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Scientific advances over recent years have had a marked effect in lowering mortality at very old ages in the developed countries, opening the prospect of routine achievement of significantly extended life spans. Some immediate responses to these trends, such as a rethinking of the actuarial assumptions underlying social security system finances, have already been required. But in the longer run many other and more fundamental accommodations would also be called for. In the paper reproduced below, from 1965, Kenneth Boulding points to some of these by means of a casual thought experiment in which longevity is set at 200 years. A striking misfit emerges between the new age distribution of the population, assumed stationary, and the age‐specific role structure that the society had evolved, forcing adjustments in the latter. Age patterns of education and working life, life‐cycle savings and consumption behavior, and intergenerational economic relations would be strongly affected. While the extreme longevity assumption (although modest compared to the Struldbrugs of Gulliver's Travels) underlines the lightheartedness of the exercise, the issues are real ones. The paper, entitled "The menace of Methuselah: Possible consequences of increased life expectancy," was originally an address to the Washington Academy of Sciences in March 1965 and published in October of the same year in the Academy's Journal (Vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 171‐179). It is reproduced here by permission of the Academy. Some minor arithmetical corrections to the savings calculations have been made.Kenneth E. Boulding (1910–93) was a distinguished economist and social scientist. Born in England, he was educated at Oxford and the University of Chicago, and subsequently taught at a series of North American universities, the longest periods at the University of Michigan and University of Colorado. He was president of the American Economic Association, as well as of a number of other learned societies, but increasingly came to play a maverick role in his profession. His prolific writings–some 40 books and hundreds of articles–spanned a wide range of subjects: Keynesian theory, the grants economy, evolutionary economics, and beyond economics to general systems theory, resources and ecology, environmental quality, social justice, and (a life‐long concern) peace and disarmament. Demographers often know of Boulding through his much‐reprinted article "Toward a general theory of growth" (Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 19, no. 3, 1953). Another of his papers appeared in PDR 14 (Suppl.), 1988. Six volumes of his Collected Papers were published by Colorado Associated University Press, Boulder, CO, over 1971–85.

This article brings regulation theory and the broader post‐Fordist debate together with an empirical study of the emergence and consequences of tourism in Harlem. It shows that the valorization of cultural diversity, as well as under‐served markets, has helped reposition this formerly unmarketable area in relation to city, state and capital markets. Moreover, as development occurs, the nature of regulation pertaining to Harlem begins to change. The author argues that the failure to disaggregate – to link the elements of the restructuring economy to outcomes for specific areas and residents, leads to an overly pessimistic view. Tourism‐based development may act as an equalizing force, helping to rebalance the uneven urban spatial development characteristic of Fordism and symbolized by the social isolation and concentrated poverty of the racial ghetto in the US. The role of cultural capital as the engine of growth in Harlem, has meant that revitalization promotes cultural differentiation along with standardization. Overall, cultural tourism requires substantial civic engagement. This gives the community control, but at the same time disciplines and stabilizes. Urban tourism thus incorporates a new mode of regulation, making for greater social/political and economic inclusion, but with the associated costs as well as benefits.Cet article allie la théorie de la régulation et le débat plus large du post‐Fordisme, à une étude empirique sur l'apparition et les conséquences du tourisme à Harlem. Il montre que la valorisation de la diversité culturelle, de mäme que les marchés sous‐approvisionnés, ont aidéà repositionner cette zone auparavant sans attrait commercial dans une relation avec les marchés de la ville, de l'État et des capitaux. En outre, avec l'expansion, la nature de la régulation propre à Harlem a commencéà changer. L'absence de désagrégation – qui associe les éléments de l'économie en restructuration aux résultats en faveur de zones et résidents particuliers – conduit à une vision des plus pessimiste. Toutefois, un essor basé sur le tourisme peut avoir une force compensatrice, aidant à rééquilibrer l'aménagement spatial urbain inégal, caractéristique fordienne symbolisée par l'isolement culturel et la pauvreté concentrée dans les ghettos raciaux aux Etats‐Unis. Le rôle du capital social en tant que moteur de croissance d'Harlem s'est traduit par une revitalisation favorisant à la fois différenciation culturelle et normalisation. Le tourisme culturel implique surtout un engagement civique réel, celui‐ci donnant la maä'trise à la communauté, tout en apportant discipline et stabilité. Le tourisme urbain amène donc un nouveau mode de régulation, créant une meilleure inclusion socio‐politique et économique, mais avec les coûts (et avantages) associés.

