creador de estas normas así como en el control final de las mismas.La forma en que la Autoridad laboral debe ejercer el referido control de la legalidad de los convenios colectivos constituye, pues, la médula de la tesis, y ejemplifica el tránsito de un modelo intervencionista a otro caracterizado por la consagración de la autonomía colectiva.Además, se ha pretendido dar a la materia un carácter de globalidad, es decir, estudiando la actuación administrativa durante y con posterioridad a la firma de los convenios colectivos y ello dentro del marco general de las relaciones colectivas de trabajo que conceden a la Administración una actuación diversa, pero frecuentemente conectada con la especifica materia de la negociación colectiva laboral.En síntesis, el procedimiento de control de la legalidad presupone el deber de colaboración de las Autoridades laboral y jurisdiccional como mecanismo de prevención de los casos de ilegalidad y lesividad contenidos en los convenios colectivos, lo cual debe entenderse como un acto de servicio a la comunidad. empresarios y trabajadores para regular las condiciones de trabajo y de productividad. La tesis se centra en el papel que desempeña la Autoridad laboral en el actual marco legal de la negociación colectiva contenido en el Titulo III del la Ley 8/1980, de 10 de marzo, del Estatuto de los Trabajadores, que desarrolla en la indicada materia el articulo 37.1 de la Constitución española. Concretamente, se estudia el trámite de control de la legalidad contenido en el articulo 90.5 de la meritada ley, en relación con lo dispuesto en el articulo 160 y siguientes del Real Decreto Legislativo 521/1990, de 27 de abril, texto articulado de la Ley de Procedimiento Laboral (articulo 136 del Real Decreto Legislativo 1568/1980, de 13 de junio, texto refundido de la Ley de Procedimiento Laboral anteriormente vigente). La tesis se inicia con el comentario de los antecedentes históricos y legislativos en razón de la fuerza de arrastre histórico que los mismos tienen sobre nuestro ordenamiento laboral vigente y, muy especialmente, en lo atinente al intervencionismo del Estado en el ámbito de las relaciones colectivas de trabajo y, singularmente, en el campo de la negociación colectiva. Seguidamente, se analiza la intervención de la Autoridad laboral en materia de convenios colectivos durante el proceso negociador celebrado por empresarios y trabajadores y con posterioridad a la firma de los referidos convenios colectivos. El estudio se detiene en la fase de control administrativo de los convenios colectivos estatutarios ejercido por la Autoridad laboral, y, en especial, en el trámite de control de la legalidad de los mismos establecido en el citado articulo 90.5 del Estatuto de los Trabajadores. Sigue con el examen del papel que desempeña la Autoridad jurisdiccional y más concretamente con el análisis de la normativa procesal, anterior y vigente de aplicación al caso, dada la reciente reforma de la Ley de Procedimiento Laboral. La tesis se apoya, por su trascendencia, en las opiniones emanadas de la doctrina iuslaboralista y en los juicios dimanantes de la jurisprudencia social y constitucional. Caracterizado el convenio colectivo paradigmático como norma exponente del principio de autonomía de las partes, surge evidente la intromisión que puede generar la intervención de In Autoridad laboral en el proceso creador de estas normas así como en el control final de las mismas. La forma en que la Autoridad laboral debe ejercer el referido control de la legalidad de los convenios colectivos constituye, pues, la médula de la tesis, y ejemplifica el tránsito de un modelo intervencionista a otro caracterizado por la consagración de la autonomía colectiva. Además, se ha pretendido dar a la materia un carácter de globalidad, es decir, estudiando la actuación administrativa durante y con posterioridad a la firma de los convenios colectivos y ello dentro del marco general de las relaciones colectivas de trabajo que conceden a la Administración una actuación diversa, pero frecuentemente conectada con la especifica materia de la negociación colectiva laboral. En síntesis, el procedimiento de control de la legalidad presupone el deber de colaboración de las Autoridades laboral y jurisdiccional como mecanismo de prevención de los casos de ilegalidad y lesividad contenidos en los convenios colectivos, lo cual debe entenderse como un acto de servicio a la comunidad. ; [eng] The aim of this thesis is to study the control of the legality of collective agreements negotiated by employers and workers in order to regulate working conditions and productivity. The thesis will centre on the role played by the labour Authorities in the current legal framework of collective bargaining, contained in Section III of Act 8/1980, of 10th March of the Workers' Charter, which is set out in article 31.1 of the Spanish constitution, relating to this subject. A specific study will be made of the control proceedings of the legality contained in article 90.5 of the said act, in relation to the provision in article 160 and subsequent of Legislative Royal Decree 521/1990 of 21th April, the text of which is formulated from the Labour Procedure Act. The thesis will begin with commentary on the historical and legislative background in terms of the force of historical influence it has over our current labour laws, and most particularly with regard to State interventionism in the sphere of collective labour relations and especially in the area of collective bargaining. Then, an analysis will be made of State labour intervention in matters of collective agreements during the negotiating process carried out by employers and workers and after the said collective agreements have been signed. The study will pay special attention to the phase of government control of statutory collective agreements exercised by the labour Authorities, and particular to the procedure of control of their legality as laid dorm in the said article 90.5 of the Workers' Charter. There will then be an examination of the role played by the jurisdictional Authorities, and a more detailed analysis will be made of the previous and current procedural regulations, which are applicable to the case, in view of the recent reform of the Labour Procedure Act.

Tras analizar la construcción del proyecto en el movimiento moderno y su relación con la promesa arquitectónica en algunas obras de sus maestros, se realiza un estudio sistemático de la construcción de la Ópera de Sydney y del Centro Pompidou de París. De este análisis surge una constelación de circunstancias que motivan la transformación del proyecto arquitectónico durante su proceso constructivo. La existencia de puntos en común y el carácter estructural de algunos de ellos permiten sospechar una situación en la arquitectura -al menos de la segunda mitad del siglo XX- en la que se pueda cuestionar el proyecto entendido como anticipación fidedigna y completa de su realización. El proyecto recurre a la doble tarea de separar y agrupar tareas y conocimientos en los múltiples agentes que confluyen en obra. Su eficacia residirá en la medida en la que sepa preparar las condiciones para la convergencia de todos estos especialistas que concurren en una obra cada vez más compleja. En particular se hace indispensable la participación de la figura de un ingeniero comprometido con el proyecto y al que es capaz de incorporar la complejidad técnica de una forma no sólo compatible sino también activa en su definición. Desde el punto de vista del objeto arquitectónico, del continente, el proyecto entendido como un documento técnico congelado ya no es ni completo ni infalible. El proyecto adquiere otra condición que es la de moldear y formular determinadas hipótesis sobre su uso y su contenido. Se trata de propuestas pioneras en su formulación programática. El proyecto no se limita a organizar y asignar espacios a un programa, sino que en sí, también actúa sobre la organización del edificio. La dificultad que conlleva la determinación unilateral por parte del arquitecto del uso colectivo y social repercutirá en la evolución posterior de la obra. El contenido, por tanto, también se escabulle de las certezas del proyecto. Como fenómeno económico, ya los primeros modernos abandonaron la aspiración de taylorizar la construcción, apostando por una industria semi-prefabricada en la que la relación de la arquitectura con la construcción es de denegación: nace de ella y la necesita para violentarla o llevarla al límite. Se trata de un fenómeno económico de difícil predicción y que genera conflictos en la obra porque la industria de la construcción busca su rentabilidad en la optimización de las soluciones y acude al catálogo para resolver problemas conocidos. La flexibilidad de esta industria para abordar problemas nuevos es casi excepcional y está poco estimulada y así la obra difícilmente se inscribe en una economía de la prescripción, condicionada además por factores de beneficio y velocidad. En definitiva, el análisis comparativo de estos dos ejemplos muestra como, la progresiva complejidad tecnológica, la especialización -que cuenta con un protagonismo activo y renovado de la figura del ingeniero-, la implantación de nuevos programas, la dificultad de anticipar el fenómeno económico de la construcción y la variabilidad de los clientes son algunos de los vectores de incertidumbre que acompañaron el desarrollo de sus respectivos procesos de materialización, en un marco colectivo de la creación arquitectónica y en un contexto público de su trascendencia. Ante esta nueva situación que se genera a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, la arquitectura y en definitiva los arquitectos, buscan nuevos respuestas. La ópera de Sydney y el Beaubourg de París anuncian caminos de distinto carácter. Ante esta realidad hemos podido adivinar algunos mecanismos al alcance del proyecto y del arquitecto en el estudio de los ejemplos de referencia. El proyecto se fragmenta, adopta geometrías deformables, adquiere un carácter estratégico, anima a la recuperación de espacios de colaboración transversales entre los distintos agentes y fundamentalmente entre arquitectos e ingenieros. Todo ello se hace imprescindible para la coherencia final del objeto arquitectónico. La arquitectura entendida como realidad ya no podrá ser sólo concebida. A partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX deberá ser, además, construida, porque sólo así habrá sido capaz de transformarse, sortear o incorporar las dificultades y posibilidades que han surgido durante su proceso constructivo. El cómo haya sido capaz de atravesar ese tránsito será, al menos, igual de importante para el resultado final que el punto de partida. Si Le Corbusier afirmaba que "l'important c'est le choix", la pérdida de control del proyecto sobre el producto arquitectónico obliga a ampliar esa condición para una arquitectura posible. ; After the analysis of the construction of the project by the moderns and its relation with the architectural promise in some of the works built by its masters, the thesis makes a sistematic study of the constuction of the Sydney Opera House and the Pompidou Centre in Paris. From this analysis, we emphasise a whole host of circumstances that give rise to the transformation of the architectural project during its building process. Nevertheless, the existence of points in common and the structural character of some of them allow us to suspect a situation in architecture¾at least in the second half of the 20th century¾in which we might question the project understood as a worthy and complete anticipation of its realisation. The project foregrounds the twin task of separating and grouping assignments and kinds of knowledge in the multiple agents who come together on the building site. Their effectiveness will reside in the extent to which it is known how to establish the right conditions for the convergence of all these specialists. The participation becomes indispensable of the figure of an engineer committed to the project and who is capable of incorporating in the latter the technical complexity of a form not only compatible with, but also active in, its definition. From the point of view of the architectural object, of the container, the project understood as a fixed technical document is no longer either complete or infallible. The project acquires another quality, which is that of shaping and formulating certain hypotheses on its use and its content. The project is not restricted to organising and assigning spaces to a programme but rather it also acts in itself on the organisation of the building. The difficulty that comes with the unilateral fixing on the part of the architect of the collective and social use of the building will have repercussions in its subsequent evolution. The content, then, slips away from the certainties of the project. As an economic phenomenon the first Moderns gave up on their aspiration to Taylorise building work, in backing a semi-prefabricated industry in which the relationship between architecture and building work is one of denial: it is born of it and needs it in order to subject it to violence or take it to the limit. Consequently, this is an economic phenomenon that is difficult to predict and which generates conflict on the building site because the construction industry is after cost-effectiveness in the optimisation of solutions and relies on the catalogue in order to resolve known problems. The flexibility of this industry is all but exceptional and is little encouraged. All this means that notwithstanding attempts at normative and dimensional unification, the building site is hardly inscribed in an economy of prescription. To sum up, comparative analysis of these two examples shows how progressive technological complexity, specialisation (which relies on the active and renewed role of the figure of the engineer), the implantation of new programmes, the difficulty of anticipating the economic phenomenon of the construction work and the variability of clients are some of the vectors of uncertainty which accompanied the evolution of their respective processes of materialisation, in a collective framework of architectural creation and in a governmental context of their importance. Faced with this new situation, which is generated during the second half of the 20th century, architecture and finally architects look for new responses. The Sydney Opera House and the Beaubourg in Paris announce paths of a different kind. In the presence of this reality we have been able to intuit some mechanisms within reach of the project and of the architect in the study of the reference materials. The project fragments, adopts deformable geometries, acquires a strategic quality and encourages the reclaiming of spaces of transversal collaboration between the different agents, chiefly between architects and engineers. All this turns out to be essential to the final coherence of the architectural object. The architecture as reality will no longer be able to be just conceived. From the second half of the 20th century onwards it will have to be, moreover, built, because only thus will it be capable of transforming itself, getting round or incorporating the difficulties and possibilities that have arisen during its building process. The reasons for it being capable of making that changeover will be at least as important for the final result as the point of departure. If Le Corbusier stated that "l'important c'est le choix," the loss of project control over the architectural product obliges that condition to be extended for a possible architecture. ; Postprint (published version)

Tras analizar la construcción del proyecto en el movimiento moderno y su relación con la promesa arquitectónica en algunas obras de sus maestros, se realiza un estudio sistemático de la construcción de la Ópera de Sydney y del Centro Pompidou de París. De este análisis surge una constelación de circunstancias que motivan la transformación del proyecto arquitectónico durante su proceso constructivo. La existencia de puntos en común y el carácter estructural de algunos de ellos permiten sospechar una situación en la arquitectura -al menos de la segunda mitad del siglo XX- en la que se pueda cuestionar el proyecto entendido como anticipación fidedigna y completa de su realización. El proyecto recurre a la doble tarea de separar y agrupar tareas y conocimientos en los múltiples agentes que confluyen en obra. Su eficacia residirá en la medida en la que sepa preparar las condiciones para la convergencia de todos estos especialistas que concurren en una obra cada vez más compleja. En particular se hace indispensable la participación de la figura de un ingeniero comprometido con el proyecto y al que es capaz de incorporar la complejidad técnica de una forma no sólo compatible sino también activa en su definición. Desde el punto de vista del objeto arquitectónico, del continente, el proyecto entendido como un documento técnico congelado ya no es ni completo ni infalible. El proyecto adquiere otra condición que es la de moldear y formular determinadas hipótesis sobre su uso y su contenido. Se trata de propuestas pioneras en su formulación programática. El proyecto no se limita a organizar y asignar espacios a un programa, sino que en sí, también actúa sobre la organización del edificio. La dificultad que conlleva la determinación unilateral por parte del arquitecto del uso colectivo y social repercutirá en la evolución posterior de la obra. El contenido, por tanto, también se escabulle de las certezas del proyecto. Como fenómeno económico, ya los primeros modernos abandonaron la aspiración de taylorizar la construcción, apostando por una industria semi-prefabricada en la que la relación de la arquitectura con la construcción es de denegación: nace de ella y la necesita para violentarla o llevarla al límite. Se trata de un fenómeno económico de difícil predicción y que genera conflictos en la obra porque la industria de la construcción busca su rentabilidad en la optimización de las soluciones y acude al catálogo para resolver problemas conocidos. La flexibilidad de esta industria para abordar problemas nuevos es casi excepcional y está poco estimulada y así la obra difícilmente se inscribe en una economía de la prescripción, condicionada además por factores de beneficio y velocidad. En definitiva, el análisis comparativo de estos dos ejemplos muestra como, la progresiva complejidad tecnológica, la especialización -que cuenta con un protagonismo activo y renovado de la figura del ingeniero-, la implantación de nuevos programas, la dificultad de anticipar el fenómeno económico de la construcción y la variabilidad de los clientes son algunos de los vectores de incertidumbre que acompañaron el desarrollo de sus respectivos procesos de materialización, en un marco colectivo de la creación arquitectónica y en un contexto público de su trascendencia. Ante esta nueva situación que se genera a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, la arquitectura y en definitiva los arquitectos, buscan nuevos respuestas. La ópera de Sydney y el Beaubourg de París anuncian caminos de distinto carácter. Ante esta realidad hemos podido adivinar algunos mecanismos al alcance del proyecto y del arquitecto en el estudio de los ejemplos de referencia. El proyecto se fragmenta, adopta geometrías deformables, adquiere un carácter estratégico, anima a la recuperación de espacios de colaboración transversales entre los distintos agentes y fundamentalmente entre arquitectos e ingenieros. Todo ello se hace imprescindible para la coherencia final del objeto arquitectónico. La arquitectura entendida como realidad ya no podrá ser sólo concebida. A partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX deberá ser, además, construida, porque sólo así habrá sido capaz de transformarse, sortear o incorporar las dificultades y posibilidades que han surgido durante su proceso constructivo. El cómo haya sido capaz de atravesar ese tránsito será, al menos, igual de importante para el resultado final que el punto de partida. Si Le Corbusier afirmaba que "l'important c'est le choix", la pérdida de control del proyecto sobre el producto arquitectónico obliga a ampliar esa condición para una arquitectura posible. ; After the analysis of the construction of the project by the moderns and its relation with the architectural promise in some of the works built by its masters, the thesis makes a sistematic study of the constuction of the Sydney Opera House and the Pompidou Centre in Paris. From this analysis, we emphasise a whole host of circumstances that give rise to the transformation of the architectural project during its building process. Nevertheless, the existence of points in common and the structural character of some of them allow us to suspect a situation in architecture¾at least in the second half of the 20th century¾in which we might question the project understood as a worthy and complete anticipation of its realisation. The project foregrounds the twin task of separating and grouping assignments and kinds of knowledge in the multiple agents who come together on the building site. Their effectiveness will reside in the extent to which it is known how to establish the right conditions for the convergence of all these specialists. The participation becomes indispensable of the figure of an engineer committed to the project and who is capable of incorporating in the latter the technical complexity of a form not only compatible with, but also active in, its definition. From the point of view of the architectural object, of the container, the project understood as a fixed technical document is no longer either complete or infallible. The project acquires another quality, which is that of shaping and formulating certain hypotheses on its use and its content. The project is not restricted to organising and assigning spaces to a programme but rather it also acts in itself on the organisation of the building. The difficulty that comes with the unilateral fixing on the part of the architect of the collective and social use of the building will have repercussions in its subsequent evolution. The content, then, slips away from the certainties of the project. As an economic phenomenon the first Moderns gave up on their aspiration to Taylorise building work, in backing a semi-prefabricated industry in which the relationship between architecture and building work is one of denial: it is born of it and needs it in order to subject it to violence or take it to the limit. Consequently, this is an economic phenomenon that is difficult to predict and which generates conflict on the building site because the construction industry is after cost-effectiveness in the optimisation of solutions and relies on the catalogue in order to resolve known problems. The flexibility of this industry is all but exceptional and is little encouraged. All this means that notwithstanding attempts at normative and dimensional unification, the building site is hardly inscribed in an economy of prescription. To sum up, comparative analysis of these two examples shows how progressive technological complexity, specialisation (which relies on the active and renewed role of the figure of the engineer), the implantation of new programmes, the difficulty of anticipating the economic phenomenon of the construction work and the variability of clients are some of the vectors of uncertainty which accompanied the evolution of their respective processes of materialisation, in a collective framework of architectural creation and in a governmental context of their importance. Faced with this new situation, which is generated during the second half of the 20th century, architecture and finally architects look for new responses. The Sydney Opera House and the Beaubourg in Paris announce paths of a different kind. In the presence of this reality we have been able to intuit some mechanisms within reach of the project and of the architect in the study of the reference materials. The project fragments, adopts deformable geometries, acquires a strategic quality and encourages the reclaiming of spaces of transversal collaboration between the different agents, chiefly between architects and engineers. All this turns out to be essential to the final coherence of the architectural object. The architecture as reality will no longer be able to be just conceived. From the second half of the 20th century onwards it will have to be, moreover, built, because only thus will it be capable of transforming itself, getting round or incorporating the difficulties and possibilities that have arisen during its building process. The reasons for it being capable of making that changeover will be at least as important for the final result as the point of departure. If Le Corbusier stated that "l'important c'est le choix," the loss of project control over the architectural product obliges that condition to be extended for a possible architecture. ; Postprint (published version)

