Suchergebnisse

Issue 12.6 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1953 Pracfice Of ÷he H01y See, I I . Joseph F. Gallen Psychological Testing . William C. Bier The Eucharistic Fast . : . Hi~ary'R. Wer~s MOfU Proprio Jubilee . c.J. McNaspy Communications Questions and Answers News a'nd Views Book Reviews Index for 1953. VOLUME XII NUMBER 6 RI::VII::W FOR Ri::LIGIOUS VOLUME XII NOVEMBER, 1953 NUMBER CONTENTS NEWS AND VIEWS . 281 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE, II--Joseph F. ~Gallen, S.'J .2.8.5 BOOK NOTICES . 290, 316, 329 LETTER ON OBEDIENCI~ . . . 290 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING OF CANDIDATES AND THE THE-OLOGY OF VOCATION---Willlam C. Bier, S.J2.91 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 304 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST---Hilary R, Werts, S.J . 305 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE--C. d. McNaspy, S.J . 317 COMMUNICATIONS . 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 29. Correction of Subject by Immediate or Mediate Superior 322 30. Guidance of Subjects by Superiors . 322 31. Local Superior at Council Meeting . 323 32. Local Superior at General Chapter . 324 33. General Council and Suggestions to General Chapter . 324 34. Postulancy and Readmission . ." . 325 BOOK REVIEWS-- Religious Men and Women in the Code; Fundamental Psychiatry; Most Reverend Anthony 'j. Schuler, S.J., D.D.; I Want to See God 326 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 330 INDEX FOR VOLUME XII, 1953", . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1953. Vol. XlI, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May,,July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas,, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter 3anuary 15, 1942 at the Post Oflke, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J., Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. Adam C. Ellis, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Copyright, 1953, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before wrlfing to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. News and Views Psychological Testing When we last published an article on the psychological testing of candidates, a religious superior wrote an indignant letter cancelling his subscription and asserting that such testing interferes with the work of the Holy Ghost. Thatthis is a misconception should be evi-dent to all who read Father Bier's article in the present number and a s~cond article to be phblished in January. Whatever may be said 'for or against the value of psychological tests--and we do not claim to have all the answers--it seems clear enough that their use is no more an attempt to "naturMize" religious vocation than is the use of previous medical examinations. Educating Sisters We have just received a very yaluable brochure entitled Directorg of Catholic Women's Colleges with Facilities for the Education oF Sisters. This brochure gives tabulated i'nformation on colleges and motherhouses accredited to offer degree programs, detailing the par-ticular courses provided, the number of Sisters who could be cared for, and the conditions, financial and otherwise, under which they would be received. The information was gathered by the Commit-tee on the Survey Section on Teacher Education of the N.C.E.A. The reason for gathering the information was the fact that many of the smaller religious congregations of women do not have facilities for educating their own members and find the standard costs of "sending Sisters away" prohibitive. These congregations can obtain help from the larger congregations; and this Directorg will show at a glance where and how the help can be obtained. For further information, or for copies of the Directo~g, piease address: Sister Mary Gerard, O.S.F., Chairman, Directory Project, Alverno College, 3401 South 39th Street, Milwaukee 15, Wisconsin. Poor Clares The Poor Clares of New Orleans have prepared a file of at least one hundred 2-inch slides in .black 'and white for use in a still pro-jector. The photos were taken within the cloister, and every" part of the monastery is included. Also prepared is a brief description of every picture. The nuns will send'this file to any desiring to show 281 NEWS AND VIEWS Reoiew for Religious the slides tO interested groups, particularly, young ladies among whom there might be the possibility of a contemplative vocation. They will also send ~lratis literature for distribution, a set of seven large posters, and 6-inch dolls'd~es~ed as" Poor Clar~s. The remailing of, the small slide file is the only expense they would expect the user to assume. Those interested in this vocational project shQ~Id write to: Monastery of Saint Clare, 720 Henry Clay Avenue, N~w Orleans 18, Louisiana. New Indulgence For the purpose of 'increasing devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary ever more and more, Ou~ Holy Father, Pope Plus XII, in. an audience given to the Cardinal Major Penitentiary on March 30, 1953, granted in perpetuum an indulgence of fifty days, to be gained once a day, to those who, keeping on their person a duly blessed rosary of Our Lady, have kissed it devoutly.and at the same time have recited with a pious mind the words of the Angelic Salutation: "H~iil Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women, arid blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus." (Acta Apostolicae. Sedis, XXXXV [ 19 5 3 ], 31 1.) , Valuable Booklets The Grail Press, St. Meinrad, Indiana, has sent us two booklets of immense value for clerics. Both of them are re-editions. One is Rome and the Study of Scri_pture, which contains a collection of papal enactments on the study of Holy Scripture, together with deci-sions of the Biblica.1 Commission. The price is one dollar. The other booklet is The Popes and the Priesthood, which contains English translations of importgnt statements of the Holy See on the.priest-hoo. d. The price of this booklet is only fifty cents. Rural Parish I, Vorke;'s In our last number (see. p. 242) we promised a more complete account of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King. This apostolate was begun by Miss Alice Widmer, a graduate of.Webster College, Webster Groves, Missouri, and Miss LaDonna I-fermann, a graduate of Maryville College of the Sacred Heart, St. Louis. In the summer of 1941 they decided to devote ~heir lives to lay action for the salvation of souls and the extension of Christ's Kingdom by the igractice bf the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. That fall they heard Monsignor (later Bishop) Leo J. Steck speak of the'lick 282 Not~ember, 1953 NEWS AND VIEWS. of priests'in rural.areas, and th'ey: asked him whether they might help in one of these areas. With his assis'tance and that of Father William d. Pe~.old, they began work in the latter's parish of Cottleville, St. Charles Count'/, Mi'ssouri. During that same summer they learned to use the short breviary. The remainder of their story i~ told by tlSemselveL as follows: "Activities ir~ St. Ct~arles County, where we lived in two twelve: by-twelve-foot rooms in a portable schoolbuilding on thechurch grounds, included home visiting, care of the sick, helping the poor, Vacation schools, Sianday school for non-Catholic and pre-s~hool .Catholic children, craft classes for,, dhildren and adults, discussion Clubs in' the homes, w~rk with teen-agers, in'structions of converts'. distribution of Catholic literature and sacramentals, religious and social Welfare work. "Originally we had no thought of a continuing organizatio.n. As'we saw the needs and what could be done we went to see Car-dinal John d. Glennon of beloved memory', who had been a benefac-tor from the first. He encouraged us in our plans to £tevelop a per-manent organization and gave permission to solicit funds for~ p, er-manent home not to be located on parish grounds. Shortly there-after he died. "Sev, enteen months, later we discussed our future with Arch-bishop. Joseph E. Ritter. Three months afterwards he asked us;.to work'among.the miners and farmers of the tiff.aiea in Wash, ington County, the mbst e~ploited region in the St. Louis archdiocese. Through ,his generous assistance and that of Auxiliary Bishop: Charles tt.'Helmsing and Rev. Edward A. Bruemmer of Old Mines, we moved in September, 1949, to Fertile iri the Old Mines parish,of St. Joachim. We entered into parish, activity by beginning the in-struction of ninety-one public-school children and visitation in their homes and began extensive remodeling of an old brick residence eight miles from church. "The Rural Parish Worker program is adjusted to the,.needs of the area and is always pointed to the development of Christian homes and the strength.ening of parish life. In Washington County the following activities take precedence: ~eligiotis and social welfare work: distribution of food and ,clothing; transportation, to church, h.ospitals,_a.nd clinics; Sunday instruction classes; preparation of con-verts: home visiting, and instruction; interpretation of rights and 283. NEWS AND VIEWS duties as citizens; assistance in obtaining State and Federal benefits, doctors' care, hospitalization. "Some assistance is given to a few in adjoining parishes. HOw-ever, since.our home parish of St. ,loachim is one hundred and fifty square miles in size with poor and sometimes no roads,, it occupies most of our time. Attendance at civic meetings and participation in civic affairs are also on the agenda, as are outside works, such as land-scaping, building of small buildings, care of goats, and gardening when we can get to it. "Yearly summer sessions ~nd a year-of-service program are offered to young women thinking of the lay apostolate as a way of life or who wish to give at least part of their lives in. concentrated work for the restoration of Christ in society. "Last fall Rev. Bede Scholz, O.S.B., of Plus X Monastery in Labadie, Mo., was appointed by the Most Rev. Archbishop as our spiritual director. Father Bede, then at Conception Abbey, Concep-tion, Mo., had helped form us in the early days. (We would go for a week of spiritual refreshment to Conception.) Father Bede, Rt. Rev. Monsignor Martin B. Hellriegel, and Rev. Charles P. Schmitt were our spiritual advisers for several years when we lived in St. Charles County. "At the beginning we had literally nothing except a few dollars we had saved when working, a typewriter, phonograph and records ¯ bought for the work, our clothes and personal little belongings. Yet we have neve'r been in want and God has sent everything as it was needed for our neighbors and for us. Today many are assisting by prayer, donations of money and materials. The bills are always with us but we know that Almighty God is also, and we have no fears for the future. We know He will do with us as He wishes and that is all we want. It is with humble hearts that we look back over twelve years of labor in His vineyard and it is with confidence that we invite others--young women from all over the United States--to come to Fertile, to the Center of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King, and lend their talents and their labors in this rural aposto-late of service based on the spiritual arid corporal works of mercy for the glory of God and the development of Christian homes; to come to Fertile and help in the world-wide work "of the Church today-- the restoration of Christ to society." The address of the Rural Parish 'Workers of Christ the King is: Route 1, Box 194, Cadet, Missouri. 284 ¯ Pract:iceot: :he l-loly See, II Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. [The first part of this article was published in the September REVIEW, pp. 252- 72.] XII INDULTS OF SECULARIZATION New practice of the Holy See. Secularizati-on is the voluntary de-parture from religion, authorized by an indult of competent ecclesi-astical authority, in virtue of which the subject is separated com-pletely and perpetually from membership in the institute and is freed absolute.ly from all obligations contracted by. religious profession. Since secularization dispenses from all religious vows, even if solemn, it is co~nmonly also called a dispensation from the vows of religion. The Holy See alone may grant secularization in pontifical institutes; in diocesan congregations the Ordinary of the place where the, reli-gious is staying is also competent.34 .Indults of secularization granted by the Holy. See for those who are not priests now contain the following sentence: "This decree ceases to have any validity if not accepted by the petitioner within ten days after being informed of the executorial decree.'qs" It has long been a clea~ principle of canon law .that an indult of seculariza-tion, even ~hou.gh freely petitioned,, may be refused and has no effect until accepted by the religious in question,z6 If within the ten days: (a) the indult is expressly accepted, it becomes effective immediately;37 (b) the induli is neither accepted nor refused, it ceases to have any validity at the end of this period; (~') the indult is definitively refused, all validity of the indult cer-tainly ceases at the end of ten days and. at least more probably immediately upon the definitive refusal.3s In practice a new indult is to be petitioned if the religious repents of his refusal and wishes again 34Can. 638; Bouscaren. II, 173. 3s"Post decem dies a recepta comrnunicatione Decreti exsecutorialis, ex porte Oratoris (ricis), prasens Decretum, si non fuerit acceptatum, nullii~s roboris esto.'" Cf. Gu-ti& rez, CpR, XXIV (1953), 186-197. 36Bouscaren, I; 326. 37Cf. Creusen. ft. 332: Jombart, RCR, II (1926), 151; Piontek, 262 ft.: Ver-meersch, Periodica, XI (1923), 151. a8Cf. Guti~rrez. CpR, XXIV (1953),194-195: Goyeneche, CpR, XVIII (1937). 239-240:.Muzzarelli, p. 172; and Jombart, RCR, II 1926), 150-151, who ap-pears to hold the contrary. 285 ¯ JOSEPH 1:::. GALLEN for Religious to leave during the ten-davy period. ," The practice of the Holy See is not to grant the indult directly to the religious but to give to an intermediary person, for example, the local Ordinary, the f~iculty of granting the indult of secularization to the religious. The actual granting of the indult by this intermedia'ry person is called the executorial decree. The ten days begin to run -from the time the religious is officially notified of the granting of this executorial decree, not from the date of notification of the deciee of the Holy See. The day of notification is not computed. If the no-tification is given on August 1, the ten days expire at midnight of August 1 1-12. This time does not run for any period in which the religious was ignorant of or unable to exercise his right of acceptance and refusal. XII. GENERAL CHAPTER 1. Constitutions rec.ently appro~)ed by the Holy See. One congrega-tion of sisters had difficulty in persuading the S. C. of Religious to approve in a general revision of its constitutions the designation of the Secretary and Bursar General by appointment rather than by election. Appointment was approved about the same time in another general revision without any difficulty and had been permitted in some constitutions approved by the Holy See in the past. The num-ber in the grouping of the smaller houses for the election of delegates. is now rather constantly stated to be at least twelve and not more than twenty-three professed. The S. C. of Religious is consistently including in constitutions an article stating that the duties of the pre-siding local Ordinary or his delegate terminate at the proclamation of the election of the mother general.39 Some recent constitutions con-tain the prescription of the Normae of 1901: "If the Ordinary. is ac-companied by one or more priests, these may in no way take part in the election.''40 The present practice of the Holy See permits not only the secretary general but also the bursar general to be elected a general councillor but neither may be elected as the first councillor. The same practice now rather consistently gives the general chapter the right of declaring matters to be of greater importance and subject to the deliberative vote of the general council. Some recent constitu-tions. also give to the general chapter and council the'right to deter- 39Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 16-18. 4ONormae of 1901, n. 224. Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., 17-18. 286 Nooember, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE. min~ matters as subject to the deliberative vote of-the local council. The S. Congregation corrected one set of constitutions to read~ " . . .the newly elected M6.thfir General shall appoint one or seoeral. committees.to examine and arrange the'proposals to the Gerieral Cfiapter and to furnish a report concerning them." Even if not so' stated in the constitutions, several committees may be appointed be~ cause of the amount of work or for greater efficiency and lack of time, since several committees are not forbidden by the constitutions. 2. Indult's. One congregation of si'sters secured an indult from the Holy Se~ permitting th~ anticipation of its next general chapter by' six months. The principal reason given in the petition was the ex-~ p~nse and extensive travel that would be required foi the' capitulars' to return to the motherhouse two months after all had been present there for the annual retreat. ~ Another congregation of sisters requested a change, in its constitu- ' tions by which the novice mistress would be a member of thegeneral chapter in virtue of her offce. The S. C. of Religious replied: "It is not expedient.'" Canonical authors had stated that such a provision was not in accord with the practice of the S. Congregation,4x but a.~ similar article had been approved in a very small number of constitu-. tions in the past. A congregation of sisters was to hold in the United States an ex-traordinary general chapter,, which the delegates of the provinces be-yond the "iron curtain" would not be able to attend. The S. C. of Religious gave to a local Ordinary the faculty of permitting their votes to be sent by letter or for these provinces to choose delegates here who would cast their votes. 3. Roman meeting. The subjects touched upon at this meeting of superioresses general appear to have been the following: (a) The Holy See is opposed to the immediate re-election, or rather postula-tion., of a mother general beyond the limits prescribed in the consti-tutions. Similarly the Holy See only for serious reasons grants a dispensation permitting a local superior to be given a third successive three-year term in the same house. (b) Two excesses are verified in ~lections, an indifference that results in ignorance of the eligible and' suitable and electibneering. (c) Young religious should not be ex-. cluded from higher offices' if they have the necessary natural and spit-. itual qualifications. ., 41Basticn, n. 246, 2; Battandier, n. 352. 287. JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review/:or Religious These subjects present nothing new,4z but the. light thrown on the abuse of electioneering is very Opportune. Electioneering is the deliberate seeking of votes, directly or indirectly, to elect a particular person, or one person rather than another, or to exclude anyone from being elected. The simple seeking of information concerning the abilities or defects of those eligible and the communication of such information to. others, without any attempt at persjaasion, is not for-bidden, and is very frequently necessary and laudable. It is.:remarkable.how often the matter of elections can blind the moral sense of even very good religious. This reason alone has per-suaded the present writer to hold rigidly to the conviction, that in any general revision of the constitutions elections should, be restricted to those absolutely necessary. Only the offices of the superior gen-eral and of his or her councillors demand election. Every religious should have the permanent resolution of nevei uttering a word about future elections in his institute until after he has meditated daily for at least a week on the will of God. XIII. MONASTERIES OF NUNS I. Federations and Con/¥derations. The only federation or con-fdderation affecting American monasteries of nuns that has been made public is that of the Visitandines. The pohtifical constitution Spon~a Christi and the accompanying Instruction should be carefully studied by all nuns. Unwise and exaggerated changes are to be avoided in any state of life, "but no religious institute can reasonably exclude progress and prudent adaptation to .the times; Federations and con-federations are highly recommended by Plus XII in Sponsa, Christi. 2. Restoration o[ solemn ~ows. In 195 1-52 eighteen monasteries of nuns-in the United States secured permission from the Holy See for the taking of solemn vows.43 The restoration of solemn vows is at least strongly urged on all monasteries of nuns in Sponsa Christi. If serious reasons exist against this restoration in any monastery, such reasons are to be submitted to the S. C. of Religi6us for examina-tion. 44. The form of the decree granting solemn vows is uniform. The provisions are: (a) Papal cloister must be observed as' described in 42Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, X (1951), 187-200. 43Guti~rrez. CpR, XXXIV (1953), 102-115. Cf. the list of monasteries of solemn vows in the United States, as of January, 1950. in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, IX (19~50), 58, note 2. 44Larraona, quoted by Guti~rrez, ibid., 1"07. " '288 November, 1953 PRACTICE O~: THE HOLY SEE canon law, Sponsa Christi and the accompanying Instruction (Inter praeclara), and also the Instruction of the S. C. of Religious of Feb-ruary 6, 1924.4s (b) Nuns at present in simple perpe.tual vows and thbse who have compieted the prescribed time of temporary vows make solemn profession. The local Ordinary or his delegate receives the profession of the superioress, who then receives all the other pro-fessions. (c) Any nun in simp!e perpetual vows who does not wish to make the solemn profession may remain in simple vows but she is obliged by all the prescriptions of papal cloister.46 (d) Future per-petual professions Will be solemn except, of course, those of the ex-tern sisters, who may be admitted only to simple perpetual profession at the expiration of the prescribed peridd of temporary vows. 3. Dowr~ . Modifications in the general constitutions were granted to several monasteries of one order of nuns in the United Sta~es by the S. C. of Religious in 1950. A canonically interesting article of these modifications is: "No dowry is required for the admission of postulants." 4. Induhs concerning papa! clbister. A monastery of nuns in. the United States obtained the follov~ing permissions from the S. C. of Religious: (a) for five years--to admit into the enclosure at the funerals of nuns the clergy, acolytes, and pall bearers required to carry the body to the crypt; (b) fbr three years--to allow those taking out naturalization papers to go out to government offices as often as necessary; (c) for three years--t6 allow a nun to leave the enclosure as companion for a nun obliged to go out for bospltal treatment. Iri the case of another monastery, the local Ordinary whs given the faculty for twenty cases of permitting a nun to leave the enclosure with a companion for the reason of ill health. The rescript contained the clause, that any unbecoming circumstance was to b~ avoided. 5. Concession of Masses. A proper ordo or calendar, and thus dis-tinct from the diocesan ordo, is had by all orders of regulars, and this is to be observed also by the nuns and sisters of these orders. A proper ordo is also had in.religious congregations and societies living in common without public vows, whether of men or women, that have been approved by the Holy See,.[re constituted under one gen-eral superior, and are obliged to the divine office, even if only by 45Bouscaren, I, 314-320; .46Escudero, CpR, XXXIII (1952), 35, nota 39. 289 JOSEPH F. GALLEN reason of major orders.47 Nuns that constitute a second order, such as the Carmelites, will follow the proper ordo of the first order of men. Obviously, there-fore, they may not celebrate in the divine office and Mass feasts granted to dioceses or t6 other institutes. For this reason at least one monastery of nuns in the United States secured from the Holy See an indult permitting the celebration of the feasts of the North American Martyrs on September 26 and that of St. Frances Xavier Cabrini on December 22.48 47,SCR, 4312, ad'l-2; 4403, ad 1. 48The autlqors, documents, and abbreviations not clear from their mere citation are." Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) ; Bastien, Directoire Canonique; Battandier, Guide Canonique; Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest; Cervia, De ProFessione Religiosa; Com-mentarium Pro Rell.qiosis (CpR) ; Creusen, Religious Men and Women in the Code; Decreta Authentica Congregationis Sacrorum Rituum (SCR) ; Muzzarelli, De Con-gregationibus luris Diocesani; Piontek, De Indulto Exclaustrationis necnon Saecular-izationis; Revue des Communautis Religieuses (RCR) ; Schaefer, De Religiosis. BOOK NOTICE AUX SOURCES DE LA TRADITION DU CARMEL, by Jean le Soli-taire, is a work that will be of special.interest and value, not only to Carmelites, but also to all who are concerned with understanding well the essentials and the accidentals of the contemplative life and~ with the problem of adapting it fittingly to the changes that mark modern culture and the present situation of the Church. The book is not primarily historical; rather it is conceived from the ,spiritual point of view, and would like to contribute to the best possible re-vitalization and perfection of the contemplative life in the concrete existe.ntial conditions of today and tomorrow." (Paris: Beauchesne et ses Fils, 1953. Pp. 274.) LETTER ON OBEDIENCE Father William J. Young. S.J., has made a new and very readable translation of St. Ignatius' Letter on Obedience. This translation is published in pamphlet form by the America Press. Single copies are twenty cents; special discounts are allowed on quantity orders. Write to: The America Press, 70 East 45th St., New York 17, N.Y. 290 Psychological Test:ing ot: Candida!:es and t:he Theology oF Vocal:ion William C. Bier, S.,I. [EDITORS' NOTE: This article is an adaptation of 'a paper presented at the Fordham "Institute on Religious and Sacerdotal Vocations, July, 1953. Father Bier's interest in the use of psychological tests as helps in evaluating the suitability of candidates for the priesthood and religious life goes back to graduate work in psychology at The Catholic University under Father Thomas Verner Moore, who encouraged him to plan a doctoral research on some.preliminary phases of this problem. After the completion of his doctoral work in 1948 Father Bier went to Fordham and has been teaching in the psychology department of the graduate school since that time. He developed a program of psychological tests for candidates in the New York Province of the Society of 3esus, which has been in operation for five years. This work is now spreading to other Provinces of the Society and to other religious groups. He thinks that the greatest need at the present time is the development of specific, norms on these tests, not only for religious as distinct from lay persons, but probably also for different religious groups. The development of such norms is of necessity a cooperative undertaking, and Father Bier has been serving as a clearing house for gathering the needed information from the various groups working in conjunction with him. At the present time this work is still in its initial stages, and it will have to be in operation some time longer before publishable results are ¯ available, ] THE present article is the first in a series of two dealing with the use of psychological tests in the selection of candidates for the priesthood and for the religious life. This matter receives clari-fication bydistinguishing and giving separate treatment to the two questions involved. The first concerns the role of psychological tests in the selection of candidates and raises the question of the relation-shiio between testing of this kind and the theology- of vocation. It is evident that this first question is largely theoretical, but testing must first be justified on these grounds before it is feasible to discuss the second question, namely, the practical requirements of such a testing program. The current article, therefore, will consider the theoretical basis for the psychological testing of candidates, and a second article will take up the problems involved in the development of such a pro-gram in practice. Religious Vocation Although in full accord, on theological and psychological grounds, with the modern tendency to extend the term vocation to embrace all states of Christian life, the current consideration is never-theless restricted to vocations to the religious life.and to the priest- 291 WILLIAM C. BIER Reoiew for Religi'ous hood. More specifically still, the explicit treatment is confined mostly to the religious life, leaving the priesthood as matter for reasonably evident inference. A vocation, as the nominal definition of the wor~l implies, ex-presses the action of summoning someone to move toward a definite goal; in a word, it is a call. ~n the case of a divine vocation, it is God who calls the person, and in the matte~ of religious vocation, it is a call to the voluntary practice of the evangelical counsels in an institute.approved by the Church. The question that arises in the case of every vocation is: how can we know in a given case that'God calls? How can it be determined that the vocation is real and not illusory, genuine and not deceptive? This is the question ~vhich must be answered by the candidate himself, by his director, and by the superior who accepts him. In his recent book, The Theolog~I of Religious Vocation, Father Edward Farrell, O.P.,1 indicates that St. Thomas Aquinas distin-guished between internal vocation, or desire on the part of the candi-date for the religious life, and external vocation, or acceptance by a legitimate superior. It will be helpful for our present purpose to consider vocation under both of these aspects, and in so doing we shall 9ttempt to place the psychological testing of candidates in its proper perspective and to indicate what is its legitimate function with respect to the discernment of vocation. Internal Vocation By internal vocation St. Thomas means the intention on the part of the candidate to embrace the religious life. This intention is formed by. a man under the influence of the Holy Spirit. -Such an intention is the result of grace, or rather a series of grace~ consisting of interior'andexterior helps, in virtue of which the individual is led to take the resolution to enter.religious.life. This resolution to enter religion may result from an extraordinary illumination of the mind and incitement of the will toward the reli-gious state. Some of the saints have been favored with such an un-mistakable divine call, but Pope Plus X in his decision on the book of Canon Lahitton on Sacerdotal Vocation made it clear that no such special attraction is necessary for a priestly or religious vocation. Gen-erally, the intention to enter religion is formed under the influence of what theologians would refer to as ordinary grace, i.e., a grace which " 1St. Louis: Herder, 1951. 292 o November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING works through the reasoning processes. Theologians generally would take this to mean that the decision is the result of deliberation where-by the individual perceives, in the light of the Gospel ~ind from other considerations that, everything being taken into account, the way of the counsels is preferable for him. Consequently be experiences a corresponding rational inclination of the will toward such a life. It is Worth n'oting, however, that the proposal to enter r.eligion must be sufficiently firm considering the difficulties involved in this state of life. It is only a firm resolution which, in the opinion of theologians, is the subjective manifestation of vocation. On philo-sophical grounds it may be shown that a state of mind can be logically firm only when reasonable doubt is.excluded. We may .say, therefore, that what God's grace does in the case of vocation is to make it possible for the individual to see with a clarity which ex-cludes the reasonable fear of error that the way of ~he counsels is the preferable way of life for him. It would seem, therefore, that the applicant, whose state of mind prior to entrance is uncertain, who is not ~ure whether he has a vocation or not, but who applies "in order to give the life a try," does not hav~ a vocation, since he lacks this firm proposal which is the subjective sign of vocation. It is possible that such an applicant would become certain bf his vocation during postulancy or noviceship, but it seems more prudent, when such a doubt is known, .to postpone his acceptance until it is solved, and meantime to encour.age him to'pray and consider the matter more maturely. It is evident that such a firm decision to enter the religious state is the result of grace. "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you" (Jo. 15:16). This is the essence of religious vocation, and it is clearly its supernatural aspect. Directly, therefore, psychology, which can touch only the natural, has nothing to do with this aspect. of vocation. Yet,. indirectly, even here, it may have something to contribute. Canon 538 indicates that the candidate for the religious life must be inspired by a "right intention." This requirement expresses in another way what has already been discussed. If the intention to enter religion has been formed under th~ influence of grace, it will be a right intention. Therefore, no purely natural motive will suffice, such.as disappointment or disillusionment with the world, or per-sonal happiness, or security; or the desire to escape an unhappy home situation. On the other hand, theologians allow that ar~y super- 293 WILLIAM C. BIER Ret~iew for Religious natural motive will suffice, for instance, the desire, to save one's soul, or to work for the salvation of others, or to serve God more per-fectly, or to render salvation more secure. It is at thi~ point, it would seem, that psychology can enter to make a contribution. Human motivasion, we know now, is a much more complex affair than was previously suspected. Our motives are seldom simple, and seldom single. Conscious motives can sometimes serve as a cloak for hidden and undetected tendencies. In the case of the motives inducing a person to apply for admission to the religious life, it will seldom happen that they are pur~ly supernatural. Natural motives invariably enter as well. What seems to be important, how-ever, is that the dominant motives should be supernatural. Granted that in the.concrete the total motive force will bepartly natural and partly supernatural, the more dominant the role of supernatural motives, the more assurance there would be that the call was truly from God. Let us illustrate the point mad~ here by an example. " Suppose a spiritual director, on inquiring why a girl wants to consecrate her virginity to God, were to discover that it is because she finds things of the flesh repugnant. Marriage would be abhorrent to her, and if ¯ the attraction to the religious lifewere in fact nomore than an adjust-ment to such a psychic inhibition, it would scarcely be genuine. Prob-ably, such a girl would have combined this fundamental motive force with some supernatural intention, but the question is how dominant, and hence how genuine, would a supernatural motive be in such a case? Would it be any more'than a case of self-deception? I can conceive of a director telling sucha young girl to thank God that she feels that way, because she is thus freed from many temptations against chastity. Yet such advice, I think, would be highly questionable. It is true, of course, that such a person would have little or no difficulty with the material observance of chastity, but absence of sin or conflict.is not a proof of virtue. In such a case the brake applied to prevent sin is not the regulating influence of rea-son, which would be the basis for virtue, but is an inhibition of the psychic order. It is God's plan that sex should be attractive, not repugnant, and it is clear from the words of Christ (Math. 19:12) and of St. Paul (I Cor. 7:6-9) that the invitation to the counsels implies.a sacrifice. The girl who finds sex repugnant has no sacrifice to make in dedicating her virginity to God. The suitable candidate for the religious life is not one who is incapable of marriage, but one 294 November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING who freely surrenders this good for a greater. There is a further consideration in a case of this kind which should not be overlooked. The repugnance felt toward sex expression is, as we have presented it, a psychicinhibition. It is due to some psycho-logical twist or other. Suppose, "perhaps after some years of religious life, that this twist is suddenly straightened out--a not inconceivable happening. Once the psychological brake is removed, the person may, for w.ant of virtue, be defenseless against a passion whose existence she never suspected. Could it not be that something similar to this is the explanation of some of those particularl~- puzzling defections after years in religion? The masters of the spiritual life have always recognized the pos-sibility of self-deception in the service of God, and modern psychol-ogy tends to re-enforce their warnings by supplying instances of the subtle ways in which uncon'scious and undetected influences may in-sinuate themselves into human motivation. When such happens in the case of vocation, the good will of the applicant is not in ques-tion, but the genuineness of his vocation.is. He is, in this supposi-tion, deceived himself, and be may quite easily deceive others. The manifestation of virtue is sometimes ambiguous, and what externally passes for virtue may actually be no more than a cover-up for a psychological problem. Natural submissiveness and deep-seated inferiority can ~asily pass for humility, overly-conscientious strivihgs for perfection can, as a matter of fact, be no more than psy-chological defenses against fear of criticism and inability to tolerate failure, while genuine apostolic zeal is not always ea~sy to distinguish from a paranoid discontent. The discernment of spirits is sometimes difficult, and we have the scriptural warning: "Dearly beloved, be-lieve not every spirit, but try the spirits if they be of God" (I John 4:1). This admonition seems to be particularly pertinent in the matter of the discernment of vocation and especially with respect to. the motives prompting the applicant to apply for admission to reli-gion. It would surely be excessive always to question o~ur conscious motives and to see in them nothing but disguises for hidden tenden-cies, but it must be acknowledged that conscious motives are some-times deceptive, and that the dominant motives for our actions are not always the ones which consciously move us. Unconscious fear of contact with the world, for example, may be concealed by perfectly orthodox motives such as contempt for the world and desire of per-fection. For a long time the individual's actions may seem to be in- 295 WILLIAM C, BIER for Refigious spired by these traditional motives, but it may eventually appear that ~hey were in fact but the effects of neurotic tendencies. Where uhcon-scious factors are at work common sense is hardly sufficient for the discernment of vocation, and the eye of the expert, is needed to detect a latent neurosis artfully Concealed behind normal behavior. External Vocation ~ ~ Let us pass now from internal vocation where psychology has but a limit.ed and indirect contribution to make, to external vocation where its contribution is more direct and more extensive. By external ¯ vocation, as previously mentioned, St. Thomas meant the acceptance of ,'i candidate by a legitimate superior. Thus external vocation com-pletes and perfects the internal call essentially determining it to this particular institute. It is evident that before an applicant can be accepted a judgement must be made on his suitabil!ty for the religious life. Some one must 'pass on such firness, and ultimately this decision is the responsibility of the religious superior. The internal call is always subject to the possibility of self-deception, and finds a certain confirmation, there-fore, in the judgement of suitability passed by a competent superior. The junction of the two gives vocation to the religious life in the concrete. Suitability for the religious life might be treated from various-points of vie~v, but for the purposes of the present discussion it will be considered under qualities of body and mind, which in the words of Canon 538 render the individual "fit to bear the burdens of the religious state." A certain level of physical well'being is required for the exercise of religious life, and it is co~nmon practice, to require of applicafits a doctor's certificate of good health. Pertinent to the present discussion, however, is the fact that mental health is no less necessary for religious life. The idea of "mens sana in corpore san&' (a sound mind in a sound body)' seems to be a p~oper estimate of fitness f?r life in religion. The Contribution of Psychological Tests There would be no real disagreement, I think, on the fact that certain psychological qualities are required in a candidate for the reli-gious life. What these qualities are might be diff,erently expre.ssed as maturity, balance, stability, control, adjustment, but there is at least agreement that some over-all psychological integrity is needed. It might even be clearer and there would, perhaps, be even greater agree- 296 Nouernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING ment if the propositi6n were put negatively: certain psychologic.al conditions render an applicant unsuitable for the religious life. Con- .sequently no .superior can accept a candidate for religion without making some judgement of psychological fitness. The trouble is that such a judgement, necessary as it is, is frequently superficial and hap-hazard, because the basis for a more adequate judgement is not avail-able. Here the psychological examination of candidates can enter to make its contribution. Such an examination can offer a more ade-quate foundation for the estimate of psychological suitability which must be made. It may be valuable to point out thus early in the pre~ent discussion that the psychological testing of candidates is new only in its methods; not in its p.urpose. Its function is traditional and inescapable: namely, ~a judgement on the psychological fitness of the applicant. The psychological' examination has a function to perfwor~mth " " respect to all candidates. With the greater n~amber of them its func-tion will be negative hnd w. ill consist simply in affirming the fact that th'ey are psychologically suitable, i.e., that no psychological fac-tors are in evidence which would antecedently make it impossible for them to bear the burden of religious life. Even though the contribu' tion here is negative, it is not to be despised for it is precisely what is needed, namely, a clean bill of mental health. It should be noted that such immunity at the time of application is no necessary guar-antee that psychological difficulty ~might not subsequently ,,develop, any more than the assurance of physical health at the time of entrance is a gua.rantee against subsequent ill health, bht at the time it repre-sents what is needed and is sufficient. With ~espect to the remaining candidates the psychological exam-ination, we assume, will show positive results. Sometimes these re-sults will be extreme, for serious mental disorder cannot be a priori excluded in candidates for the religious life. .In this connection, the work of Father Thomas Verner .Moore on the. rate of insanity in priests and religious2 is pertinent. This ~tudy appeared in The Ec-clesiastical Review for 1936, and still remains the only published work on th,e subject. In connection with the investigation, Father Moore contacted all the Catholic and non-Catholic state and .private sanatoria and asyla for the insane in. the United States. On a basis '-'Thomas Verner Moore. "Insanity in Priests and Religious. Part I[ The Rate of Insanity in Priests and Religioi~s." The Ecclesia t;'ca! Reoic~', 95 (1936). 485- 498. : 297 WILLIAM C. BIER Review for Religious of his returns, Father Moo~e reports the following figures for the year 1935. The ratio per 100,000 population was as follows: for priests 446; for sisters 485; for brothers 418: for the ge,neral popu7 lation 595. He found a notable difference between active sisters with a ratio of 428 and cloistered sisters with a ratio of 1034. On a basis of these findings, therefore, the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than it is among the general population, but the rate for cloistered sisters is more than twice what it is among the popula-tion at large. One additional point is worth noting. Although it is true that the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than for the general population, this result is due to the fact that syphilitic types of insanity are almost completely absent among priests and re-ligious. If the latter were eliminated from the figures for the general population, the rate of insanity for priests and religious xvould rise above that for the population at large. One might be tempted at first sight to interpret these figures as meaning that religious life makes reore demands on psychological stability than life in the world, with psychological breakdown conse-quently more frequent. Although there is truth in this interpreta-tion, Father Moore is of the opinion that a more important factor in producing these results is the attraction exerted by the religious life upon certain pre'-psychotic personalities. Schizophrenia, for example, is by far the most frequent psychiatric disorder among institutional-ized priests and religious; and there can be no doubt that a consider-able number of pre-schizophrenic personalities are attracted by the retirement and seclusion of religious life, and of the contemplative life more than the active. Their schizophrenic tendencies blossom out into a full psychosis in religion, but they would undoubtedly have done so just as xvell had these persons remained in the world. Outright psychosis among applicants for the religious life is hardly to be expected, but pre-psychosis and incipient psychosis is ~ problem, as Father Moore's findings and fundamental interpretation indicate. Now, the essential point in term} of the present discussion is that pre-psychosis is not likely to be discovered in an applicant for the religious life, apart from some special testing procedur~ designed to reveal it. Sufficient proof of this statement is found in the number of such persons who secure admission to religious life. As indicated above, cases of severe mental disorder among appli-ca, nts for the religious life are relatively rare, nor do they offer too great a difficulty in evaluation. In such cases the picture is unequivo- 298 Not~erober, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 6al, and upon examination the applicant is found to exhibit such a wealth of psychopathology as to be clearly unsuitable. There is, however, a larger number of cases in which the degree of psychologi-cal difficulty is considerably less. The evaluation of such cases is more difficult for two fundamental reasons: (1) because the degree of disorder being less it is more difficult to detect; and (2) because it is more difficult to predict the extent to which the disorder is likely to render the applicant incapable bf bearing the burdens of the religious life. It is evident that the reference here is to neurosis in 'general and to the milder forms of mental difficulty which wduld not even qualify as neurosis. Neurosis, referring in general to the non-psychotic forms of mental difficulty, is a broad term, and I am inclined to think that most responsible and informed persons would be reluctant to say that the presence of neurosis, ipso Facto, would render an applicant un-suitable for the religious life. The presence of neurosis would un-questionably create a presumption of unsuitability, but the latter might yield to the contrary fact in a given case. What then is to be taken as the norm? I would, suggest that we might distinguish 'on the basis of the kind of neurosis. It is beyond question that there are certain types of neurotic difficulty which would almost surely be accentuated by the demands of religious life, and it would be my suggestion that the presence of a neurosis of this type would render the applicant unsuitable. At the present time I would prefer to leave open the question as to whether there actually are any neuroses of the second type, i.e., which would not be aggravated by the requirements of life in religion. As an example of a neurosis the presence of which would likely preclude acceptance into' religion, I would mention hypochondriasis, an abnormal pre-occupation with bodily health. This tendency, as is well known, can grow into an exclusive pre-occupation leaving the individual with little thought or energy for religious observance. In its milder forms it s.imply interferes with ~ommunity life and regular. observance; in more advanced stages, it renders the individual com-pletely incapable of foIlowing religious routine. Experience quite well attests that the introspection of the religious life develops a cer-tain number of hypochondriacs as it is, so that the expectation seems justified that this life would aggravate such tendencies if they were already present at the time of admission. An even clearer example, to my mind, of the kind of neurosis the presence of which would 299 WILLIAM C. BIEP~ Re'view [or Religious render an indi~cidual unsuitable 'for the religious life, would be an obsessive-compulsive neur6sis, which manifests itself .in the moral sphere as scrupulosity. I have referenc~ not to an isolated instance of scrupulosity in the life of an applicant, but to scrupulosity of suffi-cient duration to have become habitual. Such a state is aggravated 'by the additional duties of religious life, by the continual self-exam-ination which is an iodispensable condition for progress t~ward reli-gious perfection, andparticularly by the obligation of the vows. In its milder forms, scrupulosity impairs efficiency, in prayer no less than in apostolic work. In its severer manifestations, it makes prayer and religious observance a torture, and any substantial measure of pro-ductive work an impossibility. Attitude to be Assumed in Doubtful Cases In connection with the matter just .discussed, a question arises which must be faced directly, and it is this: do we not go too far in excluding applicants with neurotic tendencies? Would it not be more in accord with the spirit of Christ. and the Church to accept them and to leave something to the healing effect of God's grace? In answer to this sort of a question, I would like first of all to. point out that psychological testing is finished, its work complete; its contribution made, when it has ascertained the facts, in as far as it is possible to ascertain them in the case of the applicant, and has put these at the disposal of the superior. It then becomes the superior's responsibility to act upon the facts as seems best, and, in view of them and all other available sources of information, to accept or to reject the candidate. A prudent superior will not come to a decision', of course, without taking the matter to prayer. Indeed everyone con-nected with the discernment of a vocation must pray; the applicant himself must pray, his director must pray, and the superior who acts on his application must pray. The Gospels tell us that Our Lord spent the .night in prayer before choosing the Apostles. The example. of saints teaches us that we should pray in such an important deci-sion, but also work. It was it. Ignatius' advice, for instance., that we should .work as if the entire l)utcome depended on us, buy pray as though the entire outcome depended on prayer alone. Such advice seems particularly apposite in the selection of candidates. In this case, the importance of the matter requires that the most adequate possible investigation be made, but ultimately such s~lection depends upon a judgement of the superior. This judgement should be founded in fact--as far as it is humanly possib, le to discover the truth--and 300 Noaeraber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING should be illumined b'y grace, in as far as it is possible to invoke the divine assist~ince through prayer. Even when we have proceeded in: the manner indicated abo,~e,.the decision still remains difficult, for we are attempting in such cases just ¯ about the most difficult task in the .world, namely, to predict the interplay of divin'e grace and human freedom. "If the human mind,'r says a distinguished French contemporary, "cannot probe this mys-terious interplay +yen after the event (for when someone leaves a re-ligious institute it is often impossible to tell.whether it was through infidelity to a. real vocation or simply due to the late discovery that there was no vocation at all) still less can it see it~beforehand.'''