Suchergebnisse

Проведенный в ноябре-декабре 2006 г. представительный опрос экономически активного населения продолжает серию обследований, направленных на получение надежных данных о переходе российского общества к новой системе социальной стратификации, характеризующей особый тип социального устройства современной России, который рассматривается нами как прямое продолжение существовавшей в СССР этакрати-ческой системы. Предшествующие обследования проводились в 1994 и 2002 гг. по аналогичной схеме выборки и с использованием аналогичных показателей, спектр которых расширялся и уточнялся с учетом меняющейся социальной ситуации и в связи с анализом результатов предыдущих опросов. Таким образом, мы располагаем надежной и довольно емкой информационной базой, позволяющей на основе сравнительного анализа изучить динамику социальной структуры российского общества в постсоциалистический период и исследовать стоящие за этим социальные процессы. За последние 15 лет в России произошли серьезные качественные изменения в характере социального воспроизводства. Они затронули состав и структуру различных социальных групп как на верхних ступенях социальной иерархии, так и на средних и низших. Кроме того, изменилась сама система статусных индикаторов, по которым определяется положение индивида или группы в социальной иерархии. В данной работе мы акцентируем внимание на некоторых значимых данных, раскрывающих социально-профессиональную структуру населения постсоветской России и изменения в иерархии социальных групп за 1944-2006 гг. ; The representative survey of Russian economically active population conducted through November-December 2006 goes in line with our previous surveys. The aim of those was to provide reliable data on transition of Russian society to a new system of social stratification, which specifies a particular type of social structure in contemporary Russia. We regard the latter as a direct extension of the etacratic system, which existed in USSR. The previous surveys took place in 1994 and 2002 based on similar sample schemes and using similar indicators, the range of which varied according to current changes in social situation and former experience. Thus we now own a reliable and rather significant database which allows us to conduct a comparative study of the dynamics of social structure in post-socialist Russia and the underlying social processes. During the last 15 years the nature of social reproduction in Russia has undergone serious changes. Those have also affected the structure and population of different social groups. Besides, the system of status indicators, which determine an individual's or a group's position in the social hierarchy, has itself undergone transformation. In this paper we review some significant data, which reveal some of the particularities of social reality in the post-Soviet Russia and the hierarchy of social groups through 1994-2006. In this research we are attempting to discover the real social groups and study their real economic, political and other resources (human, social and cultural capitals). We also draw our attention to the reproduction of these strata and individual social statuses and study the corresponding influence of various institutional factors. Until now, the predominant approach in modern literature relies on the analysis of the data concerning nominal social strata and individual inter-generational (father-son, mother-daughter) and intra-generational (career) social migrations of individuals through nominal social positions. We aim at studying latent factors of reproduction of real social strata in transforming society, i. e. in the situation when "the list" and the characteristics of these social strata and groups are changing. In other terms, we switched from the analysis of statistic (nominal) groups, singled out by formal characteristics, to the analysis of real social reproduction of real social groups and strata. The unit of measure in this context is an individual. We look at social institutions as the environment of existence, production and reproduction of individuals, forming social groups. This environment "charges" individuals with resources, which predetermine their social position and their position in social nejt-works. In this connection we analyze the resources, created by the institutions of family and education. The first institutional factor is the family (parental families of respondents and their own families) by the indicators of social status in the context of our conceptual approach by affiliation with real social groups. Status is measured by the following integral indicators authority, property, cultural capital. As the second institutional factor of social and demographic reproduction we use the institution of education, which has the Summaries189 following empirical indicators: standard of education of parents (both father and mother) by the moment of the beginning of respondent's labor activity, standard of respondent's education at various stages of his life (by the beginning of labor activity, at the age of 30, at the moment of the survey), and standard of education of his own family. The third factor is regional peculiar combination of social institutions, which becomes apparent in the type of settlement, where a respondent lives. In the current article we constrain ourselves to a preliminary discussion of some of the results concerning the state and dynamics of social stratification in Russia on the basis of sociooccupational groups, which were constructed through occupational aggregations of RG-100 classificator, developed in earlier research of one of the authors of this project. In order to construct our hierarchy of sociooccupational strata we analyzed the differences, which arise in the resources and potentials of their members.