The hypothesis that the S allele of the 5-HTTLPR serotonin transporter promoter region is associated with increased risk of depression, but only in individuals exposed to stressful situations, has generated much interest, research and controversy since first proposed in 2003. Multiple meta-analyses combining results from heterogeneous analyses have not settled the issue. To determine the magnitude of the interaction and the conditions under which it might be observed, we performed new analyses on 31 data sets containing 38 802 European ancestry subjects genotyped for 5-HTTLPR and assessed for depression and childhood maltreatment or other stressful life events, and meta-analysed the results. Analyses targeted two stressors (narrow, broad) and two depression outcomes (current, lifetime). All groups that published on this topic prior to the initiation of our study and met the assessment and sample size criteria were invited to participate. Additional groups, identified by consortium members or self-identified in response to our protocol (published prior to the start of analysis) with qualifying unpublished data, were also invited to participate. A uniform data analysis script implementing the protocol was executed by each of the consortium members. Our findings do not support the interaction hypothesis. We found no subgroups or variable definitions for which an interaction between stress and 5-HTTLPR genotype was statistically significant. In contrast, our findings for the main effects of life stressors (strong risk factor) and 5-HTTLPR genotype (no impact on risk) are strikingly consistent across our contributing studies, the original study reporting the interaction and subsequent meta-analyses. Our conclusion is that if an interaction exists in which the S allele of 5-HTTLPR increases risk of depression only in stressed individuals, then it is not broadly generalisable, but must be of modest effect size and only observable in limited situations.Molecular Psychiatry advance online publication, 4 April 2017; doi:10.1038/mp.2017.44. ; ALSPAC: Grant 102215/2/13/2 from The Wellcome Trust and grant MC_UU_12013- /6 from the UK Medical Research Council. The University of Bristol also provides core support for ALSPAC. LB receives funding as an Early Career Research Fellow from the Leverhulme Trust. MRM is a member of the UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, a UK Clinical Research Council Public Health Research: Centre of Excellence. Funding from British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK, Economic and Social Research Council, Medical Research Council, and the National Institute for Health Research, under the auspices of the UK Clinical Research Collaboration, is gratefully acknowledged. ASPIS: EKBAN 97 from the General Secretariat of Research and Technology, Greek Ministry of Development. ATP: Grants DP130101459, DP160103160 and APP1082406 from the Australian Research Council and The National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. CHDS: Grant HRC 11/792 from the Health Research Council of New Zealand. CoFaMS: Grant APP1060524 to BTB from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. We acknowledge the University of Adelaide for the provision of seed funding in support of this project. COGA: Grant U10AA008401 from the National Institutes of Health, NIAAA and NIDA. COGEND: National Institutes of Health grants P01CA089392 from NCI and R01DA036583 from NIDA. DeCC: Grant G0701420 from the UK Medical Research Council, and a UK MRC Population Health Scientist fellowship (G1002366) and an MQ Fellows Award (MQ14F40) to Helen L Fisher. EPIC-Norfolk: Grants G9502233, G0300128, C865/A2883 from the UK Medical Research Council and Cancer Research UK. ESPRIT Montpellier: An unconditional grant from Novartis and from the National Research Agency (ANR Project 07 LVIE004). G1219: A project grant from the WT Grant Foundation and G120/635, a Career Development Award from the UK Medical Research Council to Thalia Eley. The GENESiS project was supported by Grant G9901258 from the UK Medical Research Council. This study presents independent research part- funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. GAN12-France: Research Protocol C0829 from INSERM; Research Protocol GAN12 from Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris; ANR-11-IDEX- 0004 from Investissements d'Avenir program managed by the ANR, and RTRS Sante Mentale from Fondation FondaMental. GENESIS: Grant PHRC UF 7653 & ANR NEURO 2007 'GENESIS' from CHU Montpellier & Agence Nationale de la Recherche. Heart and Soul: Epidemiology Merit Review Program from the Department of Veterans Affairs; National Institutes of Health grant R01HL-079235 from NHLBI; Generalist Physician Faculty Scholars Program from the Robert Woods Johnson foundation; Paul Beeson Faculty Scholars Program from the American Federation for Aging Research; and a Young Investigator Award from the Bran and Behavior Research Foundation. MARS: Grant LA 733/2-1 from German Research Foundation (DFG) and the Federal Ministry for Education and Research as part of the 'National Genome Research Network'. MLS: National Institutes of Health grants R01 AA07065 and R37 AA07065 from NIAAA. MoodInFlame: Grant EU-FP7- HEALTH-F2-2008-222963 from the European Union. Muenster Neuroimaging Study: Grant FOR2107, DA1151/5-1 from the German Research Foundation (DFG). NEWMOOD: Grants LSHM-CT-2004-503474 from Sixth Framework Program of the European Union; KTIA_NAP_13-1-2013-0001, KTIA_13_NAP-A-II/14 from National Development Agency Hungarian Brain Research Program; KTIA_NAP_13-2-2015-0001 from MTA-SE-NAP B Genetic Brain Imaging Migraine Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Semmelweis University; support from Hungarian Academy of Sciences, MTA-SE Neuropsychopharmacology and Neurochemistry Research Group; and support from the National Institute for Health Research Manchester Biomedical Research Centre. NESDA/NTR: The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and MagW/ZonMW grants Middelgroot-911-09-032, Spinozapremie 56-464- 14192, Geestkracht program of the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMW 10-000-1002), Center for Medical Systems Biology (CSMB, NWO Genomics), Genetic influences on stability and change in psychopathology from childhood to young adulthood (ZonMW 912-10-020), NBIC/BioAssist/RK (2008.024), Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI -NL, 184.021.007), VU University's Institute for Health and Care Research (EMGO+) and Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam (NCA); the European Science Council (ERC Advanced, 230374). Part of the genotyping and analyses were funded by the Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN) of the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health, Rutgers University Cell and DNA Repository (NIMH U24 MH068457-06), the Avera Institute, Sioux Falls, South Dakota (USA) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH R01 HD042157-01A1, MH081802, Grand Opportunity grants 1RC2 MH089951 and 1RC2 MH089995). PATH: Program Grant Number 179805 from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. POUCH: Grants 20FY01-38 and 20-FY04-37 of the Perinatal Epidemiologic Research Initiative Program Grant from the March of Dimes Foundation; National Institutes of Health grant R01 HD34543 from NICHD and NINR; grant 02816-7 from the Thrasher Research Foundation; and grant U01 DP000143-01 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. QIMRtwin: Grants 941177, 971232, 339450, 443011 from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia; AA07535, AA07728, AA10249 from US Public Health Service; National Institutes of Health grant K99DA023549-01A2 from NIDA. Additional support was provided by Beyond Blue. SALVe 2001 and SALVe 2006: Grants FO2012-0326, FO2013-0023, FO2014-0243 from The Brain Foundation (Hjärnfonden); SLS-559921 from Söderström-Königska Foundation; 2015-00897 from Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research; and M15-0239 from Åke Wiberg's Foundation. Additional funding was provided by Systembolagets Råd för Alkoholforskning, SRA and Svenska Spel Research Council. SEBAS: National Institutes of Health grants R01 AG16790, R01 AG16661 and R56 AG01661 from NIA and grant P2CHD047879 from NICHD; and additional financial support from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Georgetown University. SHIP/TREND: This work was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research within the framework of the e:Med research and funding concept (Integrament) Grant No. 01ZX1314E. Study of Health in Pomerania is part of the Community Medicine Research net of the University of Greifswald, Germany, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research Grant Nos. 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103 and 01ZZ0403; the Ministry of Cultural Affairs; and the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. Genome-wide data were supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research Grant No. 03ZIK012 and a joint grant from Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany and the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. The Greifswald Approach to Individualised Medicine (GANI_MED) was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research Grant No. 03IS2061A and the German Research Foundation Grant No. GR 1912/5-1. TRAILS: Grants GB-MW 940- 38-011, ZonMW Brainpower 100-001-004, Investment grant 175.010.2003.005, GBMaGW 480-07-001 and Longitudinal Survey and Panel Funding 481-08-013 from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). Additional funding was provided by the Dutch Ministry of Justice, the European Science Foundation, BBMRINL and the participating centres (UMCG, RUG, Erasmus MC, UU, Radboud MC, Parnassia Bavo group): VAHCS: Grants APP1063091, 1008271 and 1019887 from Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC).

Issue 33.1 of the Review for Religious, 1974. ; Review ]or Religious is edited by faculty members of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copy-right (~) 1974 by Review ]or Religious. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $1.75. Sub-scription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year; $11.00 for two years; other countries, $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be .accompanied by check or money order payable to Review ]or Religious in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent Review ]or Religious. Change of address requests should include former address. R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor January 1974 Volume 33 Number 1 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts, books for review, and materials for "Subject Bibliography for Religious" should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106. Review for Religious Volume 33, 1974 Editorial Offices 539 North Grand Boulevard Saint Louis, Missouri 63103 R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor " Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Review ]or Religious is published in January, March, May, July, September, and November on the fifteenth of the month. It is indexed in the Catholic Periodical and Literature Index and in Book Review Index. A microfilm edi-tion of Review ]or Religious is available from University Microfilm; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Copyright (~ 1974 by Review for Religious. Documents concerning Religious The following are seven recent documents concerning religious given here in chronologi-cal order and in the English translation provided by the weekly English edition of L' osservatore romano. LETTER TO THE GENERAL OF THE JESUITS To Our Beloved Son PETER ARRUPE Superior General of the Society of Jesus On the solemn occasion of Easter last year you intimated to Us that you were thinking of calling a general congregation of your Society in the year 1974, whose task it would be to explore the most apt ways for the Society to per-form its work in the Church and in the world of today. Importance of the Congregation Our Venerable Brother, the Cardinal Secretary of State, replying in Our behalf,~sent you Our best wishes. Now that you have publicly annoUnced the general congregation, and the provincial congregations are soon to be held for the election of delega.tes and for the preparation of postulata to be proposed to the general congregation, We Ourselves because of the love We bear the Society wish to address Ourselves through this letter to you and your companions to encourage you and to send you Our best wishes for a happy outcome of the congrega.tion. For we are well aware of the great im-portance of convoking it at this time, which could be an hour of decision, so to speak, for the Society of Jesus, for its future destiny and for its task in Church, as it is also for other religious families. 4 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 This meeting is a sign--and We are happy to say so--that the Society of Jesus is making a great effort, in accordance with the aims of its institute, to adapt its life and its apostolate to the needs of today's world, which is so constantly and rapidly changing. The Mind ot Vatican II Your desire, in fact, corresponds with the norms of the Second Vatican Council, the proper and careful implementation of which We Ourselves are strenuously trying to attain. Indeed, the congregation is in accord with the opinion of the Council fathers who said: "Effective renewal and proper adap-tation cannot be achieved except with the cooperation of all the members of the institute" (Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 4). However, if that universal Synod was looking for renewal fitting the needs of the present, it did not want this to be brought about through a hazardous experimentation that might be alien to the very character of the religious family, or lead to an abandonment of the primary values of a life consecrated to God. No, it was the mind of that Synod that the common elements of religious life should be confirmed and that they should be allowed to grow and develop. These are: a following and imitation of Christ, "as proposed in the Gospel" (ibid., 2); a renuncia-tion of worldly things so that the religious might live for God alone and for the building up of the Church; a practice of all the human and Christian vir-tues, best achieved by a joyful and constant observance of the vows (cf. ibid., 5), which should lead to the heights of the spiritual life where sublime contemplation is joined with magnanimous action. In Our apostolic exhorta-tion "Evangelica testificatio," which We published later, We explained all this in more detail and dealt with it more fully, using it as a paternal invita-tion to all religious that "they might shed light among men, so that, when they see the good you do, they might give praise to the Father in heaven" (cf. Mt 5:16). The Society of Jesus, especially called to walk in the path of the follow-ing of Christ, should feel itself particularly impelled to review its style of life, testing it constantly in the light of the Gospel, according to the exhortations contained in the words and example of St. Ignatius. Let this be undertaken with a view to actually effecting the renewal begun at the instance of the Council, taking into account new circumstances and needs. This should be done, however, in accordance with the spirit of the Society of Jesus, that is, in fidelity to its tradition which is based on .Christ, on the Church, on St. Ignatius. Hence, that the preparation for the coming General Congregation may not be limited to organizational matters, but give to all the members of the Society of Jesus a proper orientation and win their full commitment to it, they will have to rehearse with penetrating insight, a clear grasp of reality, and a profound sense of duty those principles of the spiritual and apostolic life which for centuries formed, as it were, the very structure that held the Documents concerning Religious / 5 Society together, and which made it a most serviceable instrument for a pastoral, missionary, and educational apostolate involving cultural forma-tion of" the highest excellence. Those responsible for this accomplishment were a large group of men distinguished for holiness of life and love of neighbor. Sources of Strength The foundations of religious formation which were laid in the past should today, even under changed conditions, still be the source of strength of the Society of Jesus. They are: a diligent dedication to prayer, which "has its origin in the authentic sources of Christian spirituality" (cf. Decr. Per- [ectae caritatis, 6); an austerity of life, preventing a person from easily adopting that frame of mind which, casting aside that which is sacred, pre-vails in so many forms of contemporary life and practice; supernatural strength by which apostolic effectiveness is increased, and in the absence of which no action, no matter how excellent on the surface, can yield lasting fruit for the transformation of the human conscience; complete observance of the vows, especially obedience, which is peculiar to the Society and a condi-tion of its religious discipline by which its vigor was always preserved. Hence, there must be no attempt to introduce new methods of deliberation and deci-. sion-making that not only undermine the very notion of obedience, but alter the nature itself of the Society of Jesus. Finally, the ascetical value of com-munity life and the advantages it offers for the formation of character should be kept in mind. To these weighty principles We would also add in a very special manner the fidelity to the Apostolic See, whether in the area of studies and education of young scholastics, who are the hope of your order, or of the students at-tending the great number of schools and universities entrusted to the Society, or in the production and publication of writings aimed at a wide circle of readers, or in the exercise of the direct apostolate. Dangers to Essential Structure of the Order Nor are We ignorant of the fact that over the past few years in several parts of the Society--and it is by no means absent either from the life of the Church in general--certain tendencies have arisen of an intellectual and dis-ciplinary nature which, if fostered and given support, could lead to serious and possibly irreparable changes in the essential structure itself of your So-ciety. As you know, Beloved Son, we have through Our closest collaborators called your attention more than once to these matters, while expressing the hope that the expected renewal will be brought about securely and smoothly. Therefore, on the occasion of the announcement of the gen-eral congregation We express once again Our desire, indeed Our demand, that the Society of Jesus should adapt its life and apostolate to today's con-ditions and needs in such a way that confirmation be given to its characteris- 6 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 tics as a religious, apostolic, priestly Order, linked to the Roman Pontiff by a special bond of love and service, as ratified in the "Formula of the Institute" or fundamental rule of this same Society, approved and repeatedly confirmed by Our predecessors. In the adaptation of which We .speak, experience will be your teacher. It will show what concrete forms of life and action have now become irrelevant and outdated, and what new needs and opportunities pre-sent themselves of work to be undertaken or directed according to the mind of Christ and the nature of the apostolate. We also hope that in the preparation for the general congregation, and later when it is in session, all the religious will be intent on the good of the Society, united in that charity required by your Founder, whose voice can still somehow be heard, in your Constitutions: "Union and agreement among all ought to be sought with great care, and the opposite ought not to be per-mitted; in order that, being united among themselves by the bond of fraternal charity, they may be able better and more efficaciously to apply themselves in the service of God and the aid of their fellowmen" (P.III, c.l, n.18). Final Thoughts~ and Suggestions These,, then, are Our wishes; that they may be heeded we pray to ,the Virgin Mother of God, Queen and Mother of the Society of Jesus; may she support it with counsel, strengthening goodwill, stirring up hearts, and in-spiring all the religious to ever more zealously imitate the Divine Savior in their task of constantly and courageously establishing His reign. What we have written should show you and your companions what is ex-pected of you by Us, who know well what influence the Society of Jesus has, what the task is that it has to fulfill, what confidence it enjoys; all this must be carefully considered, both with respect to the Society itself and with respect to the Church. We wish you to inform your collaborators and all the members of the Society of Jesus of this message, so that each one may see the witness of Our paternal benevolence and of the concern We have for the future destiny of the same Society. For We are convinced that the more faithfully the sons of St. ignatius conserve the Ignatian charism as it appears in the principle docu-ments of the institute, the more effectively will they pursue the glorious work of evangelizing today's world according to their God-given vocation, emulat-ing the example of so many Jesuits who consistently tried-~--and We use the words of St. Ignatius--"to distinguish themselves in the total service of their eternal King and universal Lord" (Spit. Ex., II week). Having made known in writing what is in Our heart, We gladly impart to you and to the whole Society of Jesus the Apostolic Blessing as an'augury of the divine assistance. ~ " From the Vatican, the fifteenth of September, 1973, the eleventh year of Our Pontificate. PAUL VI Documents concerning Religious "/ 7 LETTER ON ST. BRIDGET OF SWEDEN To Our Venerable Brother JOHN E. TAYLOR Bishop of Stockholm In this year marking the sixth centenary of her death, honor is rightly paid to St: Bridget, Flowei" of the North, and rightly are the faithful exhorted to direct their thoughts, with fresh° enthusiasm, so to speak, to the spiritual beauty of this heavenly one, as her memory is being solemnly recalled to mind. This chosen woman had a double fatherland: Sweden, where she was born at the beginning of the 14th century and Rome, where she spent nearly 20 years, and where after her return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, she de-parted ripe for heaven, to the eternal Jerusalem, on the 23rd day of July, in the year 1373. ~ In that northern region to which the devout mind turns with heightened eagerness on this occasion, the ecclesiastical life was at that time in a fluorishing state, particularly because the Cistercian monks and after them the mendicant orders had introduced a piety that was well adapted to the people. For nurturing this piety, devout pilgrimages, to which Christians were much given, proved very effective. And' when the Scandinavians ad-venturously and with devotion and enthusiasm betook themselves to the holy places:in distant parts of the world, they, as it were,°exchanged spiritual riches with other brethren in Christ whom they met and also experienced in a vital way the unity.of the body of the Church. Wife and Mother Such were the times in which Bridget grew to womanhood. Although she desired to consecrate her virginity to God, she was thwarted in her desire of a Divine Spouse. In,submission to the will of her father, she married Ulf Gudmarsson, an