~ We are compelled .humbly to admit that there are and will continue to be a certain number of cases which cannot be avoided, but there are others which, with a gr.eater expenditure of human effort and l~ru-dence, could be avoided. Such" is our task. When there, is, doubt about the psychological s~itability of can-didates for the religiou~ life, I would offer it as a general principle that we should be severe rather than lenient in admitting. My fun-damental reason for this recommendation is that the religious life demands more than ordinary psychological stability for. its practice. In the vows, which constitute the essence of religious life, man makes of himself a holocaust to God. owe speak also of the martyrdom of the vows. It is true that "holocaust" and "martyrdom" are meta-phorical expressions in this context, but they serve to emphasize the demands made of human nature in the practice of the religious life, " demands which are to a considerable extent psychological. Certainly the number of psychological satisfactions available to religious are considerably reduced over those possible to people in the world, while the occasion~ for frustration are greater, due to the surrender of deep human wants through the vows of religion, and by reason of the demands of day-by-day community lif~. Hence there is required more than the usual amount of psychological stability and maturity in a religious, and it would seem, therefore, to be imprudent to accet3t in religion applicants with distinctly less than the normal amount of psychological integrity. A further point seems worth) of note in this connection. The attitude is sometimes assumed that doubtful candidates should be ac-cepted in religion because religious life wotild benefit them more than 8A. Pit, O.P., "Unconscious Attraction to the Religious Life." Religious Life: H Vocation. Westminster, Maryland, Newman, 1952, p. 110. 301 WILLIAM (~. BIER Reoiew fo'r Religious it would some better individuals who are less in need of helps reli-gion would prgvide. A ~lightly different way of putting this same objection would be to say that if there is a doubt, we should give the ,applicant the benefit of the doubt. We assume that the doubt is a positive one, i.e., one in which there are positive .reasons for ques-tioning the suitability of the candidate. ¯ In such cases, I do not think that the general principle that the applicant should be given the bene-fit of the doubt is the correct one. It must not be forgotten that the religiouscommunity has rights as well, and it .seems a more funda-mental principle that the good of the community should prevail over the good of an individual, particularly when the latter is not yet a member of the community, as would be the case of an applicant. The doubtfully suitable applicant--if indeed the doubt is well founded--is likely to prove to be a problem from the very day of his arrival in the novitiate. If such is the case, he will require a dispro-portionately large amount of the novice master's time, to the detri-ment of the other novices who would profit more from his counsel and direction. Furthermore, psychologically unstable and neurotic individuals are difficult to live with, and it seems really inequitable that such persons should be permitted to enter and to. disrupt the peace and harmony of community life. One such person can be a thorn in the side of an entire community,, as experience very well at-tests. In God's Providence we shall always have enough 'difficult members of the community to make religious~life a source of virtue and sanctification, but it seems quite another thing knowingly to ¯ contribute to the difficulties of religious life by admitting psycho-logically unsuitable persons. Finally, there is always the distinct possibility, if not probability, that the defiaands of religious life will increase the difficulties of psychologically unstable persons to the point where they will ultimately be compelled to leave religion (and the institute may consider itself fortunate if the p}oblm can be solved in this way), or else they will have to be removed from the commun-ity and institutionalized. The latter can be.a tremendous financia'l burden to a c~mmunity, an, d it would seem an unjust one when the likelihood of such an eventuality could have been foreseen at the time of admission. It might be felt by" some that when there is doubt about the psy-chological suitability of a candidate, he should be admitted with the expectation that his inability to adjust to religious life would soon become evident to him through the actual attempt in a way which he 302 Noaernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING would never have been able to accept beforehand, and that he xvill in consequence voluntarily leave. The expectation of k, oluntary with-drawal in a case of this kited is not well founded. Even for the psy-chologically well-integrated and mature personality, readjustment to life in the world is difficult and the courage required to face the un-asked questions of family and friends is considerable. Ability to measure up to such demands is not realistically to be expected of one whose difficulty is weakness precisely in this area. Furthermore, it is assumed that the individual is suffering from personality or emo-tional disorders, and one of the main characteristics of such difficulties is a lack of insight on the part of the individual into his condition.' Hence, if the disorder" increases to a point where the individual should leave, insight is likely to decline as well, so that it is not to be ex-pected that the individual will leave voluntarily. I return, therefore, to my earlier proposition that it is a mistaken charity to accept doubt2 fully mature and questionably stable individuals into religion. In concluding the'present article I should like to refer to two quotations which seem to me to re-enforce the viewpoint presented. The first arises out of*the symposium on religious vocation held in France during the summer of 1949, and consists of the following expression of experience on the part of a religious superior: "Experi-ence has taught us one thing, and that is that when there is a doubt about any.one in the novitiate it is n~arly always confirmed later: the situation does not improve. There may be exceptions but they are few and far between.TM I would simply suggest that, under adequate investigation, we can move the process back one step further, and speak about the doubtful applicant, but that the principle remains the same. The second quotation is from our late Holy Father, Pope Pius XI, xvho expressed himself on the severity to be exercised in admitting candidates to the religious life. The occasion was an audience granted to the Capuchin general chapter after the election of Very Reverend Donatus de Welle as Minister General in June I938, at which time the Pope spoke in part as follows: "This recommendation, for which we take full responsibility, ought to be regarded as a father's instruction to his children, based simply on a desire foi the well being of all religious families. And the instruction is this: Be severe. These may be hard words but they~ 4"An Enquiry about Vocation" in Religious Life: II Vocation, Westminster]Mary-land, Newman, 1952, p. 83. 303 WILLIAM C. BIER are p~ompte~t by love, for true love, love worthy of our L.o~d's' friends, can be satisfied with nothing short of the truth . We are not alluding merely to severity of discipline, in general, but first and foremost to the seyerity v,;hich ought to be shown in accepting postu-lants. If ariyone tells you that there is too much sev.erity even now, we authorize you to reply that the Pope wants it to be that .way, be-cause he clearly sees the, need of it, in virtue of his position and.re-sponsibilities, the more so as Providence has granted him a pontifi-cate of some length and thus allowed him to acquire wide .experience in this field. Indeed, if the religious life is to be kept in all its splen-dour there must be severity, particularly with regard, to vocations, because although divine grace helps nature it does not destroy iF; the necessity fordoing battle remains, and in the religious life the stakes. are higher . "It is no exaggeration to say that whenever people unite to form a group, even in small numbers, deterioration occurs. We learn.this from experience. This does not mean that a religious family ought therefore to reduce the number of its members; quite the contrary-- the tendency should always be to increase. But it should see that its members are carefully chosen, like picked soldiers. This is a difficult task, but essential.~ When a number of men join together in some enterprise, their good qualities, and particularly the highest ones, do not become common property; each man keeps his own. Their weak-ness and. bad qualities,I on the other hand, add up and merge to-gether . " These words, coming from so high an authority, speak for them-selves. The purpose of the present article has been to demonstrate the ~)roposition that psycl~ological testing has a function to perform in theselection of candidates for the religious life, and that such,a pro- . gram is in keeping with the spirit of religious vocation as understood in the Church. The theoretical desirability.of such a program is one thing, its practicality is another, arid the latter question will be con-sidered in a second article. OUR CONTRIBUTORS JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at WoodstockCollege, Wood-stock, Md. HILARY R. WERTS is superior and a professo.r of moral theology at Alma College, Los Gatos, Calif. C. J. McNASPY, an authority on ~cclesiastical music, is on the faculty of St.'Charles College, Grand Coteau, La. Information on WILLIAM C. BIER is given in the prenote to his article. ' 304 \ The F:ucharis :ic Fast: Hilary R. Werts, S.3. THE. new and mitigated law of the Eucharistic fast contained in the Apostolic Constitution, Christus Dorninus; and the accom-panying Instructibn of the Holy Office, whose translations were published in this REVIEV~, last March, is a generous concession of our H01y Father the Pope who wishes to make more humanly possible the frequent and even daily reception of Holy Communion so.much recommbnded by Blessed Pope Pius X and his successors in the chair of Peter. In pro.mulgating the new law His Holiness urge~ bishops and priests to take advantage of its concessions to exhort the faithful to more frequent reception of'the Blessed Sacrament. Religious who have much contact with the faithful in schools and hospitals will find many' opportunities for their zeal to promote frequent Com~ munion by expla.ining this law'and leading people to use its condes-sions. For this purpose it is necessary that they have a clear under-standing of the conditions for the.application of these concessions. It is hoped that this article will help to this understanding. The former law for the Eucharistic fast is retained except for the particular conces~ion~ "granted in the new law. The first concession is that water does not break the fast, Water may now b.e taken at any time by anyone, right up to Communion time. The Eucharistic" fast is no longer concerned with water, and abstinence from it can no long, er properly be called fasting, though it may be an act of mortifi-cation ¯ Water here means plain water, that is, water without the admix-ture of'any other substance whatever. Water as it is found in natural conditions is plain water, even.though it be mineral water from a mineral spring, Qr ocean water with its content of salt. But minerals or salt may not be added artificially to the water that is permitted before Communion. How,ever, the chemical additions to our city water su'pplies are not to be considered, f6r otherwise we would have no water available to drink and the change in the law would be meaningless. Aside from the permitted water, the Pope confirms the former law and says that it must be observed by those who are able to do so. But this does not mean that those who c.ome under the conditions of the new concessions must worr, y as to whethe, r or not they should use .305 HILARY R. WERTS . Revieu~ for Religious them. Norm I of the Constitution says: "The law of the Eucharistic fast, to be observed from midnight, continues in force for all those who do not come under the special conditions, which We shall set forth in this Apostolic Constitution" (italics supplied). Hence there is no requirement that those who come under the concessions should rather fast from midnight if possible. Norm II of the Constitution makes concessions for the infirm. They may, without any time restriction, take something by way of drink or medicine. They may take non-alcoholic liquids and they may take medicine in either liquid or solid form at any time before the celebration of Mass or the reception of Communion. The ini~rm who enjoy this concession are either those who are sick, or thos.e who are infirm because of age. For the sick, no kind or length or degree of gravity of sickness is specified, but it is required that the infirmity be such that it is difficult to observe .the fast from midnight. The difficulty need not be extraordinary; a moderate diffi-culty will suffice. If an infirm person who desires to communicate would omit Communion because of th~ fast from mid.night, then surely he finds this fast too difficult. For example, influenza, stom-ach ulcers, diabetes, asthma, the ills of pregnancy, may be presumed to make fasting from midnight difficult. Any sickness in which the doctor recommends nourishment before Communion, or in which re-covery would be delayed by fasting, or any infirmity which causes the feeling of weakness unless nourishment is taken will suffice to permit liquid nourishment before Communion. Insomnia, severe headache, high or low blood pressure, distressing ~ough, rheumatism, arthritis, a bad cold, hay fever, may frequently make fasting rather difficult, ahd permit liquids. Some kinds of infirmity may last for a long time and permit .liquids daily before Communion; others may be tran.sitory and cause difficulty only for a day or a few days and these latter equally suffice for the use of the concession whenever ~hey occur. Since a moderately serious difficulty in fasting is required for the use of this concession, there are cases of infirmity in which the con-cession may not be used because the fast is no more difficult in these cases than it is for ordinary healthy persons; e.g., a person who has weak eyes or is blind, one who has lost an arm or leg, will have no fasting difficulty arising from his infirmity Unless other circumstances enter into the case. The difficulty in fasting required in order to permit the infirm to 306 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST take liquids before Communion is, according to some commentators, also required in order to permit them to take medicine. However it seems to me that a close reading of the Instruction (n. 1) reveals a distinction between liquid nourishment and medicine. There are two clauses, one concerning liquids, which are permitted fi~nder the con-dition that fasting is difficult; the other cgncerning medicine, which is permitted under the sole condition that it is real medicine. Thus [ conclude that a person with a headache, even though it is not severe enough to make fasting difficult, would still be permitted an aspirin before Communion because he is sick and aspirin is real medicine. ¯ It may happen that someone feels well on rising, but knows from exi~erience that if he fasts until he receives Communion, he will be-come ill. In this case be may take medicine or liquid under the con-cession for the infirm, in order to avoid the sickness. Sometimes a person's sickness is due to his own fault, as when one is ill the morning aft, er an evenir~g of overindulgence in food or d~ink. Nevertheless, he .may use the'concession for the sick, sup-posing that he has the .proper dispositions of body and soul for the reception of.the Blessed Sacrament. We may now examine more .in detail what is meant by liquids and medicines. The liquid permitted to the sick before Communion is anything that can be pour,ed and drunk, except alcoholic bever-ages. Thus milk, tea, coffee, broth, fruit juices, soft drinks, and. heavier liquids like egg hog, milk shake, creamed soup and raw or lightly boiled eggs. The liquid may have some° undissolved solids as lo.ng as it remains a potable liquid; e.g., broth with some bread or cracker crumbs, cereals such as cream of wheat or corn meal when diluted with suffici,ent milk to make them drinkable. But all alco-holic beverages, even with low alcoholic content, are excluded after the midnight preceding Communion. Medicine, either liquid or solid, is permitted so long as it is real medicine, and not merely something nourishing or agreeable. True medicine is somethi,ng curative, palliative, or preventive. Any medi-cine prescribed by a doctor is a true medicine, but there are also many substances that are known to be medicine and used without a pre-scription, such as aspirin, sleeping pills, cold remedie~, etc. Commen-tators dispute whether medicine containing alcohol is permitted. It may safely be said that alcoholic beverages may not be used medici-nally before Communion, but a real medicine, even if it contains alcohol, may be used. This accords with the wording of the law, 307 HILARY R. WERTS ° Review for Relioious and the law hardly requires that a sick person know the chemical con-tent of his medicine, or° be prevented from Communiofi because he must take medicine containing some alcohol. We may also note that some things which are ordinarily considered food and not medicine may in certain diseases be real medicine with curative or preventive value. Thus sugar is prescribed for diabetics who have an insulin reactidn. This concession of the use of liquids and medicines for the infirm is granted to priests or rion-priests, and to p~iests for the reception of Communion or th,e celebration of Mass, and applies whether the ¯ Mass or Communion is in the morning or in the evening. The liquids or medicine may be taken once .or several time~ after midnight, and in any quantity. The use of this concession is not directly open to all the infirm, but those who are not priests are required to first consult a confessor, that he may judge whether they may use the concessio~a. This con- ¯ sultation is required in every case, but need be made only once ,for a given cause of infirmity, and the advice of the cQnfessor maY be fol-lowed as long as the infirmity continues, even if it be life-long. When the infirmity diminishes, as during convalescence, the c6ncession may still be used until it is clear that the infirmity no longer makes fasting difficult. . The time'fo[ this consultation is any time before Comm~ion. The confessor's advice is not required to take liquids or medicines. The advice is required for Communion after having taken these things, and so .it may be asked after taking them ~but before receiving Communion. The gravity of the obligation to consult a confessor is discussed by commentators, and some hold that to use the concession without consultation would be to viOlate the law of the Eucharistic fast and commit a grave sin. Others say that a person who is sure that his case comes under the conditions of the concession would sin'venially by disobedience if he were to omit the consultation and rceive Com-munion; and that in an extra.ordinary case, when it is impossible to. consult a confessor, he could use the concession without consultation. This opinion may be followed unless the Holy See ~olves the question otherwise. Of course, if a person were not qualified to judge the matter, he would sin at least, venially b,y acting imPrudently. There is"also some discussion about the confessor who is t6 be consulted. The strictest o.pinion is that he must be a priest who 308 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST could h~re and now hear the confession of the one consulting, and this would be required if the advice were sbught in confession. But the law does not require that the advice be sought in confession. It may be asked in private consultation outside the confe~si6nal and, according to atenable opinion, from a priest who can hear confes-sions somewhere, even though he .has no faculties to hear confessions in the place of the consultation or of the person consulting. Certainly no one but a priest may give the required advice, though teachers and others may explain the requirements to their charges. Since the advice of the confessor may be asked out of confession, it follows'that it may be asked in personal interview, by phone or by letter, or by an int.ermediary,such as a parent or other relative, a Sister or nurse in a hospital, a teacher, etc. The advice is personal and in-dividual and could not be given to a large group together, such as Ill the people attending Mass; but.if there is a group in which the con- "fessor knows that all those present have the same reason for the use of the concession, he could advise the group together, as when all the nurses present are on night duty, or all the people present must make a long trip to Mass, and thus come under the concessions to be seen later. As seen above, a person who is not a priest must consult a con- . fessor before using the concession for the sick (and also the conces-sions to be seen below). Must the sick priest also consult a confessor before using this concession to receive Communion or to celebrate Mass? "A~ first sight the law seems to requlke this, and some com-mentators thus interpret the law., But many, i~ncluding some who are connected with the Holy Office in Rome, say that the sick priest need not consult a confessor. This seems reasonable, for if the priest can decide for others, he should be able t9 decide ~or himself. With-out entering into all the arguments, it might be well to consider one point, The Instruction of the'Holy Office concerning the sick (n. 3) says: "Priests who are ill., may likewise take advantage of the dispensation." The word likewise is a translation of the.word pariter, meaning "likewise," "in the same way." Many'commenta-tors r~fer this word to what has gone before, and understand the law to gay that priests may use the dispensation in the same way as the faithful, that is, .after consulting a confessor. It seems to be as well or even better to refer the word to what follows, and understand the sentence to mean that priests are given permission to .use the dispen-sation as well for celebrating Mass as for receiving Communion, 309 HILARY R. WERTS Review for Reliqious which is a new and very noteworthy concession, emphasized by the word pariter. The next concession is for priests in circumstances other than sickness which make fasting difficult. Three specific causes of diffi-culty are set down and the concession is grant.ed to piiests in these circumstances, without the need of consulting a confessor, and even incases where the pri, est couId