Im Blickfeld der ethnologischen Untersuchung stehen Angehörige der Gruppe der indigenen Kari'ña in Venezuela. Ihr Siedlungsgebiet in den Wäldern der Sierra Imataca im Südosten des Landes und im angrenzenden Guyana wird von internationalen Umweltorganisationen zu den wichtigsten hotspots biologischer Vielfalt in Lateinamerika gezählt. Zugleich steht es im Brennpunkt jüngerer Entwaldungsdynamiken und Konflikte um den Schutz und die Nutzung tropischer Wälder in Venezuela. Die aktuelle Erschließung von Holz und Gold im großen Maßstab im Siedlungsgebiet der Kari'ña evoziert zunächst eine bekannte Problematik indigener Tropenwaldbewohner, deren Lebensräume vielerorts von massiven externen Interessen an natürlichen Ressourcen bedroht sind. Die Dissertation analysiert die Zusammenhänge und Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Prozessen externer Ressourcenerschließung und den sozialen und kulturellen Folgen vor Ort. Ausgehend von einer Kritik an gängigen Erzählfiguren über indigene Tropenwaldbewohner und ihnen inhärente Annahmen über das Zusammenwirken von Ressourcenabbau, Kulturwandel und Naturzerstörung postuliert die Arbeit die Notwendigkeit einer umfassenden historischen Betrachtung und Kontextualisierung der aktuellen Prozesse und Dynamiken. Die Analyse orientiert sich dabei an zentralen natürlichen Ressourcen, die die Begegnung der indigenen Kari'ña mit nicht-indigenen Akteuren bis heute in hohem Maße strukturiert haben. Grob nach ihrem historischen Erscheinen geordnet, sind dies Gold, Gummi, Öl, Holz und Biodiversität. Ihnen ist je ein Kapitel im Hauptteil der Arbeit gewidmet. Eine historische Betrachtung zeigt, dass mit der Gewinnung bzw. Erzeugung der verschiedenen natürlichen Ressourcen gleichermaßen die naturräumlichen Lebensbedingungen und die sozialen Verhältnisse der Kari'ña immer wieder transformiert wurden. Die durch den Ressourcenabbau losgetretenen Prozesse und Interaktionen zwischen beteiligten Akteuren und ihrer Umwelt nahmen historisch und ressourcenspezifisch jeweils charakteristische Formen und Verläufe an. Ihre Ausformung in der Region wurde dabei von vielfältigen Faktoren beeinflusst, die z.T. weit jenseits der Region ihre Ausgangspunkte und Antriebskräfte hatten, aber auch in der konkreten Materialität der Ressource selbst begründet liegen. Theoretisch wurde die Beziehung zwischen natürlichem Ressourcenabbau und indigenem Kulturwandel als ein Prozess der Koproduktion konzeptualisiert, an dem die Kariña aktiv beteiligt sind. Die Arbeit analysiert und beschreibt die wichtigsten sozialen und materiellen Veränderungen, die mit der Gewinnung der jeweiligen Ressourcen im Gebiet der Kari'ña einhergingen. Dabei zeigt sich, dass sich die Ressourcengeschichte der Kari'ña nicht als einheitlicher und geradliniger Prozess fortschreitender Entmächtigung und kultureller Auflösung darstellen lässt, wie es gängige Kulturwandeltheorien in diesem Zusammenhang oftmals nahelegen. Die Auswirkungen der verschiedenen Ressourcenbooms auf die in dem Gebiet lebenden indigenen Kariñagemeinschaften waren vielmehr sehr unterschiedlicher Natur und riefen auch bei den Kari'ña unterschiedliche Reaktionen hervor, die von totalem Rückzug und Flucht bis hin zur aktiven Beteiligung als wichtige Akteure im Erschließungsprozess reichen. Trotz immenser sozialer und ökologischer Verwerfungen wäre es verkürzt, die Kari'ña nur als Opfer der Entwicklungen zu sehen. Vielmehr gestalten sich die Bezüge der Kari'ña zu den verschiedenen Ressourcenfeldern insgesamt, wie die Arbeit zeigt, als eine komplexe und ambivalente Dynamik von produktiven Einschlüssen, aber auch neuen Ausgrenzungen, die im Einzelfall durchaus auch ermächtigend auf die Kari'ña zurückgewirkt und ihnen – zumindest zeitweilig – neue Handlungsmöglichkeiten eröffnet haben. Die Kari'ña, sozial zurückgezogen und wirtschaftlich arm, stehen heute im Brennpunkt neuer Konflikte um Migration, industriellen Bergbau und Holznutzung, um Naturschutz und Menschenrechte. Ihre aktuelle Situation, so das knappe Fazit der Arbeit, lässt sich im Lichte der historischen Gesamtschau, aber nicht angemessen als Begegnung von 'Tradition und Moderne', als 'Vorher-Nachher'-Szenario oder als neuer Gegensatz von Lokalität und Globalisierung fassen. Sie ist vielmehr nur in Anerkennung einer langen, sedimentierten Geschichte von Erfahrungen mit machtvollen externen Interessen an natürlichen Ressourcen in ihrem Gebiet zu verstehen. ; The ethnological study analyses the situation of the indigenous Kari'ña in Venezuela. They live in the Sierra Imataca forest reserve in the Southeast of Venezuela, a tropical forest area which international environmental organizations consider a major hotspot of biodiversity in Latin America. At the same time the area lies at the heart of recent conflicts about deforestation and conservation of tropical forests in Venezuela. The actual dynamics of industrial logging and gold mining in the region thus illustrates a familiar situation of indigenous tropical forest people as many indigenous territories worldwide are or have been affected by natural resource exploitation. The dissertation analyses the processes and dynamics between external resource use and local social change. Starting from a critique of popular images of indigenous forest peoples and underlying assumptions on the relationship between resource use, cultural change and deforestation, the study calls for a comprehensive historical approach and a thorough grounding of the actual dynamics. The analysis focuses thereby on the most important natural resources which until today have highly determined and structured the encounter between indigenous and non-indigenous actors in the region. Roughly ordered according to their historical appearance in the region the considered resources are gold, rubber, oil, timber and biodiversity. Each of them is dedicated a chapter in the book. The work shows that in the process of natural resource exploitation both the natural landscape and social conditions of the Kari'ña have thoroughly been transformed, each time in a new and specific way.Theoretically, the relationship between natural resource use and indigenous culture change is conceptualized as a form of co-production in which the Kari'ña also play an active part. The specific local