excellent man. As wife and mother she was a shining ex-ample; she lived united to her husband by the bond of Christian love andsh~ reared her' eight 6hildren with discerning wisdom; that is to say, she wished them to grow up to be not only good citizens of their fatherland, but also servants and children of God. And so it came about that the seeds of religious vocation came?to flower among her offspring. Indeed, her second daughter, Catherine, with the aid ofdivine grace reached the heights of sancity. Nor may ewe neglect to mention the charity of St. Bridget lavished on the mem-bers of Christ suffering from poverty or other distress. Following a pious pilgrimage they had made together to the Shrine of St. James at Compostella, Bridget's husband entered a Cistercian monas-tery and soon after he died there. Whereupon Bridget, having set her domes-tic affairs in order, devoted herself entirely to the ascetical life and prepared for her own flights to God, by whom she wa~ richly favored with mystical 8 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 gifts. During the two years in which she lived in a retired place near the monastery where her husband Ulf had withdrawn from the world, she was inspired by Christ with the resolve to found a new Order to be named for our Divine Savior, in honor of Mary the Virgin Mother of God. There would be double monasteries housing in separate buildings men and women who had,freed themselves for divine pursuits, but they would constitute onecom-munity, as it were, gathered together in God's name. This order, whose rule Our Predecessor Urban V approved in 1370, began with the foundation called Vadstena. Spiritual Writings There is cause for rejoicing indeed in the fact that this religious family, which almost disappeared at the time when the seamless garment of the Church was pitiably rent, began to flourish again at the beginning of this present century, insofar as its branch of consecrated women is concerned; and a house was established at the Campo dei Fiori, where the mother foundress had formerly lived. That this institute may prosper with a happy increase in this anniversary celebration honoring St. Bridget is the object of our earnest desire. Deservedly extolled also are those works which are entitled "Revela-tions," and which set forth the mystical graces bestowed on St. Bridget. They are records valued besides for their wealth of sacred doctrine, treating of her cult of our Savior's humanity, of His sacred passion, of the Blessed Virgin, St. Joseph, and the angels. The spiritual writings and religious art of the 15th and 16th centuries reflect the strong impact of these works. Solicitude for the Church Broadening the range of her concern, however, St. Bridget, like another Catherine of Siena, extended her great and zealous solicitude to the Church and the Apostolic See in that troubled period. As a devoted daughter she sought the reformation of the Church, ihe Mother of all, which, as Vatican Council II says, "is summoned by Christ, as she goes her pilgrim way, to that continual reformation, of which she always has need, insofar as she is an institution of men here on earth" (Decree on Ecumenism, Unitat& redinte-gratio, 6). Like the "valiant woman" she was, Bridget entreated Clement VI, lingering in Avignon, to return to Rome and urged the proclamation of the jubilee year of 1350. This woman, then, who by her life and work united so admirably and beneficially in the one Church her illustrious native land of the North and the See of Peter, corroborates, so to speak, as a citizen of heaven, the gener-ous efforts of those who after a prolonged and lamentable severance are now striving to restore Christian unity. Indeed, Our predecessor Boniface IX ap-pears in some way to have foretold this when in an apostolic letter dated under his seal, 7 October 1391 he said that he declared Blessed Bridget of Documents concerning Religious / 9 happy memory to be a saint "for the unity of the faith and of the Ch'urch" (Bullarium Priv. ac Dipl. Pont., III, Rome, 1741, p. 391 ). Tolally Dedicated Again, we rightly commemorate this singular and exemplary woman be-cause, although she was totally dedicated to God, she was not estranged from her own people. More than this, animated by a Christian love of her native land, she labored for its true progress. Her own family gave 'to Sweden for almost a hundred years kings, among them St. Eric, who were intent upon the good of their people and social justice. And although occupied with household cares, St. Bridget often served as an instructress in royal duties at court and was like a watchful mother to King Eric the Great (or Erikson) and his wife. She gave them a Swedish translation of the Holy Bible, and for this and for her writings mentioned above, she obtained a place in the literary history of her country. May her light shine radiantly, therefore, a light recognized also by those who are not of the Catholic communion. May this extraordinary woman in-tercede with God that He may graciously bestow on the Church the gifts of peace and unity. These obtained, may the faithful of Christ in Sweden and the adjoining northern regions come to recognize that he who is placed over the Catholic Church and exercises the highest apostolic ministry testifies to a singular esteem and brotherly love for them. May the example of this devout pilgrimage ot~ olden days kindle the hearts of those who come to this City in the forthcoming Holy Year, so that sincere repentance and desire for the interior life may bring about a spiritual renewal that will benefit not only in-dividuals but the Church also and civil society. This then is Our message to you in observance of the sixth centenary of th~ death of St. Bridget. In conclusion, We affectionately impart to you and to the faithful under your care the Apostolic Blessing as a token of spiritual strength and joy. This Blessing we desire to extend also to the Abbess Gen-eral and the Sisters of St. Bridget, the Order of our Divine Savior. From the Vatican Palace, on the 19th day of September, in the year 1973, the eleventh of our Pontificate. PAUL VI ADDRESS TO BENEDICTINE ABBOTS The following address was given October 1, 1973, to 270 abbots and con-ventual priors of the Benedictine Confederation led by the Abbot Primate, Dom Rembert Weakland. Also present for the audience were three Orthodox monks and three Protestant monks. From the heart we greet you, representatives of the whole Order of St. Benedict, who, in St. Cyprian's words, have come "to the Chair of Peter and the primatial church, the source of priestly unity" (Ep. 12, 14; PL 3,844-5). You have desired also to pay a visit to us, the successor in the apostolic min- Review for Religious,. Volume 33, 1974/1 istry to that same blessed Peter, in the long intervening line of Pontiffs. We greet also the Priors here present ot~ monasteries located for the most partin Africa and in Latin America, in which areas, with laudable spontaneity you devote your energies to missionary work; that is to say, "you are diligently engaged in implanting there the very rich tradition of your Order" (see Conc. Vat. II, Decr. Ad gentes divinitus, 18). Experiencing God We welcome in addition, recognizing at the same time the high prestige they enjoy, the observers, who, though not full participants in the Catholic communion, are yet striving to follow in the footsteps of St. Benedict. Fi-nally, we receive paternally the abbesses of monasteries and th~ mothers general here present of congregations that adhere to the spirit of this Patri-arch and are called by his name. We know that you are now holding a meeting on a subject of no small consequence; namely, on the mode of experiencing God in monastic life. This topic has various facets, as it were, whether it is considered according to Biblical doctrine, to sacred liturgy, to history, to the conditions and exigen-cies of the present day. We regard this subject as serviceable indeed, if this troubled age of ours is really to return to the great and fundamental reflec-tions that concern human existence itself. For there is danger today that men may banish the sacred from their minds and from their condu& and even presume they can do without God, at least in the use they make'of thoii" lives. Sometimes even those who have given themselves to the divine service and are dedicated to the pastoral ministry can be infected with this secular view. You, however, as monks in appearance, dress, and way of life affirm or should affirm that you belong to the number of those who do not rely upon the vain and passing things of this world, but seek wholeheartedly Him who is the Absolute: whom alone we ca.ll God, God our Highest Good, God Eternal. Here there shines before the eyes of the mind the true concept of religion, whereby man becomes intimately aware that he is ordered to God, Creator, Ruler, Last End, and Author of Salvation, to whom he owes in-terior and exterior worship. Such religion, therefore, encompasses the entire man and obliges him to devote himself to God in wholehearted service. Hence, you who "have chosen the best part" (see Luke 10:42), inasmuch as "your main task is to render the Divine majesty a service at once sim-ple and noble within the monastic confines" (see Conc. Vat. II, Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 9), dembnstrate the excelling power of the interior life for opposing that secular propensity whereby men are induced to abandon their own true center, as it were, and surrender themselves to exterior things. Liturgy of the Hours It should be your concern, then, to be religious who are truly, called so, Documents concerning Religious under a unique title, since you strive to ascend to God, to whom you have been consecrated by the profession of the evangelical counsels, through liv-ing the contemplative life, which you nourish by daily effort. Merely in doing this you express your protest against the neglect of God and against the profane way of life which pervades the world in these times. From our brief exposition, the excellence of prayer to be directed to God is already manifest. Indeed, all the sons of the Church, as you well know, are to adore the Father "in spirit and in truth" (see John 4:23). But since in the world of today prayer is beset by so many snares and threatened by so many perils, to you, who enjoy a more fortunate position, is entrusted the special task of directing your study and efforts to the end that the Church may really appear as the Ecclesia Orans. We are cognizant of the zeal with which you have studied the liturgical aspect in this meeting. We rejoice greatly in your diligence and your ardent desire to make that venerable tradition of yours flourish among you and to preserve that which constitutes the essential part of your spiritual life and which in the course of the centuries has ever enhanced the life of the Church itself. We know also of your solicitude for the vital force, the profound sig-nificance and the benefits which have been derived from the renewal of the liturgy that you brought to pass. Joined to this solicitude of y_ours is appre-hension lest these same benefits be not rightly and duly recognized, the more so because differing inclinations of soul in the great family of- St. Benedict have become evident with regard to the order to be observed in the Liturgy of the Hours; that is, whether this order should be uniform in the various monasteries or particular to each one. Need to Study and Weigh This is a very important question, whether as pertaining to your con-sistent historical and spiritual tradition or to your monastic cohesion which is no longer supported by only one form of sacred liturgy, but is expressed through several different voices, so that in celebrating the praise of God you are no longer "speaking with one voice." Consequently, this question should be studied in such a way as to embrace all its aspects in accordance with the vows made by you, before appropriate norms with the force of precept are laid down. Nevertheless, we wish to state that the difficulties which have arisen should be so weighed, and due account taken of the benefits already ac-cruing, while with joint effort you strive to offer a testimony of fervent and ardent prayer to the world of today with its secular outlook. Assuring you therefore of our fatherly concern for the welfare of your monastic communities, we strongly affirm that we shall take under our eager and careful consideration the outcome and result of the work you have begun on this question, and already at this stage we acknowledge our Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 high esteem for the manner in which, with your wonted wisdom, you are addressing yourselves to this task. However, you are obliged to fulfill not only the duty of liturgical prayer, immensely important as this is, but also that of private prayer. On this sub-ject the Second Vatican Council has given a wise reminder (see Const. Sacrosanctum Concilium, 12), and St. Benedict himself is considered to treat of this point in his Rule, in the section headed. "De reverentia ora-tionis": "Supplication should be made to the Lord God of the universe with all humility and pure devotion" (cap. 20; see P. Delatte, Commentaire sur le R~gle de Saint Beno~t, Paris, p. 217). The exhortations of your founder are by no means inappropriate to this age, in which things progress and change with such rapidity. Just as in former times, so also now, you are to establish "a school of the Lord's ser-vice" (Reg. prol.); in other words, your monasteries should be so struc-tured that those who enter therein learn how to serve God and how to be continuously employed in His service. Such service, however, chiefly com-prises divine worship, by which the virtue of religion is exercised, as we have indicated above, and also holiness. With reference to worship we should like to bring out a special point: in celebrating the sacred liturgy with diligence and piety, as it behooves you to do, let. the sweet voice of the singing Church sound forth and never cease to sound forth in your churches. For men of today also feel the in-effable power of song that uplifts the soul and with gentle modulation gives expression to feelings of adoration, praise, penitence, and petition. Specially Chosen As regards holiness, this thought of St. Augustine should be deeply meditated: "Let not your voice only sound forth the praises of God, but let your deeds be in harmony with your voice" (Enarr. in Ps. 166, 2; PL 37, 1899). Although you have withdrawn from the world, to be occupied with the Lord, you have nonetheless "been specially chosen to preach the good news" (Rom l:l). May that hidden apostolic fruitfulness of which the Council speaks (see Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 7) flow out therefore from your mon-asteries upon the Church and society. May the yeast be prepared in them whereby, through the operation of divine power, the world may be renewed. This holiness, moreover, pertains not only to the life of the soul, but also to what you are doing for the cultivation of natural gifts, inasmuch as, to mention some examples, you devote yourselves to liturgical, Biblical, and historical studies for the common benefit, or, you engage in work, especially manual labor. Indeed, this last, may I add, enables you to go to the assist-ance of those who are suffering from poverty and other hardships, in keep-ing, of course, with the practices of the monastic life. This is in accord with the mind of the Council fathers who exhorted religious "to contribute to the Documents concerning Religious / 13 support of the poor, whom all should love with the tenderness of Christ" (see Decr. Per[ectae caritatis, 13; Const. Gaudium et spes, 42). Finally, not only your own individual life, but the life of the community as a whole, whereby you are joined one to another with the sweet bond of charity, should be adorned by this mark of holiness: that through the fel-lowship of community life directed to God, each individual is assisted in carrying out his service to the Lord, is incited to work for his brethren, is protected from dangers. Thus you will truly bear witness before the world to the holiness of the Church. In short, a community such as this, like a kind of novitiate, prepares religious during their lifetime for the everlasting day. Not without reason did St. Bernard reckon among the aids to good works: "to desire eternal life with all spiritual avidity" (Reg. cap. 4). ~ Example and Exhortation Of all these practices let the abbot give the example and exhort thereto the brethren entrusted to his care. Although the office of governing is ren-dered more difficult at the present time, yet he who "is believed to hold the place of Christ in the monastery" (Reg. cap. 2) should make the utmost effort that the vigor of spiritual life and of monastic discipline be strength-ened, increased, and, if need be, restored. To this end the abbot should en-deavor to maintain an unimpaired union with the magisterium of the Church, like a channel through which living water is drawn off for himself and for the brethren placed in his charge. The foregoing is what we have had affectionately in mind to say to you, and we do not doubt you will strive that your Order may aid the building up of the Church with spiritual forces, also in these times, to the needs of which it should prudently adapt itself. The announced Holy Year should offer you further incentive, since as you know we wish it to be a time of interior renewal. Lastly, as a pledge of heavenly gifts and as testimony of our assured affection, we impart the Apostolic Blessing to you who are here present and to all the members of your families in the Lord. ADDRESS TO THE LITTLE SISTERS OF JESUS The following address was given to the Little Sisters of Jesus at an audience of October 3, 1973. Dear Little Sisters of Jesus, last Friday we had the very sweet joy of meeting you at Tre Fontane, in the eloquent simplicity of your houses and in an impressive atmosphere of evangelical serenity and happiness. Your participation in this audience is like a return feast, for you and for us like-wise. To the thirty-seven Little Sisters who have just made their vows of per- 14 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 petual consecration at St. Peter's tomb, we address our best wishes for fervent faithfulness. But our brief words are also addressed to their families, who have in many cases come from very far away to be present at their de-finitive commitment "because of Jesus and the Gospel." They are addressed likewise to the two hundred Little Sisters at present attending a session of spiritual formation under the direction of dear Father Voillaume. We entrust to you our heart's most ardent desire. We would like you to take all over the world the conviction that a religious profession com-mits at such a profound level that changes of structures and activities have only a relative importance, even if one suffers from them. The essential thing is to keep a very keen awareness of the call of Christ who chooses His friends Himself (see Jn 15:15.) Is not Fr~re Charles de J6sus an example of this faithfulness deepened through different, if not contradictory, situ-ations? It is clear, however, that his mysterious route finds its coherence and its unity in passionate imitation of Jesus Christ, the One Model. Fr~re Charles de J6sus appears as one of the most perfect types of this deep faith-fulness of a human freedom to the freedom and faithfulness of God, who took him far beyond his expectations and hopes. Dear Little Sisters of Jesus, be confiden!! To be faithful does not con-sist in becoming tense over one's promises, but in relying on the Lord to ensure our ~faithfulness. That is why the long hours spent~with Christ in the Holy Eucharist will always be the primary and indispensable source of the friendship, the evangelical testimony you have promised to give in the Church and in the world today. It is with these sentiments that we renew our affectionate Apostolic Blessing to you and to your relatives and to your whole religious family. ADDRESS TO REDEMPTORISTS On October 6, 1973, the Pope gave the following talk to the members of the general chapter of the Redemptorists. Beloved Sons, To you assembled in the General Chapter of your Congre-gation of the Most Holy Redeemer and engaged in deliberations of great importance to the life of your religious family, We extend our affectionate greeting. We desire, moreover, to welcome expressly the new superior gen-eral, who is charged with the office and the burden of guiding your congre-gation through the difficulties of our times--neither few nor inconsiderable --and of conducting it to "green pastures" (see Ps 22:2). Purpose of Chapters A general chapter provides an excellent opportunity--offered to every institute--to 'reflect once more upon the true nature and end set for the institute and to hold discussions that will have a salutary effect on the life of the members. For the responsibility of a general chapter is not discharged Documents concerning Religious / 15 by holding elections and. legislating; .the chapter must also promote the spiritual and apostolic vitality of the whole body (see Litterae Ap. Ecclesiae sanctae, motu proprio, I, 2). Therefore, in a meeting of this kind, the entire family is gathered together in the presence of God to hear His voice and take counsel with regard to its renewal which, as also for the whole Church, "essentially consists in an increase of fidelity to its own calling" (see Conc. Vat. II Decr. Unitatis redintegratio, 6). Your congregation was founded by that most devout Doctor of the Church, St. Alphonsus, in order that its members might sanctify them-selves by an assiduous and faithful imitation of Christ and also engage in apostolic works, above all that special care of souls involving salutary con-tact with the most abandoned. Servants of God Beloved Sons, you are servants of God in the true and primary sense of the word; for "by your vows you are totally dedicated to God through an act of supreme Love" (see Const. Lumen gentium, 44). To be dedi-cated means to be given over to another as his property and possession. You should be followers of Christ as the Universal Synod advised all re-ligious (see Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 2a), corroborating, as it were, and realizing more completely the desire of your Father Founder. Hence each of you must endeavor to order his life to a certain unity and seek Christ daily with a sincere and generous heart. Daily you should put on Christ, an effort which is the beginning and the end and the whole of your life, whether as individual religious or as communities. Thus you truly make Christ present in the world, which is in many instances utterly alienated from Him, its Redeemer. Then those who see you, who speak to you or liave dealings with you may experience a certain mysterious power emanating from our Savior. Thus also you manifest the holiness of the Church, to the world which especially demands holiness in her sons. Life of Charity This daily effort to put on the likeness of Christ constitutes, however, a life lived in charity and motivated by charity. For religious thus "impelled ¯ . . live ever increasingly for Christ and for His body the Church" (Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 1 ). But love truly and properly so called is not for a limited time, is not hedged by conditions, is not rendered less ardent by difficulties, and knows no end. Justly did the Second Vatican Council address to every religious the following exhortation to fidelity: "Let all who have been called to the profession of the vows take painstaking care to persevere and excel increasingly in the vocation to which God has summoned them" (Const. Lumen gentium, 47). The life in which one dedicates himself to God with an undivided heart 16 / Review Jor Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 becomes a means to show forth the love of God for men. Just as God "loved the world so much that he gave his only son" (Jn 3:16), so too a religious who strives to attain the fullness of his vocation is a kind of gift bestowed upon the world. For an apostolate that is enlivened by continual prayer, liturgical and private, by ascetical zeal and the practice of the vir-tues, transfuses the divine life into men and constitutes in its truest sense the service of one's brothers in Christ. Beloved members of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, you have illumined the Church by the sanctity of certain of your brethren, of whom We are pleased to recall to mind the Saints, Alphonsus Mary de'Liguorl, your founder, Clement Hofbauer, Gerard Majella, Blessed John Nepomucene Neumann. By your apostolic labors you have brought the light of divine grace to so many souls. On the occasion of this general chapter, persevere with renewed alacrity in your noble purpose, and if need be give fresh impetus to your zeal and redouble your efforts that the Church of God may reap benefit from you now and in the future as in times past. In fatherly encouragement to you in all these efforts, we lovingly im-part the.Apostolic Blessing .