fast without difficulty. The three causes are exclusive, and the concession is not to be extended to other circumstano~s, but actually the three given causes cover most of the difficult cases. The first cause is the late hour of celebrating Mass. The hour is defined as nine o'clock in the morning. If a priest celebrat,~s Mass after this hour he may take non-alcoholic !iquids as explained above, up to one hour before the beginning of Mass, and may take them as often as he wishes. The time in this case must be measured mathe-matically. There must be a full hour of fasting before the beginning of Mass. And the Mass must start after nine o'clock. If the priest leaves the sacristy promptly for a scheduled nine o'clock Mass, it will be after nine when he begin? the Mass at the foot of the altar with the sign of the cross, and he is a proper subject for this concession. When a priest is celebrating more than one Mass, and one of them is after nine o'clock, he fulfills the cbndition and may us~ the dispensation by taking liquids any time after .midnight, and therefore before his. earlier Mass, but he must observe the prescription of fasting from the liquids for one hour before each Mass. Thus if he celebrates at eight and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before seven o'clock; if he celebrates at six and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before five and again after the first Mass but before eight o'clock. The second cause which allows priests the use Of liquids up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is heavy work of the ministry done before Mass. No exact definition of this work is given, but in view of the definition of a late hour given above, and of a long jour-ney given in the next cause, it would seem safe to say that one hour or more of concentrated work, such as hearing confessions, taking~ Communion to the sick, preparing a sermon, participating in solemn ceremonies, and the like, would allow the concession, but not an hour of puttering at odds and ends while waiting for Mass time. The third cause permitting liquids to the priest up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is a long journey, before Mass. A long journey is defined by the Holy Office as a distanoe of a mile and a 310 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST quarter on foot, which is a walk of about 20 or 25 minutes. If transportation is used, the distance must be greater in proportion to the kind of conveyance, the d!fficulty of the road, and the condition of the traveler. The inconvenience of the trip by conveyance should be equivalent to the inconvenience of a walk of a mile and a quarter. For a healthy person and a good road, it would seem that about forty minutes by car, or thirty minutes by bus, or twenty minutes by bicycle, would be a long journey in the sense of this law. Where the road or the weather is bad, or the person old or unwell, this distance may be shortened proportionately. Since water no longer breaks the fast, it is noted that a priest celebrating more than one Mass may take the ablutions in each Mass, but using only water except at the last Mass. However, the Holy Office makes an exception to this in the case of Christmas and All Souls Day, if the priest celebrates three Masses on these feasts without interruption. In this case he should observe the rubrics of the missal which require the omission of the ablutions in the first two Masses. If on these two days the priest should take the ablutions with water, he would not be breaking his fast but he would be violating the rubrics. The Holy Office says that if the binating or trinating priest in-advertently takes wine at the ablutions of a Mass before his last one, he may still celebrate the subsequent Mass or Masses. Some commen-tators hold that this permission is granted only if the priest has some special need to celebrate the subsequent Mass, e.g. because it is a sched-uled Sunday Mass. But others say that the law does not necessarily mean any particular need for the Mass, and that the priest may pro-ceed with his Masses for no greater reason than his own devotion. It would seem that if the priest inadvertently took the wine ablu-tion into the chalice in his earlier Mass, and noticed it before con-suming the wine, he would not be obliged to dispose of it some other ~vay, but could consume it. However, if he deliberately took the wine ablution at Mass, not intending to binate, and later the need for another Mass arose, he could not celebrate again .unless there were sufficient need to allow him to celebrate after breaking his fast. But in view of the present mitigation of the law, one might be less severe than formerly in weighing this need. Having seen the concessions for priests who will celebrate Mass, we come to the concession for communicants. This concession, simi-lar to but somewhat different from the preceding, is the one which 311 HILARY Rz WERTS Re, view/or Reli~lious rules the reception of Holy Communion for all non-priests, even though they be religious or clerics in the major orders of subdeacon or deacon, and it also applies to priests who are to communicate rather than celebrate, as for example, priests who do not c~lebrate Mass on Holy Saturday. The concession is given for three exclusive causes of grave diffi-culty, namel~, fatiguing work ¯before Communion, late hour of. Communion, or a long journey before Commianion. The concession requires consultation of a confessor, as seen ~above for the infirm. When the" concession is allowed, the communicant may take .liquids as often as he wisheL from midnight until one hour b~fore Com-munion, and of course water at any time. No solid food,or alcoholic drink is allowed after midnight. Note that the hour is measured be-fore Communion, while for the celebrant we saw that it is measured before the beginning of Mass. The period of fasting must be a full hour and if in doubt about the exact time of Communion one must leave some margin Of time; or risk arriving at Communion before the full hbur is completed and thus be deprived of Communion, for there m'ust be no diminution of the hour. There are various opinions as to the application of the three causes of grave difficulty. One opinion requires not only the exist-ence of one of these three causes, but also the existence of at I~east a moderately grave difficulty in fasting from midnight for this particu-lar communica.nt, A second opinion holds that if one. of the three, causes exists, we may presume that it is actually difficult for any par-ticular person to observe the fast" from midnight, and so he should be allowed to use the concession unl.ess it is clear that fasting causes him no difficulty. A third opinion holds that the only difficulty required is the actual existence of one of the three given causes. For example, if one must make a long journey to church, he may be allowed to use the concession without inquiry as to the inconvenience he would suf-fer by fasting from midnight. TJae practical application of these¯ different opinions will be the same except in border-line cases in which the third opinion will cre-ate less anxiety in the confessor and the comrrluriicant than will the other two opinions. This third opinion has the fewest supporters,. ¯ but I adopt it'as the easiest to. apply and as defensible according to the meaning of the law. Although the tenor of the law is that it in-tends to relieve those who experience grave difficulty in fasting from midnight, it also states that there is grave difficulty in certain cases 312 November, 1953 ¯ THE EUCHARISTIC FAST given as examples. The C0n~titution also insinuates that some cir-stances which do not ~eem to be serious in a single case may have a serious cumulative effect over an extended period. Thus 'the Consti-tution says that the burden of a priest's Sunday ministry unques-tionably undermines his health; the conditions of work in the mod-ern economy and the conditions of modern living especially after re-cent wars have caused a general decline of health. The Constitution, norm V, grants the concession "because of grave incon.venience-- that is, because Of fatiguing work, or the lateness of the hour . or the long distance." (italics supplied), signif~ring that these three conditions are actually grave difficulties. The introduction to the ¯ Instruction says the concessions may be used by those who find them-selves in the particular conditions specified in the Constitution, which in this.concession are the three given causes. The Instruction states 'the concession to the sick conditionally,."if because of their illness~ they are unable without grave inconvenience, to observe a complete fast," signifying that illness may or may not be a cause of grave in-convenience. But in the concession to communicants who are not ill, it states directly that the three enumerated circumstances are (not rna~] be) causes of grave inconvenience. Furthermore, the spirit of these, documents is very lenient, considering a mile and a quarter as a gravely inconvenient walk and nine o'clock as a gravely inconvenient late horn:, if these are considered as.generally grave, there seems to be little room for a reasonable decision that in some.exceptional cases they are not grave. To draw a line betw,een grave and not grave in this matter seems to be practically impossible and the attempt to do so would lead to anxiety and scruples. So it seems to be in accord' with the meaning and spirit of this law to allow the concession to all communicants who are in one of thd three given circumstances, without trying to measure the gravity of the difficulty of fasting for each communicant. ¯ The first cause given, fatiguing work, is illustrated in the law by the cases of night workers in factories, ships or other transportation, ~hose who spend the night in the'service of the sick or as watchmen, and mothers who must perform domestic duty before going to Com~ reunion. The work may be an all-night occupatign, or it may be work done in the morning for a period long enough to make it fa-tiguing, or it may be work done during some part of the night with some sleep afterwards, as when a nurse is called at night for some emergency. An hour's heavy work in the morning would seem to jus- 313 HILARY R. WERTS Reuieto /:or Religious tify the use of the concession. Work done late in the evening does not seem to be ordinarily included in this cause, but .such work and even work done earlier might sometimes be so fatiguing that it would permit use of the concession. The law also mentions pregnant women,rand probably considers them subjects for the concession in-dependently of any work they must do before Communion, merely by reason of the pregnancy. The second cause is the late hour at which alone the communicant can receive. The late hour is not defined, but since nine o'clock has been defined as a late hour for the celebrant, it must also be a late hour for the communicant. Perhaps it was not defined because it maC/ happen that a time before nine o'clock will be a late hour for those who must rise very early. The Instruction gives the example of Communion in a place where a priest is not able to say Mass early because he must come from some distance, as happens when on.e priest has charge of two or more churches. Although the Constitution says: "The ,lateness of the hour at which alone they can receive," this must not be understood to mean that it is absolutely impossible to receive earlier, but rather that it is difficult to receive earlier, or there is some necessity for waiting until a late hour. The concession could be allowed to these: the parent who must care for the children while the other parent goes to an early Mass and then himself goes to a .later Mass; one who is awake until a very late hour at night and so needs to sleep late in the morn-ing; one who needs a late sleep on Sunday or a holiday to rest from his week's work; one who must choose a late Mass to keep peace in the family; the altar boy who is assigned to serve a late Mass, even if he could go to another earlier Mass; a worker who could.conveni-ently go to noon Mass down town but would find it inconvenient to rise early enough for Mass before work; some special reason for a late Mass, as when the bride and groom wish to receive at a late nup-tial Mass, or the family wishes to receive at a late Requiem Mass; and in general, whenever in view of the person's accustomed rising hour, the time of the first conveniently available Mass is relatively late. But one may not without some necessity freely choose the later of two Masses in order to be able to take liquids before Com-munion. A special case of a late hour, mentioned in the documents, is that of children who would have to go to church, communicate, and then return home for breakfast before school. In order to obviate this 314 Nooernber, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST difficulty, these children may take liquid nourishment up to an hour before Communion. It must be admitted that this concession is not without its own problems. Although a child could have a sufficiently nourishing breakfast made up entirely of liquids, still it might not be a satisfying breakfast for those accustomed to a more substantial meal, and the liquid breakfast might require that the child and hi~ family rise earlier than usual in order to finish it an hour before Com-munion time. From this case of the school child we may conclude that some-times the hour may be considered late because the available time be-tween Holy Communion and other duties does not permit the com-municant to obtain breakfast, readily after Communion. This may be the case not only for school children, but also for college students, and for people who work away from home and do not have conveni-ent time after Mass to return home for breakfast. The third cause which allows this concession is a long distance to travel to church. The distance in this concession is to be measured in the way explained above for priests, i.e., a mile and a quarter walk, or the equivalently inconvenient ride. Here again there must be some need for the travel. One could not choose a more distant church when there is a nearer one unless there was some fairly serious reason for doing so. Sufficient reason might be some special solemnity at the distant church, e.-g., the first Mass of a member of the family; a group Communion of a family or of the Holy Name Society or the Knights of Columbus; .an alumni or father-son Communion-group at a school; a baccalaureate Mass; the close of a M'ission or novena one has attended; but hardly the mere devotional desire to communi-cate in the distant church rather than in a near one. The final concession concerns evening Masses. These Masses are not directly permitted, but the local Ordinary may permit them on the days specified in the law, and he may permit them in all .the churches of the diocese, or in certain designated churches. He may also permit them in the oratories of religious. There must b~ some need for the evening Mass, for workers who cannot go to morning Mass, or for a gathering for a religious or social festivity such as a Eucharistic Congress, a Sodality Convention, a business, labor or scout convention, etc. The evening Mass may begin at four o'clock or later. Some have thought that an eoenin9 Mass differs from a night Mass, and have tried to assign the latest hour at which this Mass may begin as some hour earlier than midnight, but the law does 315 HILARY R. WERTS not ~eem to set a final hour at any time before midnight, and the hour may be defined by the local. Ordinary according to the need. When evening Masses are permitted, all are free t6 go to the Masses and to receive Communion, but no one may communicate twice on the same day, nor may the priest celebrate morning and evening of the same day unless he may legitimately binate on that day. Neither priest.nor faithful need consult a konfessor under this concession. The Eucharistic fast required for evening Communion is a fast "of three hours from solid food and one hour from liquids, and the time.is measured before Communion for the communicant but before the beginning of Mass for the celebrant. No hard liquor is allow~d ¯ after the preceding midnight.Light alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine are allowed in moderation, but only during a meal. Some commentators hold that these beverages may be taken at only one meal, even if the person ~ats two meals before a Mass late in the evening, But it may I~e admitted with other commentators that the law does not intend to exclude the use of these beverage's from any meal taken before evening Mass or Communion. This new law of the Eucharistic fast is a generous help for the increase of frequent Communion. Priests and other teachers of the faithful can use it effectively, as the Holy Father wishes, to encourage the frequent reception of the Blessed Sacrament, and the faithful should take full advantage of these concessions to increase their re-ception of the'Bread of Life in proportion to the greatlyincreased convenience of its reception. " BOOK NOTICI: Over twenty years ago Father Bernard Hausmann, S.J., first translated from the German a notable book on-the devotion to the Sacred Heart written by Father Christian Pesch, S.J., under the title of OUR BEST FRIEND. World War II and other causes kept the book out of print for some years. Now the publisher has reset the book entirely in very legible type. Its thirty chapters, each acom-plete unit in itself, offer ideal reading matter for daily spiritual reading during the month of June; or for the Fridays of the year. The central thought of this work, that Jesus is t, ruly our best Friend, contains the strongest possible motive for fervent practice of devotion to the Sacred Heart. (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Cc~mpany, 1953. Pp. 228. $3.00.) 316 Motu Proprio ,Jubilee C.J. McNaspy, S.J. ~IGH MASS ~nd possibly an added toothsome tidbit, at least for the choir, mark St. Cecilia's feast in many religious com-munities. This year is likely to see a fuller fe.stivity on No-vember 22, the golden jubilee of Blessed Pius X's Motu~Proprio on ¯ sacred music. 'Everything about'this famed document is rwell known to music teachers and chant directors, who often have had to flourish it in defense of their innovations or renovations. But this fiftieth anniversary may be a fit .occasion for all religious, however unmusical, .to recall what the Church has to say about her own music. If the Motu Proprio were a dead letter no one would take the trouble to commemorate it. Blessed Pius himself saw to it that this would not easily happen by enshrining his prescriptions in tt~e pre-paratory draft of canon 1264. His immediate, successor, Benedict XV, not long after stated: "We do not wish that the lapse of time should weaken the force of these wise rules.; indeed, we desire them to have their full force." On the silver anniversary, 1928, Pius XI indeed bolstered them with a new papal document, Diuini Cultus, in which he expr~essed surprise "that some have declared that these laws, though so solemnly promulgated, were not binding on their obedience." .Finally, our present Holy Father devotes several pa.ragraphs to sacred music, alway~ stressing the sameprinciples, in his masterly Mediator Dei. No one, unless wi~h a peculiar axe to grind, can say that the Motu Proprio is out of date. Another unfounded notion one sometimes hears is th~t the Motu Proprio is a bit extreme and not practical enough for us to do anything about it. The full reply to this objection would be simply to read it through. By no means does it. state or imply' that one should use only Gregorian chant in sacred worship. Quite explicitly the Holy Father states that "modern music is also admitted in church, as it also offers compositions of such goodness, seriousness, and grav-ity that they are not at all unworthy of liturgical functions." And if this were not enough, the Holy Father explains that "the Church: has always recognized and favored the progress of the arts, admitting to the service of worship everything good and beautiful that genius has been able to discover throughout the centuries." No, only one 317 C. J. McNAsPY Review for Religious type of music is condemned in the Motu Proprio, and that by indi-. rection: the music that does not possess "the qualities proper to the liturgy, namely holiness, and goodness of form, from which spon-taneously there springs its other mark, uniuersaIit~t.:" It is hard to see how anyone could find this either radical or extreme. So much has been done, especially during recent years, to carry out the requirements of the Motu Proprio that another possible qualm may occur: isn't it all so obvious that we needn't discuss it any more? Mu~n personal contact with religious, younger ones particu-larly, is so encouraging that one is tempted to let down, feeling that the battle has been won. The ever-.widening conquests of the Gre-gorian Institute, Piu; X School, and other liturgical or musical or-ganizations must surely bring added joy to the Blessed Pontiff who so recently launched the whole movement. But when one leaves religious house and seminary to venture forth into parish, or even, in some cases, cathedral, the situation is dismal indeed. True, the more offensive, bumptious Masses usual in the last century will h~rdly now be heard. But in too many instances, what replaced them is little better. In fact, there are parishes, even deaneries, Where .the Motu Proprio would seem never to have been promulgated. Sad indeed would be the Blessed Pastor were he not already in heaven. It was with real poignancy that he had written, fifty years ago, while intro-ducing his great statement, of the "many prejudices so stubbornly held even~among responsible and pious persons"; not all of the stub-bornness is gone .today. Need we recall once again that all.discussion of the role of sacred music in divine worship must be situated in the total context of the very m. eaning of liturgy.? The question cannot be simply decided on a purely musical basis. It cannot be just a matter of aesthetic value, abstractly considered, if that were possible. Much less can it be just a question of "I don't know anything about music but I know what I like." ¯ Music that would ~ank high on some ecclesiastical Hit Pa-rade or even music performed in Carnegie Hall will not necessarily be suitable as worship music. Too often, even now, dubious standards are implicitly set up. A meditative reading of the Motu Proprto could remedy that. "Sacred music as an integral part of the solemn liturgy shares in its general, purpose, which is the glory of God and the sanctification and edification of the faithful." Thus far no cavilling possible. "Its principal function is to adorn with suitable melody the liturgical text 318 November, 1953 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE proposed to the understanding of the faithful." Here it becomes clearer that music's place must be secondary, that of a handmaid, as Pius XI would make explicit. If tb? sacred text becomes a plaything, or in any way obscured instead of pointed and intensified, then some-thing has gone askew; this may be good concert music; it is no longer liturgical music. Then the Pontiff enumerates the three qualities of sacred music which we gave above. By "holiness" he means ~hat all profanity must be excluded, "not only in itself but also in the manner in which it is presented by the perfgrmers." Farther on he explains that nothing may be admitted ~hat contains anything "reminiscent of theatrical motifs," or "fashioned even in external pattern on the movement of profane pieces." Music of a romantic or sentimental flavor (aptly called "googaudery") in which the."pleasure directly produced by music is not always kept within bounds," is evi-dently excluded under this heading. Next, music "must be true art, for otherwise it is not possible for. it to have that effect on listeners which the Church intends to achieve in admitting the art of music into bet liturgy." This precept is commonly violated in two ways: either by singing music of low artistic worth, music that would never make its mark in "the world ~vere it not put forth under the aegis of the liturgy; or by singing worth~(music in an unworthy way. The second fault, while often less grievous because prompted by good. intentions, can sometimes do more harm than good. People have frequently grown to dislike Gregorian chant or the Church's great polyphony because they were performed with more good will than skill. For this reason Plus XI insisted that at least seminaries teach "the higher and 'aesthetic' study of plainchant and sacred music, of polyphony and organ, which the clergy should by all means thoroughly know." As the seminaries turn out pastors competent in this field, it is likely that choirs will reflect their understanding of sacred music, artistically and liturgically. The third mark of liturgical music, "universality," means that "though every nation is allowed to admit into its ecclesiastical com-positions those particular forms that constitute, so to speak, the spe-cific character of its own music, still these must be subordinated in such a way to the general character of sacred music that no one of another nation may receive a bad impression-on hearing them." This delicate catholicity, a tension between unity and diversity, is perhaps 319 C. J. MCNASPY the hardest principle to apply. However,. ,the Pontiff goes, ,on. ex-plicitly- to condemn the operatic style of his own country. We wonder~ what he would think of certain rather eccentric efforts to produce Negroid or "western" sacred music for use.in our country. But popes are ever practical, and to prevent us from being too abstract in our approach, the Holy Father immediately gives concrete examples of what the Church does want. "These qualities are found, in the highest degree in Gregorian chant,~'' which "has always been considered the supreme model 'of sacred music." Then he sets down, in italics and as unambiguously as possible, the fol-lowing'rule: "The more closely a composition for church approaches the Gregorian melody in movement, inspiration, and flavor, the more sacred and liturgical it is; and the more it departs from that supreme model, the less worthy it is of the temple." It would" take real in-genuity to misunderstand that. Blessed Pius next forestalls a possible escape. Granted, one might object, that.the chant is so sacred and worthy; but isn't other music really more solemn? No, says the Pope, "it must be held by all as certain that an ecclesiastical function loses none of its solemnity when accompanied by no other music than Gregorian chant alone.'