manifestation of this co-production in the territory of the Kari'ña is influenced by many factors, local and global in reach, including also the specific materiality and qualities of the resource itself. The study analyses and describes the most important social and material changes affected by industrial exploitation of these natural resources in the territory of the Kari'ña. It thus becomes clear that this transformation process does not present a straightforward story of disempowerment and cultural disintegration and loss, as it is suggested by many popular assumptions on cultural change in this context. Rather, as it is shown, each resource considered not only has produced its very specific material and social effects, but often also has enfolded a complex and ambivalent dynamic of both empowering and marginalizing effects, which defies a simplistic reading of threatened indigenous cultures. At the background of this historical analysis, the actual marginality of the Kari'ña facing industrial logging and mining can not be adequately unterstood as a clash of tradition and modernity or as an recently enforced local/global encounter. Rather it is argued that their specific situation and cultural difference today has been multiply produced and shaped by a long history of exchange and interaction with powerful external interests on natural resources.

The surge of China as the workshop of the world has been founded on, among other things, a fundamental restructuring of the labour force. Massive unemployment in the state industrial sector is taking place simultaneously with momentous migration of peasants into global factories. Both the unmaking and the making of the Chinese working class are heavily shaped by the state. This paper traces the historical evolution of core changes in Chinese labour reform and worker entitlements: from the introduction of labour contracts to the promulgation of a national labour law, the demolition of work-unit socialism and its replacement with a national social security system. I also examine workers' livelihood struggles in response to this epochal transformation. The central problem for Chinese workers is not the new labour and welfare systems, but the wide discrepancies between the stipulation and the implementation of these new policies. The institutional source of these gaps, this paper argues, lies in two contradictions inherent in the strategy of Chinese reform. Firstly, the imperative to rely on local accumulation to fuel marketization clashes with the imperative to maintain legitimacy by providing a basic level of justice and welfare for the most disadvantaged. Local state agents are more interested in the former than the latter, especially when they can count on central government financial intervention to maintain social stability. The second contradiction in Chinese reform that is conducive to uneven protection of labour rights has to do with the illiberal nature of the Chinese legal system. The state uses the law as a means of controlling society, while allowing itself to remain mostly unrestrained by the law. When it is not in the interest of the local officials to enforce labour regulations, there is hardly enough countervailing authority-from the judiciary, for instance-to preserve the sanctity of the law. The result is that many workers, on seeing their legal rights and entitlements unjustly denied, and pressured by livelihood needs, become politically restive. Sharp increases of labour conflicts are accompanied by proliferation of labour activism, taking both conventional (that is, petition, labour arbitration and litigation) and unconventional (that is, protests, marches and road blockage) forms. The state has responded with measured mixes of concessions and repression. Economic and livelihood demands are recognized and, in many cases, at least partially answered by swift financial compensation doled out by the central or provincial governments. On the other hand, political demands such as those relating to the removal of officials and cross-factory actions are relentlessly suppressed and harshly punished. Protests notwithstanding, the Chinese Government has ardently pressed ahead with social security reform, targeting problem areas such as pension arrears, unpaid wages, unemployment benefits and medical insurance. Additional, earmarked funds are funneled from Beijing to provincial coffers to deal with social grievances that may erupt into social instability. There are also plans to systematically institutionalize the provision of legal aid to people who fall below a particular income level. Therefore, the Chinese state has responded to popular demands, if only slowly and selectively. Finally, both migrant workers and state workers are not totally dispossessed or proletarianized. Rural land rights for peasant migrants and private home ownership for state sector workers have functioned as safety valves to sooth the effects of massive unemployment and diabolical exploitation. Women in the two segments of the working-class examined here do face gender-specific difficulties. The disappearance of enterprise-based welfare means more demands put on the family unit to provide service and financial support. These domestic burdens are still borne predominantly by women. Also, women are among the first to be let go when enterprises restructure by down-sizing the workforce. Facing gendered disadvantages in the labour market, and under a welfare-entitlement regime based on employment rather than universal citizenship, female workers are likely to fall through the cracks of the new social safety net. The male bias in socialist allocation of housing in the past has inadvertently undermined women's opportunities to become homeowners when work units began privatizing welfare housing in the reform period. For young female migrants toiling in global factories, the lack of maternity benefits forces them to truncate their factory careers to give birth and take care of children and elderly kin. Recent legal changes in land use rights have the potential to encroach on women's equal access to land use, with grave long-term implications for female migrant workers' livelihood security. However, gender bias does not begin to capture the plight of millions of Chinese workers during the reform period. Middle-aged workers in the state sector, whether male or female, confront age discrimination, and migrant workers of both genders suffer from their caste-like status of being a rural resident. Unpaid wages and pensions will continue to plague the lives of both men and women in the working class, for as long as the legal system and the government fail to enforce the Labour Law.