~o you who are present here and to all your members. ADDRESS TO MISSIONARIES OF THE SACRED HEART At the general audience of October 10, 1973, the Holy Father gave the follow-ing talk to jubilarian Missionaries of the Sacred Heart who were present at the audience. Venerable Brothers and Dear Sons in Christ, It is a joy for us to receive you on this occasion which marks the anniversary of your sacerdotal ordi-nation. For forty years you have exercised the ministry of the priesthood, having been called by the Lord Himself and sent out by the Church to preach "Christ crucified" (1 Cor 1:23) and to assist in giving witness to His Resurrection (see Acts 4:33). We can well imagine how many graces the Lord has offered you over the years and how many helps your ministry has brought to those whom you have served with fidelity and sacrifice. On this happy occasion we are glad to offer you our blessing, our felicitations, and our encouragement. We see you as part of a vast number of our brother priests who have been conscious of their responsibility and calling and who have endeavored with God's grace to perform their ministry, in the spirit of St. Paul, as one "worthy of God's approval, a workman who has no cause to be ashamed" (2 Tim 2:15). Today we wish, at this point in your lives, to confirm you in the faith, which you have received and preached, and in the priestly vo-cation that has been your precious gift, high dignity, and important obliga-tion. We urge you at this time to keep alive your hope and to maintain to the end that confidence with which you began (see Heb 3:6,14). To each Documents concerning Religious / 17 of you we say with the Apostle: "God . . . will not forget your work and the .love you have shown him by your service, past and present, to his holy people" (Heb 6:,10). May Christ fill all of you with joy and keep you in his love. On our part we cordially give your our special Apostolic Blessing. Our special greeting of grace and peace in the Lord go to the members of the General Conference of the Congregation of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart, gathered together to consider questions of religious life and missionary activity. As we assure you of our paternal affection and en-couragement, we pray that Christ Jesus will make you apt instruments of preaching His gospel with ever greater effectiveness. We pray that you may indeed draw copiously from the riches of His love so as to be able to com-municate this same love in all its fullness "to the praise of his glori6hs grace" (Eph 1:6). Our Apostolic Blessing accompanies you in your im-portant responsibilities. ADDRESS TO THE CLARETIAN CHAPTER On October 25, 1973, Paul VI gave an audience to the members of the Claretian general chapter during which he delivered the following address. Beloved Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary! We express to you our deep pleasure at th!s vi.s.!t you pay us at the con-clusion of the meetings of your general chfi~ter. We hope that the work you have carried out these days will be fruitful. We hope that the dedicated service of the superior general and of the other members elected to form part of his council, will be effective and helpful for the purposes of your religious family. ~ We cannot overlook a particularly, iIluhainating circumstance, ,.which makes this joyful meeting more attractive: yesterday we celebrated the liturgical feast of St. Antonio Maria Claret. You yourselves made known for this reason your desire to visit Peter's Successor. We thank you for this gesture of support, in which we see a testimony of ekquisite spiritual affinity with your founder. How could we fail to recall before his sons the deep de-votion' he felt for the Vicar of Christ? And how could we fail to,venerate his memory in view of his eloquent and moving 'profession of faith in papal infallibility at the I Vatican Council? All that obliges us gratefully to open our mind to you in confidence, so that. you know that it is in perfect har-mony of religious sentiments with your own. THE CLARETIAN IMAGE We are sure that, during these days of your chapter, the protecting and guiding presence of St. Antonio Maria became more intense and exacting among you. And we like to think too that, when tracing the lines of re-newal, you took as your fixed point of reference the most genuine faithful- 18 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 ness to the origins of your institute and to the teachings on the consecrated life that the II Vatican Council proposed .and we ourself have repeatedly in-culcated. Allow us to savour with what purity of characteristic features the image of the Claretian presented itself to the contemplation of St. Antonio Maria. We read it yesterday during the lesson: "I tell myself: a Son of the Immaculate .Heart~ of Mary is a man burning with charity who sets fire wherever he passes. Nothing disheartens him; he takes pleasure in priva-tions, meets difficulties, delights in slander, and rejoices 0in torments. He thinks of nothing except how to follow and imitate Jesus Christ, in working, suffering and struggling always and only for the greater glory .of God and the salvation of souls" (El celo, c. I, BAC 188 [1959], p. 777). o See here, projected towards you, a whole program of holiness, based on religious renunciation of oneself, the fruit of its fertile evangelical vitality. It points out to you clearly,, with expressions of clear Pauline dynamism the good to which your personal and community life must aspire: the following and imitation of Christ in impulses of a charity that is always operative. BEARERS OF VALUES If to this program of interior life we add the very special cult of the Blessed Virgin h~ inculcated in you together with the~rimary dedication to the ministry of the Word, ,we have the complete picture of the Claretian vocation and spirituality. These and no others were the motives that gave life and ,meaning to the irrepressible zeal of the son of Sallent. And none other was the stamp of religious austerity that he imposed on himself to make his ministry more worthy of credit and more in conformity with the demands of the divine call. To proclaim the Good News to the point of sacrificing oneself for the good of one's brothers, to teach men the ever new languagel of;charity, characterized his overwhelming pastoral,task as Arch-bishop of Santiago in Cuba. Rightly could~we say of him, as of the Apostle of the Gentiles, that his vigor as '.'herald and teacher in faith and truth" (see 1 Tim 2:7) suffered no decrease in the midst of difficulties. On the contrary, his pastoral cares, his missionary anxiety found a way to express themselves continually in new ministerial initiatives, at home and abroad, inspired and nourished by the spirit of faithful service to the Church. Beloved sons, .appreciate this spiritual patrimony of yours;, spare no effort in tending its roots, if you really wish to be a tree always young and flourishing, able to adapt itself to the environment, to the changing require-ments of the times in order to continue to give ripe fruit to the Church, as it did in the past and continues to do at present, through its most illustrious sons. , At the chapter you have just held you have been able to convince your-selves that you are bearers of certain values that do not grow old because they .are a select part of the heritage and the universal vocation of the Documents concerning Religious /o 19 Church. The Christian community itself asks you for faithfulness and dis-cretion, generosity and disinterestedness in order to accept you and recog-nize you as the living and united sign of its human and spiritual aspirations. We do not wish to expatiate at greater length. Entrusting these thoughts to you, we wish to encourage you in your aspirations to holiness with our prayers to the Immaculate Heart of Mary so that, with the help of her motherly intercession, you may be exemplary sons of the Church. As con-firmation of these desires and as a testimony of particular benevolence we warmly impart the Apostolic Blessing to you and to the whole Claretian family. First Penance and First Communion Sacred Congregation [or the Discipline of the Sacraments and Sacred Congregation for the Clergy The Supreme Pontiff Pius X, relying on the prescription of Canon 21 of the Fourth Lateran Council, decided by the Decree "Quam singulari" issued on August 8th 1910 (AAS 1910, pp. 577-583), that children, once they had reached the age of discretion, should receive the sacraments of penance and Eucharist. That decision, having been put into operation throughout the universal Church, has produced and continues to produce very many fruits of Christian life and spiritual perfection. The "Addendum" to the General Catechetical Directory issued on the 1 lth April, 1971, by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy (AAS 1972 pp. 97-176) confirms the custom of children receiving the sacrament of penance before Communion: "Having weighed all these points, and keeping in mind the common and general practice which per se cannot be derogated without the approval of the Apostolic See, and also having heard the Con-ferences of Bishops, the Holy See judges it fitting that the practice now in force in the Church of putting confession ahead of first Communion should be retained." The same "Addendum" took into consideration the fact that in certain regions in the Church some new practices had been introduced allowing children to be admitted to first Communion without first receiving the sacra-ment of penance. It allowed such practices to be continued for a time, pro-vided there was "prior communication with the Apostolic See and., they [the Conferences of Bishops] are at one mind with it." Having now carefully considered the matter and having taken into con-sideration the wishes of the bishops, the Sacred Congregations for the Dis-cipline of the Sacrament~ and for the Clergy, by virtue of this present docu-ment, and with the approval of the Supreme Pontiff, Paul VI, now that the 2O First Penance a~nd First Communion two years have passed, declare that these experiments should be brought to an end with the conclusion of the school year 1972-73 and that, there-fore, the Decree "Quam singulari" is to be obeyed by all everywhere. Given at Rome 24 May 1973. ANTONIUS Card. SAMORI~ Praef . JOHANNES Card. WRIGHT Praef . A Note on Intercommunion Secretariat [or the Union of Christians The following text is an explanatory note concerning the "Instruction on Intercom-munion" issued by the Secretariat for the Union of Christians on June 1, 1972; the text of the 1972 "Instruction" was given in Review ]or Religious, January 1973, pp. 12-8. 1. After the publication of the "Instruction concerning Particular Cases When Other Christians May Be Admitted to Eucharistic Communion in the Catholic Church," on June 1, 1972, various interpretations of it were given, some of which depart from the letter and the spirit of the document. To pre-vent the spread of such inaccurate interpretations and their consequences, we think it useful to recall to mind a few points. 2. With this instruction, pastoral in character, the Secretariat for Pro-moting Christian Unity had no intention of changing the rules laid down by the Vatican Council's decree on ecumenism and further explained by the Directorium Oecumenicum. The intenti6n was to explain that the existing discipline derives from the requirements of the faith and so retains its full vigour. 3. The basic principles of the instruction are: a) There is an indissoluble link between the mystery of the Church and the mystery of the Eucharist or between ecclesial and Eucharistic com-munion; the celebration of the Eucharist of itself signifies the fullness of pro-fession of faith and ecclesial communion (cf. Instruction, par. 2, a, b, c). b) The Eucharist is for the baptized a spiritual food which enables them to live with Christ's own life, to be incorporated more profoundly in Him, and to share more intensely in the whole economy of the mystery of Christ (cf. Instruction, par. 3). 4. Within the full communion of faith, Eucharistic Communion is the .4 Note on lntercommunion / 23 expression of this full communion and, therefore of the unity of .the faithful; at the same time it is the means of maintaining and reinforcing this unity. But Eucharistic Communion practiced by those ,who are not in full ecclesial communion with each other cannot be the expression of that full unity which the Eucharist of its nature signifies and which in this case does not exist; for this reason such Communion,cannot be regarded as a means to be used to lead to full ecclesial communion. 5. All the same, both the Directorium Oecumenicurn and th~ '~Instruc-tion," on,the,strength of what has already been said in the Vatican Council,s decree on ecumenism, allow the possibility of exceptions insofar as the Eucharist is necessary spiritual nour!shment for the Christian life. 6. It is the local ordinary's responsibility to examine these exceptional cases and make concr&e decisions. The instruction (no. 6.) recalls that the Directorium Oecumenicum gives the episcopal authority power, to decide whether in these r~re cases the required conditions are present or not. The episcopal authority's faculty of examining and deciding is governed by criteria laid down in the Directorium Oecumenicum (no. 55) and further explained in the instruction (no. 4 b),:. ". admission to Carbolic'Eucha-ristic Communion is confined to particular cases of those Christians who have a faith in the sacrament in conformity with that of the-Church, who experience a serious spiritual need for the Eucharistic sustenance, who for a prolonged period are unable to have recourse to a minister of their own community °and who ask for the sacrament of their own accord; all' this provided that they have proper dispositions~ and lead lives worthy of a Christian." ~. This criterion is observed if,,ail the required conditions .are verified. An object.ire, pastorally responsible examination,does not allow any vof,the con-ditions to be ignored. . ~. ~ ~ It must also be noted that the instruction speaks of particular cases, which are to be examined individually. Hence-a general regulation.cannot be~ issued which makes a catego.ry .o.ut of an exce.ptional case, nor is it possibles.to legitimate on the basis:of, epikei.a by turning this latter into a general rule. Nevertheless, the bishops can in tiae various situations decide what are theneeds that make exceptions applicable, that is to say, what constitutes a special case, and they can determine the manner of verifying whether all the required conditions are fulfilled in such a particular case. When par-ticular cases presen.t themselves fairly often in one region, following a re-current pattern, episcopal conferences can issue some guiding principles for ascertaining that al!,the conditions are verified in particular cases. Normally however it will be within the competence of the local ordinary to judge such cases. 7. For other Christians to be admitted to the Eucharist in the Catholic Church the instruction requires that they manifest a faith in the sacrament Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 in conformity with that of the Catholic Church. This faith is not limited to a mere affirmation of the "real presence" in the Eucharist, but implies the doctrine of the Eucharist as taught in the Catholic Church. 8, It is to be noted that the instruction (no. 5) calls to mind the fact that the Directorium Oecumenicum (par. 34-54) provides for the Orientals not in full communion with the Catholic Church rules different from those regarding other Christians (par. 55-63)o For example, (a) Since they belong to a community whose Eucharistic faith is in con-formity with that of the Catholic Church, a personal declaration of faith in the sacrament will not be required of them when they are admitted: in an Orthodox this faith is taken for granted; (b) since the Orthodox Churches have true sacraments and, above all, by virtue of apostolic succession, the priesthood and the Eucharist, conces-sions for sacramental communion must take account of legitimate reciprocity (no. 43); (c) Justifiable reasons for advising sacramental sharing are considerably more extensive. 9. The question of reciprocity arises only with those Churches which have preserved the substance of the Eucharist, the sacrament of orders, and apostolic succession. Hence a Catholic cannot ask for the Eucharist except from a minister who has been validly ordained (Directorium Oecumenicum, no. 55). 10. The desire to share the Eucharist fundamentally expresses the desire of the perfect ecclesial unity of all Christians which Christ willed. Intercon-fessional dialogue on the theology of the Eucharist (as sacrament and sacrifice), on the theology of ministry and of the Church is pursuing its course within the ambit of the ecumenical movement, supported by the promises and prayer of our Lord; it is stimulated and enlivened by the charity, poured into our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. We express the hope that the ecumenical movement will lead to a common profession of faith among Christians and so allow us to celebrate the Eucharist in ecclesial unity, giving fulfillment to the words, "Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body" ( 1 Cor 10: 17). This note has been approved by the Holy Father, who has authorized its publication. 17 October 1973 JOHN CardinaF WILLEBRANDS President CHARLES MOELLER Secretary Decree on the Holy Year Indulgence Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary A DECREE WHICH DETERMINES WHAT SPIRITUAL WORKS ARE NECESSARY TO GAIN "THE GIFT OF THE INDULGENCE" IN THE VARIOUS LOCAL CHURCHES ON THE OCCASION OF THE HOLY YEAR The Cardinal President of the Central Committee for the Holy Year has asked this Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary to determine what spiritual works are necessary to gain "the gift of the Indulgence," which the Holy Father has promised to reinforce the spirit of reconciliation and renewal which are the characteristics of this Holy Year. Charged by the Sovereign Pontiff, the Sacred Penitentiary grants that, from the 1st Sunday of Advent of this year, until the day when the Holy Year is solemnly initiated in Rome, the faithful of the individual local Churches can gain: 1. The Plenary Indulgence, in the times to be decided by the Episcopal Conferences, if they go on a. pious pilgrimage to the cathedral church, or also to o~her churches determined by the local Ordinary, in which a solemn community function is held; 2. The Plenary Indulgence, likewise in the times to be decided by the Episcopal Conferences, if gathered in groups (for example, families, school pupils, workers, employees and professional workers, pious associations), they visit the cathedral or other churches designated by the Ordinary, and remain there in pious meditation for a suitable time, concluding the visit with the recitation or singing of the Lord's Prayer and the Creed and with the invocation to the Blessed Virgin; 3. The Plenary Indulgence if, prevented by sickness or any other serious 25 26 / Review fo.r. Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 cause, they join spiritually in the pious pilgrimage, offering God their prayers and sufferings. As regards the diocese of Rome, which should rightly be in this matter an example and stimulus for other ecclesial communities, the same Sacred Penitentiary decrees that the times and ways to gain the aforesaid Plenary Indulgence shall be determined by the Cardinal Vicar General of Rome. Notwithstanding any provisions to the contrary. Rome, from the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, 24 September 1973. G. SESSOLO Regent G. CARD. PAUP1NI Grand Penitentiary COMMENTARY ON THE HOLY YEAR INDULGENCE The following commentary on the preceding document appeared in L'osser-vatore romano, November 29, 1973, page 6. 1. By order ~f the Holy Father, the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary issued, on 24 September 1973, a decree confirming and clarifying what had already been said with regard to the Jubilee indulgence during this first phase of the Holy Year. It establishes::the so-called "work" or "pious practice" to be carried out by the faithful, at given times and places, to acquire the Jubilee indulgence. ~ .' The "work" prescribed is a "pilgrimage" to a designated church, con-cl'~ ding witl~ barticipation in a solemn community servic~ or at le.ast with the i'ecitatign 'of some prayers. Summarizing the decree of 24 September 1973 and keeping in mind both the norms for indulgences and the Holy Father's Letter of 31 May 1973, to Cardinal Maximilian de Ftirstenberg, President of the Central Committee for the Ho!y Year, the following points.may be r~oted. The faithful who, duly,dispoged, approach the sacraments of confession affd communion and pray acco~:ding to the intentions of the Holy Father and the Episcopal C~ollege, are granted, in conformity with the norms in fbrce, the gift of the i91enary indulgence, at the time~'to be determined by the respective Episcopal Conference, beginning from 2 December 1973: (a) if they'take part in a pilgrimage to the cathedral church or to another church #esignated by the local Bishop and participate in solemn comrriunity serVice there; (b) if they go in groups (for example ram!lies, "sc3ools, professignal @orkers, associations) to one of the afpresaid chur'~hes and devote the, m-s'elves for ~/suitable space bf time to pious considerations, concluding them with the recitation or the singing of the Ou{ Fath~" and the Creed and with an invocation to the Blessed Virgifi; (c) if, being unable to take part in'tli~ pilgrimage of their comn~unity (ecclesial, family, or social), because they are pi'evented by illness or any ~Decree on the Holy Year Indulgence / 27 .o, ther serious cause, they join in it .spiritually by offering their prayers and sufferings. 2. We spoke above of the faithful being ."duly disposed." This is a reminder that the '.'gift of. t, he indulgence" must .be merited by fervent prep-aration; it is bestowed to reward° and "strengthen"--as we readAn the re-cent d.e~cree--the spirit of renewal and reconciliation that must characterize the Hgly Year. , For this reason the simple practices that are required to gain the Jubilee indulgence must not be separated from the work of preparation, on which s9 much stress has rightly been laid. The practices themselves are, as ~it were, the point of arrival°and ,tOe exte_r.na_l sign of deep renewal of the spirit and reinvigorated love for God and one's brethren. . No.w, ,,the work of renewal and fervor is 'the most valuable part of the Holy Year, because, great as is the value of the indulgence that remits the te.mporal pen,alty in the case of, those who are disposed, the value of the works proposed when their fulfillment leads,to an increase of charity is in-comparably greater (St. Thomas, Supplement to the Theological Summa, q. 25~ 2, 2 and q. 27, 2, 2). ,. 