.' How-ever, he adds, "the qualities mentioned above are also possessed in an eminent degree by classical polyphony, especially by the Roman school, which in the sixteenth century reached its highest perfection in the work 6f Pierluigi da Palestrina. . Classical polyphony is quite close to the supreme model of all sacred music, namely Gre-gbrian chant, and for that reason deserved to be received together with Gregorian chant in the most solemn functions of the Church." A fir~al scruple: is this not reactionary,, or at least over-conserva-tive? As an interesting corroboration of the Holy Father's stand I believe we could give quotations from almost every leading con-temporary music historian or theorist. To cite only the most recent,, and surely, one of the most eminent, Harvard's Professor. A. T. Davison, a no/~-Catholic. " His new book, Church Music: Illusion and Reality, could almost be called a commentary on the Motu Pro-prio. After calling our chan~ "the unchallenged example o~t:, worship become music" and speaking of Palestrina and other polyphonic corn- .posers in terms of the highest pr~iise, Dr.Davison states in reference to both: "It may appear to the reader that this music of the Roman Cath-olic Church has been rather aggressively held up as a model.If this 320 November, 1953 COMMUNICATIONS is so, it is only because of a conscientious attempt to deal objectively with the matter; for that particular music, it would seem, fulfills two all-important requisites of true church music: first, in vying with the greatest music in any field, sacred, secular, or instrumental; and second, in creating an atmosphere of worship wherein not man but God appears as the important figure in the transaction." . Surely no fine~ tribute to the sainted Pope and his liturgical work for Christ could be offered. Communications Reverend Fathers: The September issue of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS reached me t£day and I should like" to cl~arify a reference made by WilliamGrem-ley, in his article entitled "Intergroup Relatiohs," pages 231-241. The quotation given by Mr. Gremley from This Is Our Town appeared in the old edition of the book. I have since revised all the Faith and Freedom" Readers and the particular story referred to by Mr. Gremley is no longer in the new edition. Mr. Gremley gives 1952 as the date of copyright which is also in-correct. The story referred t0 in This Is Our, Town appeared in the 1942 edition. The re~;ised book was published last spring and has a 1953 copyright. There is no 1952'edition of this particular volume. --SISTER M. MARGUERITE, S.N.D: Reverend Fathers : His Excellency, Bishop Gonzaga, of the Palo (Leyte) diocese in the Philippines; has asked me, during my brief visit to the United States, to try to interest some American Sisterhoods to undert~ike educational work in his diocese. Will you allow me to publicize his request through your e~teeme'd columns? The Holy See has entrusted to this zealous and schokirly Filipino prelate the spiritual welfare of over 1,000,000 Catholics on the large island of Leyte. During my twenty years in the Philippines, I have had the privilege of. long acquaintance with him, and know well his situation. With only about sixty-five priests (some of whom are old and sickly) and only three schools conducted by Sisters, he is in desperat9 need of spiritual reinforcements and most anxious to obtain American Sisters, and also priests, for his diocese. 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoiew/or Religious Anyone acquainted with our own country realizes that we have many regions at l~ome which need additional laborers in the vineyard of the Lord. It is this situation, no doubt, which is preventing many of our high-minded ecclesiastical, and religious superiors from allow-ing their .American subjects to go to foreign fields. On the other hand, Catholic history from the time of the Apostles is replet~ with examples of how the Church has always been prodigal in sending missionaries to foreign fields, even though their home lands were not yet fully manned nor completely evangelized. And they have been richly rewarded by the Holy Spirit, \Vho has multiplied vocations to their ranks as a blessing for their sacrifices. Those interested in further details will please write .to the under-signed. REV. G. J. WILLMANN, S.J. P. O. Box.510, Manila, Philippine Islands --29~ There are members o~ a commun;ty ~;v;ng ~ogefber who bare not spo-ken to one another over a period of four or five-years. Is the local superior obliged to try to correct this situatlbn or should a higher superior who !~nows of the maffer take a hand? As a general norm local situations as far as possible would be handled by the local superior. For a good reason in a particular case it might be deemed advisable that some other than the local superior take care of the matter; t.he case could then be referred to higher supe-riots. Such a good reasbn could be discrepancy in age between the superior and the subject'.who needs correction, possible lack of ex-perience in a younger superior, a question of tactfulness, a clash of personalities, and the like. In our instance the higher superior is al-ready acquainted with the situation; hence the lotal and higher supe-riors might confer together regarding the more prudent and more efficacious way of handling the case. Is it the mind of the Church tha÷ S~sters who de~re and even ask for correction and guidance from their superiors be left wlthouf it on ÷he ex 322 November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS pressed opinion that the Sisters are grown women and know what they are supposed fo do? Canon 530 strictly forbids all religio~s superiors in any way to indfice their subjects to make a manifestation of conscience to them. It does not, however, forbid subjects to open their minds freely, and of their own accord to their superiors; in fact, it encourages filial trust in superiors and, if the superior is a priest, it also recommends sub-jects to reveal doubts and anxieties of conscience to such a superior. Consequently subjects are free to go to superiors, even those who are not priests,~ with their problems, especially if the problem does not in~rolve a question of sin. Superiors on their part will usually lend a sympathetic ear. But the case might arise in which the superior did not feel competent tO handle a certain problem; or one could, en-visage a particular case in which the superior judged that it would be better for the individual to resolve some simpler difficulty for himself and thereby buiid up self-confidence. In these matters a great deal of tact and Christian charity is required on the part of superiors; but subjects also should practice charity in moderating ~he demands they make upon superiors. Some problems could easily be solved on the individual's initiative after prayer and reflection. A decade ago the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS invited discussion on the topic of spiritual direction. In the concluding survey (II [ 1943 ], 187-201) the twofold prong of spiritual direction was indicated, namely instruction and encouragement. On pages 19 I-192 the con-clusion is voiced that need of instruction should certainly decrease with the i~assage of years to such a point that normally the intellec-tual help required of one's spiritual director would be mainly friendly criticism. "In other words, these religious plan their own lives, submit their plans to a director for approval or disapproval,. and then occasionally make a report on the success or failure of the plan." In regard to encouragement, the need is more individual ~nd is usually not lessened with the years. "At various periods in our lives, most of us need sympathetic help or paternal correction lest we lose heart or descend to low ideals." Both superiors and subjects might profit by keeping those considerations in mind. --31-- If a councillor is absent and the local superior, who is not a councillor, is called to a council meeting, does the local superior give her vote ~n ÷l~e order the absent councillor would have or after all the councillors? 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious ¯ Canon 106, n. 5 says in part.that among the members of any college (collegium) the right of precedence shall be determined by the legitim.ate constitutions of the college; otherwise by .lawful custom; in default of that, by the norms of the common law. Hence, the con-stitutions of the institute should be consulted. If they make no pro-vision, then follow whatever has been the legitimate custom (which here means the customary way of acting), in this situation. If neither the constitutions nor custom provide a solution, canon 106, n. 1 states that one who represents another enjoys the precedence'that person has; but anyone who is in a council or similar meeting .as a proxy yields precedence to those of the same rank who are personally present. Accordingly, then, a local superior wl~o is not a councillor but who has been summohed to take the place organ absent councillor would vote after the councillors who are present in person. m32m Acjeneral chapter is held in a branch house. When the time comes for voting, does the local superior who is not a councillor .cjeneral vote before or after the ~ouncillors cjeneral? (It is customary for Junior Sisters 1.o vote first, followed by Senior Sistei-s.I The first answer is, consult your constitutions. If they say. nothing, the.n follow whatever has been customarily done in this matter. If no solution is forthcoming from either of those sources in the order enumerated, it would seem that the local superior in this case would yield precedence to the councillors general since the latter in this instance seem to be acting in their "general" capacity, so to speak. (Possibly some institutes follow a simpler method of having all capitulars vote according to strict seniority, upwards or down-wards, without regard to offices h~ld.) ~33~ Propositions to be presented to our cjenera! chapter are very often sent throucjh some member of our cjeneral council or fhroucjh the cjenera/ council. 'Has the cjeneral, councll the right to discard a proposition that pertains dlrec~ly or indirectly to the cjeneral council itself, since the cjen-eral chapter, wh[le in session, is the highest aufhorlfy ~n the concjrecjatlon? Perhaps your constitutions or legitimate custom indicate that proEositions intended for the genekal chapter are to be forwarded ,dlrough the counciI16rs general, and that these latter have the power to judge the feasibility of presenting any such proposition to the gen- 324 0, November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS eral chapter. Otherwise, an answer (in part) appearing in the RE-VIEW ~:OR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 309-310 in response to a similar question .says: "Usually they [requests" or complaints intended for thegeneral chapter] are given to one of the delegates to'the general chapter who, in turn, at the proper time, turns them in to the special committee appointed for the purpose of screening such requests .and complaints. Those that are considered worthy of the attention of the general chapter are proposed to it in due time during the chapter of affairs. At the end of the. chapter, before a vote to adjourn is taken, .any delegate may ask tha~ a request or complaint which has been turned in but has not been submitted to the general chapter 'should now be read, and the chapter will then vote first on whether the request or complaint is to be considered or not. If"it is "rejected, that is the end of the matter. If the majority is for considering it, it will then be 'considered in the same way as .the other requests or com-plaints which Were already submitted to the general chapter." m34.- ~ One of our novices left religious llfe aboufa year ago because of ill health. Now she has fully recovered and would like ÷o re-enter our com-munity. We know she has ÷o make a new novitiate, but does she have to make a new postulancy? Unless your own constitutions require a new postulancy, the ap-plicant does not have to rbpeat the postulancy. There is no special provision in the°Code of Canon Law for this case, but the conclusion is reached by analogy with two other provisions in the Code. Accgrding to canon 640, § 2, if a religious who after making profession obtained an indult of secularization is readmitted later on to a religious institute by virtue of an apostolic indult, he must make a new novitiate and a new profession, but nothing is said about making a new postulancy also. Hence a new postulancy need not be made in that case. ~ Likewise in an institute which has two canonical classes of mem-bers, if a novice or professed passes from one ciass to the other, a new novitiate must be made, but no new postulancy is required (~ee canon 558). Hence by analogy with the above two provisions of the Code, no new postulancy is required in the case proposed in our question. (See also REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, I [1942], 357.) 325 Book Reviews RELIGIOUS MEN AND WOMEN IN THE CODE. By Joseph Creusen,'S.J. Fifth Engfish edition, revised and edited to conform wi÷h the sixth Frefich edition by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Pp. xlv -f- 322. Bruce Publish° ing Company, Milwaukee, 19S~}. $S.S0. Religious superiors and subjects will welcome this latest edition of Father Creusen's vhluable work. In editing the fifth English edi-tion, Father Ellis has painstakingly made the various changes, addi-tions, and omissions found in the latest French edition. These emen-dations, due partly to a constant effort to keep the work up-to-date with recent pronouncements of the Holy See, serve to enhance the undoubted worth of this book. It should be kept handy alike for r~ference shelf and classroom study of the Church's law for religious. Something about the annual report and the new questionnaires for the quinquennial report is included. Appendix III gives an English translation of the questionnaire for the quinquennial report of dioce-san congregations and societies. As the author remarks in his preface: "We have not deemed it necessary to add a chapter on Secular Insti-tutes, since by no title' are they a form of the religious life nor are their members religious." There is a revised bibliography. A larger type has been used for the table of contents.--F. N. KORTH, S.J. FUNDAMENTAL PSYCHIATRY. By John R. Cavanagh, B.S., M.D., ¯ C.P., K.S.G., end James B. McGoldrlck, S.J., S.T.D., Ph.D. Pp. x Jr- 582. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 19S3. $S.50. For fifty years psychiatry has drawn man's psychic portrait across the medical horizgn without a spiritual intellect or will, with-out a spiritual soul. For decades the brilliant analytic theories and therapeutic techniques, often investigated with scientific precision, have been built upon a false psychic substructure of practical mate-rialism and ihstinctive determinism. The emerging portrait tends to be a distorted caricature of human nature and psychic life as a mere mixture of matter and determined instinct. As a net result, psychia-trists are now left without adequate goals in life to point out to their patients. To interpret, to correct, to refashion psychiatry on the same old base has long been unsatisfactory. The present authors challenge the jaded materialistic framework at every turn ,and discard it com'- pletely. They have produced a first-rate psychiatry textbook that 326 BOOK REVIEWS turns a new medical page and builds the young ~cience of psychiatry entirely upon the time-tested framework of traditional scholastic psychology. This book is important for its psychological structure and its emphases. Perhaps more than any other psychiatry book today it emphasizes, with scientific precision, the spiritual intellect, will and soul; volitional freedom at the root of mental disorder; character formation based upon intellectual, and moral habits; and .the need of an adequate philosophy of life for true mental balance taken from both reason and revelation. Pervading the book with regard to etiology is the author's insistence upon the psychogenic or nonmaterial origin of mental disorders caused by a misuse of man's spiritual faculties. The high caliber and clear structure of Fundamental Ps~chiatr~ reminds one of Dr. Strecker's excellen~ book Fundamentals ot: Psgt-chiatr~ l. It has seven major sections, thirty-one chapters critically written and well-documented, sixty-five thorough case histories, and rich bibliographical material. Publishers and authors have designed a clear and highly readable book. It opens with intr6ductory con- ¯ cepts, the extent of mental disorders, and a picture of normal per-sonality. Five major sections treat of etiology, the clinical approach to psychiatry, psychoneuroses, psychoses, and borderlands of psy-chiatry. The conclusion is devoted to psychiatry, philosophy, and religion. The growing importance of psychiatry makes thi~ an important and valuable book for Catholic hospitals, doctors, nurses, and coun-selors, and for those engaged .in educational and sociological 'work involving modern psychiatric pkinciples.--CHARLES NASH, S.J. MOST REVEREND ANTHONY 3. SC~HULER, S.J.,D.D.,FIRST BISHOP OF I:L PASO, AND SOME CIATHOLIC~ ACTIVITIES IN THE DIOC~ESE BETWEEN 1915-1942. By Sls~'er M. Lilliana Owens, S.L., Ph.D. Pp. xxiv -J- 584. Revls÷a Clatolica Press, El Paso, 1953. $3.50. This labor of love but also a heavily documented work intro-duces us into the career of another "first l~ishop" in the United States coming from the Society of Jesus. When the diocese of El Paso was erected in 1915, the second choice for this new See was the pastor of ¯ a church in Denver, Colorado. He had seen the southwest in earlier days and knew something of the complicated and almost insoluble problems that would have to be faced. But obedience imposed the task; with confidence in God's help the new bishop put his shoulder BOOK REVIEWS Review for Reliytotts to the task. For more than a quarter of a century he carried on, then handed over a well-established organization to his successor. Less than two years later death carried his soul before his Maker. The volume is prgfusely illustrated and well printed. Six ap-pendixes add materials to those cited in the course of the narrative. Thirty pages.of bibliography give a riotion of the industry that went into the preparation of this work. There is a carefullY-madE index. In the treatment the author in the main f~llows the topical meth-od, giving for each theme the background and carrying it through the whole period of the episcopate. ]3ecause of this we do not get a very clear picture of the growth of the diocese as a whole. In giving the background more is at times given than is needed for the purpose intended. Fo~ the most part the ]3ishop appears before us, not so much initiating projects of his own, but as discreetly promoting and supporting movements set afoot by others and at times making them his own and thus leading'them to a happy solution. In his administration Bishop Schuler faced unique problems with which he had to deal prudently. Such were the bilingual popula-tion in the diocese, its location in t~ro states, the onrush of exiles due to the persecution in Mexico, the dire poverty of a large portion of the faithful, the shortage of priests and of priestly vocations. Some of these themes are treated with some completeness while others are merely touched upon--the title gives warning that the work. is not meant to be exhaustive.--AUGUSTIN C. WAND, S.J. I WANT TO SEE GOD. A Pra~:fical Synthesis of C:armellfe Splritualify. By P. Marle-Eug~ne, O.C~.D. Translated by Sister M. Verda C~lare, C:.S.C:. Pp. xxli -I- $49. F~des Publishers Association, .C:hicag~ .10, 19S3. $S.7S. This is the first of a two-volume work. The. second is to be en-titled, 1"Am a Daughter of the Church. ¯ Their grew out of a series of .conferences on the Carmelite theory and practice of prayer. St. Teresa of Avila, rather than St. John of the Cross, was chosen as the proxi-mate "guide." Of St. Teresa's writings The lnterior Castle, with its seven "mansioias," was taken as basic and typical and it provides .the plan for this exposition. St. John's doctrine is introduced here and there as a confirmation or completion of St. Teresa's, not as something that. is continuous a'nd unified in itself. Very often fu'r-ther confirmation or illustration is sought from St. Th~r~se of Li-sieux. The work as a whole has five principal parts, three of them being 328 November, 1953 BOOK NOTICES in this volume. The first part is called "Perspectives" and serves as a general introduction. "The First Stages" deals with the matter treated in St. Teresa's first three mansions. Therefore it is ascetical. Next follows "Mystica~ Li~e and Contemplation." In this section-- nearly half of volume .one--there is much that one would hardly ¯ think of in simpl~¢ reading the works of St. Teresa or St. John; for example, ch~apter two on the "The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." The two principal parts reserved for the second volun~e are "To Union of Will" and "Holiness for the Church." On the value of this study as a satisfactory synthesis of Carmelite spiritual teaching we' had better let the Carmelites themselves pro-nounce. Besides it would be premature to judge it before the second and much the more important volume appears. --AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Highly recommended is THE NEW EUCHARIS:FIC LEGISLATION, by John C. Ford, S.J. This book contains the original Latin texts of the Christus Dominus and the Instruction of the Holy Office, an English translation of these texts, a stimulating and enlightening commentary on the documents, and some brief summaries that should be very useful for confessors, religion teachers, catechism teachers, and parish priests. (New York: P. J. Kenedy U Sons, 1953. Pp. vii -t- 130. $1.50.) Little less than fascinatir~g is .the story of Louis Brisson as told by Katherine Burton in So MUCH So SOON. Carthusiafi-minded himself, this man founded schools for boys and clubs for girls, and the Oblate Fathers and Sisters of St. Francis de Sales to conduct them. Of rare scientific genius, he planned his own buildings and invented various things to keep his foundations operating efficiently. With profound trust in Providence, he quietly saw most of his great works swept a