Regionalization is an exceptionally complex and contradictory matter, and at the same time becoming very challenging in the last few years in conditions of accelerated changes in the world. It is believed that regionalization today is an unavoidable strategic action of directing development processes on a territory. One of the aims of regionalization is to bring economic, demographic and social development processes into accord. Discordance of demographic transition courses with economic development caused prominent changes and complex development problems on the territory of Serbia, which indicate that appropriate attention should be devoted to demographic occurrences and processes in the approach to its regionalization. Proceeding from this fact, the goal of this paper was to identify the problems of regional differentiation of geoterritory and determine the place and role of demographic regionalization in the procedure of scientific knowledge, territory differentiation and organization of geoterritory; to set the general definition of regionalism from the demographic aspect, in the sense of theoretical concept based on empirical research, so as to obtain a scientific framework for research and functional approach to recognizing contemporary problems of development and organizing population; to decide on principles and elements, and point out to the content, purpose and goals of identifying demo geographic regions, in a way which would be adequate for planning regional development and organizing geoterritories. Such a set research goal required that the total problem of demo geographic regionalization is set on a wider theoretical, but analytical context, which is defined by mutual dependence of demo geographic with other regional systems, as well as with global questions of regionalism and integration ways. Demo geographic regionalization is carried out on the basis of numerous research findings and corresponding empirical results, with an idea that it serves as a basis for macro regionalization, general geographic or administrative-management regionalization, as a "foundation" for territory planning or development policy. Global and specific perception of numerous relevant components of regionalization had been carried out, with a favorable circumstance and significant basis being the following research up to now: "Outline of constant regions for demographic research" and the study of the Geographic Institute "Demographic bases for regionalization of Serbia". Unlike demographic regionalizations, this paper insisted on demo geographic as a more complex approach, and a concrete contribution of this paper refers to defining basic principles and elements of regionalization whereby in the process of delimiting regions, numerous geographic, natural geographic, anthrop geographic, territory-economical and territory functional relations and connections, occurrences and processes were articulated apart from demographic. Although not shown in the paper, regionalization of various demographic, territorial-demographic and demo economic traits were carried out for the purpose of research, which were to show to what extent, in what direction, according to which principles and in what way it is possible to carry out demographic regionalization in Serbia. It should be noted that most research on the topic of demographic regionalization indicate that the importance of certain elements of regionalization is variable and that is dependent on the regional level, and that the population change during demographic transition imposes a necessity for introducing new indicators and elements of regionalization. Having in mind all the stated elements, territorial-functional relations, realized territorial-demographic structure of Serbia and tendencies of demographic courses, as well as territorial plan of isolated macro regional centers, confirming the homogeneity of demographic development of various regions, but also researching migration flows under the influence of push and pull factors during the process of industrialization, urbanization and land reclamation, the only possible demo geographic regionalization of Serbia was presented. The isolated regions are homogeneous in the sense of functional interdependence, because each represents a region which is territorially-functionally connected to a regional center; and heterogeneous of structure, because each region represents a symbiosis of urban, rural and transitional type of structure, which are a result of differentiation of development and demographic processes, and which imply a corresponding demographic development, dynamics and composition of population. The goal of this paper was to give theoretical-methodological frameworks and a broader basis for integration of certain territorial units into unique demo geographic regions of Serbia, which would still be in the function of complex regional research and regional planning. Anything more than that (especially from the aspect of micro or macro regionalization) would require a team work of a larger number of experts, an extensive statistical-analytical and research project, as well as sound knowledge of various local conditions, historical-geographic and civilization events which often require deviation from consistent application of formulated criteria and measures for regionalization. This means that the given proposals should be understood as a principled scheme, a general framework of the demo geographic regionalization of Serbia on the basis of interdependence of natural and economic wholes, their geographic-transportation and economic-gravitational connection, development processes and demographic courses. Every concrete requirement in future practice of planning or organization of geo-territory would require defining goals and principles of regionalization as well.