3. We mentioned above--in addition to the proper disposition and the "work" prescribed~what are commonly called "conditions" for gaining the Jubilee indulgence, namely:sacramental confession, eucharistic,communion, and prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and the Episcopal College. The three "conditions" mentioned above are also required for every other plenary indulgence, with the only difference that the prayer, according to the general norms, is said for the intentions of the Holy Father, while in this circumstance the Holy Father himself (cf. Letter to Cardinal de Ftirs-tenberg, quoted above) has wished to associate the intentions of the Bishops with his own. For the fulfillment of the conditions (cf. Norms, nn. 27, 28 and 29), the following should be noted: " (a) Communion and prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and of the Episcopal College should be on the same day on which the pilgrimage is made, but they may be before or afterwards. (b) To fulfill the condition of prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and the Bishops, the faithful may recite a prayer of their own choice. (c) As for sacramental confession, in order to be able to make it un-hurriedly, it can be made even twenty days before or after the pilgrimage. It should also be remembered that confession must be made even by those who do not feel any serious guilt on their conscience; that it is required on the occasion of any plenary indulgence, but even more so for the Jubilee indulgence because of the particular commitment of purification and re-newal that the Holy Year entails. The confession, in fact, if the penitent so desires and the confessor con-s~ ders ~t useful, may ~nclude not only the s~ns since the last good confession, Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 but also the sins of a longer period of time to facilitate a deeper renewal of life. Furtherra~ore, to facilitate the faithful in making their individual con-fession, the recommendation that there should be confessors available "on the days and at the hours established for the convenience of the faithful" (cf. Normae~ pastorales of the S0 Congr. of the Doctrine of the Faith. 16 June 1972, AAS 64, 1972, page 513), is especially applicable for the Holy Year. (d) During .the Holy Year it is also ct~stomary to grant confessors special faculties in order that, if necessary, they"can absolve penitents in some cases, usually "reserved" to higher authority, without the obligation of re-course to the Bishop or to other competent Superior or to the Holy See. During the first phase of the Holy Year, which is celebrated in the vari-ous local Churches, the Bishops can make provision in this regard by grant-ing, at least to the more experienced confessors, the ample faculties at their disposal (cf. M.P. Pastorale munus of 30 November 1963, n. 14: AAS 56, 1964, p. 8). 4. Mention was also made above, in a generic way, of the "norms in force." It will be sufficient to recall here expressly the following two: (a) Every indulgence can" be applied to the dead by way of suffrage (norm 4). (b) The plenary indulgence can be acquired only once a day (norm 24, 1). Religious Life: Style or Culture? Vincent P. Branick, S.M. Father Vincent P. Branick, S.M., teaches Scripture and philosophy at Chaminade College of Honolulu; 3140 Waialae Avenue; Honolulu, Hawaii 96816. Paradoxically, loneliness has appeared most intensely in communities which have accepted in full seriousness the needs of the individual to express and communicate his unique personality. Groups which have sacrificed rich traditions to avoid the suffocation of their members in a mass of impersonal structures, congregations which have radically reformed their rules in quest of a truly personalized life have found their members suffering an over-whelming sense of isolation and lack of social maturity, to the extent of a serious weakening or even destruction of~their religious vocation. The Loss of Religious Culture Obviously, the ideals of personalism governing these reforms are not false. The evident validity of these ideals has led administrators to hold to the reforms in the face of their congregations' equally evident devitaliza-tion and even extinction. The mistake lies not in the ideals but in an un-recognized consequence resulting from an oversimplified pursuit of these ideals, namely, in the loss of religious culture. Many young people who came to religious life with a profound desire to be religious are leaving for the lack of a religious culture in which they could live. Many older religous are retreating into a comfortable bachelorhood for want of a religious cul-ture in which they could grow. What is this missing culture? Culture in General In its fundamental sense, a culture is a milieu or atmosphere in which 29 30 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 the human person can express his heartfelt values and through which he can communicate with others about these values. A culture is a consistent pat-tern of practices and manners which specify a shared approach to life, a familiar environment in which an individual finds himself, in which he can feel "at home." This fundamental sense of culture appears most strikingly in the cele-bration of a folk-festival. A nation celebrating itself gathers up its heritage, dances, and contests as a reminder of all that its members have in common. The songs a people sings are truly its songs. These are the songs which its ancestors sang and which likewise catalyzed its ancestors' sense of identity. Through these traditioned customs a nation can celebrate its solidarity in the present and its link to its past. Thus, a folk-festival is not a celebration separated from daily life, but rather an intensification of elements active in a lesser way throughout the daily life of a people, binding a people together. The stranger can visit and enjoy the celebration, but he can never fully par-ti~ ipate in it. He is not of the same culture. Culture as a Social Reality In its more common meaning as a complex of refinements and sensi-bilities, culture is likewise basically a social concept. The "cultivated" per-son is one whose sensibilities have been refined to perceive the beauty of the art and customs of a nation, to understand and use the language and literature that bind a people together, ultimately to understand the languages and customs that bind all men together. The use of such refinement as a device for. mere self-display produces a grotesque caricature, confusing cul-ture. with snobbery. True culture is essentially a social reality. The cultivated person is one who has mastered.the symbols of a society, the symbols which are the means of communication within that scciety. As a social reality, culture is an extension of the human body's ability to symbolize the soul to others. It is an extension produced by a consistent use of many details of life, perhaps insignificant in themselves but very sig-nificant in the pattern they form together. This extension is accomplished with other persons, who together create a circle of common gestures, lan-guage, dress, and other customs, a circle in which each individual feels at home, in which he can express himself and be confident,of understanding, since he is communicating with others in a familiar medium. The N~ed of Every Man for a Culture Every man needs such a culture in which to grow. The man in society needs to feel a certain rhythm about him which he knows and which he can use as a sounding board for his inner life, allowing him to concretize and control that inner life and, above all, to share it with others. Even the her-mit has taken with him his language and his manners which remain at least an unconscious reminder of the people he knows and which .allow him to Religious Li]e: Style or Culture? / 31 express to himself the life he is leading. The man without a culture is the barbarian, the one incapable of using the symbols of communication, the conventions of sharing; thus he is reduced to grunting his basic needs. Far from suppressing individual persons and ideas, the discipline of a culture provides a man with the means of expressing and developing his individuality. The great poets expressed their genius not by creating new and private languages, but by mastering their mother tongues. Perhaps the great attraction of the "hippy culture" was its success in mediating a solidarity and communication among its members. The pattern of the many external, insignificant details permitted one member to talk to another. The long, slightly matted hair, the beard, the colorful but bleached clothes, necessarily frayed at the edges, the beads, and above all, the vocabulary--these details, insignificant in themselves, formed a culture within which one hippy could understand another. The apparent contradic-tion between the hippy ideal of freedom in personal expression, on the one hand, and the strict conformity in dress and hair, on the other, can be un-derstood in the light of the enormous importance such details have when taken together to form a culture. Religious Culture In the same way the person who enters religious life needs a culture, The person who wishes to live his Christian life in intense simplicity and poverty, the person who seeks a prolonged meditative prayer needs a pat-tern of bodily symbols to concretize his aspirations, a sounding board against which he can objectify his ideals. Furthermore, he needs others who share his spiritual values and with whom he can communicate. He thus needs an atmosphere or pattern in which he can develop this life and communicate with others about this life. He needs a religious culture. It is not surprising to find at the historical origin of religious life the practice of spiritual di-rection, the practice of communicating profound religious insights and val-ues, oa practice which gradually of itself expanded into a pattern of religious customs, into a complete religious culture. Loss ~f Culture by Focus on Style Many communities .today have lost this sense of religious culture 'by focusing rather on the question of style. The emphasis on personal style in religious life has had the value of underlining the individual differences in a community, differences which enrich a.community. Yet, in fact, this same emphasis on personal style has broken down much of the consistent re-ligious patterns and symbols in congregationsland, as a result, much of the communication among the members. Diverse individuals and groups, each absorbed in its preferred style, became isolated from each other. Frequently one religious no longer knew if.another possessed the same spiritual sensi-bilities, the same interests, the same background on which communication Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 could be based. The least common denominator in a particular community became less and less. As religious life became a "life style," attention shifted from "life" to "style," and individuals charted their courses alone, away from each other. Presupposed in this pluralistic approach was the belief that each mem-ber of a community could work out his style of life by himself. The man who wished austerity could rise early by himself, eat frugally by himself, and by himself develop a contemplative form of prayer. Supposedly, the others in the same community who did not wish to share this desert could avail themselves of more bourgois amusements. This presupposition, however, neglects man's need for a culture. In effect, this emphasis on style has led to the introduction into the con-gregations of diversities normally holding among congregations. A particu-lar community could find itself composed of austere Trappists, Christian hippies, and mere professional bachelors, each with his own spirituality, each with his own style. Sharing the same province or even living under the same roof, members of communities began to look like strangers to each other. The fundamental element of religious life, spiritual direction, be-came impossible. Prayer life broke down, not through laziness, but through loneliness, through the inability to communicate with others about one's prayer. Formation of recruits became an impossible task, often involving a series of contradictory instructions as a young person passed from the recruiting community, to the novice master, and on through the stages of formation. Rebuilding Religious Culture At present most attempts to rebuild the bond among the members of a community tend in two distinct ways.', the one "theoretical," the other "recreational." The first consists of an attempt to find and concentrate on "the essen-tials." In the face of a bewildering variety of life styles, many communities have sought to articulate the essence of their life, the core reality that every-one could accept, on which everyone could concentrate, allowing then the accidentals to vary according to individual preferences. The theologians were asked to present in clear terms the essence of religious life. General chapters met and held their breath, waiting for this description of the essence. They will probably continue to wait for some time, because the task of articulating the essence of such a concrete and mysterious reality as re-ligious life appears as an impossible job. Whatever "essential trait" is sei~ed upon, whether some particular vow, the three vows, or community life, there appears in history or in the present some obviously religious form of life that flourished or is presently flourishing without it. The appeal to ca-nonical definitions likewise fails to point out an essence of the life, since Religious Li]e: Style or Culture? / 33 these definitions appear more as descriptions after the fact, more as arti-ficially clear and distinct deliniations required for the legal functioning of the Church than as theological penetrations into the fundamental structure of the life. Like peeling away the successive skins to find the onion, the-ologians peeled away the "accidents" but found little left to identify as an essence. The second method of rebuilding the bond among the members of a community is far more down to earth and consists on stressing "the com-mon fun." While awaiting the perfect theology of religious life, people can do something practical. They can recreate together and in that recreation seek to build a community. Such suggestions as "Let's fire the cook and make our own meals together!" or "Everybody in the club room tonight for cocktails!" often clothe desperate attempts to build community. Certainly this effort has served well by focusing on the real need for sim-ple friendliness in communities (to say nothing of the marvelous cooks pro-duced). Yet the idea of common life meant more to the ancients than our attempts at common fun. Such a shallow basis of life does not attract dedi-cated young people. If all they see is this recreational aspect of our lives, they will hardly be convinced to sacrifice spouse and children for a con-viviality that can never approximate the intensity and warmth of a natural family. The community recreation is important, but it can never form the basis of religious common life. The Need to Reestablish a Religious Culture The isolation and loneliness vitiating communities can be overcome only by reestablishing a whole religious culture, a consistent and relatively stable milieu in which religious can feel at home as religious, a pattern of con-crete practices through which one religious can express his deep spiritual values to another. The precise culture will vary with each congregation. Any form, how-ever, will demand certain general lines. First, a religious culture demands an attention to a multitude of accidental details, many of which when taken alone may appear insignificant and even superficial. Neither the cut of the clothes, nor the simplicity in a house, nor the hour of rising appears worthy of an intense crusade. It is useless to seek a rationale directly behind such details, and the temptation exists to peel them away one by one, to peel them away as though from some essential core. Yet insofar as it is a cul-ture, the essence of religious life may be inseparable from the sum total of the "accidents." A religious culture does not stand or fall with any particu-lar detail, but the simple removal of each accidental reduces by that much the identifiability of that culture. Second, any religious culture is necessarily built around the form of prayer of the community, more specifically, around the degree of con-templation a community chooses to practice. A particular type of prayer 34 / Review for Religious, l/olume 33, 1974/1 often requires an ambience, a degree of calm, a type of simplicity regulat-ing the details of the whole day. Conversely, a particular form of contempla-tive prayer colors all else: personal service, the celebration of the Eucharist, professional work. The type and degree of mental prayer is thus a key ele-ment in any religious culture. Third, religious culture, like any culture, requires a willingness of the members to sacrifice personal preferences for the consistency of a com-munity atmosphere, to place a social culture before a personal style. This is not to say that the culture must take the form of some immobile mass of customs. Customs must evolve. As practices no longer serve to communicate the spiritual inspiration of a community, as gestures lose their symbolic values, they should disappear. However, a culture must change as a culture. It must evolve on,the basis of other more stable elements, not on the basis of members darting off in their own directions, according to the demands of personal style. ¯ Within the context of such a religious culture, the search for the essence of religious life can continue, guided not simply by an abstract analysis, but, .more importantly, by a lived contact with the reality. Since religious life is received by man as gift, not produced by him as invention, since the life is fundamentally beyond his natural powers, he will probably never attain that clear insight into the nature of the life that results in a precise defini-tion. Our speech about religious life will probably always be dominated more by poetic intuition than by abstract concept, a poetic intuition that feels at home with small details and operates from a position within the object spoken of. Likewise, the efforts to improve community recreation should have an important part in the building of religious culture. The simple kindness and conviviality of a community recreation can be a powerful expression of the fundamental value of fraternal love, if this expression is part of a greater milieu. Culture and Personal Development Where the individual religious finds a living and consistent culture, there he will find the medium in which to express his unique individuality. In the expressed solidarity of a group, a member has the means of developing a truly personalized life. There he has the means of expressing for himself and for others his unique riches. A culture which involves even many small details will not stifle individuality. As the expression of the spirit, a culture will function as a guide and an agent of personal development. Only a vibrant culture in religious life will dispel the present loneliness. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious Sister Jane Marie Kerns, S.H.C.J. Sister Jane Marie is a faculty member of West Catholic Girls High School and,lives at the Convent of the Holy Child Jesus; 4724 Cedar Avenue; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19143. ~ Six years have passed since the CMSW undertook the monumental study known as the Sisters Survey in an attempt to delve into the thinking and feelings of the religious who participated. Prescinding from the reported findings, one can suspect that even the launching of such a study had value simply as a consciousness-raising device. Foremost among the areas of re-ligious life that came under scrutiny was the, dynamics of group living that we call community life. Explosive--because it is inescapably personal-- and sacrosanct--because it is integral to religious traditions and the essence of religious life as we understand it, the whole topic of group living by re-ligious is subject to biased interpretations. Why? Perhaps just because celibates need so much from community life. Perhaps just because we de, pend so much on life in community to underwrite the whole structure of the social apostolates in which we engage. Perhaps just because an ideal form of community life promises to make tangible and present the kingdom of God toward which we daily strive. Size and Cohesiveness Whatever the reason, there can be no doubt that community is a prime concern among religious and that size as related to cohesion is a pivotal area. In order to bring empirical objectivity into an issue clouded with un-conscious and often conflicting biases, the author undertook a research 35 36 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 project designed to investigate the effects of size on the cohesiveness of groups of religious living together in local communities. By devising a method to quantify the degree of cohesion exhibited through the affective choices made by members of several large and small communities, it was possible to make a comparison based on evidence more objective than opinion and more concrete than theory. Background The CMSW Survey in 1967 showed that 59.7% of the 125,000 sisters who responded to it felt that there was an optimal size of community groups beyond which it would be impossible for members living together to become a community. (Though the Survey did not define the term com-munity, it is patent from much of the literature of the day that sisters under-stand some special sense of fraternity and solidarity or cohesiveness that should be characteristic of the shared life of religious who live together.) Among the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus, who were the subjects of the research project on which this article is based, an even greater majority-- 78.2%--concurred in the opinion expressed on the CMSW Survey instru-ment. In subsequent years a plethora of literature praising small group living has led to a general belief among religious in the therapeutic value of the small local community as the preventative for malformation of personality and as a booster shot for personal fulfillment through the healthy human interaction indispensable for strong ego-building? The impetus for the renewal of religious life given by Vatican II in-corporated much that flowed from the best developments of social psy-chology. In this context the drive to revivify the apostolate of the Church required that religious orders of men and women march in tune with the personalism of the culture of which they are a part. Definition of the Problem From this two-pronged incentive of development in the social sciences and updating in the Church, there arose interest in the applicability of many facets of small group research to religious communities. Focusing on the i~ssumptions that in a given group (1) more frequent interaction conse-quent on smaller nfimbers of members tends to produce more cohesive groups and (2) members of a small cohesive group will experience more strong satisfying interpersonal relationships than members of a larger group, the author undertook an empirical study of eleven groups of re-ligious sisters for the purpose of developing an index of cohesiveness that would enable comparisons to be made between larger and smaller groups, 1Gabriel Moran and Maria Harris, Experiences in Community (New York: Herder and Herder, 1968). This is one of many possible examples. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious and thus promise an objective test of the hypotheses involved. In brief, those hypotheses state that community size will have a signifi-cant effect both on the number of members with whom one can have good positive relationships and also on the proportionate number of people in community with whom one can have such relationships. Definilion of Key Words Certain key words must be defined in accordance with their use in this ¯ study in order to provide a common working base. The following appear to be most important: 1. cohesion 2. good, positive relationship 3. group--small, large Because of characteristics peculiar to religious orders, the task of defining terms is more complicated than simply borrowing from highly quoted au-thors in the field. A method of definition by distillation was employed in areas where circumstances required. A prime example was the term cohesion. In consulting authors,~ one is confronted with a notion of forces constraining members to remain in the group. But there is nothing in the literature that seems to correspond to the force of perpetual vows which bind the religious to membership in the re-ligious institute and to residence in specific local communities according to the directives from authorities in the order. Two levels of "force" are in-herent in the situation of the religious. One revolves around the strength of his commitment to the religious life itself and the second around the de-gree of commitment with which he engages in the affairs of the local house in which he lives--a commitment arising basically from a sense of duty toward an ideal based outside of the group in which he lives. A third force, distinct from the levels mentioned above, yet probably to some extent conditioned by his whole approach to religious life, is the at-traction that the local community holds for the religious by reason of the rapport he feels with particular members of that given group at any one time. Since all the groups used in this study operate under the same two forces resulting from religious profession in the order, it appears that the third type of force is more germane to our purposes here. Therefore, cohe-sion in this study denoted ". the degree of attachment (involvement, be-longingness, importance) that members have for the group.":' In this con-text then cohesion refers to the obvious capacity of the group to satisfy the ~The writings of men like Cartwright and Zander or Festinger, Schachter, and Back are typical. :~Clovis R. Shepherd, Small Groups: Some Sociological Perspectives (San Francisco: Chandler, 1964), p. 25. 311 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 personal needs of its members. It is this connotation that is meant by "strong, satisfying, interpersonal relationships" referred to in the second assumption; and this is the definition of good, positive relationships used in this work. (Though use of the word "friendship" might be a more graceful way of ex-pressing these ideas, its use is being purposefully avoided to.allow for a more open-ended definition of friendship to be employed later in the pre-sentation. ) By small groups, we shall mean groups of between 6 and 11 members and the large groups used in the study ranged from 12 to 29. Procedure The procedure used in the research involved a sociogram-like type of questionnaire in which the respondents were asked to list any number of sisters with whom they had lived during the last year and with whom they would enjoy engaging in a series of activities ranging from purely recrea-tional, to work related, to deeper, more intimate sharing on the religious plane. In every situation the emphasis was on the natural affectivity of one sister for her companions and not any exercise of supernatural charity? Approximately 91% of the sisters responded thus providing the researcher with excellent material from which to construct four measures of cohesion. Three of these stemmed from analysis of who chose whom and how often. By diagrammatically presenting the chain of relationships resulting from tracing the choices of the most frequently chosen individuals as they re-lated to the others in. community, a distance factor was developed. Finally, a study was made of the average number of "good friends" that the sisters INDEX OF COHESION AS DEVELOPED THROUGH THIS STUDY Community z-score corrected distance use of per- average size order ranking z-scores factor sonality votes rank " A 1 1 1 1 1 B 3 2 2 2 2 C 8 3 5 6 6 D 2 5 4 4 3 E 4 7 3 5 4 F 5 6 9 9 7 G 6 4 7 3 5 H 9 10 8 8 l0 I ll 11 6 7 8.5 J 7 8 10 10 8.5 K 10 9 11 11 I1 4For a complete exposition of the steps involved in the research readers are referred to the original work by the author, Sister Jane Marie Kerns, A Quantitative Analysis o[ Size and Cohesion (unpublished M.A. thesis, St. Louis University, 1973). Size and the Cohesiveness oI Groups of Religious / 39 in each house claimed. In this phase of the project each respondent was permitted to define the phrase "good friend" in any way that she felt was adequate and then she was asked to tell how many such "good friends" she had in the~ community in which she lived. Analysis of this section revolved around both the absolute number of good friends claimed and the number proportionate to the size of the community. Interpretation of Results A word of caution is in order here. Before any interpretation of the results can be presented, it must be remembered that this study was de-signed to measure relative cohesion only. It cannot be stretched to comment on disunity, on morale, or on working efficiency of the groups involved; and it must be seen as a measure of natural affectivity--a factor which cannot be assumed to be the dominant motive force for most of the group's activity. This caution is necessary both to maintain a scientific discipline and also to prevent our losing sight of the supernatural aspects of community life that cannot have been explored in this kind of work. Be that as it may, it is still remarkable to notice that the study revealed the presence of no isolates--persons not chosen by any other members of a group--in any of the eleven communities totaling 141 religious. Not only are there no iso-lates, but in actual count there is no, member of any community who was not chosen by at /east 21% of the members of the community who re-plied--- by no fewer than 50% of the members in 7 out of the 1! com-munities. Therefore, it can be insisted that we are justified only in conclud-ing to relatively more or less cohesion but not to any implication of disunity or disaffection. Size as a Significant Factor It can be stated unequivocally that the empirical evidence presented points to size as a significant factor in the study of cohesion. There is every reason to conclude that the smaller, the group, the more the members demonstrate stronger natural choices for a wider segment of the group. But hidden within this general overall conclusion are several important considerations that must be brought to light. Whereas the techniques used here demonstrated the validity of the commonly held belief that small groups tend to be more cohesive, the ques-tion dealing with friendship upset the commonly held expectation that more good friendships are found within small groups and that theoexistence of such friendships is the reason for greater cohesion. From our study the results indicated that such a line o[ r~easoning is faulty. In the first place, smaller houses reported neither a greater number of friendships absolutely nor a greater number proportionately speaking. Hence, friendship and co-hesion are not synonymous nor are they positively related. Rather, it might be concluded that they are alternatives within the group process. 40 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 Two possible lines of thought might be adduced to explain the seeming contradictions posed by the fifth stage of the investigation. First, by de-veloping and combining some of the thought of Simmel~ and of Mancur Olson'~ with regard to small groups, a synthesis can be arrived at which sheds light on the subject. Simmel's contribution springs from his conten-tions that smaller groups have qualities, including types of interaction among their members, which inevitably disappear when the groups grow larger. Olson points to a major difference between large and small groups when he formulates as a principle: ". the larger the group, the less it will further its common interests." Second, by appropriating some of the insights of Sister Joan Michele Rake7 and blending them with the thought of Simmel and Olson, the contradiction of fewer friendships in more cohesive groups is dissolved. Sister Joan Michele draws the boundaries between "engulf-ment" by the community and self-development of the healthy religious who makes good use of the structures of community. Hers is not so much a study of the effect of size but rather a clarification of issues on some of the dynamics at work in any group. The Specifics of Small Groups Consider the relative investment that members of a small group must make in order to obtain the benefits of membership and conversely the mag-nitude of the slack that must be taken up by the remaining members if one member fails to carry his own weight. More specifically, consider the num-ber of functions that must bc performed smoothly if life in the house is to be mutually beneficial. Since the small group enables not only face-to-face rela-tionships but even more importantly, person-to-person contact and consul-tation, many of the decisions reached and the functions implicit in the religious life lived in community are arrived at and disseminated tacitly. For example, each one knows from personal experience that does not need explicitation that communal worship can only be consummated if the com-munity is present and each one knows that in a small house her absence is both noticed and keenly felt. The differential involved is not merely a quan-titative one, but actually a qualitative one. There is a certain unspecified number below which communal worship declines into merely a collection of individuals attending the same liturgical function. And it is this height-ened sense of awareness of the qualitative contribution made by personal participation of each that typifies the small group. Person-to-person contact makes possible agreement--implicit or ex-plicit-- on common goals of a more specific nature than can be formulated '~Kurt H. Wolff, The Sociology o] Georg Simmel (Glencoe: Free Press, 1950), p. 87. ~;Mancur Olson, The Logic o] Collective Action (New York: Schocken, 1968), p. 36. rSister Joan Michele Rake, Friendship in Religious Li]e (unpublished M.A. thesis, Duquesne University, 1969), Chap. 7. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups o]. Religious / 41 when a larger number of individuals is involved. And converSely, devia-tion from the commonly accepted ideas is more obvious and therefore re-quires more of an expenditure of psychic energy for continued adherence on the part of the deviant and more of an effort on the part of the group as a whole to combat either by modifying the idea or by converting the deviant member. Whether we speak of positive elements that tend to unite or of negative elements that tend to threaten the group's solidarity, there is more immediate response required, a greater expenditure of personal effort on the part of each member in the small group, and a return in the way of benefits of group membership commensurate with the effort expended. The Specifics of Large Groups In the large group the sahae level of return is expected, but the level of expectation of individual participation is lower. Since person-to-person com-munication on. :every issue and between every set of persons is too time-consuming and too indeterminate in the process of seeking consensus, cer-tain abstractions in the form of community mechanisms, offices, and so forth must be established and these become looked upon as the expression of group cohesion that can no longer be immediately and obviously attained. The areas of shared ideas becom6 somewhat more general and, therefore, more readily acceptable to the total group in spite of the greater variety of opinions. In turn these more abstract expressions of relations and more general types of agreements require less commitment on the part of the individual. Though the ideas themselves may be less "radical," less basically rooted in the peculiar characteristics of the group, more generalized, ad-herence to the ideas becomes more radical, more a bare minimum that can-not be sacrificed if group unity is to be maintaini~d. A full complement of the members is not required to constitute a "com-munity presence." Absenteeism is not as noticeable--certainly not as per-tains to the particular individual who is absent, since her personal contribu-tion has in some ways become distanced or formalized in the large group setting. Differences between Small and Large Groups Wha~t results from the above discussion is an argument to the effect that the demonstrably greater cohesion among the small group members results more from a heightened sense of personal investment and personal con-cern, a greater consciousness of the personal element in the affairs of the house, a greater consonance between the individual's own approach to life since his personality enters more fully into the determination of group atti-tudes, a greater sense of the interdependence of the persons in the com-munity in all its affairs---especially because they answer directly to and for each other. In the larger group some degree of personalism is lost as the sheer force of numbers demands some degree of abstraction and the substi- Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 tution of shared symbols that can be immediately present to all when the person-to-person common search for common understanding is not practi-cal, The sense of interdependence is therefore "once removed" with the result that the individual who has to expend less of herself in contributing to and in conforming to more general ideas is then .freer to develop inde-pendently of the group in more areas. Not only is there in larger groups more room for individualism to fluorish and a greater variety of personality types emerging (assuming of course the absence of any rigorous pressure to conform in all respects), but this sharper differentiation among component personalities enables stronger, more particularized dyadic relationships to de-velop out of the shared responses. Hence, we see the application of Simmel's principle that the quantitative increase in size of a group leads to a qualitative differentiation ~on the part of the individuals.8 Simmel holds that an individual tends to maintain a certain balance between the social and the individual aspects of his life. When he is involvi~d in a small group with a high profile for cohesiveness or for strong identity as a group, he has little opportunity to express his own individuality--and little need to do so since there is satisfaction offered in the group. But when he is involved in a larger group with a less ~iell-defined profile, °one that is less consonant with his unique personality since it is necessarily more generalized, he then finds scope--indeed he must--to express his individuality. As the group gains in individuality ~(a situation that pertains to small groups), the individual loses and vice versa. The Question of Friendship Sister Joan Michele believes that wherever the "corporate mentality" is strong among religious--that is, a tendency to look on the group life as an exercise in efficiency--it will be more difficult for 'real friendships to grow. If friendship is ". an encounter between two persons. [which] results in an enduring nonexclusive relation which is lived as a gift of affinity and affection and occasions the autonomous growth of the persons involved,''~ it can only flourish where there is a real encounter of unique personalities --personalities well-developed, mature, sharing a common ground in .their search for truth, and coming, as it were, by chance upoh an unconscious, mysterious affinity that raises comrades, colleagues, and companions. above those levels of association to a new plane that is by no means the necessary consequence of living in community. Precisely what dynamics are generated by the presence of more or fewer dyadic relationships could not be explored in this project since the identity of "good friends" was not revealed; but it has been necessary to digress into these areas ever so slightly, simply to make the point that the cfn-~ 8Wolff, The Sociology o! Simmel, p. 87. '~Rake, Friendship, p. 52. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious / 43 clusions reached in this research are quite validly and integrally consistent with the general direction of small group theory. Yet there is real danger that they may lend themselves to simplistic interpretations that do not con-vey the whole picture. The research has confirmed the theory that (1) community size does have a significant effect on the number of members with whom one can have good, positive relationships---both the absolute number and the proportionate number of members; and that (2) the smaller size communities are the ones that exhibit these good, posi-tive relationships more frequently. Equally important, however, are the findings resulting from the question on friendship; namely, the members living in larger groups tend to report both a greater number of "good friends" and to consider a greater proportion of members of the com-munity in the category of "good friends." The above statement when coupled with the theory of writers like Van Kaam, Sister Joan Michele, and even classical authors such as Simmel indi-cates there are ways in which the more cohesive small groups are at the same time more restricted in opportunities for developing friendship and that friendship might actually exist as an alternative to cohesiveness, not as a concomitant element. Practical Conclusions Taking a step beyond the scientifically validated conclusions of the study itself and addressing the practical value of all this for the present-day religious community, there are perhaps two major points to be considered. The first point of practical concern for religious is the importance of the absence of isolates from the communities studied and the commentary this is on the ability of religious who share the overall goals of the religious institute to assimilate members into a community even when religious have no voice in choosing where or with whom they will live. Though this point cannot be pushed beyond the limits mentioned earlier, it can be cited as evidence that the freedom in assigning personnel that has been a plus factor enabling religious groups to function efficiently in the apostolate is not in and of itself incompatible with the desire to provide living condi-tions that foster good interpersonal relationships. The second point to be made is that decisions regarding community size (where circumstances allow for either possibility) might reasonably be made in favor of smaller community groups at a time when the call to re-newal emphasizes our need to search together for a more radical commit-ment to the essence of religious life. If sociologists and psychologists are correct in their assessment of the differential in ability of various size groups to reach consensus at various levels of abstraction, certainly religious would do well to make use of this knowledge in their efforts to re-create 44 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 in the Spirit the shared faith that brought their institutes into being. Further-more, if the members of congregations are appraised of what can and cannot be achieved in groups of various sizes, realistic expectations can constitute solid foundations auguring well for solid progress. Structures of themselves will never cure. But they can facilitate if used wisely, and they can hinder if used poorly or ignored. Size is not of itself a panacea, nor a Pandora's box. Perhaps we have mistakenly held in the past that the same quality of religious life can exist with six or sixty in the community. As we eschew past folly, let us not perpetuate new foolishness by assuming that small size will do more than facilitate the emergence of a faith sharing which will depend for its quality, not on numbers but on the grace of God realized in the lives of those who grow together toward the fulfillment of their covenant with both God and His People. The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities John Allyn Melloh, S.M. Father John Allyn Melloh, S.M., a member of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, lives at the Marianist Residence; 4528 Maryland Avenue; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. The Liturgy of the Hours should not be looked on as a beautiful monument of a past age, to be preserved almost unchanged in order to excite our admira-tion. On the contrary, it should come to life again with new meaning and grow to become once more the sign of a living community.--The General Instruc-tion on the Liturgy of the Hours, paragraph 273 Reform, renewal, restoration of the liturgy is always one of the paramount concerns of any ecumenical council; Vatican II was no exception. Desirous of "imparting an ever increasing vigor to the Christian life of the faithful" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 1), the Council fathers placed liturgical reform top on the list of their priorities. If the liturgical celebrations of the People of God were to be a "foretaste of that heavenly liturgy which is celebrated in the holy city of Jerusalem toward which we journey as pilgrims" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 8), then much renewal was needed, lest the pilgrim people of Yahweh seek a new city-~one where celebration was indeed a reality! Restoration of Eucharistic praxis, as well as an updating of other sacra-mental ritual celebrations, was essential for the nourishment of Christian piety and the mediation of the salvific graces to all mankind (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 1 !). Equally important for the liturgical life of the ekklesia was the restoration of the Divine Office, the Liturgy of the Hours, the "public prayer of the Church" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 90). In the age of aggiornamento, this "wonderful song 45 46 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 of praise" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 84), which had all but entirely disappeared, had to be revived; and a genuine "revival" was needed for the "voice of the bride addressed to her bridegroom" (Constitu-tion on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 83) had become mute. This "very prayer which Christ himself, together with his body, addresses to the Father," had become, over the ages, a prayer which Christ, along with a few isolated members--becoming fewer day by day--of His Church addressed to the Father. The opus Dei had become the onus Dei.t General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours Almost ten years later, in February 1971, the Sacred Congregation of Divine Worship issued the General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours. In five chapters, full of good solid Christology, ecclesiology, and spirituality, this document speaks of the Liturgy of the Hours as a viable prayer form for the Church--even in 1973! Perhaps one of the most significant Roman documents issued of late, and certainly the longest and most theological document ever issued on the topic of the Divine Office, the General Instruc-tion makes clear that the intent is the restoration and revitalization of the Liturgy of the Hours. The "ptiblic and communal prayer of the people of God is rightly considered among the first duties of the Church" (General Instruction, paragraph 1), for the ekklesia is most itself, achieves its own special identity, and fulfills its mission when the assembly is together at prayer, especially at liturgical prayer. Vatican II has consciously and firmly asked that~the Liturgy of the Hours once again be prayed, that this prayer form once again be given life by the living People of God--that it may become a living prayer and that the entire Church may "offer praise to God . . . in singing that canticle of praise which is sung throughout all ages in the halls of heaven" (General Instruction, paragraph 16). The New Book of the Liturgy of the Hours A day to be hailed in litui'gical circles was 23 June, 1971, for on that day, L'osservatore romano published Laudis canticum, officially promulgat-ing the new book of the Liturgy of the Hours. The work of Vatican II and its liturgical commission had borne fruit. The new edition of that book once called the "Breviary" had been arranged and prepared in such a way as to encourage the faithful to celebrate the hours. Once again, this necessary complement to Eucharistic worship and sacramental practice was restored so that it would become "the prayer of the whole people of God" (Laudis canticum, L'osservatore romano, page 1 ). At least now there was a chance that should one of the faithful stumble across the Prayer of Christians he might recognize it! In the new edition--albeit interim--of the Liturgy of the Hours genuine reforms were made. Structure of the hours was modified, the cycle of Psalmody changed, intercessor3/prayer introduced--all with a view to pub- The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities / 47 lic celebration of the Hours of Prayer. In its restored form, the Divine Office was to be a "font of piety and nourishment for personal prayer" (Laudis canticum, L'osservatore romano, page 1 ). Toward a Revitalized Celebration The documents of Vatican II, the General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours, Laudis canticum--all ask that the prayer of Christ be con-tinued by the members of His Body; earnestly they request that this prayer of Jesus be continued in the revitalized celebration of the Liturgy of the Hour's. It is in our spatio-temporal matrix that groups of praying men and women can continue this prayer of the Lord who lives ever making inter-cession for us (Heb 7:25). Communal prayer will once again take root in the Church at large, replacing, in part, private prayer, especially that form of private recitation of the Office which is a liturgical anomaly. Once again the Church-united may celebrate the prayer of the Hours "to give Him glorious praise" (Ps 66:2). The General Instruction on the Litu.rgy of the Hours, despite the wealth of genuine theological principles and very fine material for meditative re-flection, is rather weak in detailing how the Liturgy of the Hours may "be celebrated in communities--"celebrated" as opposed to "recited," "said," or "read." In the following pages, it is my intent to ,describe how the Liturgy of the Hours is celebrated in our Marianist community in St.Louis, Missouri; likewise, since Evensong was celebrated each evening at St. Mary's University in San Antonio, Texas, during the. 1973 summer session, using the same format of celebration, I would like to include comments from those who participated in those liturgical celebrations. Morning Praise Matins consecrates to God the first movements of our minds and hearts; no other care should engage us before we have been moved with the thought of God, as it is written, "I thought of God and sighed" (Ps 76:4), nor should the body undertake any work before we have done what is said, "I say this prayer to you, Lord, for at daybreak you listen for my voice; and at dawn I hold myself in readiness for you, I watch for you" (Ps 5:4-5).