The changes experienced by the contemporary society have a particular manifestation in the rural areas of our countries. In is in these social spaces where the most relevant impact of the accelerated economic, political and cultural integration takes it toll; it is in the rural communities, where the consequences of the open economic policies adopted by governmental authorities, are best reflected. These social processes aftermath brings about a substantial change in the rural world that contributes to enlarging the existing divide, as far as human development, between urban and rural areas. In Costa Rica, the redefinition of its development strategy started in the 1980´s. Two decades later, without a clearly defined vision and a growing uncertainty about the future on part of the population, it is an unfinished process. The national economy structural adjustment began in the 1980's. Currently, there are opposing technical opinions as to its results. In this analysis, it is important to emphasize the impacts of the economic policies implemented in the 1980-2000 period, and the changes in the agrarian structure and social relations originated with the modernization processes experienced by the Costa Rican society as of the 1950´s decade. ; Los cambios experimentados por la sociedad contemporánea tienen una expresión particular en las áreas rurales de nuestros países. Se presenta en estos espacios sociales el impacto más relevante de la acelerada integración económica, política y cultural del presente y las consecuencias más notorias de las políticas de la apertura económica adaptadas por las autoridades gubernamentales. Los efectos de estos procesos sociales provocan una modificación sustancial del mundo rural y tienen a ensanchar las brechas existentes en cuanto al desarrollo humano en relación con las áreas urbanas.En Costa Rica, la redefinición de su estrategia de desarrollo se inicia en la década de los años ochenta. Dos decenios más adelante, es un proceso incompleto, sin una ruta claramente trazada y con una incertidumbre creciente ante el futuro por parte de la población. El ajuste estructural de la economía nacional se inicia en los años ochenta y al arribar al año 2000 prevalecen criterios técnicos contrapuestos sobre sus resultados. En este análisis interesa destacar los impactos en el sector rural de las políticas económicas impulsadas en el período 1980-2000 y los cambios en la estructura agraria y las relaciones sociales originadas con los procesos de modernización vividos por la sociedad costarricense a partir de la década de los años cincuenta.

Books reviewed:The monastic order in Yorkshire, Sandra RabanThe demography of early modern towns: York in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, John S. MooreInventories of Worcestershire landed gentry, 1537‐1786, Vivienne LarminieTenant right and agrarian society in Ulster, 1600‐1870, S. J. ConnollyRogues,Thieves and the rule of law: the problem of law enforcement in north‐east England, 1718‐1800, Garthine WalkerNewspapers, politics and public opinion in late eighteenth‐century England, Owen JacksonInsanity, institutions and society, 1800‐1914: a social history of madness in comparative perspective, Bill LuckinFree trade and its reception, 1815‐1960: freedom and trade: vol. 1, Mark Wickham‐JonesPolicing provincial England, 1829‐1856: the politics of reform, Roger SwiftWriting the Irish Famine, David FitzpatrickThe end of hidden Ireland: rebellion, famine, and emigration, David FitzpatrickThe municipal government of Bristol, 1851‐1901, Barry DoyleThe history and practice of Britain's railways: a new research agenda, John ArmstrongEducation and economic decline in Britain, 1870 to the 1990s, John Maloney'The battle for health': a political history of the Socialist Medical Association, 1930‐1951, Virginia BerridgeGresford: the anatomy of a disaster, Joseph MellingHealth and society in Britain since 1939, Bernard HarrisMastering the market: the state and the grain trade in northern France, 1700‐1860, Colin HeywoodRevolution and environment in southern France: peasants, lords, and murder in the Corbières, 1780‐1830, Hugh CloutThe role of banks in monitoring firms: the case of Crédit Mobilier, Geoffrey E. WoodRepertorium Columbianum, IV, Christopher Columbus and his family: the Genoese and Ligurian documents, Trevor DeanSpain's men of the sea: daily life on the Indies fleets in the sixteenth century, Marcus RedikerChristianity under the ancien régime, 1648‐1789, Linda KirkIdentity and intolerance: nationalism, racism and xenophobia in Germany and the United States, Eve RosenhaftEuropean culture and the Great War: the arts, entertainment and propaganda, Adrian GregoryWestern Europe: economic and social change since 