The Multifaceted Commodification Processes and Transformations of Pastoralists in Lowland Ethiopia
In the lowlands of Ethiopia, the traditionally pastoralist Afar and Somali Regions, multifaceted transformations and commodification processes have taken place. This thesis focuses on these transformations by addressing their fundamental societal, economic, and environmental developments. Three papers were written to clearly demonstrate how such environmental, political, social and economic processes have shaped and continue to alter and impact Afar and Somali communities in Eastern Ethiopia. The first paper, Pastoral livelihoods under pressure: Ecological, political and socioeconomic transitions in Afar (Ethiopia) by Matthias Schmidt (lead author) and Olivia Pearson (2016) and published by the Journal of Arid Environments 124, 22-30, will be referred to as "Pastoral livelihoods under pressure" from this point forward. It addresses the various ecological, political and socio-economic changes currently transforming the rangelands and natural resources of the Afar pastoralists' ancestral domain, changes which are driven by factors such as recurrent droughts, overgrazing, erosion processes, alien plant invasion and governmental land policies. To assess how these inter-related changes are impacting the Afar and their livelihoods, empirical research was conducted in four villages in western Afar, with the results showing that environmental, institutional and cultural changes have weakened the position of the pure pastoralist and strengthened the move away from pure pastoralism towards agro-pastoralism. As introduced natural resource management strategies driven by land privatization alter common property resources, traditional practices and institutions lose power. While research clearly shows that the influence and control of indigenous institutions and cultural practices have diminished, the subsequent impact on future generations and Afar identity remains unclear. The second paper, by Olivia Pearson (lead author) and Matthias Schmidt (2017) Repercussions of Governance Institutional Changes on Communication Practices in Afar, Ethiopia has been accepted by the Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography and will be referred to as "Governance Institutional Changes" from this point forward. By examining local communication practices, this paper investigates the transition from informal and traditional Afar institutions to formal institutions occurring in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. As the role and importance of traditional institutions diminishes and the strength of introduced formal federal and regional governmental institutions increases, pastoralist and agro-pastoralists in western Afar have altered how and with whom they communicate. The decrease in traditional ecological, political and socio-economic settings has led to the Afar adapting their communication practices in order to navigate these new environments. An analysis conducted from empirical research conducted in four Afar villages illustrates changes in resident preferences when reporting concerns. Concerns are now primarily reported to local formal institutional representatives or government agents; however, residents still find it beneficial to report certain problems and concerns to traditional institutions. This transition has had a positive impact on females, who now report concerns directly to government officials. Conversely, the transition has spatial disadvantages due to the typical location of government officials in village and town centers; as Afar is a vast and lowly populated region, those residing further from their government representative are at a disadvantage. The final paper, by Olivia Pearson (lead author) and Matthias Schmidt (2017) Commodity Individuation of Milk in the Somali Region, Ethiopia has been accepted by Area and will be referred to as "Milk Commodity Individuation" from this point forward. This paper analyses one of the changes to livestock commodification in the Somali region of Ethiopia – the extent and implications of altering the social and cultural role of milk. Traditionally, livestock is a central Somali commodity, with herds specifically chosen for their ability to reside within the arid to semi-arid region and sustain pastoralist livelihoods. Somalis sell livestock and consume their meat and milk, which is a fundamental requirement for a healthy life; milk provides sustenance in an environment where resources are scarce and is also a traditional medicine. The commodity individuation of milk means that it is now sold by Somalis as an income generating tool, defying cultural traditions that declared the sale of milk to be taboo. Milk has been separated from its traditional function and context and is no longer solely food for livestock and Somalis but now also a source of income that is primarily managed by females. Traditional milk boundaries have been stretched and altered, with the commodity now managed through the informal relationships between buyers and sellers. To investigate the correlations between the three papers, each of which has its own unique theoretical framework, this booklet uses the results of the conducted research as indicators to identify the prevalent transformations and commodification processes present in the lowlands of Ethiopia. Castree's (2003) six distinct and inter-related elements of capitalist commodification – Privatisation, Individuation, Alienability, Abstraction, Valuation, and Displacement – are used for the data analysis. The discussion is divided into three categories, the first being the transformation and commodification of clan structures to highlight the juxtaposed valuation and devaluation of these structures. As the clan as an institution is replaced by formal institutions, its control over environmental, societal, and cultural management weakens. This devaluation occurs in parallel with the valuation assimilation of clan leaders and elders into formal institutions and as the clan as a commodity faces displacement, in particular the clan leader. The transformation and commodification of gender highlights the shift in gendered roles for both sexes and the increase in female mobility, with the sale of milk and other income generating activities fundamental to this transition. A shift in control over household management from male to female has occurred and has been supported by perceived female altruism. The final section deals with natural resources and their management and focuses on the key related transition and commodification practice – the privatisation of land and its resulting environmental and societal consequences. In conclusion, it is important to note that while these areas have become increasingly integrated into global systems, leaving behind many traditional institutions, the mentioned transformations and commodification processes will continue to evolve. Findings suggest that the Somali and Afar Regions will become increasingly influenced by outside forces and institutions, which will drive further change in the lives and livelihood practices of the lowland residents of Ethiopia's arid and semi-arid regions.