--The General Instruction on the Liturgy o] the Hours, paragraph 38; quotation from St. Basil Morning itself conveys the notion of rebirth and renewal; the gift of God--a new day to be lived out in Christ--stirs the soul of the Christian to prais.e and to supplicationl The character of the Morning Office quite naturally becomes an act of dedication, of preparation, of offering the first fruits of the day's labor to the Lord, in the hope that the entire day will be pleasing in His sight. As Morning Praise is celebrated in our community, a vested celebrant enters the chapel and greets the community after reverencing the altar. A Morning Hymn is sung; this hymn thematically recalls the symbol of God who is light (1 Jn 1:5) and of Christ who is the Sun of Justice (Mal 4:2). Review for Religious, I"olume 33, 1974/1 Praise and thanksgiving for light--both natural and supernatural-colors the sung praise of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. A redeemed people, brought from darkness to the kingdom of God's beloved Son (Col l:13), from darkness of idolatry to the light of the Gospel, we praise our God for crea-tion, for redemption--for the light of day and the light of Christ. A brief penitential rite--an offering of incense--follows the hymn. During the incensation of the standing community, Psalm 51 or 63 is sung. St. Basil explains: "When day is breaking, all together, as from one heart, sing the Psalm of confession [Ps 51] to the Lord, each one making his own these words of repentance." John Chrysostom points out that Psalm 63, an ardent cry of longing for the Lord, is also a Psalm of purification, giving voice to the Christian's awareness of his weakness and need for the loving mercy of the Lord. A collect concludes this brief prayer for purification and readies the community for the celebration of the Word of God. The community is seated during the singing of the morning Psalmody. Psalms of praise, especially the traditional morning Psalms 148 through 150, are used. Ordinarily, only one Psalm is sung and the usual mode of singing is responsorial. Psalms are chosen according to themes well suited for a morning prayer. A significant pause for silent prayer follows the singing of the Psalmody. An appropriate Psalter collect, stressing praise of the beneficent God, concludes the sung Psalmody. An adequate rhythm of community prayer is enhanced through the use of lectio continua in Morning Praise. Especially appropriate are Old Testa-ment selections; since the Epistles and Gospels are proclaimed during the celebration of Evensong or the Eucharist. The choice of readings varies with the Church year. After a period of silence of several minutes, all stand for the singing of the Gospel Canticle of Zachary, which accompanies the offering of incense. As a symbol of intercessory prayer "going up" in the Lord's sight (Rev 8:3-4)--a survival of the Temple usages described in Exodus 29 and 30-- the offering of incense is made at the altar, which is then incensed. Intercessory prayer is generally a brief morning litany which concen-trates on themes of renewal, dedication for the work of the day, prayer for God's continual blessing throughout the day. Usually the prayer is sung; and on penitential days the community kneels for this prayer, which is con-cluded by an appropriate collect. The Lord's Prayer, which Tertullian has called the "epitome of the Gospel itself," that eschatological prayer which stresses the primacy of the kingdom and the life of those living in it, can be considered the climax of the Office. The prayer is always sung and the congregation prays it in the usual orans position. A blessing concludes the Morning Office--the prayer of praise of God, of thanksgiving for creation and redemption, and of ardent desire for the life of the Kingdom. The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities / 49 Evensong Our fathers did not think it right to receive the blessing of evening light in silence. Rather, the moment it appeared, they would praise and thank God for it.--St. Basil, Treatise on the Holy Spirit As day is drawing to a close and the evening is upon us, the Christian community gathers to give thanks "for what has been given us during the day, or for the things we have done well during it" (St. Basil, Regulae fusius tractatae, Resp. 37, 3; PG 31, 1015). With an evening light service, the celebration of Evensong commences. To the proclamation: Jesus Christ is the Light of the world! intoned by a vested deacon, the congregation responds: A Light that no darkness can extinguish! During the ceremonial illumination of the church, the lighting of the candles and the lighting of the chapel lights, an evening hymn is sung. Ordinarily the Phos Hilaron is sung in one of its several settings, or another appropriate evening hymn, stressing the theme of Christ our Light, is sung. A diaconal proclamation, an act of thanksgiving for the blessings of light and an act of praise of God, concludes the light service. An evening act of contrition, an offering of incense, follows; and Psalm 141, "The Psalm at the kindling of lights," accompanies the liberal incensa-tion of the community. This offering of incense, an atonement symbol (Num 17:11-3), is a purificatory action. It should help the Christian com-munity recall the "sweet odor of Jesus Christ" (2 Cor 2:14-6) and be a symbol expressive of that saving blood of the Lamb who ever lives to make intercession for us (Heb 7:25). An appropriate Psalter collect is a conclu-sion to this ritual action. Evening Psalmody is sung responsorially. Ordinarily only one Psalm, in addition to Psalm 141, is sung in the evening. Evening themes of thanks-giving for the blessings of the day and repentance for inevitable daily failings can be found in the Psalter. Such Psalms are appropriate for the evening Office. A period of meditative silence of significant length follows the sing-ing, and this period of prayer is concluded with the praying of a collect. The reading from Scripture is taken from the cycle of readings in the new lectionary. Customarily, Epistle and/or Gospel readings are used in the evening. A homily is preached when Evensong is celebrated immediately preceding the community evening dinner. The period of meditative silence is broken by the singing of the Gospel Canticle of the Virgin Mary which accompanies the offering of incense. In line with the use of incense as a symbol of intercessory prayer, the altar is honored with incense to affirm our belief and real participation in the com-munion of saints (Rev 8:3-4). Gospel Canticles, reverenced as the good news of salvation, are always sung standing. A fundamental part of Christian prayer, intercession for the universal needs of the Church and the world, is offered, following the urgings of Paul (1 Tim 2:1-4). The traditional Byzantine Litany of Peace is often 50 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 sung as one form of intercessory prayer. Other litanies are also used. One of the most famous and popular of the Eastern hymns is the Tri-sagion, which came into wide usage after the Council of Chalcedon in the fifth century. A hymn of Trinitarian praise and thanksgiving as used with the doxology, it is a fitting introduction to the prayer given us by Jesus. It is essentially of the same prayer style of praise and thanksgiving as we find in the prayer given by Jesus and as such it is a beautiful sung introduc-tion. Expressing an ardent desire for the coming of the kingdom and a solemn plea for the forgiveness of sin and genuine fraternal reconciliation, the Lord's Prayer is a most fitting conclusion to the Christian Office. A solemn blessing, most often tripartite in form, is the dismissal of the community, an invocation of the power of God upon the assembly and a petition for the mercy and loving kindness of the Almighty Lord in whose name we have gathered. At times, the Kiss of Peace is exchanged at the conclusion of Evensong, as a symbol of the peace of the kingdom, that peace which alone can be given by the Lord of that dominion. ' Resurrection Vigil of the Lord's Day Come,O faithful: let us drink a new drink, produced miraculously not from a barren rock, but springing from the tomb which is a fountain of immortality: the tomb of Christ by which we are strengthened. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Today the whole creation, he~iven and earth and the deepest abysses of the earth are filled with joy. Let the whole universe celebrate the resurrection by which we are strengthened. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Yesterday I was buried with You, O Christ! Today I rise with You in your resurrection. Yesterday I was crucified with you: glorify me with you in your kingdom. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Christ is risen from the dead! He has crushed death by his death and bestowed life upon those who lay in the tomb. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Jesus is risen indeed, as He had foretold: He has given us eternal life and abundant mercy.--Third Ode, Easter Canon of John of Damascus Byzantine Daily Worship, Easter Sunday, page 849 These words contain the spirit of unrestrained joy of the Christian who encounters the Paschal Mystery of the Lord Jesus. The sense of triumph, of joy, of exultation, and of hope permeate this entire text. While the vigil of the Easter celebration of the resurrection is truly "Mother of all Vigils," nevertheless a weekly commemoration of the Pascha of the Lord is in the mainline tradition of the Church. The celebration of the Resurrection vigil of the Lord's Day, which takes place at eleven o'clock Saturday evening, is a wonderful preparation for the Eucharistic Banquet of the Lord's Day. It is a rich and deep experi-ence of the mystery of the passion, death, and resurrection of our Lord and The Liturgy o] the Hours in Religious Communities / 51 Savior Jesus Christ, celebrated communally with hymnody, Psalmody, and readings. The Night Watch, that time when we gather as a community, to recall the resurrection of Jesus and to pray for His glorious return, is a service of the Word celebrated with grandeur. The chapel is in darkness awaiting the appearance of the New Light. A vested presbyter and vested deacon enter, bearing the lighted Paschal Candle. The diaconal proclamation of Christ as the Light of the World begins the celebration, and the ceremonial illumina-tion of the church is accompanied by the singing of the Phos Hilaron. A Byzantine setting of Radiant Light, arranged for three-part singing, is a magnificent hymn of light praising Father,' Son, and Holy Spirit. The Paschal Candle is honored with incense during the singing. The deacon sings Hip-polytus' Easter Hymn or the Paschal Praeconium, giving voice to the joyful thanksgiving of the Christian assembly. The singing of Psalm 141, with its accompanying offering of incense, is polyphonic. While this ritual action is an evening act of contrition, it is nevertheless a joy-filled, because confident, plea for the loving kindness of the Lord who always awaits with eagerness the return of those who have been unfaithful. Concluding this action of repentance is an appropriate collect. At times the singing of Psalm 141 is omitted in favor of using a differ-ent Psalm, one with Paschal overtones. The second Psalm, sung respon-sorially, takes on a Paschal character through the use of alleluia antiphons. The great cry "Alleluia" re-echoes in the hearts of those who have experi-enced the risen Lord and Psalms of praise express the gratitude of the as-sembly for the Great Passage of the Lord. One of the charismatic speeches recorded in Acts with a sung respon-sorial Psalm or an appropriate patristic reading is the First Lesson, followed by a distinct pause for reflection on and assimilation of the text. The Gospel Alleluia is intoned as the Book of Gbspels is incensed. The account of the Resurrection is sung by the d

URS Corporation (URS) was retained by Oncor Electric Delivery Company, LLC (Oncor) to conduct an intensive cultural resources survey of the new Permian Basin - Culberson 138 kilovolt (kV) Double-Circuit Transmission Line Project (Project) right-of-way (ROW) located in Culberson, Reeves, and Ward Counties, Texas. The proposed 70-foot (ft) (21-meter [m]) wide Project ROW encompasses approximately 825 acres and traverses a total of approximately 97 miles of rural lands between the existing Oncor Permian Basin Switching Station, located approximately four miles west of Monahans, Texas in Ward County, to the existing Oncor Culberson Switching Station, located approximately 17 miles south of the Texas/New Mexico state line in Culberson County. This includes 88.7 miles of the original route, along with 8.3 miles of additional segments that were evaluated. Currently, the Project is not subject to federal funding or permitting; therefore, no review under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, is required. Should the Project subsequently become subject to federal funding or permitting, the cultural resources investigations and site evaluations reported herein will be updated and coordinated with the Texas Historical Commission (THC) as part of fulfilling any Section 106 requirements that may arise at a later date. While the majority of the Project is located on private land, an approximately 6-mile long segment of the Project ROW traverses lands owned by University Lands (UL), which is a political subdivision of the State of Texas. Consequently, this portion of the project falls within the purview of the Antiquities Code of Texas, which requires the THC to review actions that have the potential to disturb prehistoric or historic sites in the public domain. In order to comply with the Antiquities Code, Antiquities Permit No. 7848 was obtained from the THC for the UL-owned lands, and the survey methods for this portion of the Project followed the THC's archaeological survey standards for Texas. For the remaining areas of the Project, all cultural resources investigations were carried out in conformance with the methodologies outlined in the THC-approved Generic Research Design for Archaeological Surveys of Oncor Electric Delivery Electric Transmission Line Projects in Texas (PBS&J 2008). The cultural resources survey was conducted between December 7, 2015 and May 5, 2016, and consisted of an intensive 100 percent pedestrian survey and shovel testing within the Project ROW. The survey resulted in the identification of 16 newly-recorded sites and one previously recorded site (41WR85). Site forms were completed for each of the 16 newly identified archaeological sites, and trinomials were obtained from the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory. In addition, 16 isolated finds (IFs) were identified; however no site forms were prepared for IFs. All sites within the Project ROW were located in areas of eroded and/or mixed soils, lacked diagnostic artifacts, and were found to exhibit poor integrity context due to prior disturbances. Based on these observations, the portions of these sites within the Project ROW do not meet National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) and State Antiquities Landmark (SAL) eligibility requirements. However, because each of these sites appears to extend beyond the current Project ROW boundary, they have not been evaluated in their entirety and their overall NRHP and SAL eligibility is recommended to be Undetermined. Due to a lack of research potential and integrity, all IFs are recommended as not eligible for NRHP or SAL designation. During the survey, a small bedrock cavity was observed at site 41CU835. Due to safety concerns about the surrounding ground stability, this feature could not be fully investigated. The ground immediate adjacent to the cavity, as well as the upper two feet of the cavity, did not present any indications that it was culturally related, or that the cavity extended much deeper. The entirety of the observed cavity appeared to be too narrow to have served as an effective place of interment. However, based on survey level data, the cultural utilization of this feature could not be entirely ruled out. It was recommended that construction activities avoid this cavity and that site monitoring during construction be conducted, until such time as any cultural association is definitively ruled out, or until it can be confirmed that no construction impacts to the cavity would take place. A geomorphological assessment revealed that selected areas within the Project ROW potentially exhibit the necessary pedologic and geomorphic conditions for the deep burial and preservation of cultural deposits. These areas represent a combined total of 15.5 linear miles (25 kilometers) of Project ROW. In accordance with the Generic Research Design, monitoring was recommended for any transmission pole excavations in the areas that were assessed as exhibiting high geoarchaeological potential. An interim draft report of the foregoing recommendations was submitted to the THC on April 27, 2017. On May 26, 2017, the THC concurred with all interim report recommendations. During preparations for the monitoring effort, URS was notified by Oncor that a majority of the Project had already been constructed, including those areas recommended for monitoring. The only location that had not yet been constructed was the bedrock cavity at site 41CU835. On May 24, 2017, a meeting between Oncor, URS, and the THC resulted in an agreement that monitoring should be undertaken during construction activities near the bedrock cavity at site 41CU835. In addition, it was agreed that spot-checks would be performed within a subset of the previously constructed structures within high geoarchaeological probability areas, including portions of the Project owned by UL. Following completion of these tasks, it was agreed that a comprehensive revised draft report of investigations and findings (current report) would be submitted to the THC for review and project closure. Subsequent investigations at the bedrock cavity at 41CU835 were carried out from July 10-11, 2017. During the site visit, it was established that the cavity is located approximately 30 m to the southeast of the proposed location of monopole structure No. 56/3. Following additional inspections, it was possible to rule out any prehistoric use of this natural feature. The immediate area around the cavity was taped off for safety reasons so that other related construction activities would not adversely impact the cavity or surrounding area. On July 11, 2017, monitoring was carried out for the excavation of monopole structure no. 56/3. Soil stratigraphy was recorded for the total depth of the excavation, which was 20 ft. No cultural materials were identified From August 12-13, 2017, URS archaeologists performed spot-checks for 99 monopoles, including 53 structures within the Project ROW extending approximately 10 kilometers (km) west of the Pecos River in Reeves County; 22 structures within the Project ROW extending approximately 4 km east of the Pecos River in Ward County; and 24 structures within the Project ROW extending approximately 4.5 km across Monument Draw within UL in Ward County. Spot-checking included visual inspection and photo documentation of disturbances, as well as ground surface inspection to identify cultural resources. The Project ROW around each monopole exhibited construction related disturbances from equipment access roads and from drilling operations. No evidence was found that indicated any deeply buried cultural resource sites were impacted from auguring. Within the intervening areas between monopoles, however, a total of two previously unrecorded, low-density historic surface scatters (41RV128 and 41RV129) and three new IFs (H-07, H08, and P-28) were identified and recorded. Both sites were found to exhibit poor integrity due to prior disturbances, and low research potential due to minimal information potential. The portions of these sites within the Project ROW were not found to meet NRHP and SAL eligibility requirements. However, because each of these sites appears to extend beyond of the current Project ROW boundary, they have not been evaluated in their entirety and their overall NRHP and SAL eligibility is recommended to be Undetermined. The three new IFs are recommended as not eligible for NRHP or SAL designation. Based on the final results of the survey, monitoring, and spot-checking investigations, no cultural resources sites eligible for listing in the NRHP or that merit SAL designation within the Project ROW will be affected by the Project, and it is recommended that the project be allowed to proceed. Should the dimensions of the Project ROW change, additional archaeological investigations may be warranted. Should any unmarked prehistoric or historic human remains or burials be encountered at any point during the project, the area of the remains is considered a cemetery under current Texas law. All cemeteries are protected under State law and cannot be disturbed. Section 28.03(f) of the Texas Penal Code provides that intentional damage or destruction inflicted on a human burial site is a state jail felony. If a cemetery is identified in the Project ROW, all work in the immediate area of the discovery must cease and the THC must be notified by contacting the History Programs Division at (512) 463-5853 and the Archeology Division at (512) 463-6096. Following consultation with the THC, a treatment or avoidance plan would be developed and implemented. No artifacts were collected during the survey. Pursuant to 13 TAC 26.17, correspondence, field records, and photographs generated during field investigations have been prepared for permanent curation at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, Austin, Texas.