1945, J. Adam ToozeGotham: a history of New York City to 1898, Karen WillsCopper for America: the United States copper industry from colonial times to the 1990s, Peter McleayManufacturing the future: a history of Western Electric, John CantwellUS trade policy: history, theory and the WTO, Ranald MichieLa economiá argentina en el largo plazo: ensayos de historia económica de los siglos XIX y XX , Rory MillerProgress, poverty and exclusion: an economic history of Latin America in the twentieth century, Paul HendersonThe Chinese business elite in Indonesia and the transition to independence, 1940‐1950, Anne BoothJapan's war economy, Kenneth D. BrownEconomic crises and restructuring in history: experiences of small countries, Alan S. MilwardThe gold standard and related regimes: collected essays, Derek H. Aldcroft

Der Essay zielt auf eine kritische Bewertung des Beitrags institutionalistischer Ansätze in der sozioökonomischen Transformationsdebatte. Diese Ansätze interessieren sich für die konkreten Formen der entstehenden Kapitalismen in Osteuropa. Sie richten ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf die ererbten Organisationsformen und Institutionen und warnen vor möglichen Entwicklungsblockaden, wenn diesen in den Transformationsstrategien nicht Rechnung getragen wird. Damit leisten sie eine zentrale Kritik an den neoliberalen Reformen in Osteuropa und der ihnen zugrundeliegenden Annahme, daß unabhängig vom geschichtlichen und sozialen Ausgangspunkt einer konkreten Gesellschaft marktwirtschaftliche Basisinstitutionen Effizienz- und Wohlfahrtsgewinne zeitigen. In dem Papier wird jedoch argumentiert, daß die institutionalistische Kritik zu kurz greift, da sie eine wesentliche Determinante der entstehenden osteuropäischen Kapitalismen vernachlässigt, nämlich ihre forcierte Integration in die Weltwirtschaft. Dieser "blinde Fleck" zieht eine Reihe weiterer Probleme nach sich. Institutionalistische Ansätze setzten sich für politische Strategien im nationalstaatlichen Rahmen zu einem historischen Zeitpunkt ein, in dem nationalstaatliche Entwicklungskonzepte durch neoliberale Transnationalisierung zunehmend in Frage gestellt werden. Institutionalisten tendieren dazu, die Bandbreite der zur Verfügung stehenden nationalen Strategien zu überschätzen und die ihnen durch westliche Regimeziele und machtvolle globale Akteure auferlegten "constraints" zu unterschätzen. Durch ihren Fokus auf die historische Erbschaft tendieren sie dazu, Phänomene und Institutionen als osteuropäische Spezifika zu konzeptualisieren, die nur transitorische Phänomene sind. Das Papier endet mit einem Plädoyer, auch in der Transformationsforschung nach den Verbindungsmustern zwischen externen und internen Entwicklungsprozessen zu suchen, und, über diese duale Sichtweise hinausgehend, eine Forschungsperspektive zu entwickeln, die stärker die neuartige, transnationale Form des gegenwärtigen Kapitalismus in den Blick nimmt. ; The aim of this essay is to assess the contribution of institutionalist approaches in the socio-economic transformation debate. These approaches focus on the concrete historical forms of emerging capitalisms in Eastern Europe. By emphasising the role of inherited organisations and institutions in the transformation process and by warning against possible blockages and lock-ins due to these factors, institutionalist approaches provide a powerful criticism of the neoliberal reforms and the underlying assumption that, no matter when in history and where in social geography, the presence of core market institutions predicts welfare and efficiency. However, institutionalists tend to neglect the problem of how integration into the world economy shapes the restructuring of Eastern European political economies and their prospects. This neglect results in a number of further shortcomings. Path dependentists argue for policy strategies tailored to national pathways at the very historical period when national autonomy is being increasingly questioned through the ongoing processes of neoliberal transnationalisation. When referring to policy choices, path-dependency approaches tend to overestimate the actually attainable range of systemic diversity and to underestimate the constraints imposed by Western regime goals and powerful global actors. By concentrating on the past and origins, path dependentists run the risk of conceptualising phenomena and institutions as building blocks of new capitalisms which prove to be transitory. The paper ends by arguing for a research perspective which elaborates on the relationship and interaction between the external and internal dimension of transformation and ultimately arrives at a more proper understanding of the new transnational form of contemporary capitalism.