Background: In recent years, health care has increasingly become the focus of public interest, politics, health insurance companies, and research. This includes the development of therapeutic concepts that can respond individually to patients' resources in order to improve coping with chronic diseases. Research into psychosocial and biological resilience factors is very important and the basic objective of the present work. I studied patients with fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), who suffer among others from chronic pain, fatigue, sleep and gastrointestinal problems. This patient cohort is characterized by a pronounced heterogeneity in terms of clinical outcome, degree in disability and coping. FMS has a prevalence of 3 – 8 % in the Western population and has a significant socio-economic impact. Validated psychosocial resilience factors include optimism, humor, coherence, self-efficacy, awareness with one's own resources and the ability to apply them profitably (coping), and a healthy social environment with positive relationships. Studies in patients with cancer revealed religiosity as positive and negative factor on the health outcome, but there is little data on religious aspects of pain resilience. Various genetic polymorphisms and anti-inflammatory cytokines are known as biological resilience factors. Various microRNA (miRNA) were detected to contribute to resilience in the context of stress and psychiatric disorders. Objective: The underlying research question of this work is to understand the factors that make some FMS patients resilient and others not, even though they suffer from the same disease. The long-term aim was to understand mechanisms and influencing factors of resilience to design preventive and resource-oriented therapies for FMS patients. Material and Methods: Three studies examined religious, physiological, biological, and psychosocial factors which may contribute to resilience in FMS patients. Study one combined data of questionnaires, a psychosocial interview, and regression analyses to investigate the relevance of religiosity for coping and resilience. Study two examined variance explaining factors and defined clusters among FMS patients by their differences in coping, pain phenotype and disability. The factor analysis used variables derived from questionnaires and qPCR of cytokines in white blood samples (WBC) of patients and healthy controls. Study three assessed cluster-wise miRNA signatures which may underly differences in behaviour, emotional and physiological disability, and resilience among patient clusters. A cluster-specific speculative model of a miRNA-mediated regulatory cycle was proposed and its potential targets verified by an online tool. Results: The data from the first study revealed a not very religious patient cohort, which was rather ambivalent towards the institution church, but described itself as a believer. The degree of religiosity played a role in the choice of coping strategy but had no effect on psychological parameters or health outcomes. The coping strategy "reinterpretation", which is closely related iv to the religious coping "reappraisal", had the highest influence on FMS related disability. Cognitive active coping strategies such as reappraisal which belongs to religious coping had the highest effect on FMS related disability (resilience) and could be trained by a therapist. Results from the second study showed high variances of all measured cytokines within the patient group and no difference between patient and control group. The high dispersion indicated cluster among patients. Factor analysis extracted four variance-explaining factors named as affective load, coping, pain, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Psychological factors such as depression were the most decisive factors of everyday stress in life and represented the greatest influence on the variance of the data. Study two identified four clusters with respective differences in the factors and characterized them as poorly adapted (maladaptive), well adapted (adaptive), vulnerable and resilient. Their naming was based on characteristics of both resilience concepts, indicated by patients who were less stress-sensitive and impaired as a personal characteristic and by patients who emerged as more resilient from a learning and adaptive process. The data from the variance analysis suggests that problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies and a more anti-inflammatory cytokine pattern are associated with low impairment and contribute to resilience. Additional favorable factors include low anxiety, acceptance, and persistence. Some cluster-specific intervention proposals were created that combine existing concepts of behavioral and mindfulness therapies with alternative therapies such as vitamin D supplementation and a healthy intestinal flora. The results of the third study revealed lower relative gene expression of miR103a-3p, miR107, and miR130a-3p in the FMS cohort compared to the healthy controls with a large effect size. The adaptive cluster had the highest gene expression of miR103a-3p and tendentially of miR107, which was correlated with the subscale score "physical abuse" of the trauma questionnaire. Further correlations were found in particular with pain catastrophizing and FMS-related disability. MiR103a-3p and miR107 form a miRNA-family. Based on this, we proposed a miR103a/107 regulated model of an adaptive process to stress, inflammation and pain by targeting genetic factors which are included in different anti-inflammatory and stress-regulating pathways. Conclusion: All three studies provide new insights into resilience in FMS patients. Cognitive coping (reappraisal/reinterpretation) plays a central role and thus offers therapeutic targets (reframing in the context of behavioral therapy). Religosity as a resilience factor was only partially valid for our patient cohort. Basically, the use of resource-oriented therapy in large institutions still requires research and interdisciplinary cooperation to create a consensus between the humanities, natural sciences and humanism. ; Hintergrund: Die Gesunderhaltung ist in den letzten Jahren mehr und mehr in den Fokus des Interesses der Öffentlichkeit, Politik, Krankenkassen und Forschung gerückt. Dazu zählt auch die Entwicklung von Therapiekonzepten, die individuell auf die Bedürfnisse und Ressourcen der Patienten zugeschnitten sind, um den Umgang mit insbesondere chronischen Erkrankungen zu verbessern. Die Erforschung von psychosozialen und biologischen Resilienzfaktoren ist hierfür sehr wichtig, und das grundlegende Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit. Zielgruppe sind Patienten mit Fibromyalgiesyndrom (FMS). Symptome des FMS sind u.a. chronischer Schmerz, Erschöpfung, Schlaf und Magen-, Darmprobleme. Die Patientengruppe erscheint in der Klinik als sehr heterogene mit unterschiedlichen Beeinträchtigungsgraden und verschiedenen Strategien, mit den Auswirkungen der Erkrankung umzugehen. Die Prävalenz des FMS liegt bei 3 – 8% in der westlichen Bevölkerung und ist somit von erheblicher gesellschaftlicher und sozioökonomischer Bedeutung. Validierte psychosoziale Resilienzfaktoren sind u.a. Optimismus, Humor, Kohärenzgefühl, Selbstwirksamkeit, Bewusstsein der eigenen Ressourcen und die Fähigkeit diese gewinnbringend anzuwenden (Coping) und ein gesundes soziales Umfeld mit positiven Beziehungen. Studien an Krebspatienten ergaben unterschiedliche Effekte von Religiosität als Copingstrategie und Resilienzfaktor. Im Allgemeinen liegen wenige Daten vor zum Thema Religiosität / als Schutzfaktor bei Schmerzpatienten. Als biologische Resilienzfaktoren sind verschiedene genetische Polymophismen, anti-inflammatorische Zytokine und microRNA (miRNA) bekannt, die zur Resilienz bei chronischem Stress und psychiatrischen Krankheitsbildern beitragen. Ziel: Die zugrundeliegende Forschungsfrage dieser vorliegenden Arbeit ist, welche Faktoren dazu beitragen, dass manche Patienten resilienter sind als andere, obwohl sie unter derselben Erkrankung leiden. Das langfristige Ziel dieser Forschung ist es, Mechanismen und Einflussfaktoren der Resilienz zu verstehen, um präventive und gezielte Ressourcen-orientierte Therapien für FMS Patienten zu entwickeln. Material und Methoden: Insgesamt drei Studien untersuchten explorativ eine Reihe von religiösen, physiologischen, biologischen und psychosozialen Faktoren und ihre Rolle als Schutzfaktor bei Patienten mit FMS. Studie 1 kombinierte Daten von Fragebögen, einem psychologischen Interview und Regressionsanalysen, um die Relevanz von Religiosität für das Coping und Resilienz zu untersuchen. Studie 2 versuchte mit einer explorativen Faktorenanalyse Einflussfaktoren zu ermitteln, die für die heterogene Datenlage der Patienten verantwortlich sind. Mithilfe einer Clusteranalyse wurden Subgruppen anhand ihrer Unterschiede in mentaler Gesundheit, Coping, Schmerzphänotyp und Beeinträchtigung definiert. Die Faktorenanalyse verwendete Daten der Fragebögen und Genexpressionsanalysen ausgewählter Zytokine aus Blutproben der Patienten und einer gesunden Kontrollgruppe. Zuletzt wurden Cluster-spezifische Therapievorschläge auf der Basis bereits bekannter Therapien zusammengestellt. Studie 3 bestimmte Cluster-charakteristische miRNA Signaturen, die verantwortlich für die Cluster-spezifischen Unterschiede in Verhalten (coping), emotionaler und körperlicher Beeinträchtigung, und Resilienz sein können. Die Ergebnisse wurden in einem Regulationsschema zusammengefasst und schlagen einen möglichen miRNA-regulierten Mechanismus von adaptivem Verhalten vor. Die potentiellen genetischen Targets wurden mittels eines online Tools "Target Scan Human" verifiziert. Ergebnisse: Die Daten der ersten Studie zeigten eine wenig religiöse Patientenkohorte, die der Institution Kirche eher ambivalent gegenüberstand, sich jedoch dennoch als gläubig beschrieb. Der Grad der Religiosität spielte eine Rolle bei der Wahl der Copingstrategie, hatte jedoch keinen Einfluss auf psychologische Parameter oder die Gesundheit. Die Copingstrategie "Reinterpretation", welche auch nah verwandt mit dem religiösen Coping "reappraisal" ist, hatte einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Beeinträchtigung, und könnte innerhalb einer Verhaltenstherapie erlernt werden. Ergebnisse der zweiten Studie zeigen hohe Varianzen aller gemessenen Zytokine innerhalb der Patientengruppe und keinen signifikanten Unterschied zwischen Patienten- und Kontrollgruppe. Die hohe Streuung deutete auf Subgruppen innerhalb der FMS Kohorte hin. Mittels einer Faktorenanalyse wurden vier Faktoren ermittelt, die dieser Varianz zugrunde liegen, welche absteigend als affektive Belastung, Coping, Schmerz und pro-inflammatorische Zytokine benannt wurden. Interessant ist, dass psychische Faktoren wie Depression den höchsten Einfluss auf die Belastung im Alltag darstellten und auch den größten Einfluss auf die Varianz der Daten abbildete. Studie 2 konnte vier Subgruppen mit jeweiligen Unterschieden in den charakterisierten Faktoren ermitteln und diese als schlecht angepasst (maladaptive), gut angepasst (adaptive), vulnerabel und resilient charakterisieren. Ihre Benennung basierte auf Charakteristika beider Resilienzkonzepte. Es gab Anzeichen für Patienten, die weniger stresssensibel und beeinträchtigt waren aufgrund von Persönlichkeitsstrukturen sowie Patienten, die aus einem Lern- und Anpassungsprozess nun resilienter hervorgingen. Die Daten der Varianzanalyse legten nahe, dass problem- und emotionsfokussierte Copingstrategien und ein eher antiinflammatorisches Zytokinmuster mit einer niedrigen Beeinträchtigung assoziiert sind und eher zur Resilienz beitragen. Zusätzliche begünstigende Faktoren sind niedrige Angstwerte, Akzeptanz und Durchhaltevermögen. Basierend auf diesen Erkenntnissen wurden einige Subgruppen-spezifische Interventionsvorschläge vorgestellt, welche bereits existierende Konzepte der Verhaltens- und Achtsamkeitstherapien mit alternativen Therapien wie Supplementierung von Vitamin D und eine gesunde Darmflora miteinander kombinieren. Die Ergebnisse der dritten Studie zeigten eine niedrigere relative Genexpression von miR103a-3p, miR107 und miR130a-3p in der FMS Kohorte verglichen mit der gesunden Kontrollkohorte mit einer großen Effektstärke. Die höchste relative Genexpression zeigte miR103a im adaptiven Cluster, das Cluster mit der niedrigsten Beeinträchtigung. MiR107 tendierte zu einer leicht erhöhten relativen Expression im adaptiven Cluster und war mit dem Subskalenscore "körperlicher Missbrauch" des Traumafragebogens korreliert. Weitere Korrelationen fanden sich insbesondere mit den Variablen psychologischer Fragebögen zu Schmerz Katastrophisieren und FMS-bezogene Beeinträchtigung. MiR103a-3p und miR107 bilden zuammen eine miRNA Familie mit gleichen physiologischen Funktionen. Basierend auf diesen Erkenntnissen, schlugen wir ein Model der miR103a/107 regulierten Anpassung an Stress, Entzündung und Schmerz unter Einbezug verifizierter Gene, vor. Schlussfolgerung: Zusammenfassend geben alle drei Studien neue Einblicke in die Resilienzfaktoren von FMS Patienten. Dabei kommt dem kognitiven Coping (reappraisal / reinterpretation) eine zentrale Rolle zu, was therapeutische Ansatzpunkte (reframing innerhalb einer Verhaltenstherapie) bietet. Religiosität konnte sich in der hier untersuchten Kohorte als Schutzfaktor nur bedingt validieren. Grundsätzlich benötigt der Einsatz von ressourcenorientierter Therapie innerhalb großer Kliniken noch einiges an Forschung und interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit, die einen Konsens zwischen Geisteswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaften und Humanismus schafft.

[spa] Esta tesis pretende explorar y evaluar las características espaciales de un grupo de personas que presentan mielomeningocele y describir los diferentes perfiles psicofísicos. Se desarrolla un modelo exploratorio y descriptivo para ofrecer una información que colabore en el diagnóstico y en la preparación de metodologías de intervención y además que cree interés por el colectivo con mielomeningocele y por la actividad física. La reflexión, el debate y la sensibilización de la sociedad en relación a las necesidades y demandas de las personas con discapacidad, han estado dando pasos bastante significativos y se ha desarrollado un marco legislativo que potencia la integración e inclusión de personas con discapacidad en todos los contextos sociales, laborales y educativos. En las últimas décadas se ha demostrado que la educación física, dentro del campo de la actividad física, ha alcanzado una participación socio-físico-deportiva muy parecida a la que presenta el resto de la población y se observa que la participación activa se ha incrementado día a día debido a la adecuación de las actividades que programan los docentes en educación física. Sin embargo, aún se observa un cierto déficit en el desarrollo de las capacidades perceptivo motrices del grupo con mielomeningocele como es la orientación especial, la cual nos ayuda a reconocer el espacio circundante, a interpretar el medio ambiente que nos rodea, a distinguir la posición determinada del cuerpo respecto a una referencia y a descifrar los rasgos o características para percibir el espacio que está alrededor de nosotros y del cual formamos parte. Además es un elemento de suma importancia ya que colabora no solamente en el comportamiento motor de adaptación de la persona al medio, sino también en el desarrollo de ciertas formas de razonamiento individual (Rigal, Paoletti y Portmann, 1987), siendo la percepción del espacio un requisito indispensable para organizar y regular el movimiento de los seres humanos. El objetivo de esta tesis es describir las características del grupo con mielomeningocele para que, de manera general, se permita tener en cuenta estos tipos de perfiles y favorecer la preparación de metodologías de intervención educativa o terapéutica a diversos profesionales, y en particular, documentar el binomio mielomeningocele y actividad física pues en la literatura de los últimos años se describe poco sobre la percepción espacial en personas con movilidad reducida debido a alguna discapacidad física que presenten. El modelo ofrecido incluye una muestra de 117 personas con mielomeningocele a las cuales se ha aplicado una combinación de cuatro tests psicológicos y un cuestionario para obtener la máxima información sobre aspectos perceptivos motrices. Un análisis con seis técnicas estadísticas se realizó para su mejor descripción debido a que existían variables cualitativas y cuantitativas que se pretendían relacionar para mostrar una mejor descripción de los datos. Los resultados se presentan mediante los gráficos obtenidos a través de la propuesta metodológica anteriormente señalada y combinan 44 variables: 19 variables cualitativas y 25 variables cuantitativas a partir de frecuencias, análisis comparativos de varianza, correlaciones, análisis de correspondencias múltiples, conglomerados y diagramas. La intención de esta investigación era describir precisamente las características de las personas con MMC ya que no se encontró información al respecto en la literatura. Este estudio también ha permitido corroborar el hecho de que la muestra de personas de este estudio presenta un claro déficit en la organización espacial, las funciones ejecutivas, las proporciones, la percepción del espacio, la orientación y la memoria, y en especial, nos ha permitido observar tres perfiles dentro del propio grupo de MMC. Se ha observado a lo largo del análisis que como primera conclusión, la percepción espacial está vinculada al movimiento y como segunda, la intervención temprana en el ámbito motor es crucial para favorecer la percepción espacial, entre muchos otros aspectos de la vida del ser humano. Además, creemos que es trascendental continuar realizando actividad física indefinidamente para mantener una estable calidad de vida. ; [eng] This thesis aims to explore and evaluate the spatial characteristics of a group of people who have myelomeningocele and describe the different psychophysical profiles. An exploratory and descriptive model is developed to provide information to assist in the diagnosis and in the preparation of methodologies intervention, and also to create interest in the myelomeningocele group and physical activity. Debate, thinking and awareness of society in relation to the needs and requests of people with disabilities has made some significant steps, and a legislative framework that enhances the integration and inclusion of people with disabilities in all social, occupational and educational settings has developed. The last few decades demonstrated that physical education, within the field of physical activity, has reached a socio-physical-sport participation very similar to the rest of the population and also that active participation has increased thanks to the adequacy of the activities scheduled by physical education teachers. However, some deficit is still observed in the development of motor perceptive capacities of the group with myelomeningocele such as special orientation, which helps us to recognize the surrounding space, to interpret the environment around us, to distinguish the position of one's own body relative to a reference and decipher the traits to perceive the space that is around us and that we are part of. This element is also crucially important since it helps not only in the motor behavior of a person's adaptation to the environment, but also in the development of certain forms of individual reasoning (Rigal, Paoletti and Portmann 1987), perception of space being an indispensable requirement to organize and regulate the movement of human beings. The objective of this thesis is to describe the characteristics of the group with myelomeningocele in order to allow that these types of profiles are taken into account and encourage the development of methodologies for educational or therapeutic intervention to various professionals, and in particular, to document the myelomeningocele and physical activity conjunct, since in the literature of recent years there is little description of spatial perception in people with reduced mobility due to a physical disability. The model offered includes a sample of 117 people with myelomeningocele to whom a combination of four psychological tests and a questionnaire have been applied in order to obtain maximum information on motor perceptual aspects. Six statistical analysis techniques were applied for a better description, because there were qualitative and quantitative variables that were intended to be put in relation to show a better description of the data. The results are presented through graphs obtained from the abovementioned methodological proposal and they combine 44 variables: 19 qualitative variables and 25 quantitative from frequency variables, comparative analyzes of variance, correlation, multiple correspondence analysis, conglomerates and diagrams. The intent of this research was to describe precisely the characteristics of people with MMC since no information was found in the literature about it. This study also corroborated the fact that the sample of people in this study presents a clear deficit in spatial organization, executive functions, the proportions, the perception of space, orientation and memory, and in particular has us allowed to observe three profiles within their own group of MMC. It has been observed throughout the analysis that as a first conclusion, spatial perception is linked to movement and secondly, early intervention in the motor field is crucial to favor spatial perception, among many other aspects of human life. We also believe it is essential to continue doing physical activity indefinitely to maintain a stable quality of life.

This report analyses production of complex services to households or persons who have problems in the housing market and also in other respects. In other aspects means in our context psychiatric problems, problems related to drug/alcohol use or other types of social problems. More specifically the question of whether use of public-private-partnership can enhance efficiency and cost-effectiveness in the production of housing and related services targeted towards people with such complex problems. The analysis performed in the report is kept at a purely theoretical level. Our ambition is to supplement the theoretical analysis by empirical studies at a later stage. Design and approach to empirical studies are discussed as a part of the theoretical analysis here. Production of housing services to part of the target groups treated here can, to a varying degree, be described as supported or assisted housing, or may be even as assisted living. Assistance is in this context composed of a variety of services such as: practical assistance, somatic and psychological health services, social support and also different kinds of monitoring in order to maintain a living environment of a sufficiently good quality. The set of services treated are denoted housing related services. This set is heterogeneous and the appropriate mix of services varies strongly over individual tenants. Even within a group of receivers with quite similar characteristics we expect the needs to vary strongly. Moreover, for a single tenant the need will probably vary over time. This individual need over time does not follow any predictable pattern. Our analytical approach is that different parts of the production process are identified; these are described as a kind of activities. The most important ones are (an aggregate of different kinds of) related services, acquisition of housing units and maintenance and operation of the housing units. The costs of each of these activities and their interdependency are discussed. The need for maintenance for example, will probably depend on the quantity, quality and nature of related services provided. Hence there is a considerable need for coordination. Two factors do together feed into the need for coordination and do at the same time make coordination difficult. Firstly, production of related services and operation of housing units are quite different services and different competence is needed in them. In practise, one of the consequences of this is that different agents are responsible for the production of each of the activities. In the related services there can be many different agents involved. Secondly, there is a considerable stochastic element in the costs and it is not possible to monitor effort put into the production perfectly. This again implies that it is not possible to establish a certain assessment of whether production results and realised costs are due to realised stochastics or of effort. Hence the expected costs in one activity depend on how the agents responsible for this activity believe that other activities are handled. Based upon the analysis of costs and production activities we discuss whether there can be found suitable public-private-partnerships (PPP) in the production of housing and related services targeted towards groups with complex difficulties. PPPs are often proposed because some private agents can be more efficient in operation of housing units than public agents. When PPPs are proposed it is usually a form where some public agents produces the appropriate set of related services, while the acquisition, operation, and may be also ownership, are handled by a private agent. Also if a private agent takes care of the whole production of both housing and related services for the target groups, there will remain problems of coordination and governing the production process. This is due to the fact that the political responsibility of providing housing ad relatedservices remains with the public sector, and this responsibility can not be delegated. Even though there are severe coordination problems within a PPP, this can not alone be an argument for turning this solution down. Many of the coordination problems within a PPP would remain even if the whole production process is done within the public sector. It is; however, fair to say that the analysis in the report left the author with a sceptic attitude towards PPPs within the social housing policy field. The most important reason for this scepticism is that it is difficult to define quality in this field. It is difficult to define and even more difficult to write and to implement and enforce a contract that specifies the quality of the services provided. ; Produksjonen av boligsosiale tjenester er en kompleks aktivitet. Det handler om tildeling og drift av boliger, og det handler om tilknyttede tjenester. Kostnadene består av mange komponenter, og størrelsen på hver enkelt av komponentene avhenger av hvordan ulike aspekter ved den boligsosiale produksjonen håndteres. Rapporten gir en analyse av kostnadsstrukturen som skal gi innsikt som er relevant for beslutninger om hvordan produksjon av boligsosiale tjenester bør organiseres.En spesiell måte å organisere produksjon av boligsosiale tjenester på er ved hjelp av såkalte offentlig-private samarbeid (OPS). Dette gir spesielle utfordringer - knyttet til koordinering. Koordineringsproblemer må ikke utelukkende ses som utfordringer knyttet til etOPS. En kompleks produksjonsstruktur, der ulike deler av kommunen og ulike fagfelt må bidra, vil også være en del av koordineringsproblemene. Det kan imidlertid være at koordineringsproblemer er større mellom en offentlig og en privat aktør enn mellom to kommunale etater.