Industrial organization focuses on imperfectly competitive markets to understand the behavior of firms and the resulting welfare effects. This is a broad definition as most markets are imperfectly competitive and industrial organization research can then focus on a wide variety of topics. Imperfect competition may be due to many reason. Perfect competition in fact requires: a large number of firms and consumers, free entry and exit, marketability of all goods and service including risk, symmetric information with zero search cost. Moreover the list includes no increasing returns, no externalities, and no collusion. Health care markets are a good example for imperfect competition as generally they violate all requirements included in the previous list. If we focus only on some violation like asymmetric information and no marketability, then health care markets fail in a more clear way than other markets. This justifies the often made claim that the health care market is "different" and implies that any evaluation of its performance must be based on models that explicitly take into account its deviations from the assumption required for perfect competition. The model of perfect competition can still serve as the benchmark of optimal performance, but generally it cannot be used to analyze how health care markets work. For this reason the common thread of this thesis is to analyze health care markets using the theoretical and empirical tools provided by industrial organization. This thesis is composed by three essays. In the first one I am going to propose a theoretical framework to analyze product differentiation with consumers misperception and information disparities. The model is an extension of standard vertical product differentiation (Gabsewictz and Thisse, 1979 and Shaked and Sutton, 1982), where I relax the assumption of perfect information. As I said before asymmetric information is one of the big problem to deal with in health economics. And if products are credence goods, as in case of drugs, many consumers may lack the expertise to ascertain the quality differential with respect to cheaper standard brands, even after purchase. In that case consumers face a risky decision and to the extent they lack information about the true quality differential they may carry out purchase decision according to misperceptions about product quality. In this paper I extend the analysis of Cavaliere (2005) to include the quality choice by firms, when providing higher quality requires a costly effort, and propose to analyse the case of a duopoly with vertically differentiated products with consumers' misperceptions and information disparities. Consumers are actually split between uninformed and informed consumers. Uninformed consumers are characterized by consumers' misperceptions as they can underestimate or overestimate the quality differential. As a minimum quality standard is imposed by the Government even uninformed consumers expect that any product sold in the market at least complies with the standard. As low quality can be said to be verifiable, even uninformed consumers can be confident about low quality products: firms are expected to provide at least the minimum quality standard. This last assumption well fits the case of pharmaceutical products. Actually every developed country has a national institution that enforces and verifies drug's minimum quality standard. The aim of this paper is to shed light on how firm set price and quality when consumers are characterized by asymmetric information and mispercemption obout quality. We do not analyze information decisions by consumers, which are exogenously given, therefore firms follow a Stackelber behavior vis à vis consumers. However we can analyze quality and price competition between firms for the full range of information disparities, i.e. for any split between informed and uninformed consumers that can affect demand functions. Furthermore we distinguish between the case of optimistic misperceptions (uninformed consumers overestimate the quality differential) and the case of pessimistic consumers (uninformed consumers underestimate the quality differential). Competition between firms is represented by a two stage game, in the first stage the two firms compete in qualities, given the market split between informed and uninformed consumers. In the second stage price competition takes place. We will show that both price and quality are strictly depend on asymmetric information as expectation and number of informed consumer affect firm's choice. For different quality expectations and share of informed consumer we found market failure. In some cases uninformed consumers are cheated by high quality firm when they purchase high quality product, in other cases, for different information level and expectations, adverse selection arises endogenously in the model. The second paper consists in a theoretical model where I analyse incentives for cooperative behaviour when heterogeneous health care providers are faced with regulated prices under yardstick competition. Providers are heterogeneous in the degree to which their interests match to those of the regulator. The basic idea behind yardstick competition is that the price (or price cap) faced by each provider is dependent on the actions of all the other providers (Schleifer, 1985; Laffont and Tirole, 1993). According to Schleifer's rule, the price each provider faces is based on the costs of all other providers in the industry but not its own. This creates strong incentives for cost control. When there is a large number of providers, this is unlikely to be a problem, mainly because the cost of collusion rises, but even in larger countries, provision might be concentrated among a handful of providers, as is likely for utilities, rail or postal services and for specialist health services, such as bone marrow or lung transplantation. The innovation with respect to the standard model of yardstick competition is the introduction of heterogeneity in the degree to which the provider's interests correspond to those of the regulator. Because the incentive to collude with other providers will depend on the objectives of the providers, particularly the extent to which their objectives correspond with those of the price-setting regulator. We use "altruism" to describe the behavior of providers whose aims are closely related to those of the regulator and "self-interested" to describe providers whose interests are more divergent from those of the regulator. If we consider the different ownership types in health services this heterogeneity in "altruism" is evident since we observe full public ownership i.e. altruistic providers and full private hospital i.e. self-interested providers. This paper aims then to analyse incentives for collusive behaviour when heterogeneous providers are faced with regulated prices under yardstick competition. We analyse the choice of cost when providers do not collude and when they do, and we consider incentives to defect from the collusion agreement Our results suggest that under the yardstick competition each provider's choice of cooperative cost is decreasing in the degree of the other provider's altruism, so a self-interested provider will operate at a lower cost than an altruistic provider. The prospect of defection serves to moderate the chosen level of operating cost. More general results show that collusion is more stable in homogeneous than in heterogeneous markets. The third paper is an empirical analysis where I test the hypotheses of physicians' altruism and ex-post moral hazard using a large national panel dataset of drug prescription records from Finland. We estimate the probability that doctors prescribe generic versus branded versions of statins for their patients as a function of the shares of the difference in prices between what patients have to pay out of their pocket and what are covered by insurance. The role of physicians and insurance in health care markets has been of interest to economists since the seminal contribution of Arrow (1963). Pioneering the economic analysis of physician behavior in the context of health care, Arrow (1963) noticed that doctors may have motives and objectives that differentiate them from purely profit-maximizing agents. The original 'ex-post moral hazard' hypothesis, predicts that health insurance increases the consumption of health care and leads to excessive consumption of services even in a competitive health care market. Ex-post moral hazard has since then been the focus of various empirical and theoretical studies in health economics (see e.g. Feldstein, 1973; Leibowitz, Manning, and Newhouse, 1985; Manning, Newhouse, Duan, Keeler, Leibowitz, and Marquis, 1987; Dranove, 1989; Zweifel and Manning, 2000). We simultaneously test both altruism and ex-post moral hazard in drug prescription behavior using a large national panel of administrative data from Finland. We first develop a theoretical model on physician decision-making, which, in line with Hellerstein (1998) and Lundin (2000), then use a large national panel dataset with all statin prescriptions in Finland between 2003 and 2010 (n=17 858 829 prescriptions) to test the physicians' altruism and ex-post moral hazard hypotheses, while controlling for a large range of physicians, patients, and drug characteristics. Taking advantage of the panel structure of our national administrative dataset, we directly observe the repeated prescriptions of statins by physicians over time. We find that although the estimated coefficients associated with ex-post moral hazard and altruism are statistically significantly different from zero, their size is very close to zero and the orders of magnitude is smaller than the effects associated with other key explanatory factors. We also find robust and strong evidence of prescription habit-dependency.

The research labor can be understood as a way to know reality, in this sense, the dissemination of information and the results of research processes, become an essential task for the appropriation of knowledge and Access to the production culture of the same.Nowadays, scientific literacy is a necessity, as it allows the development of a true critical thinking, making possible the understanding of technical and scientific language, which in many cases is unachievable for most people. The knowledge, information and communications society, must seek students with creative and critical thinking (Martínez Armesto, 1997) in addition to training in values and ethical commitments.The foregoing implies that access, by the majority of the population, to a scientific and technological culture, makes it easier to understand the world around us in a critical manner and, in addition, provides tools for a more democratic participation in social interest issues.Research and divulgation cannot be separated from one another, because while the former seeks to reinforce concepts or theories, relying on methodologies of scientific rigor; The dissemination, meanwhile, seeks to express the results and hypotheses, supported by language tools , accessible to citizens of different nationalities.Thus, in this context, the magazine In Vestigium Ire intends to be a bridge for the integration of scientific knowledge in economic, administrative and accounting areas; and the community in general, making known the findings, fruit of the investigative processes.In this opportunity, results of research works related to environmental sustainability, competitiveness and development of the regions, leadership and social entrepreneurship, as well as management issues related to the accounting part, are presented.We trust that our readers will find in these articles, great contributions to the construction of knowledge and at the same time can combine efforts to motivate the incursión in the investigative work, as expressed by Martin Bonfil Olivera "there is an undeniable need to have researchers who do science, seek answers to new and old enigmas." ; La labor investigativa puede entenderse como un camino para conocer la realidad, en este sentido, la divulgación de la información y los resultados de los procesos investigativos, se vuelve una labor imprescindible para contribuir a la apropiación del conocimiento y dar acceso a la cultura de producción del mismo.En la actualidad, la alfabetización científica es una necesidad, por cuanto permite el desarrollo de un pensamiento crítico verdadero, haciendo posible la comprensión del lenguaje técnico y científico, que en muchas ocasiones es inalcanzable para la mayor parte de las personas. La sociedad del conocimiento, la información y las comunicaciones, ha de procurar estudiantes con pensamiento creativo y crítico (Martínez Armesto, 1997) además de formarse en valores y compromisos éticos.Lo anterior implica que el acceso, por parte de la mayoría de la población, a una cultura científico tecnológica, facilita comprender el mundo que nos rodea de manera crítica y, además otorga herramientas para realizar una participación más democrática en temas de interés social.La investigación y la divulgación, no pueden desligarse una de la otra, porque mientras la primera busca reforzar conceptos o teorías, apoyándose en metodologías propias de la rigurosidad científica; la divulgación, por su parte, busca expresar los resultados e hipótesis, apoyada en herramientas del lenguaje, accesible a los ciudadanos de diferentes nacionalidades.Es así como en este contexto, la Revista In Vestigium Ire se propone ser puente para la integración del conocimiento científico en las áreas económicas, administrativas y contables; y la comunidad en general, dando a conocer los hallazgos, fruto de los procesos investigativos.En esta oportunidad se presentan resultados de trabajos de investigación relacionados con la sostenibilidad ambiental, la competitividad y desarrollo de las regiones, el liderazgo y emprendimiento social, así como temas gerenciales, relacionados con la parte contable.Confiamos con que nuestros lectores encuentren en estos artículos, grandes aportes a la construcción de conocimiento y a la vez se pueda aunar esfuerzos para motivar la incursión en la labor investigativa, tal como lo expresa Martín Bonfil Olivera "existe una innegable necesidad de contar con investigadores que hagan ciencia, que busquen respuesta a nuevos y viejos enigmas". ; Le travail de recherche peut être compris comme un moyen de connaître la réalité; en ce sens, la difusión d'informations et des résultats des processus de recherche devient une tâche essentielle pour contribuer à l'appropriation du savoir et à l'accès à sa culture de production.Actuellement, l'alphabétisation scientifique est une nécessité, car elle permet de développer une véritable pensée critique, rendant possible la compréhension du langage technique et scientifique, qui dans de nombreux cas est inaccessible pour la plupart des gens. La société de la connaissance, l'information et les communications doivent rechercher des étudiants ayant une pensée créative et critique (Martínez Armesto, 1997). En plus, ils doivent avoir une formation en valeurs et en engagements éthiques.Compte tenu de ce qui précède, sousentend que l'accès de la majorité de la population à une culture scientifique et technologique facilite la compréhension du monde qui nous entoure de manière critique et il fournit des outils pour réaliser une participation plus démocratique aux questions d'intérêt social.La recherche et la diffusion ne peuvent pas être séparées l'une de l'autre, puisque pendant que la première cherche à renforcer des concepts ou des théories, en s'appuyant sur des méthodologies de rigueur scientifique, la diffusion, de sa part cherche à exprimer les résultatsetles hypothèses, étayés par des outils linguistiques, accessibles aux citoyens de différentes nationalités.C´est ainsi dans ce contexte que le Magazine In Vestigium Ire vise à être un pont d'intégration de la connaissance scientifique dans les domaines économique, administratif et comptable et la communauté en général, en faisantconnaître les résultats qui sont le fruit des processus de recherche. Dans cette opportunité, on presente les résultats des travaux de recherche liés à la durabilité environnementale, à la compétitivité et au développement des régions, au leadership et au entrepreneuriat social, ainsi qu'aux problèmes de gestion, liés à la partie comptable.Nous espérons que nos lecteurs trouveront dans ces articles d'importantes contributions à la construction du savoir, tout en pouvant combiner les efforts visant à motiver l'incursion dans le travail de la recherche, tel que Martin Bonfil Olivera le cite: "Il existe un besoin indéniable d'avoir des chercheurs qui font de la science, qui cherchent des réponses à de nouveaux et de vieux énigmes." ; O trabalho de pesquisa pode ser entendido como uma forma de conhecer a realidade, neste sentido, a divulgação de informações e os resultados dos processos de pesquisa, torna-se uma tarefa essencial contribuir para a apropriação do conhecimento e dar acesso à cultura de produção do mesmo.Atualmente, a alfabetização científica é uma necessidade, pois permite o desenvolvimento de um verdadeiro pensamento crítico, possibilitando a compreensão da linguagem técnica e científica, que em muitos casos é inatingível para a maioria das pessoas. A sociedade do conhecimento, a informação e a comunicação devem buscar alunos com pensamento crítico e criativo (Martínez Armesto, 1997), além de treinamento em valores e compromissos éticos.O precedente implica que o acesso, pela maioria da população, a uma cultura científica e tecnológica, facilita a compreensão crítica do mundo que nos rodeia e, além disso, fornece ferramentas para uma participação mais democrática em questões de interesse social.A pesquisa e a divulgação não podem ser separadas umas das outras, porque a primeira busca reforçar conceitos ou teorias, baseando-se em metodologias de rigor científico; A divulgação, por sua vez, busca expressar os resultados e hipóteses, apoiadas por ferramentas de linguagem, acessíveis a cidadãos de diferentes nacionalidades.Assim, neste contexto, a revista In Vestigium Ire pretende ser uma ponte para a integração do conhecimento científico nas áreas econômica, administrativa e contábil; e a comunidade em geral, divulgando os resultados, fruto dos processos investigativos.Nesta oportunidade apresentam-se de trabalhos de pesquisa relacionados à sustentabilidade ambiental, competitividade e desenvolvimento das regiões, liderança e empreendedorismo social, bem como questões de gestão, relacionada à parte contábil.Acreditamos que nossos leitores encontrarão nesses artigos grandes contribuições para a construção do conhecimento e, ao mesmo tempo, podem combinar esforços para motivar a incursão no trabalho investigativo, como expressou Martin Bonfil Olivera "há uma inegável necessidade de ter pesquisadores que façam ciência, procurem respostas para novos e velhos enigmas."