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PpBirkbeck College, University of LondonDietmar Rothermund, An economic history of India from pre‐colonial times to 1986 (Croom Helm, 1988. PpUniversity of BirminghamRyoushin Minami, The economic development of Japan: a quantitative study (Macmillan, 1986. PpLondon School of Economics & Political ScienceRichard Hodges, Primitive and peasant markets (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988. PpUniversity of Wales, SwanseaHubert H. Lamb, Weather, climate and human affairs: a book of essays and other papers (Routledge, 1988. PpJohn Kington, The weather of the 1780s over Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. PpLa Trobe University, MelbourneSolomos Solomou, Phases of economic growth, /S50‐/973: Kondratieff waves and Kuznets swings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. PpUniversity of WarwickE. J. Hobsbawm, The age of empire, 1875‐1914 (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987. PD. xii + AOA. 54 elates, n tables. 6 maps. 16.95)University of BristolE. L. 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E. B. Fryde, William de la Pole, merchant and king's banker, (1366) (Hambledon Press, 1988. PpGrenville Astill and Annie Grant, eds., The countryside of medieval England (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988. PpLondonSusan Dwyer Amussen, An ordered society: gender and class in early modern England (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988. PpThe Open UniversityEric Kerridge, Trade and banking in early modern England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988. PpGonville and Caius College, CambridgeRoger B. Manning, Village revolts: social protest and popular disturbances in England, 1509‐1640 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. PpLucinda McCray Beier, Sufferers and healers: the experience of illness in seventeenth‐century England (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. PpWellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, OxfordJ. S. Hurt, Outside the mainstream: a history of special education (Batsford, 1988. PpD.G. Wright, Popular radicalism: the working‐class experience, 1780‐1880 (London and New York: Lonsman. 1988. Po. x + 211. Paperback 5.95)Boyd Hilton, The age of atonement: the influence of evangelicalism on social and economic thought, 1795‐1865 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. PpWadham College, OxfordLilian Lewis Shiman, Crusade against drink in Victorian England (Macmillan, 1988. PpStewart Angas Weaver, John Fielden and the politics of popular radicalism, 1832‐1847 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. PpAlan Armstrong, Farmworkers: a social and economic history, 1770‐1980 (Batsford, 1988. PpFrank Neal, Sectarian violence: the Liverpool experience, 1819‐1914: an aspect of Anglo‐Irish history (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987. PpJudy Slinn, Linklaters & Paines: the first one hundred and fifty years (Longman, 1988. PpCity of London PolytechnicW. J. Reader, The history of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1871‐1971 (Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1987. PpWilliam P. 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Pryor, Geography, technology and war: studies in the maritime history of the Mediterranean, 649‐1571 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. PpDavid Cressy, Coming over: migration and communication between England and New England in the seventeenth century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. PpPolytechnic of North LondonMarcus Rediker, Between the devil and the deep blue sea: merchant seamen, pirates, and the Anglo‐American maritime world, 1700‐1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. PpDalhousie UniversityW. Ross Yates, Joseph Wharton, Quaker industrial pioneer (London: Golden Cockerell Press/Associated University Presses, 1988. PpLondon School of Economics & Political ScienceDavid Eltis, Economic growth and the ending of the transatlantic slave trade (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. PpRider College, New JerseyDavid C. Klingaman and Richard K. Vedder, (eds.,) Essays on the economy of the old northwest (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987. PpHarold van B. Cleveland and Thomas F. Huertas, Citibank, 1812‐197O (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986. PpBurton W. Folsom, Jr., Entrepreneurs vs the state: a new look at the rise of big business in America, 1840‐1920 (Young America's Foundation, 1987. PpJohn Opie, The law of the land: two hundred years of American farmland policy (Lincoln, Nebraska and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1988. PpM. J. Heale Wayne Lewchuk, American technology and the British vehicle industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. PpMichael A. Bernstein, The Great Depression: delayed recovey and economic change in America, 1929‐1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. PpHimanshu Prabha Ray, Monastery and guild: commerce under the Satavahanas (Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1987. Pn. vr + 13.50)Ashin Das Gupta and M. N. Pearson, India and the Indian Ocean, 1500‐1800 (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1987. PpPembroke College, CambridgeAmiya Kumar Bagchi, The evolution of the State Bank of India. Vol. I: The roots, 1806‐1876. Part I. The early years, 1806‐1860; Part II. Diversity and regrouping, 1860‐1876 (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1987. Part I: PpKeijiro Otsuka, Gustave Ranis, Gary Saxonhouse, Comparative technology choice in development: the Indian and Japanese cotton textile industries (Macmillan, 1988. PpLondon School of Economics and Political ScienceFrank H. H. King, The history of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Volume I, The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank in late imperial China, 1864‐1902: on an even keel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, PpVictor Bulmer‐Thomas, The political economy of Central America since 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. PpBill Albert and Adrian Graves, (eds.), The world sugar economy in war and depression, 1914‐40 (London and New York: Routledge, 1988. Pp