The article presents the sociological aspects of the scientific heritage of V. K. Lipinsky. Emphasis is placed on the great theoretical and practical contribution of V. K. Lipinsky to the processes of creating an independent Ukrainian state. The priority attention of the scientist to the use of sociological, political, and historical methods of scientific knowledge is noted. Certain research questions that were in the center of his attention are underlined, namely: the effective construction of state institutions; consolidation and solidarity of the Ukrainian society; patriotism education; development of traditions of the Ukrainian Cossacks; compromise interaction; the social significance of common historical experience; respect for human dignity; guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of the average citizen, as well as effective local self-government, social harmony and understanding, the development of civil and military institutions. It was noted that, in the opinion of V. K. Lipinsky, the integrating function, primarily the consolidation and solidarity of various social groups of the population into the Ukrainian political nation, is able to realize with the help of the legal hetman state; national elite; Ukrainian culture; Ukrainian state language, as well as the development of a class of grain growers, that is, free, enterprising people who effectively work on their own land. The active sociopolitical activity of V.K. Lipinsky, in particular, as one of the organizers of the Ukrainian Democratic Party of grain-growers, was recorded. The functioning of the party focused on the solution of the social contradictions of the whole society, and above all the peasants. It is emphasized that the scientist wasconstantly looking for ways to solve the problems of the impoverishment of the Ukrainian village, the lack of effective rural education, the lack of full attention to the professional activities of the rural teacher. At the same time, the main directions of modernization of Ukrainian society are presented, taking into account the modernization experience of successful countries of Western Europe and North America. It is noted that the practical paradigm consisting of at least three phenomena has become the basis for effective transformations: 1) the relevance (dichotomy) of the economic and social; 2) internal locus of psychological control of the average citizen; 3) the presence of European emancipative values in the public space. ; В статье представлены некоторые социологические аспекты научного наследия В. К. Липинского. Сделан акцент на большом теоретическом и практическом вкладе В. К. Липинского в процессы создания независимого Украинского государства. Отмечено первоочередное внимание ученого к применению социологических, политологических и исторических методов научного познания. Выделены отдельные исследовательские вопросы, которые находились в центре его внимания, а именно: эффективное строительство государственных институций, консолидация и солидаризация украинского общества, воспитание патриотизма, развитие традиций украинского казачества, компромиссное взаимодействие, социальное значение общего исторического опыта, уважение к человеческому достоинству, гарантирование прав и свобод среднестатистическому гражданину, а также эффективное местное самоуправление, социальное согласие и взаимопонимание, развитие гражданских и военных институтов. Отмечено, что интегрирующую функцию, прежде всего объединения и солидаризации разных социальных групп общества в единую украинскую политическую нацию, по мнению В. К. Липинского, способно выполнять правовое гетьманское государство, национальная элита, украинская культура, украинский государственный язык. Позитивно влиять на данный процесс может развитие хлеборобного класса, то есть свободных, предприимчивых людей, которые эффективно работают на собственной земле. Кроме того, зафиксирована активная общественно-политическая деятельность В. К. Липинского, в частности, как одного из организаторов Украинской демократической хлеборобной партии. Функционирование партии сосредотачивалось на решении определенных социальных противоречий всего общества и прежде всего селянства. Подчеркивается, что ученый постоянно искал пути решения проблем обнищания украинского села, дефицита эффективного сельского образования, отсутствия полноценного внимания к профессиональной деятельности сельского учителя. Вместе с тем представлены основные направления модернизации украинского общества с учетом опыта успешных стран Западной Европы и Северной Америки.Отмечено, что основаниемэффективныхтрансформаций в этих государствах стала реализованная на практике парадигма, состоящая как минимум из трех феноменов: 1) релевантность (дихотомия) экономического и социального; 2) интернальный локус психологического контроля среднестатистического гражданина; 3) наличие европейских эмансипативных ценностей в публичном пространстве. ; У статті висвітлено деякі соціологічні аспекти наукової спадщини В. К. Липинського. Закцентовано на великому теоретичному та практичному внеску В. К. Липинського у процеси створення незалежної Української держави. Відзначено застосування вченим у дослідницькій діяльності здебільшого соціологічних, політологічних й історичних методів наукового пізнання. Виокремлено певні питання, що перебували у фокусі наукової творчості дослідника, а саме: ефективне державотворення, консолідація та солідаризація українського суспільства, виховання патріотизму, розвиток традицій українського козацтва, компромісна взаємодія, значущість загального історичного досвіду, повага до людської гідності, гарантування прав і свобод пересічній людині, а також ефективне місцеве самоврядування, соціальна злагода та взаєморозуміння, розвиток громадських і військових інститутів. Відзначено, що інтеграційну функцію, передусім об'єднання й солідаризації різних соціальних груп суспільства в єдину українську політичну націю, на думку В. К. Липинського, здатна виконувати правова гетьманська держава, національна еліта, українська культура, українська державна мова. Сприяти процесу може розвиток хліборобського класу, тобто вільних, заповзятливих людей, які ефективно працюють на власній землі. Зауважено активну громадсько-політичну діяльність В. К. Липинського, зокрема як одного з організаторів Української демократичної хліборобської партії, функціонування якої було зосереджено на вирішенні певних суперечностей всього суспільства, насамперед сільської його частини. Наголошено на постійному пошуку вченим шляхів вирішення проблем зубожіння українського селянства, дефіциту ефективної сільської освіти, відсутності уваги до праці сільського вчителя. Водночас окреслено напрями модернізації українського суспільства з огляду на досвід успішних країн Західної Європи та Північної Америки. Запорукою ефективних трансформацій у цих державах була реалізація у повсякденному житті парадигми, яка включає щонайменше три феномени: 1) релевантність (дихотомія) економічного та соціального; 2) інтернальний локус психологічного контролю пересічної особистості; 3) наявність європейських емансипативних цінностей у публічному просторі суспільства.

The article deals with the reception of the writings by Herta Müller, a German author of Romanian origin. It focuses on comparative analysis of the perception of her works by different generations in her geographical homeland – Romania, and her historical homeland – Germany, centering on the period of the 1980s. In Romania it was the epoch of Nicolae Ceaușescu's communist dictatorship, whereas in Germany – a full rehabilitation from the consequences of the World War II already set out to take place. The present-day epoch is also taken into account when the danger of returning to the dictatorships and wars again becomes an urgent problem of humanity. What is more, the article shortly casts light on the reception of Herta Müller's works in Ukraine since 2009, i.e. after her winning the Nobel Prize in Literature. Some theoretical aspects of the terms «memory» and «generation» are outlined to reinforce our ideas. Herta Müller's texts, an ethnic German who originated from Romania (1953), are deeply autobiographical. They represent such important stages of her life as traumatic childhood in the native German-speaking community in Romania and parental home (a collection of short stories «Niederungen» («Nadirs») 1982), physical danger and psychological pressure in dictatorial state of Nicolae Ceaușescu (novels «Herztier» («The Land of Green Plums») 1994, «Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jäger («Even Back Then, the Fox Was the Hunter») 1992, «Heute wärе ich mir lieber nicht begegnet» («The Appointment») 1997), emigration to the Western Germany because of danger coming from Romanian Department of State Security – Securitate («Reisende auf einem Bein» («Traveling on One Leg») 1989). Themes and motives in Herta Müller's works refl ect quite important and simultaneously tragic problems of today as dictatorship, emigration, feelings of homelessness, strangeness and fear. For this reason, the reception of her works might be different, because, on the one hand, there are always those who cause these dictatorships, while – on the other hand – those, who suffer from them, particularly victims of political repressions. Herta Müller's native German-speaking community sharply criticized her fi rst work – the collection of short stories «Nadirs», where the main female character (whose prototype is the author herself) describes realia of her terrible life in her native village. The biggest fear of German minority in Romania used to be the loss of one's own identity due to extremely strict living regulations, old medieval traditions, contradictions (which were strongly blamed) between one's own identity and the group one of Romanian community. Anything strange or new was seen as a big danger. Severe criticism of the terrible fascist past of the community under taboo in «Nadirs» (almost all men in the village were during the Second World War soldiers of Nazi special police force – «SS») provoked a very negative reaction towards Herta Müller's personality and her works by German minority. Incapability to self-criticism and reinterpreting their own horrible past led to moral lapse of the German community in Romania. In the 80s, when Herta Müller's writing career just began, her works were forbidden by Romanian communist authority. One of the main themes in her books was the fascist past of the German minority (to note, Romania was also one of Nazis allies during the Second World War), so her close relation to a group of German-speaking dissidents in Romania attracted at once the attention of Securitate. Yet the reaction of Romanian literary critics was in general positive. Nowadays, the reception of Herta Müller's works in Romania – 30 years after the dictatorship – is ambiguous. On the one hand, some Romanian writers mention that Herta Müller and her Nobel Prize have no relation to Romania – the authoress is ethnic German and writes in German. She is also criticized by journalists that she speaks only about dictatorship, and no word is about literature. They are certain that «without» Nicolae Ceausescu she would never write and achieve such a big award as Nobel Prize. On the other hand, a lot of literary critics, writers and public fi gures in Romania mention that her life experience and writings are of utmost importance not just for Romania or Germany, but also for the whole Europe or even world, since both countries were not the only ones that suffered from dictatorships and wars. Germany, which succeeded in recovering from the consequences of the World War II, appreciated Herta Müller's works in the 1980s, and the present-day reception is positive. Yet the tragedy for Herta Müller as a person and writer lies also in the fact that because of her Romanian origin and dialectal German, literary critics do not acknowledge her as «theirs», but as «strange or foreign». As a result, Herta Müller feels nowhere at home, and neither German minority and her geographical homeland – Romania, nor her historical homeland – Germany accept her. Time has the ability «to heal wounds», but also can cause oblivion – the worst «crime» of each nation. Herta Müller is not the only one who wrote and writes about dictatorship. We will need her experience and her works presently as well as in fi ve or ten years, because the process of painful rehabilitation from the infl uence of totalitarian past lasts years and touches upon entire generations. It can be observed on the examples of Romania and also Ukraine. Keywords: Herta Müller, novels, reception, Germany, Romania, dictatorship, homeland, memory, generation. ; Зосереджено увагу на рецепції творчості німецької письменниці румунського походження Герти Мюллер. Проведено порівняльний аналіз сприйняття творчості письменниці різними поколіннями на її географічній батьківщині – Румунії, та історичній батьківщині – Німеччині, у 80-х роках ХХ століття (у Румунії – це час комуністичної диктатури Ніколае Чаушеску, в Німеччині – уже повна реабілітація після наслідків Другої світової війни) та на сучасному етапі, коли загроза повернення диктатур та війн знову стає актуальною проблемою людства. Ключові слова: Герта Мюллер, творчість, рецепція, Німеччина, Румунія, дикта- тура, батьківщина, пам'ять, покоління.

Includes bibliographical references (p. 163-187). ; Number of sources in the bibliography: 263 ; Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Cyprus, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Department of Social and Political Sciences, 2013. ; The University of Cyprus Library holds the printed form of the thesis. ; Η παρούσα διατριβή εξετάζει την αποτελεσματικότητα της εφαρμογής της Κοσμοθεωρίας του Μετασχηματισμού «(ΚΜ)». σε ένα καινοτομικό πλαίσιο της εκπαίδευσης για την Ειρήνη (Danesh & Danesh 2002a, 2002b, 2004b). Η Κοσμοθεωρία του Μετασχηματισμού (ΚΜ) ως διαδικασία της παιδαγωγικής για την Ειρήνη, σε προηγούμενες έρευνες και μελέτες, έχει αποδειχθεί εξαιρετικά αποτελεσματική στη μετατροπή της αρνητικής και διχαστικής κοσμοθεωρίας σε θετικές και διαλλακτικές πεποιθήσεις. Συγκεκριμένα μετά την συμφωνία του Dayton στη Βοσνία-Ερζεγοβίνη εφαρμόστηκε ένα παιδαγωγικό πρόγραμμα για την Ειρήνη βασισμένο στις αρχές της ΚΜ με στόχο την επούλωση τραυμάτων του παρελθόντος και την προώθηση θετικών πεποιθήσεων μεταξύ Σέρβων, Βόσνιων και Κροατών. Η παρούσα διατριβή εξέτασε την αποτελεσματικότητα της ΚΜ στα πλαίσια μιας παρατεταμένης εθνοκοινοτικής σύγκρουσης: την περίπτωση της Κύπρου. Ένα πρόγραμμα ΕΓΕ, παρόμοιο με αυτό που χρησιμοποιήθηκε στη Βοσνία – Ερζεγοβίνη, αναπαράχθηκε και εφαρμόστηκε σε τέσσερεις Ελληνοκυπριακές τάξεις σχολείων πρωτοβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης. Μια ομάδα εθελοντών δασκάλων επιλέχθηκε και στη συνέχεια εκπαιδεύτηκε με στόχο την κατανόηση των αρχών της ΚΜ, καθώς και το πώς αυτή η μέθοδος μπορεί να ενταχθεί στα προγράμματα των μαθημάτων τους. Το πρόγραμμα της ΚΜ υλοποιήθηκε κατά τη διάρκεια ενός ακαδημαϊκού εξαμήνου από τον Ιανουάριο έως τον Ιούνιο του 2012. Οι τρείς βασικοί στόχοι της παρούσας μελέτης ήταν η αποτελεσματική αξιολόγηση των κοσμοθεωριών των μαθητών και μαθητριών, η καταγραφή πληροφοριών που επιβεβαιώνουν την πρακτική εφαρμογή αυτών των αντιλήψεων και η ακριβής επισήμανση οποιασδήποτε βελτίωσης στις κοσμοθεωρίες και εθνοτικές αντιλήψεις. Συνεπώς σχεδιάσαμε και χορηγήσαμε ερωτηματολόγια στους μαθητές/μαθήτριες καθώς και σε ομάδες ελέγχου πριν και μετά το πείραμα που αξιολογούν τους προαναφερθέντες στόχους. Τα αποτελέσματα του πειράματος δείχνουν ότι το πρόγραμμα ΕΓΕ ήταν πράγματι αποτελεσματικό στη βελτίωση των αντιλήψεων, αλλά τελικά ήταν ανεπαρκή για την επίτευξη σημαντικών μεταλλαγών. Η Ανάλυση Συνδιακύμανσης (Analysis of Covariance) χρησιμοποιήθηκε για να επισημάνει τις σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ της ομάδας παρέμβασης και της ομάδας ελέγχου. Συγκεκριμένα, οι μαθητές μεγαλύτερης ηλικίας παρουσίασαν σημαντικές αλλαγές στην αντίληψη της κοσμοθεωρίας τους, ενώ οι νεότεροι μαθητές επέδειξαν πιο θετική στάση απέναντι στον «άλλο » μετά την παρέμβαση . Όσον αφορά τη στάση τους απέναντι στη «σύγκρουση», η συμμετοχή στην παρέμβαση επέφερε μια μέτρια θετική αλλαγή. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι σε αντίθεση με τις αρχικές εικασίες, οι μαθητές δεν διατηρούσαν ισχυρές κοσμοθεωρίες βασισμένες στη σύγκρουση ή φανερά αρνητική στάση. Η συνεχιζόμενη παράταση της σύγκρουσης και η ελλιπής παιδαγωγική θεωρούνται ότι έχουν αρνητική επίδραση στην επιτυχή εφαρμογή της προσέγγισης ΚΜ. Περαιτέρω έρευνα απαιτείται για την απομόνωση και εξερεύνηση των προαναφερθέντων παραγόντων με μεγαλύτερη λεπτομέρεια. Η έλλειψη της κοσμοθεωρίας με βάση την επιβίωση ανάμεσα στα παιδιά συμπληρώνει τις πρόσφατες θεωρίες της κοινωνικής ψυχολογικής ανάπτυξης και, επομένως, αντιτάσσεται τη θεωρία του Danesh για την εξέλιξη της κοσμοθεωρίας. ; This dissertation explores the effectiveness of a particular approach to peace education, known as Worldview Transformation (WT) (Danesh & Danesh 2002a, 2002b, 2004b). The WT approach to peace education, in previous experiments, has been shown to be an effective pedagogical model. Following the cessation of violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH), an educational program, based on the principles of WT was implemented to reconcile past traumas and foster positive attitudes between the Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. This research sought to test the applicability of the WT approach in the conflict of Cyprus While the cases of Cyprus and BiH retain many similarities, particularly in their ethno-nationalist origins, each conflict however, retains unique dynamics, characteristics and root causes. The results of this research are particularly significant due to the incredibly limited scientific evaluation of in-school peace education programs in Cyprus. While many studies have explored the effectiveness of peace education in overcoming nationalist narratives, increasing empathy, mutual tolerance and respect in the case of Cyprus, they have all been conducted in out-of-school contexts. Furthermore, this research also represents the first exploration of the effectiveness of WT in protracted conflicts generally. An EFP program, similar to that which was utilized in BiH was replicated and implemented in four Greek Cypriot primary school classrooms. Intrinsically motivated volunteer teachers were selected and subsequently trained to understand the principles of WT, as well as how it can be integrated into their classrooms. The EFP program was implemented over the course of one academic semester from January to June 2012. A total of 64 primary school students participated in the EFP program in the intervention group, with 42 students comprising the control groups. Pre and post intervention surveys were given to both groups which were designed to extract their worldviews in accordance with the principles and concepts of WT. Analysis of covariance was utilized to reveal significant differences between the intervention and control groups. Specifically, the older students reported significant change in the perception aspect of their worldview, while the younger students exhibited more positive attitudes toward the 'other' following the intervention. With respect to their attitudes toward 'the conflict', participation in the intervention resulted in a moderately positive change. The results showed that contrary to the initial assumptions, the students did not maintain strong conflict-based worldviews or overtly negative attitudes. The continued protraction of the conflict and a challenging pedagogy are assumed to have a negative effect on the successful application of the WT approach. Further research is needed to isolate and explore the aforementioned factors in greater detail. The lack of survival-based worldview amongst the children complements the recent theories of social psychological development and thus contradict Danesh' theory of worldview progression.

Problem. Sustaining healthy democracies requires citizens to successfully transition from civilian life into political leadership positions. Despite the need for this transition to take place, little is known about the transition. Globally, lawyers are the most represented professional group inpolitics, therefore, a study of their transition acts as a good starting point in understanding the process. This study used the Nicholson Transition Cycle (NTC) to explore the transition of 65 lawyers into Canadian politics. Method. An exploratory multiple case study approach was used to gather data from face-to-face interviews, phone interviews, public archives, email, and websites. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and categorized to fit under the NTC's four phases of transition: preparation, encounter, adjustment, and stabilization. Qualitative Data Analysis software assisted with the organization of the data. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained by concealing the identity of participants by changing some geographic locations, omitting obvious identifiers, and occasionally changing gender. Results. Statements about motivation, early exposure or experience with politics, as well as early steps into political activity were classified under the preparation phase. Many participants reported having family members who worked in politics, and that experience prepared them for politics. Reported motivations for entering politics included career advancement, using politics as a stepping stone, and fulfilling a childhood dream. Participants who were unhappy with the status quo regarded politics as an ideal forum for creating change and improving social conditions. Participants reported that the knowledge and skills obtained in law helped them transition intopolitics. Early exposure to politics and politicians provided advanced insight about the work of politicians. Many participants were encouraged by others to run for political office because of their legal skills and social networking. Statements about getting through the initial days, weeks, and months of political office were grouped under the encounter phase. Stories about how participants coped with new and unfamiliar experiences in politics were included here. Some participants reported they coped with the transitory nature of employment in politics by maintaining a part-time law practice they could go back to if they lost an election. Developing mentors and relying on peers was regarded as crucial in understanding their new environment, processes, and procedures; in handling the media, and in communicating with the public. Participants provided numerous examples of how their litigation skills became useful such as when they engaged in heated debate and inwithstanding personal attacks during a Question Period. Female politicians indicated that they experienced special challenges due to gender discrimination. The experience of helping constituents, meeting fascinating people, and enjoying the privileges of public office were cited by participants as joyful new experiences during the encounter phase. Personal changes, role development, and relationship building were major areas participants reported working through and were labeled under the adjustment phase. Adjusting to the loss of income and personal privacy, and having to maintain a hectic schedule were part of this transition. Some reported a disruption of the family unit related to prolonged absence from the home. Divorces were reported and some noted that children experienced difficulties in home and school. Participants found that consensus, collaboration, and building bridges were vital in getting things done. Due to the volume of issues requiring attention, delegating to competent staff was imperative for survival. For Anglophone participants, learning French was regarded as a valuable skill in running an efficient constituency office, if they were not already bilingual. When respondents reported aspects of settling into political life, these were classified under the stabilization phase. Central in this process were reports of beginning to see social problems from broader societal perspectives and not just from legal or policy views. They reported learning how to work with others to identify the core cause of social problems. Some reported harnessing their knowledge of the political process and combining it with the law to advance democratic principles of freedom, equality, justice, and diversity. Some communicated with constituents by using social media and the internet as well as traditional forms of communication. Being re-elected on multiple occasions was seen by some as an indication that their work was being helpful to others. Others viewed being given a government portfolio as a sign of political competence. Conclusions and Recommendations. Overall, participants reported that the promise to make a positive change in society was a strong motivation to prepare for and transition into politics. Psychological preparation contained elements of political socialization, previous career skills, prior learning, and consistent exposure to politics and politicians. Participants reported confronting the newness of the job by developing coping mechanisms, learning the new rules of the game, and experiencing the joy of political life. Adjusting to the new requirements of the job meant changing personal habits, reaching out to build bridges, broadening their thinking, and leveraging administrative skills. Learning French presented distinct advantages. As participants matured into their political leadership roles, they transitioned from highly specialized knowledge in the law to civic leaders with social insights. This study shows the challenges of transitioning from civilian to political office in the lives of 65 lawyers. While these findings can't be generalized to all professions, they raise conclusions that call for more research and for action to create resources that help individuals willing to make the sacrifices to become political leaders. Concern to understand more about the transition process and develop ways of evaluating and mentoring civilians in this transition promises to make a major contribution to the long-term viability of democratic states.

