Any paper describing new developments in open access policies and mandates risks being out-of-date almost before it is finished. New policies from governments, research funding bodies, and individual institutions around the world are announced weekly. This paper attempts to describe some of the most recent and important policies and mandates, and puts these policies into the context of wider social pressures on scholarly communication. Finally, the papers attempts to sketch some of the ways in which the library community can react to the changing scholarly communication environment.
Latin Americanists have devoted considerable attention over the past two decades to the relationship between economic growth and social inequality. A bibliography of the articles and books on the consequences of development for income, class, and gender would surely run to many pages. Yet within that impressive literature, much less attention has been given to the ways that structural changes have altered racial inequalities. Scarcer still are empirical analyses that document the manner in which changes over time have affected women and men within different racial groups.
During the past thirty years there has been an increasing awareness that in order to achieve the maximum utilization of available water resources the development of each river basin should be considered as an entity. One instance in which the concept was thoroughly applied, whether or not properly, was the Tennessee Valley Authority. Effective conservation and flood control practices must begin in the upper reaches of a watershed in order to be effective. Normally the best dam sites are located in the more mountainous terrain, distant from the cities and irrigated farm lands.
This essay uses established United Nations treaties and agreements on human "development" and progress, that were part of the post World War II consensus, as a basis for rediscovering and reaffirming those "universal development goals" that were intended to be the measure of "development" success within all of the world's countries and that can be recognized again as the U.N. sets its agenda and measures for post-2015 "development goals". The author notes how the U.N.'s "Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)" established for 2001 to 2015, abandoned the earlier global consensus to substitute a narrower vision duplicating the "civilizing mission" of European colonialism. This approach undermined global aspirations and substituted a vision of homogeneity and basic needs with no possibility for progress. Current attempts to "fix" the failures of the MDGs with "Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)" continue to subvert the earlier agreements. The 13 principles for development that the international community outlined as the basis of humanity's development vision after World War II can serve as the basis for contemporary "Universal Development Goals."
The economy of Bangladesh has experienced significant shifts in trade, fiscal, industrial, agricultural and financial policies over last two decades. Bangladesh is significantly dependent on external resources and at the behest of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, Bangladesh adopted a set of structural adjustment policies that impacted on all sectors of the economy and every aspect of the short- and medium-term economic management. The key sectors embodying the pace of reforms are agriculture industry, external trade, finance and banking and foreign exchange. The reform process has been discussed in detail in the literature (see for example, Jahan, 1998; Hossain and Alauddin, 2005; Sobhan, 1996). This paper does not repeat their arguments. Suffice it to say that reforms under the structural adjustment programme were activated through a set of comprehensive economic policies through which the government (a) acted directly to restructure taxation and the provision of social services, and (b) intervened in the market to change pricing behaviour to create a favourable environment for investment and growth. On the whole, therefore, the reform process represents significant changes in policy direction in almost all spheres of economic activity in Bangladesh. The policy base has shifted primarily from one of state interventionism to one of greater reliance on the operation of the market forces. This paper provides a broad overview of the recent developments in the Bangladesh economy paying particular attention to the trade liberalization phase. Section 2 examines the performance of the Bangladesh economy in terms of broad economic indicators including growth rates in GDP its composition and stability. Section 3 discusses the performance of the external sector and implications of the changes that it has experienced. It argues that despite significant changes, the Bangladesh economy lacks diversification and rests on a narrow base. Section 4 overviews the environmental implications of growth and change in the Bangladesh economy. Section 5 presents some further observations on the process of development. Section 6 concludes the paper.
The rise of mobile communication has been remarkable. This is especially the case in developing countries. This trend serves as the background to the emerging academic field of Mobile Communication for Development (M4D) to which we devote this paper. While access is still an important obstacle, there is no doubt that the proliferation of mobile telephony in developing countries has opened up a range of possibilities and new avenues for individuals, governments, aid agencies and NGOs. However being an emerging academic field there is need for greater conceptual and methodological rigour in the conduct of research as well as theoretical and methodological development. This paper will give a background of the field, an overview of research being carried out and challenges ahead. The aim of presenting this paper is to explore the possibility of establishing M4D as a research priority for Southern African - Nordic cooperation. ; Only the abstract has been peer-reviewed. The attached fulltext of the presentation has not been published elsewhere.