Inflation and increased fuel economy have reduced the buying power of the revenues collected from state and federal motor fuel taxes. Because fuel taxes are almost always collected on a per-gallon basis, in most states they must be raised by specific acts of the legislature and it is becoming increasingly difficult to find the political support necessary to raise them. A number of states have experimented with fuel taxes that adjust automatically by being indexed to the price of gasoline, to the consumer price index, or to some indicator of highway construction and maintenance costs. This paper reviews experience with indexed motor fuel taxes in the United States, and finds that in many cases indexed taxes have failed to produce the anticipated results because declines in fuel prices often cause declines in indexed fuel taxes. Indexing gas tax rates to the Consumer Price Index appears to be the best way of insuring that fuel tax revenues keep pace with inflation. Fuel taxes are the mainstay of transportation finance in the United States. The federal government and every state levy taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel. Motor fuel taxes have much to recommend them fiscally, politically, and administratively. First and foremost, as a "user fee" this tax is widely regarded to be inherently fair. It can be assumed that we benefit from the transportation system in proportion to the extent to which we use it, and motor fuel taxes charge us roughly in proportion to our use of the road and highway system. Furthermore, the tax is paid by motorists in small increments and is relatively hidden in the sales price of motor fuel. This has tended to minimize organized public opposition to it. The tax is also easy to administer and collect from both the taxpayer's and the government's point of view. The motor fuel tax is usually collected from fuel distributors rather than from retailers or consumers. This minimizes opportunities for evasion and reduces the cost of collection to an historical average of one-half of one percent of tax proceeds. By contrast, prior to the advent of electronic toll collection, highway tolls could often involve collection and administrative costs that amounted to as much as twenty percent of the proceeds. As motor fuel consumption has soared over the past eight decades, so have tax proceeds, enabling users of the nation's highway system to finance its construction and maintenance.

After disintegration of the USSR the State lost ca. 50% of its sea ports. The ports that remained under Russia's control are to the great extent old-fashioned and underinvested. The loss of ports of Tallinn, Riga and Klaipeda was the reason for concentration of servicing Russian international shipments on the Baltic in the three ports of St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad and Vyborg. Transhipment capabilities of Russia's sea trade ports on the Baltic are presently estimated to be 20m tons and they have turned out to be insufficient for the country. Accordingly, a decision has been taken to increase such capabilities and to build new ports. The development programme assumes that before 2005 all import and export cargoes should be serviced by own ports. The modernisation plan for St. Petersburg assumes building of new container terminals, universal and specialist transhipment complexes, including a new base for liquid fuels, sugar, heavy and large cargoes. Its transhipment capabilities are to be increased up to 29m tons yearly. Within rebuilding of the port complex several new transhipment ports come to being around Sankt Petersburg. The most important of them are: Ust-Luga, Batareynaya, Primorsk, Lomonosov and Kronshtadt. Minor ports are: Bronka, Gorskaya and Otradnoye. The rebuilding programme for Russian ports also forecasts an increase in transhipment capabilities of the ports: Vyborg up to 3m tons and Vysotsk - up to 4m tons yearly. The planned investments are a new wood port, two terminals for transhipment of metals and a general cargo terminal. Growth forecasts for the port of Kaliningrad assume an increase in transhipments up to 6.7m tons in 2000 and 11-12m tons in 2005. The disastrous condition of economy in the District of Kaliningrad and a difficult economic situation in Belarus - constituting a potential supply base for the port, suggest that such forecast should be assumed very carefully. The present political and economic situation in Russia makes a large gap between projects to build new ports and to modernise the existing ones, and their implementation. Plans concerning building new ports in Russia are often wishful declarations for potential investors. Russian investors do not have sufficient capital; Western entrepreneurs fear to invest their capital in Russia. In 1994 there was a decision to separate the operation of ports from their ownership status, i.e. the proprietary right of the State to premises, port infrastructure, grounds and waters. It contributed to flourishing of criminal activity and corruption in Russian ports, and competence of new authorities is not strictly specified. ; Marcin Polom