[SPA] El hormigón armado es hoy día uno de los materiales más durables y versátiles que se utilizan en construcción, pero, debido a su porosidad, es susceptible de sufrir deterioro provocado por la penetración de agentes agresivos. En el caso de estructuras sometidas a ambiente marino es el cloruro el agente agresivo dominante que puede llegar hasta la armadura de acero provocando daños en la misma. Por tanto, es importante conocer bien cuáles son los mecanismos que influyen en la penetración de cloruros en la estructura de hormigón con objeto de desarrollar un modelo matemático completo que represente este proceso. La presente tesis se centra en el desarrollo de un software que permite determinar la vida útil de las estructuras de hormigón armado en medio marino, y puede aplicarse tanto para determinar el tiempo remanente de uso de las estructuras existentes como para ayudar en el diseño de las formulaciones de los hormigones en el caso de nuevas construcciones. El modelo matemático, planteado en 1D, tiene en cuenta todos los procesos que intervienen en la penetración de cloro en el hormigón: difusión (debida a diferencias de concentración en el soluto), migración (debida al potencial eléctrico que generan las diferentes cargas), advección o arrastre (debido a diferencias de presiones) y succión capilar (que depende de la presión capilar y que se da principalmente cuando la estructura está sometida a procesos de secado-mojado). Por otro lado, el modelo también tiene en cuenta diferentes mecanismos que actúan como sumideros de cloro como son la formación de sales que, o bien quedan adheridas a las paredes de los poros o bien precipitan en el caso de que haya una sobresaturación de iones cloruro. En ambos casos, a diferencia del cloro libre, no consiguen recorrer toda la red de poros y por tanto no llegan hasta la armadura. Una vez concretadas las ecuaciones de gobierno y las condiciones de contorno se aplica el Método de Redes que, mediante la discretización de las principales ecuaciones que controlan el proceso, da lugar a un modelo en red formado por 23 redes básicas y 8 redes auxiliares. Este modelo se ha implementado en MATLAB® y NgSpice y se ha aplicado a diferentes escenarios, todos ellos en ambiente marino. Para la validación del método se han utilizado los datos extraídos tanto de materiales encontrados en la bibliografía como los datos de los materiales que hemos ensayado en el marco de este trabajo. En este sentido, se han realizado ensayos tanto de caracterización de las materias primas y hormigones utilizados, como ensayos de campo sobre probetas de hormigón que se dispusieron en el puerto de Cartagena, sumergidas y en ambiente aéreo. [ENG] Reinforced concrete is nowadays one of the most durable and versatile materials used in construction but, due to its porosity, it can be damaged as a consequence of aggressive agents ingress. In the case of structures subject to marine environment, chloride is the dominant aggressive agent that can reach the steel frame causing damage. Therefore, it is important to know the mechanisms that influence the chloride ingress in the concrete, in order to develop a complete mathematical model that represent this process. The present thesis is focused in the development of a software capable of predicting the reinforced concrete structures service life in marine environment. This software can be implemented for both remaining service life of existing structures and design of concrete prescriptions in the case of new buildings. The 1D mathematical model takes into account all the different processes involved in the concrete chloride ingress: diffusion (due to concentration differences in the solute), migration (due to the electrical potential caused by the different charges), advection (due to pressure differences) and capillary suction (depending on the capillary pressure and mainly in wet-dry processes). Furthermore, the model also considers different mechanisms that act like "chloride-sinks" such as salt formations that get caught in the pore walls or precipitate when there is an oversaturation of chloride. In both cases, unlike free chloride, they do not manage to cover the entire pore network and therefore they do not reach the steel frame. Once the government equations and the boundary conditions have been stablished, the Network Method is applied by means of the dicretization of the main equations that control the process, resulting in a network model formed by 23 basic and 8 auxiliary circuits. This model has been implemented in MATLAB® and NgSpice and has been applied to different scenarios, all of them in marine environments. In order to validate the method, data extracted of materials found in the bibliography as well as data from materials tested within the framework of this work have been used. In this sense, characterization tests on raw materials and concretes have been conducted as well as field tests on specimens submerged and placed under air conditions in Cartagena Port. ; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa de Doctorado en Modelización y Tecnología en Ingeniería Civil, Minera y Ambiental