This paper reviews four decades of economics research on the brain drain, with a focus on recent contributions and on development issues. We first assess the magnitude, intensity and determinants of the brain drain, showing that brain drain (or high-skill) migration is becoming the dominant pattern of international migration and a major aspect of globalization. We then use a stylized growth model to analyze the various channels through which a brain drain affects the sending countries and review the evidence on these channels. The recent empirical literature shows that high-skill emigration need not deplete a country's human capital stock and can generate positive network externalities. Three case studies are also considered: the African medical brain drain, the recent exodus of European scientists to the United States, and the role of the Indian diaspora in the development of India's IT sector. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the analysis for education, immigration, and international taxation policies in a global context.∗
Asian Development Outlook is the main economic forecasting product from ADB. It is published each April with an Update published in September and brief Supplements published in July and December.
Interdisciplinary Community Development: International Perspectives is a unique look at the innovations in interdisciplinary community development around the world. International leaders in geography, public policy, administration, social work, education, and public health explore the latest research, programs, and approaches to promote strategies that foster social justice, health, peace building, and others. This book clearly defines the ambiguous concept of community development, and examines successful strategies and approaches for the betterment of society. Projects hi
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This research deals with the relationship between economic quality of institutions and economic development. For obtaining the value quantification of institutional quality, we measured rankings of 138 most important national economies based on three pillars of competitiveness, and we used Gross national product per capita to measure development. We applied Spearman`s rank correlation coefficient based on these two parameters for measuring the relationship between ranking of national economies. There is no doubt that a strong direct relationship was recognised. The value of the result lies in the identification of institutional economics as the major cause for different development levels of certain countries. This implies that in case of value measurement of our country, also the most efficient tool would be to put focus on increase of institutional quality.
In local autonomy era to achieve target of tourism development is required a strategy through policies and steps that must be implemented continuously. This policy is defined as a guide in conduct tourism both national and regional level. This paper is intended to explain the policy of East Java government in developing sustainable tourism. This qualitative research used literature approach. The data analysis used descriptive analysis. The results of this literature study showed that sustainable tourism development in the region has three dimensions, namely economic, socio-cultural, and environment. These dimensions are based on the principle of justice that not only benefits the present generation, but also future generations. In addition, important factor in the development of tourism is the supervision of standards and quality of tourism services.
From the introduction: Global changes of the worldwide economy and free markets offer many business opportunities and advantages for multinational corporations (MNC), but also a lot of social challenges and ecological threats. In the last decades many scandals hit various industries for different casualities, for instance the oil industry for several oil spills, the mining industry for colaboration with corrupt governments and exposing workers to unsafe labor conditions, the clothing industry for exploiting employees or using child labor in sweatshops, the toy industry and other industries for importing tainted and unsecure products from China. As corporations have reaped the benefits of globalization and international trade, they are now, more than ever, demanded to take responsibility for the consequences resulting from their business activities. Due to the risk of a damaged reputation, loosing consumers and hence decreasing profits and as a result of public criticism, more and more corporations are pushed to change their business strategy in a way that fosters sustainable development. As the business world becomes smaller and more transparent, an increasing number of corporations are embracing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to demonstrate their stewardship. CSR is a concept that demands corporations to adress the economic, social and environmental impacts of their global operations while generating profits. The idea of CSR has become a concept that is growing in its importance and it is not only endorsed by corporations and organizations but also by individual consumer and governments. Henry Ford quoted once 'If there is any one secret of success, it lies in the ability to get the other person's point of view and see things form that person's angle as well as from your own.' This statement shows that companies striving to be economically successful are also demanded to consider the interests of all its multiple stakeholders. As corporations are gaining an increasing power and have an enourmous impact on the society in industrialized and developing countries, they are expected to respond to the societal demands and ecological concerns of all those who are affected by a company's business practices. The aim of this paper is to give a detailed overview of CSR with all its components and its implementation process into the overall business strategy. It analyzes the role corporations play or should play in fostering sustainable development and improve the welfare of the community where they operate. In the latter case, the focus will be on how CSR activities can be linked to international development and how they help to address the biggest challenge of the 21st century – to eradicate poverty. Chapter 2 describes the relation between corporations with its stakeholder versus its shareholders. Shareholders are at the same time stakeholders who have a stake in a company, but they have different interests in