An early large scale privatization for China would have been totally unthinkable for obvious political, ideological and economic reasons and a large-scale privatization in China right now may still be ill advised. The experiences of the eastem European countries suggest that privatization is not the panacea that many believed it to be. Privatization turned out to be the most complex part of the change of economic system for these countries politically, practically, and legally (Aalsund, 1992). There seems to be strong evidence, based on the experiences of the eastem European countries that it may very well be in the best interest of China to wait before engaging in a large scale privatization scheme (DaCosta, 1995). There are sound economic reasons why it may still be too soon for a large scale privatization to take place: 1) mass privatization will result in massive layoffs; 2) underdevelopment of capital markets would make privatization unwise; 3) lack of domestic capital; 4) ideological and institutional obstacles. However, China's unique transition strategy engendered innovative altematives to privatization. China, arguably less the govemment than its people found ways of dealing effectively with the limitations, and within the constraints, set by China's own transition policies. The "contract responsibility system," by effectively separating ownership and control, is an innovative altemative to individual privatization. It has been described as "a halfway house to privatization" (Fischer, 1991). And the TVEs were China's (rather effective) altemative to early privatization. ln fact, the TVEs fall between private and public. They arose because of China's own strategy and because the Chinese development model prior to the reform created conditions favorable to their establishment. They prospered, to the point of being referred to as the major engine of China's success, because of considerable autonomy, flexibility, competition (at all levels) and special ties to the govemment and community. And maybe more importantly, since they do not operate under a "soft constraint" like SOEs, they must thrive for efficiency in order to survive. However, as transition progresses, and China's economy and society change, they too are changing. ln fact, insofar as TVEs can use local governments to behave like countries and erect all sorts of barriers to trade and factor flows, they may be regarded as an hindrance to the establishment of a single market. China, far from being an integrated internal market, has yet to reap the benefíts of economies of scale and the benefits derived from industrial "clusters" (World Bank, 1994).

From "Comrade" to "Monsieur": Structural Adjustment and Democratization in Benin: The process of political and economic liberalization in Benin is regarded as a model for the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa. Benin made history by becoming the first African country to overthrow a military dictator by democratic means. The civilian coup d'état cleared the way for economic recovery, too. The strengthening of democratic institutions, and the good will of the new government of the former high ranking World Bank-employee Soglo, to follow the recommendations of the structural adjustment programme have been honored by the donors' generosity. The recovery of the economy, however, was hampered by the underlying fabric of the socio-cultural structure of clientelism and patronage, which resulted in a situation in which the on-going structural adjustment programme mainly served the vested interests of the state class and rival strategic groups, bargaining for the booty of increasing development assistance. Thus, socio-economic conditions for a self-sustaining development process and, consequently, increased development assistance are not yet met. Nevertheless, areas of co-operation do exist in the fields of liberty of press and opinion, basic needs and self-help organizations. ; Auhtor's Version ; De "camarade" à "Monsieur": l'ajustement structurel et la démocratisation au Bénin: Le processus de libéralisation politique et économique au Bénin est considéré comme un modèle pour l'ensemble de l'Afrique sub-saharienne. Bénin a fait l'histoire en devenant le premier pays africain à renverser un dictateur militaire par des moyens démocratiques. Le coup d'état civil a ouvert la voie à la reprise économique, aussi. Le renforcement des institutions démocratiques, et la bonne volonté du nouveau gouvernement de l'ancien haut rang de la Banque mondiale-employé Soglo, à suivre les recommandations du programme d'ajustement structurel, ont été honorés par la générosité des donateurs. La reprise de l'économie, cependant, a été entravée par le tissu sous-jacente de la structure socio-culturelle de clientélisme et de patronage. Ce dernier a abouti à une situation dans laquelle le programme d'ajustement structurel en cours a servi les intérêts de la classe de l'Etat et les groupes stratégiques rivales, de négocier pour l'augmentation du butin de l'aide au développement. Ainsi, les conditions socio-économiques d'un processus de développement autonome et, par conséquent, l'augmentation de l'aide au développement ne sont pas encore réunies. Néanmoins, les domaines de coopération existent dans les domaines de la liberté de la presse et d'opinion, les besoins de base et des organisations d'auto-assistance.