The author, who travelled in southern Arabia during the winter 1958/59 together with Prof. H. v. Wissmann and Colonel D. van der Meulen, attempts in this contribution to demonstrate the changes in population and economic geography which have occured in Hadramaut during recent decades. Ḥaḍramaut as now understood forms the major part of the British Eastern Aden Protectorate. It consists of three physical regions: 1. The coastal area, occupied by sand and pebble deserts, the Harra surfaces of recent volcanic origin and a marginal mountain chain of pronounced relief. 2. The Djöl, a raised platform consisting mainly of early Tertiary limestone which in the west, opposite the highland of Yemen, commences with a clear scarp and submerges northwards under the sands of the Ruh' al-Khälï. 3. According to physical character the wadies which are incised in the Djöl and which collect in the Wädï Ḥaḍramaut, a vale of 2—4 Km width running in a west-easterly direction, must be taken as a physical region in its own right. The potentialities for farming in the Hadramaut are very limited; they only exist in the oases of the coastal region and in the wadies whereas most of the Djöl merely serves as a passage for the Bedouins. Thus Ḥaḍramaut, even under optimum conditions, has only been able to feed about a quarter of its inhabitants with home produced foodstuffs. These unfavourable natural conditions early forced the Hadärim to emigration. Initially it was to nearby areas on the Red Sea coast and in Eastern Africa where South Arabic settlement colonies existed as early as the time of the birth of Christ. From the beginning of the last Century onwards, however, South-East Asia, in particular Singapore, Java and Sumatra, became the most favoured destinations for migration. As a result before World War II the number of Arabs from Ḥaḍramaut in the Dutch East Indies had reached about 90,000. Since the emigrants always aimed to return eventually to their homeland after years of absence, the dose links with Indonesia have found a clear reflection in Ḥaḍramaut itself. It is apparent in the architecture of the urban settlements, in eating habits and also anthropologically in considerable Malayan traces amongst many families of the economically most successful upper classes. These contacts with the outside world, however, weakened the authority of the religious leaders, the "Seyyids", descendants of Mohammed, who by means of successful business in foreign countries had themselves amassed the greatest wealth. They were neither any longer able to mediate in the numerous feuds which the vendetta made flare up again and again, nor to stem the continuing loosening of the tribal structure and to put an end to the internal disunion of the country which nearly amounted to a latent state of war. Only the truce of 1937, achieved with British help, brought an end to these troubles and provided the possibility of undertaking various development schemes, e. g. the improvement of communications. The most important consequence was the opening of the access to the Wädï Ḥaḍramaut which the conservative and strongly anti-foreign Population had prevented so far. A period of drought during World War II, which reached catastrophic proportions, and a recession of emigration, which because of the changed political Situation could no longer be resumed on the former scale even after the war, have eventually forced Hadramaut to take all measures to use the indigenous possibilities to a greater degree and increase agricultural production. Irrigation, both by utilisation of the episodic floods (seyls) and permanent irrigation by means of wells, has especially been developed. Many newly built dams utilise the floods; the success achieved by this means in Ḥaḍramaut itself is only modest whereas, in Abyan, about 50 Km to the east of Aden it was possible to develop seyl irrigation on a large scale resulting in considerable progress. By means of compact installations for distribution of the water and an extensive network of irrigation ducts which are safeguarded against "seyl erosion" it was possible to expand the cultivated area, especially for cotton growing, to 18,000 ha and to provide the basis of existence for 5,000 farm units. In the case of the development of irrigation from wells it was less the construction of new installations but the introduction of technological improvements for lifting the ground water, viz. the installation of diesel pumps into the existing well shafts. At the end of 1958 about 1,000 wells, approximately half the total of the Wädi Ḥaḍramaut, were used that way. As a consequence the oasis economy of the Wädi Ḥaḍramaut experiences not only an increase of its area but also a shift towards cultivation of crops with higher yields in which process wheat comes to dominate agricultural production to a higher degree than hitherto. High production costs are, however, a handicap to the development of agriculture. They are a consequence of the still inadequate communications and the unhealthy social conditions of the agricultural population; these arise from the share cropping and tenant farm Systems of the Middle East and further from the contempt in which agricultural work is held by large sections of the population.