a corporation. This could lead to potential conflicts between short-term shareholders' expectations and long-term stakeholders' interests. An appropriate Corporate Governance (CG) practice is necessary to address these conflicts and to conciliate the interests of corporations' key stakeholders. CSR is seen as a corporation's obligation to respond to all stakeholders' expectations - not just to those of shareholders. To give a more detailed understanding of CSR, Chapter 3 outlines the historical evolution of corporate ethics and shows recent global economic trends that led to the fact that CSR has become so important in the 21st century. Furthermore, this chapter represents the main issues of CSR and the incorporation of this concept into the strategic management process. It highlights the importance of CSR communication and an effective Public Relation (PR) strategy for creating awareness about a company's CSR activities. Additionally, the different types of CSR programs – also known as Corporate Social Initiatives – are elaborated that help to support and create public awareness about social causes. Chapter 4 and 5 link CSR with international development and question corporations' role in fostering development. Chapter 4 focuses on the impact corporations have on the poor in developing countries and examines how CSR can help to create wealth and hence reduce global poverty. It further shows how corporations can address development challenges collectively by engaging in Public-Private Partnerships (PPP). It still exist a huge gap between CSR activities in industrialized and developing countries, which implies an additional challenge on promoting CSR standards on a national and international level. As the concept of CSR is often questioned by critics and free marketeers, the last chapter elaborates on the case against CSR and hightlights the different critic points that arise when companies claim to be socially responsible. These criticism has to be addressed in order to handle threats and opportunities in markets of great importance to organizations as well as in areas where problems occur.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Table of ContentsI Table of IllustrationsII List of AbbreviationsIII 1.Introduction1 2.Shareholder Value vs. Stakeholder Value3 3.Corporate Social Responsibility6 3.1The Evolution of CSR6 3.2Trends in the Global Economy12 3.3Main Issues of CSR17 3.3.1Corporate Governance17 3.3.2Stakeholder Management18 3.3.3Competitive Advantage22 3.3.4Marketplace26 3.3.5Workplace28 3.3.6Environment34 3.4The Strategy Context of CSR39 3.4.1CSR Implementation Process39 3.4.2CSR as a Public Relations Strategy48 3.4.3Corporate Social Initiatives51 4.The Importance of CSR for International Development65 4.1CSR - A useful concept for poverty reduction?66 4.1.1The Supply Side67 4.1.2The Demand Side70 4.1.3The Government Side72 4.2The importance of PPP74 5.Critiques of CSR79 6.Conclusion86 AppendicesIV Appendix 1: Different ChartsIV Appendix 2: International Organizations promoting CSRX Appendix 3: International CSR Instruments and InitiativesXIII Appendix 4: International CSR StandardsXV Appendix 5: International CSR Rating InstitutionsXVII ReferencesXVIIITextprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 4.1, CSR – A useful concept for poverty reduction? Almost half of the world's population (2,7 billion people) lives on less than US2$ a day and another 1,2 billion people have not even US$1 a day to survive. Eleven million children under the age of five die every year from malnutrition and preventable diseases. Everyday over 6,000 people die from and another 8,200 people are infected with HIV/AIDS. Every minute a woman in the world dies in pregnancy or childbirth. Every 3,6 seconds a person somewhere dies of starvation and the lack of access to clean water. It is against these facts and due to the failure of governments and their international arms to address questions of underdevelopment that the corporate sector with its economic power is increasingly demanded to cope with key global challenges of the 21st century. Axel Hesse, a consultant for Sustainable Development Management, ascertained in his dissertation the 'six most important global challenges for sustainable development' are: climate change, water shortage and pollution, deforestation and desertification, biodiversity loss, population growth and migration – all which have an huge impact on poverty in the world. Altough poverty alleviation is not an explicit component of CSR, this section analyses to what extent multinational corporations are able to reduce global poverty with CSR programs. Here the focus will be on multinational corporations who have a wholly owned subsidiary, a joint venture or a major supplier in developing countries. Hence, not the private sector as such will be examinated but rather multinational corporations and the impacts of their FDIs on poverty in the developing world. A direct relationship between FDIs and poverty allevation cannot be established as FDIs in host countries create economic growth which in turn is recognized as a powerful force to fight global poverty. However, MNCs foreign direct investment in developing countries depends on prevailing conditions in the host country in terms of stability, tax regulations, corruption, infrastructure and local foreign policies, laws and regulations. Even if corporations decide to make their investments in developing countries, the location of investment is a crucial factor for development since investments are often made in wealthier regions of host countries. The opportunities for and impacts on poor countries resulting from investments by MNCs and the incorporation of CSR in all their worldwide operations are analyzed in the following from the supply side (poor as producer) and the demand side (poor as consumers) as well as the government side of host countries. The Supply Side: Considering the poor as producer, MNCs can contribute to poverty alleviation by having both a direct effect on the poor through supplying jobs and income opportunities in their foreign affiliates and an indirect effect through creating a linkage to local firms and suppliers. First of all, an association will be drawn between MNCs and their direct impacts on poor communities. In the later case, it will be elaborated on the indirect impact MNCs have on the private sector in developing countries. Even if the total number of people employed in foreign affiliates of MNCs has increased three times, from more than 25 million in 1990 to 73 million