Se pretende conocer su desarrollo arquitectónico a lo largo de su historia y se plantea la relación texto-contexto como básica para el estudio de una población con características muy marcadas; el proyecto arquitectónico, decimos, que puede ser sin representación gráfica en el caso de la arquitectura popular; el contexto, propone y edifica un texto y el lugar deviene luego de la construcción de un nuevo lugar, un contexto diferente al anterior, a pesar de esto se produce una continuidad ofrecida por el trabajo tipológico de la arquitectura popular y bruscamente interrumpida por las "discontinuidades", el aparecimiento de nuevas tipologías. ; There are many publications of various types, which mention Cadaqués architecture; those however are in most cases romantic and enthusiastic lectures of his architecture. The matter, the author says, is more complicated, it is produced by a series of interactive relationships between the Cadaqués citizens, the economical and political power, the rules, laws and customs that this power produces, and his architecture is a result of this relationship. In history, the economical development, his macro economy and his system, has periods with maximums and minimums, corresponding with the welfare and crisis moments, opposed them in the time also, in which ones, the architecture that has its own independence and autonomy, lost these qualities or there are not the determinants, the economical ones are the determinants in these moments.These periods called "discontinuities" produce new architectonical types, the collective conscious and unconscious works in the direction of welfare and prosperity, the society in his totality works producing more and better, the economical resources contribute to produce bigger and better architectural objects, those ones, are the new types introduced in Cadaqués, like an example, and those built by sensitive artists could mean critical and avant-garde objects. There are others which have not the same kind of work, their authors do not have the same sensibility, and those ones, inside a continued typological work are easily detectable, the do not understand all the architectonic tradition, and their work can not be considered as well integrated. The architectural education should not forget this matter, the history must be present, and the types can be a way to introduce the students to the historical relationship without forgetting our modern culture, our XXth century belonging, and the future of our civilization, the science and technological progress, without loosing our collective memory, our legacy. ; Postprint (published version)

The number of studies dealing with economic problems of small countries is growing. They have contributed to our general knowledge on the economics of these societies. Nevertheless, there is no clear evidence that a successful economic policy will be following from this knowledge. This, of course, is not unusual in matters of science. First of all, the exploration of an economic problem is one thing; the solution of problems is another thing altogether. And indeed, the economic problems of small countries, especially of the very small ones, seem so grave that one could seriously question any pretention of being able to solve these. We could emphasize the lack of development possibilities and point at the long list of impediments, at political and social structures which hamper development and which are quite difficult to change, if at all. All of these arguments could be substantiated. They have in fact been substantiated for a number of very small countries, where a virtual absence of resources or diseconomies of small scale seem to deprive their inhabitants of rather basic facilities (5, p.90]. But, for the sake of our argument, let us assume another reason why, so far, development successes in very small economies have not been realized, and let us point to the limited ability of science to propose effective measures to solve real world problems. Our argument is not a philosophical one. We, therefore, neglect the reasoning that solutions to problems almost always create new problems. Our argument is of a more theoretical nature. We simply feel that the ability of science to suggest policies is sometimes rather limited, precisely because of the limitations in our scientific way of dealing with reality. And, since some of these limitations, hampering our insights into the economic life of very small economies, seem to follow from the conception of science itself - since, so to speak, some of these limitations are self-imposed - we propose to look at the economic structures of very small economies in a different way. We have toyed with the idea to illustrate our largely theoretical exercise with a case study on Malta, but, our Institute being a very small economy itself, with limited resources, we had to confine ourselves to mere illustrations. For this and other reasons, our remarks should be seen as no more than a brief exploratory note on a large problem. Clearly, our approach does not pretend to render all other possible (scientific) approaches on formulating an economic policy obsolete or unjustified. ; peer-reviewed