Systematische Angriffe auf die Geschlechtergerechtigkeit verschärfen sich weltweit und sind in einigen EU-Staaten bereits Teil des Regierungshandelns. Als Infragestellung basaler Menschenrechte und zumeist rechtspopulistisch bzw. fundamentalistisch motiviert gefährden sie die Demokratie. Aus internationaler und interdisziplinärer Perspektive analysieren die Beiträger*innen des Bandes Anti-Genderismus als strategisches Mittel der Emotionalisierung, Mobilisierung und Vernetzung innerhalb des rechten Spektrums und einer im Entstehen begriffenen religiösen Rechten. Mit besonderem Fokus auf die Situation einiger ostmitteleuropäischer Staaten und unter Einbezug von Erfahrungen aus dem LGBTIQ*-Aktivismus erörtern sie, wie dieser Entwicklung konstruktiv-widerständig zu begegnen ist.

Die vorliegende Studie beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, wodurch der Studienerfolg sowie der berufliche und akademische Verbleib von Hochschulabsolventen beeinflusst werden. Datenbasis sind Vollerhebungen der Abschlussjahrgänge 2011 und 2014 der Fachhochschulen und Universitäten in Nordrhein-Westfalen, die im Rahmen des Kooperationsprojekts Absolventenstudien (KOAB) jeweils 1,5 Jahre nach Abschluss als Onlinebefragung durchgeführt wurden. Als zentrale Erfolgsmerkmale werden das Einhalten der Regelstudienzeit, die Examensnote, die Studienzufriedenheit, der Übergang vom Bachelor- ins Masterstudium und der nach Abschluss erzielte Stundenlohn untersucht. Die Anlage der Untersuchung ermöglicht es, zeitliche Veränderungen sowie regionale Unterschiede im Vergleich zu Hochschulen aus dem übrigen Bundesgebiet zu betrachten.
Ein besonderer Schwerpunkt wird auf Unterschiede zwischen Fachhochschulen und Universitäten sowie die Analyse sozialer Ungleichheiten gelegt: Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Absolventen aus akademischem Elternhaus mit dem Studium zufriedener sind und nach einem Bachelorabschluss häufiger ein Masterstudium aufnehmen als Erstakademiker. Die Examensnote und das Einhalten der Regelstudienzeit korrelieren nur an Universitäten positiv mit der Bildungsherkunft und nicht an Fachhochschulen. Absolventen mit Migrationshintergrund erzielen an beiden Hochschularten geringere Studienleistungen und sind nach dem Studium häufiger arbeitssuchend als Absolventen ohne Migrationshintergrund. Frauen schließen ihr Studium zwar erfolgreicher ab als Männer, sind damit aber weniger zufrieden, wechseln etwas seltener in ein Masterstudium und erzielen geringere Stundenlöhne. Mithilfe von Regressionsanalysen wird versucht, Einflussfaktoren des Studien- und Berufserfolgs zu identifizieren und die beschriebenen sozialen Ungleichheiten zu erklären. Neben soziodemographischen Merkmalen werden unter anderem Bildungsbiographien (Abitur, Schulleistung, Berufsausbildung, Studienfach) und individuelle Studienbedingungen (Studienfinanzierung, Studium mit Kind) als Einflussfaktoren untersucht.

This report on the German results of the Integration of the Second Generation in Europe (TIES) survey looks at the integration process for second generation inhabitants of Turkish and Yugoslavian backgrounds living in Berlin and Frankfurt. Examining the TIES results, Inken Sürig and Maren Wilmes discuss diverse topics such as educational outcomes, segregation and housing, ethnic and cultural orientations, and social relations.