workers in 2006, these numbers account only for a small proportion of the total number of poor people living on less than US$2 or US$1 a day. The problem with this is, furthermore, that mainly skilled workers are in these employments which means that the poor do not benefit from FDIs to such an extent. So, in which way can CSR contribute to address poverty considering that just some of the poor work directly for MNCs? MNCs can help to tackle poverty and development issues through carrying out core business activities in a proactive and responsible way which decreases negative impacts of business activities and increases its positive impacts. This can be done by generating income through creating jobs, developing capabilities of human resources, building local business linkages and other economic multipliers that are directed to poor communities in host countries. Other CSR strategies which companies can apply in their core business activities and which address poverty issues include the compliance with international norms, standards, codes of conduct and principles throughout the value chain. These principles include amongst others to treat employees fairly, to cover minimum marketplace standards if government laws are not available, to take actions that do no harm to the environment and to contribute to the welfare of the (poor) community. However, as the poor benefit more from jobs that are created indirectly by suppliers and suppliers of suppliers of MNCs, it is more essential to focus attention on the linkages of MNCs to the private sector of developing countries. The private sector is also the main area of economic growth which provides most job opportunities in developing countries. These are often jobs provided to the poor by small and medium-sized entreprises (SMEs), agricultural smallholders or those in self-employment. MNCs and international agencies have realized the SME potential in developing countries and have begun in their development efforts to contribute to SME development by providing credit and entrepreneurial training as well as by enhancing responsible business practices in supply chains. CSR in the supply chain of MNCs plays an important role for development as suppliers are the main connection between a corporation and the developing world. This is because many corporations outsourced or 'offshored' services and the manufacturing operations, which were usually produced onshore, to suppliers in developing countries. Many designer clothes and branded goods, for example, are basically produced in developing countries. Similarly, basic IT Services, back-office work and call centres were transfered to developing (emerging) countries like India or China. As a great impact of MNCs on the poor takes place through its supply chains, it is more essential to question: how far down the supply chain MNCs should go to ensure responsible business practices in all stages of the product buying process? As supply chains are long and complex, it poses real ethical challenges to corporations to identify abuses of any kind in suppliers' operations. MNCs often demand that their direct suppliers apply the same standards as they do, however, do not go farer down the supply chain. In this new business environment, where corporations and retailers face operational and reputational risks, if exploitative practices are discovered in their supply chains, MNCs have begun to map out their supply chains and to identify countries, suppliers that pose the greatest risk. More and more corporations establish auditing systems and adhere to international standards for their supply chains such as AA1000, SA8000 or FLA. These standards and the ILO core labor standards (ICLS) cover mainly labor issues typically included in corporate codes of conduct. In addition, the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Supply Chain Responsibility, an expansion of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises are standards for responsible business practices in the supply chains of MNCs. They are voluntary instruments promoted by governments among MNCs operating in their countries and serve as a tool to hold companies accountable for their global business and supply chain operations. Since these standards are voluntary, many companies still ignore to apply such standards in their supply chains. This was the result of a survey by Integrity-Interactive, a risk consultancy where 2000 big companies where surveyed on their supply chain practices. More than half of the respondents admitted that they are still lacking to apply ethic codes in their supply chains, but 42 % asserted that they are regularly assessing ethical risks in their supply chain. However, it more crucial to ask if not corporate buying practices and their expectations for greater efficiency put pressure on suppliers in the developing world to meet buying requirements which in turn cause exploitation of labor? For example, suppliers are often confronted with issues around flexibility (to respond quickly to costumers' demand) and seasonality (to cover demand for certain seasonal products) on the one hand, and price pressure on the other hand. Are not these factors drivers that lead to coercive and exploitative labor practices where workers have to work excessive overtime hours for minimal wages? The CSR aspect here is to ensure an ethical sourcing or trading by following the subsequent steps. In the first place, it is necessary to review a corporation's own purchasing and pricing practices which have negative effects on suppliers who then in turn cannot meet supply chain labor standards. Key labor standards in the supply chain could be covered by establishing a code of conduct developed by the corporation on its own or by an external organization such as the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI). The ETI is an initiative that sets minimum standards for labor and human rights practices within supply chains. By offering on-going training programs, buyers and employees can be trained on ethical buying practices. At the same time, it is necessary to carry out a risk assessment which identifies suppliers who do not comply with ethical standards. An audit management systems that involves visiting suppliers on side helps to assess suppliers' compliance with the established code of conduct. By drawing up improvement plans, corporations can ideally work together with their suppliers to implement the required standards. Finally, it is important to be transparent and to disclose responsible supply chain practices openly.