If agricultural development is considered as the gradual changes occurring in the agricultural production, processes that are assumed to be socially beneficial, the knowledge of these processes , their transformations in time as well as spatial adaptations is of primary importance. Especially because such a knowledge should be at the basis of any critical consideration or recommendation for action aiming at modifying the existing production processes and the on-going course of their changes in a given area. In FSRD, well-known concepts of the micro analysis are successfully used to understand, evaluate and improve these production processes at the farm level. Meanwhile, at a larger scale and in order to identify the deep key transformations that affect in the long term the whole farms of a region, these useful concepts are not sufficient. Particularly, they do not permit the appraisal of the conditions and consequences of the these determining evolutions and adaptations. Especially their economic and social implications. To characterize such significant changes in the production processes at the regional or national levels, a more global concept is necessary that we call Agrarian System. At the crossroads between agro-ecology and agro-economy, the concept's main variables arc the cultivated ecosystem and the instruments and means which are used to produce, maintain and exploit it creating a specific mode of exploitation of the environment. Other essential interrelated variables that have also to be taken in to account to explain the key transformations of agrarian systems are the division of labor between the various economic sectors, the relations of production, ownership and exchanges of the products, as well as the dominating political and cultural conditions and institutions. The paper presents how such a global concept can be used to: - propose a pertinent diagnosis on the present state and on-going evolution of a regional agriculture. - formulate adapted orientations for its future development, especially for the less-favoured groups of farmers. Recent studies on key changes in the rice-based agrarian systems of southern Thailand provide illustrations and concrete examples as well as demonstrate the relevance of this approach in the present state of Thai agriculture. It is also suggested that such study of the historical transformations and spatial adaptations of the agricultural production processes constitutes the subject of an agricultural development science understood as a part of the global social development.

Se pretende conocer su desarrollo arquitectónico a lo largo de su historia y se plantea la relación texto-contexto como básica para el estudio de una población con características muy marcadas; el proyecto arquitectónico, decimos, que puede ser sin representación gráfica en el caso de la arquitectura popular; el contexto, propone y edifica un texto y el lugar deviene luego de la construcción de un nuevo lugar, un contexto diferente al anterior, a pesar de esto se produce una continuidad ofrecida por el trabajo tipológico de la arquitectura popular y bruscamente interrumpida por las "discontinuidades", el aparecimiento de nuevas tipologías. ; There are many publications of various types, which mention Cadaqués architecture; those however are in most cases romantic and enthusiastic lectures of his architecture. The matter, the author says, is more complicated, it is produced by a series of interactive relationships between the Cadaqués citizens, the economical and political power, the rules, laws and customs that this power produces, and his architecture is a result of this relationship. In history, the economical development, his macro economy and his system, has periods with maximums and minimums, corresponding with the welfare and crisis moments, opposed them in the time also, in which ones, the architecture that has its own independence and autonomy, lost these qualities or there are not the determinants, the economical ones are the determinants in these moments.These periods called "discontinuities" produce new architectonical types, the collective conscious and unconscious works in the direction of welfare and prosperity, the society in his totality works producing more and better, the economical resources contribute to produce bigger and better architectural objects, those ones, are the new types introduced in Cadaqués, like an example, and those built by sensitive artists could mean critical and avant-garde objects. There are others which have not the same kind of work, their authors do not have the same sensibility, and those ones, inside a continued typological work are easily detectable, the do not understand all the architectonic tradition, and their work can not be considered as well integrated. The architectural education should not forget this matter, the history must be present, and the types can be a way to introduce the students to the historical relationship without forgetting our modern culture, our XXth century belonging, and the future of our civilization, the science and technological progress, without loosing our collective memory, our legacy. ; Postprint (published version)

La economía de la Comunidad de Castilla-La Mancha depende de la actividad agraria, rasgo que en la provincia de Ciudad Real se agudiza pues supera proporcionalmente en un 17,5% la producción nacional media agraria. Y otras riquezas potenciales como la ganadería y explotación forestal se encuentran infraexplotadas. El domino del cereal se superpone a la pervivencia del viñedo, pero sus beneficios se amortiguan por la extensión de la barbechera. Progreso de la cebada y descenso de la vid no afectan en exceso a un sector claramente desfavorecido: el occidente y suroeste provincial. Así, los desfases comarcales son agudos y se da una notable cantidad de entidades municipales desgajadas del devenir económico agrícola medio provincial. No es, con todo, el ámbito peor parado de la comunidad, y buena prueba de ello es su contribución al Producto Final Agrario. Pero es posible relanzar producciones a través de la aplicación de los dictados contenidos en los Planes de Desarrollo Regional. Sin embargo, las medidas políticas dan resultado a largo plazo en el campo. Y el regadío encuentra cada vez mayores problemas por el incontrolado consumo de agua en los últimos años, en parte causa explicativa del progreso agrícola reciente y posible factor de un posterior estancamiento. ; The economy of the Community of Castilla-La Mancha depends on her agrarian activity, what intensifies in the province of Ciudad Real, which proportionally exceeds the average agrarian national product in 17,5%. Other potential resources such as cattle raising and forest exploitation are underveloped. The predominance of cereal overlaps the survival of vineyards but its benefits are absorbed because of the extensions o fallow land. The increase of barley and the decrease of vineyards do not excessively affect an area in clear disadvantage: the west and south-east of the province. So the gaps in that region are big and many municipal entities have broken off the average agricultura1 economic development in ihe province. Nevertheless, that is not the worst field of the community and a good sign of it is its contnbution to the final agranan product, al though it is possible to relaunch the productions by applying the guidelines in the Plan of Regional Development. Anyway, political measures give long term results in the country. Imgation farming finds more trouble everyday because of the uncontrolled consumption of water last years, what partly accounts for the recent agricultura1 development and a later stagnation.

Why economic reforms fail in the Soviet system ?
This article tries to answer intriguing question : why market-type reforms fail under the Soviet system in spite of the obvious interest of respective ruling groups in improving the performance of their ailing economies ? The author stresses the explanatory framework of the "new economic history" pointing at the wealth distribution under the Soviet system as the very important variable.
In the first section the author explains how wealth distribution determines attitudes of the ruling stratum, consisting of party apparatchiks, bureaucracy (mainly economic one), police and military. All of them benefit from the maintenance of the political system because they get a larger part of the created wealth than they would have got under the representative democracy. But on top of that two segments of the ruling stratum uniquely benefit also from the persistent interference in the wealth creation process itself through nomenklatura and privileged access to goods in short supply.
Since market-type reforms would do away with the loyalty-based nomenklatura (managerial nominations would have to be based on merit) and equilibrium prices would wipe out the benefits of privileged access, party apparatchiks and economic bureaucracy are dead set against any serious changes in the economic system.
In the second section the author explains the unremitting hostility of these two segments of the ruling stratum toward the private sector, applying the same method of analysis, i.e. wealth distribution approach.
The third section deals with the moves of party apparatchiks and economic bureaucracy if and when economic reforms are envisaged or introduced. Since it is these two segments of the ruling stratum that are charged with implementing reforms, they have ample room for manœuvre in their moves aimed at aborting or reversing reforms. Next, the modus operandi of "counterreformers" is explained in some detail.
The ruling group finds itself between the need to improve ailing performance of the economy and the necessity to keep intact the benefits of these segments of the ruling stratum that benefit from the status quo. And because it depends primarily upon precisely these segments to stay at the top, it choses to do nothing or to make limited changes that do not affect either the performance or the structure of benefits.
In the last section some recent attemps at economic reforms are evaluated in terms of the analytical framework set forth in the previous sections.