Цель. Исследовать основные идейные закономерности развития социально-ориентированных концепций философии образования в контексте проблем институционализации знаний о развитии человека и общества. Проанализировать системно-интеграционный аспект социальной философии и менеджмента образования во взаимодействии концепций инструментализма прагматизма и неопрагматизма с моделью «нового гуманизма» в формировании социально ценностных ориентаций. Методология. Классификация существующих в западной философии образования и воспитания направлений проводится, исходя из основополагающих принципов философской школы или течения. При этом, прежде всего учитывая те цель и средства, которые ими реально задействованы в процессе образования, социального развития и социально-нравственного воспитания и основы-ваясь на основных установках, цели, выраженной темы или иным направлением, на основании того, как его сторонники представляют себе личность, ее потребности, социальную роль, модус поведения, призвананных формировать систему образования и воспитания. Научная новизна. В условиях, когда на фоне кризиса системы образования правительства США и ведущих стран Европы вынуждены начать ее долгосрочную реформу, теоретики в основном обращают внимание именно на демократические разработки концепций инструментализма прагматизма/неопрагматизма в современной социальной философии образования, в частности на их стремление внедрить в процесс общественного развития, образования и воспитания идею и практическую модель как учебного, так и социального равенства. Учитывая растущую потребность практического воплощения идей свободы, справедливости, стремление к реализации провозглашенных обществом прав человека, сторонники концепции «нового гуманизма» видят свою основную цель в том, чтобы преградить путь конформизму, манипулированию поведением личности и создать условия для ее свободного самовыражения, для осуществления человеком фундаментального выбора поступков в конкретной ситуации и тем самым предупредить опасность формирования унифицированной формы поведения. В этом принципы «нового гуманизма» сближаются с позицией «нового гуманизма» инструментализма и неопрагматизма. Выводы. Перед социальной философией образования/воспитания стоит задача – определить факторы, которые обусловливают достижение ее основной цели; дать оценку моральным принципам и личностным качествам, с которыми собственно теория образования/воспитания связывает реализацию своих задач; показать, почему именно эти, а не какие-то какие-либо другие принципы и качества открывают человеку возможность выбирать в конкретной ситуации социально весомую, морально оправданную и приемлемую в общественной отношении линию поведения. Постановка вопроса о необходимости философского анализа проблем воспитания и образования в социальном контексте служит показателем понимания философами, педагогами возрастающей роли человеческого и морального фактора в развитии общества. И, наконец, стремление разработать социально-философские основы педагогики вообще и воспитания в частности, свидетельствует о том, что западные и отечественные философы, педагоги, представители социальных и психологических наук, по крайней мере, большинство из них, осознали общественную значимость системы образования и воспитания, ее глобальный характер. ; The purpose. Explore the major ideological patterns of development of a socially philosophies of education in the context of the problems of institutionalization of knowledge about human and social development. To analyse system-integration aspect of social philosophy and education management in interaction of concepts of an instrumentalism of a pragmatism and a neopragmatism with model of «new humanism» in formation of socially valuable orientations. Methodology. Classification existing in the western philosophy of education and education of directions is spent, proceed-ing from basic principles of philosophical school or a current, first of all considering those the purpose and means which are really involved by them in process of education, social development and socially-moral education and being based on the basic installations, the purpose expressed by that or other direction, how its supporters imagine the person, its requirement, a social role, модус behaviour which the education system and education urged to form. Scientific no-velty. In conditions when against crisis of an education system of the government of the USA and the leading countries of Europe are compelled to begin its long-term reform, its theorists substantially pay attention to democratic workings out of concepts of an instrumentalism of a pragmatism/neopragmatism in modern social philosophy of education, in particular on their aspiration to introduce in process of social development, education and education idea and practical model both educational, and a social equality. Considering growing requirement of a practical embodiment of ideas of freedom, justice, aspiration to realization of the human rights proclaimed a society, supporters of the concept of «new humanism» see the main objective in blocking a way to conformism, to a manipulation behaviour of the person and to create conditions for its free self-expression, for realization by the person of a fundamental choice of acts in a concrete situation and by that to warn danger of formation of the unified form of behaviour. In it principles of «new humanism» approach with a position of «new humanism» instrumentalism and neopragmatism. Conclusions. Before social philos-ophy of education/education it is necessary to define a problem factors which cause achievement of its main objective, to state an estimation to moral principles and personal qualities with which actually the education/education theory con-nects realization of the problems, to show, why these, instead of any other principles and qualities open to the person possibility to choose in a concrete situation socially powerful both morally defensible and comprehensible line of conduct in public the relation. Statement of a question on necessity of the philosophical analysis of problems of education and education in a social context serves as an indicator of understanding philosophers, teachers of an increasing role of the human and moral factor in society development. And, at last, the aspiration to develop socially-philosophical bases of pedagogics in general and education in particular, testifies that the western and domestic philosophers, teachers, representatives of social and psychological sciences, at least, the majority of them, have realized the public importance of an education system and education, its global character.

El análisis de los factores que propician el desarrollo de habilidades sociales en la niñez constituye un reto de gran relevancia para la psicología actual. El objetivo del estudio realizado fue analizar si la empatía y la experiencia de emociones positivas impactan significativamente sobre la ejecución de habilidades sociales en la niñez media, y en qué medida lo hace cada una. Se seleccionó una muestra no aleatoria de 406 niños (227 niñas y 179 varones), comprendidos mayor mente entre los 10 y 12 años de edad, quienes completaron los siguientes instrumentos, previo consentimiento de sus padres: (a) la Subescala de Habilidades Sociales Adecuadas (Matson, Rotatori & Helsel, 1983), validada a la Argentina por Schulz (2008), (b) la Escala Multidimensional de Empatía para niños argentinos (Richaud de Minzi, Lemos & Oros, 2013) y (c) el Cuestionario Infantil de Emociones Positivas (Oros, 2014). Para analizar la acción conjunta de las emociones positivas y la empatía sobre las habilidades sociales apropiadas, se ejecutó un ANOVA factorial con un diseño 3 (alta, moderada y baja emocionalidad positiva) x 3 (alta, moderada y baja empatía). La variable dependiente estuvo constituida por los valores brutos de la Subescala de Habilidades Sociales Adecuadas. Los resultados indicaron que las emociones positivas y la empatía facilitan el despliegue de conductas socialmente habilidosas, siendo mayor el impacto de las emociones positivas en comparación a la empatía. Es tos resultados son importantes a la hora de comprender la dinámica de los procesos implicados y de diseñar programas de intervención para promover habilidades sociales en la niñez. ; The implementation of social skills, such as maintaining eye contact with another person during a conversation, giving and receiving compliments, helping others, sharing something, giving thanks, asking for permission, apologizing, asking for favors, etc. enables the suitable expression of feelings, desires or opinions, promotes successful management of criticism, and minimizes the probability of interpersonal conflict, allowing people to relate to others in an effective and mutually satisfactory way. As social skills are learned and have radical consequences on the social-emotional health of children and adolescents, psychological research has devoted considerable effort to study what factors may facilitate their development and consolidation, as well as other dimensions of social competence such as assertiveness and prosociality. Reviewing the available literature, it can be seen that empathy has been one of the most largely studied personal precursor in relation to child and adolescent social functioning. Empirical research has shown that this variable acts as a strong motivator of prosocial behavior, social responsibility, cooperative conflict resolution, altruistic behavior and general help; while it negatively correlates with social inadequacy, antisocial behavior, aggression and isolation of children and adolescents. Probably for this reason, it is argued that empathy can also be the basis for the establishment of the social skills, and a requirement to properly master these interaction skills. However, although there exists ample evidence of the relationship between empathy and some negative aspects of social skills, such as aggression, there are very few studies that have specifically explored the dynamics between empathy and appropriate social skills. On the other hand, although the predominance of empathy on social functioning is undeniable and its study has been favored by many researchers, some evidence suggets that positive emotions may have a similar powerful influence on the development of certain skills and social skills. Specifically, in the stages of childhood and adolescence, it has been found that joy and sympathy prevent peer rejection; that sympathy and serenity ease assertive and prosocial responses, while decreasing aggressive behaviors; that gratitude is also negatively related to aggression, and that together with personal satisfaction and serenity, it predicts a successful management of interpersonal conflicts. However, while the motivational role of empathy has been widely discussed, the influence of positive emotions on social skills, and specifically on the social skills has not yet reached the attention it deserves. The aim of this study was to include both variables in a model of analysis of variance to investigate the statistical weight that each of them has, and their possible interaction on the appropriate social skills in childhood. A empirical comparative and cross study was developed. This work included 406 Argentine children (227 females and 179 males), mainly between the ages of 10 and 12 years old (M = 11.11; DE = 1.04), who completed the Appropriate Social Skills Subscale of The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills of Youngsters (MESSY) of Matson, Rotatori and Helsel (1983), adapted in Argentinean population by Schulz (2008); The Multidimensional Scale of Empathy for Argentine children, developed by Richaud de Minzi, Lemos & Oros (2013); and the Child Questionnaire of positive emotions, created by Oros (2014). To analyze the joint action of positive emotions and empathy on the appropriate social skills, 3 (high, moderate and low positive emotionality) x 3 (high, moderate and low empathy) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) factorial designs were used. The results indicated that positive emotions and empathy facilitate the performance of socially skilled behaviors, being greater the impact of positive emotions compared to empathy. These results are important in understanding the dynamics of the processes involved, and for the further design of intervention programs to promote social skills in childhood. ; Fil: Oros, Laura Beatriz. Universidad de la Cuenca del Plata. Secretaria de Politicas del Conocimiento. Instituto de Investigaciones Cientificas (sede Posadas); Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina ; Fil: Fontana Nalesso, Andrea. Instituto Superior Adventista de Misiones; Argentina

Abstract: Organizational and Work Psychology (POT) today faces great research and intervention challenges, given the current conditions in which work activities and the management of people are being developed in organizations, and since the world of work has been strongly affected in the last three decades as a result of the transformations that have been taking place in the management of organizations. The socio-economic and cultural political dynamics that we live in today demand a continuous change based on these changes. In this sense, organizational change has been associated with unexpected adaptation processes that arise to respond to the demands of the context. At present, the survival of organizations depends on the ability to project in the long term and not only on their ability to adapt, this implies on the part of organizations a management change that allows anticipating changes in the environment in such a way that long-term value is generated over the competition (Sandoval, 2014). In response to a series of phenomena such as the globalization of the economy, increasing competition and the emergence of new information technology, transport, and communications, among other factors, the use of strategies such as mergers between organizations has increased. Alliances, creation of networks, reduction of organizational macrostructures and outsourcing or subcontracting of the workforce, as mechanisms to achieve greater competitiveness in the market, aspects that have generated a dynamic of permanent change in the functioning of organizations in the world whole ( Lynch, & Mors , 2018). These changes are reflected in the impact they have on the climate of the organizations. The way workers understand the organization's climate depends on several aspects. G onzales , Pedraza and Sanchez (2015), identified that the work environment is important in understanding the relationship between employees and superiors, and that this relationship will be mediated by values, rules established by the organization at the individual level and group, and performance, these aspects that can generate satisfaction in the organization and in the collaborators. The organizational climate is important in understanding the organizational characteristics that impact on the behavior of individuals at work, as well as the attitudes of people towards organizations (Yoo, Huang & Lee, 2012). The organizational climate encompasses the structure, processes of the organization, as well as the management of compensation, employee behavior, performance expectations and growth opportunities. However, the organizational climate is the result of the interaction between the components of the company, such as structure, systems, culture, the behavior of the leader and the psychological needs of the employees ( Benjamin et al., 2013) . Organizational change and climate are framed in the psychosocial factors of organizations, which has a wide spectrum, they become an important issue for occupational health. The current situation that organizations and the labor market are going through generate important problems for organizations, therefore it is important to understand and deal with them properly. The new work arrangements involve short-term contracts. Additionally, the global market is becoming more competitive as a result, generates increasing pressure on the part of employees to be able to increase productivity and respond to the needs of the environment, forging as a result a report by employees of high levels of stress increasing risk of physical and psychological illness. The imminence of change in different spheres of the organization displaces workers, generating various reactions that affect the work-family balance, their performance and their perception of the organizational climate ( Connelly & Gallagher, 2004) Gil - Monte (2012) argues that technical changes, such as socioeconomic, demographic, political, economic, among others, have increased psychosocial risks . Some of the causes of these risks are: a) organizational changes are caused by internal factors (new processes, technology, workplace) or external (social, political, economic), b) new forms of hiring, c) little job stability , d) aging of the population, e) increase in workload, e) emotional demands at work, f) work-family imbalance . The author concludes that psychosocial risks have always been present, but what has been modified is the social perception of them , this is reflected in the increase of this type of risks in organizations, therefore it becomes a problem the which must be addressed in a timely manner by the managers of the organizations. Currently, with the public health threat generated by (COVID-19), several economic sectors are affected such as tourism, health, education, among others, which must develop new strategies and rethink new ways to be able to reach the population and reactivate its economy ( Wen , et al, 2020). These strategies create challenges that involve promoting new forms of work and assuming an increase in the demands of public and private sector employees that can have negative consequences for them ( Mañas, Estreder , Martinez -Tur, Díaz-Fúnez, & Pecino -Medina 2020). Similarly, in the face of these significant events such as the global pandemic, organizations must have the ability to develop tactics that allow them to adapt to change ( Beech , et al, 2020). In this order of ideas, in the face of adverse situations that arise due to the pandemic that affect the world economically, socially and politically, people who are part of organizations must be able to adapt to changes, which makes them more resilient ( Jiang , Jiang , Sun ,, & Li 2020). The resilience helps people overcome stress, which allows them to maintain an acceptable state of life or work ( Cope, Jones, & Hendricks, 2016). This implies that individuals must establish a balance between their work and family roles, which would not be possible to generate situations of emotional exhaustion as a psychological response to work stressors and in turn affect the performance of workers (Karatepe, 2013). As a result of the various changes that organizations have had to undertake such as the replacement of the workforce by younger generations, multicultural work, labor shortages, demographic challenges, the workplace has become a very demanding space. Additionally, people are expected to perform much more efficiently at work and at home ( Ilies , Schwind , Johnson, DeRue , & Ilgen , 2007). These changes have led to symptoms of stress in people in organizations that can affect them in their personal, family and work daily life (Biron, Cooper & Bond, 2009). These situations have generated research related to the different conditions of the human being in which sometimes they survive and thrive in the face of adversity. The study of positive human behavior gave rise to positive psychology (Seligman 199 8 ) and positive organizational behavior ( Luthans & Youssef , 2007). This paradigm shift from the study of negative to positive organizational behavior leads to new theories that propose that resilience is a flexible resource that anyone can learn and foster (Norman, Luthans & Luthans , 2005). Work is important for people, as it has many benefits for them (Henry, 2004). It helps them establish their identity, provides a possibility of social interaction beyond the purely work, encourages commitment, provides meaning, provides the possibility of having status and income. It is an activity that provides people with resources to live, in the same way, the family is an important part of people's daily lives that influences their sense of well-being ( Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). Ryan & Deci (2001), consider that the concept of work can be expanded and include aspects related to personal growth and well-being of people. For Voydanoff (2005), work and family are two important domains in people's lives and therefore can cause conflicts with each other (Allen, et al, 2000). However, these two elements can become synergistic and complement each other, the positive side of this interaction (work - family) can improve the well-being of the family unit (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). According to Rahim (2011), he considers that effectively balancing work and family is important in organizations. The demands of the environment lead organizations to increase productivity, therefore, there is a greater demand for workers 'time and a reduction in workers' time with their families. Haar & Bardoel (2008) highlights that many changes have been generated that affect this work-family relationship, the composition of the workforce has changed, the number of women in the workplace has increased, families with two incomes, increased in the number of single parents. Greenhaus & Buetell (1985) argue that the work-family conflict occurs when the roles in which the pressures of work and family domains are not compatible. Wang, et to the, (2004), believe that regardless of the term that is used to describe the work - family conflict, this is mainly caused by excessive labor demands, which affect family negative results. For the current labor market, productivity is critical, managers aim to achieve maximum work performance by involving employees in this particular dynamic, it seeks that workers are willing to contribute in the organization beyond what is required by formal requirements. of work. In this logic the collaborators are caught between the demands of the family and those of the employer. The result of these multiple roles is the work-family conflict due to the incongruity between both areas, because the demands of one make it difficult to meet the demands of the other ( Rabenu , Tziner , & Gil, 2017). Liu, et al, (2019) highlight that the work-family balance is a perception that occurs simultaneously in two senses: low work-family conflict and high work-family enrichment, which implies that experiences are included among the roles both positive and negative. These positive or negative aspects are related to job performance. Pandey (2019) highlights the multidimensional nature of performance, classifying it in two aspects: a) resources: individual, work, organizational, social, b) stressors: individual, work, where the author points out that affective stressors such as burnout is an important variable that exhausts resources and decreases work performance, family, according to the author the variables at the family level are an inhibitor of work performance when they act as stressors. In this vein, the work-family conflict is an important variable that generates interference between the demands of these two domains with each other. Gragnano, Simbula, & Miglioretti (2020), highlight the fact that workers are aware of the importance of health to achieve a work-life balance, they showed that this balance is as important as the family domain, therefore, the researchers they must consider the health domain in the family domain when inquiring about work-life balance. Karatepe & Tenkiskus (2006) state that work-family conflict and emotional exhaustion are critical variables that have adverse effects on results. Yavas, Babacus & Karatepe (2008), consider the difficulties that front-line employees must balance the demands of their multiple roles can affect performance and as a consequence, employees can make the decision and leave the organizations. Wright & Cropanzano (1998), point out that an indicator of low work performance is emotional exhaustion, considered as a chronic state both physical and emotional, which is the product of overwork and continuous stress. Emotional exhaustion manifests itself in employees in a general loss of feeling of concern, trust, and interest (Maslach, 1982). Schaufeli & Greenglass (2001) consider that emotional exhaustion occurs when employees experience an emotional demand in a work situation over a long period of time. Studies carried out in the public sector contribute to understanding the manifestation of feelings of emotional exhaustion. The health professionals are under high pressure due to the long working days producing sleep disorders, professional responsibility which should provide a high-quality service with no margin for error. In the same way, their work implies a high emotional load given the nature of the work, this makes health professionals more vulnerable to emotional exhaustion (Babyar, 2017). According to Gerard (2018), it is necessary to take into account factors such as financial results, return on capital, which justifies success in health care organizations, which goes beyond the quality of care or the nature of activity. The structure of public health organizations is usually not very flexible, which makes the operation of these entities more difficult and therefore the work of the professionals who work in it, generating loss of energy and feelings of emotional exhaustion. Cropanzano, Rupp & Byrne (2003) argue that emotional exhaustion has a detrimental effect on the employee's job performance, which subsequently affects the productivity of the organization. The study carried out by Wang, et al (2019) shows the relationship between work-family conflict (WFC), family-work conflict (FWC), emotional exhaustion and performance. The results show that WFC is positively related to emotional exhaustion. Organizational care was also found to reduce WFC's influences on emotional exhaustion. In conclusion, it is important to highlight that all the variables that have been considered to carry out this study are related to each other. On the one hand, in a broad framework is organizational change, which influences the behavior and perception of people in the organization affecting the organizational climate. On the other hand, but in the same direction are the psychosocial factors that are also affected by changes in organizations and that would involve factors such as work-family balance, performance, emotional exhaustion. However, it should be highlighted that the way people in organizations face these aspects, will generate greater resilience and adaptation for the people in the organization. Resumen: La Psicología Organizacional y del Trabajo (POT) enfrenta hoy grandes desafíos de investigación e intervención, dadas las condiciones actuales en que se desarrollan las actividades de trabajo y de gestión de las personas en las organizaciones, ya que el mundo del trabajo se ha visto fuertemente afectado en las últimas tres décadas como resultado de las transformaciones que han estado ocurriendo en la gestión de las organizaciones. La dinámica política socioeconómica y cultural que se vive en la actualidad demanda un continuo cambio en función de estas. En este sentido el cambio organizacional ha estado asociado a procesos de adaptación inesperados que surgen para responder a las demandas del contexto. En la actualidad la supervivencia de las organizaciones depende de la capacidad de proyectarse a largo plazo y no solo de su capacidad de adaptación, esto implica por parte de las organizaciones una gestión del cambio que permita anticiparse a los cambios del ambiente de tal forma que se genere un valor a largo plazo sobre la competencia (Sandoval, 2014). Como respuesta a una serie de fenómenos como la globalización de la economía, la competencia cada vez más creciente y la emergencia de nuevas tecnologías de informática, transporte y comunicaciones, entre otros factores, se han incrementado el uso de estrategias como las fusiones entre organizaciones, alianzas, creación de redes, reducción de las macroestructuras organizativas y externalización o subcontratación de la fuerza de trabajo, como mecanismos para alcanzar una mayor competitividad en el mercado, aspectos que han generado una dinámica de cambio permanente en el funcionamiento de las organizaciones en el mundo entero (Lynch, & Mors, 2018). Estos cambios se ven reflejados en el impacto que tienen en el clima de las organizaciones. La forma como entienden los trabajadores el clima de la organización depende de varios aspectos. Gonzales, Pedraza y Sánchez (2015), identificaron que el ambiente laboral es importante en la comprensión de la relación entre empleados y superiores, ya que dicha relación va a estar mediada por los valores, las reglas establecidas por la organización a nivel individual y grupal, y el desempeño, estos aspectos que pueden generar satisfacción en la organización y en los colaboradores. El clima organizacional es importante en la comprensión de las características organizacionales impactan sobre la conducta de los individuos en el trabajo, así como las actitudes de las personas respecto a organizaciones (Yoo, Huang & Lee, 2012). El clima organizacional abarca la estructura, procesos de la organización, así como la gestión de la remuneración, el comportamiento del empleado, expectativa de rendimiento y oportunidades de crecimiento. No obstante, el clima organizacional es el resultado de la interacción entre los componentes de la empresa, tales como estructura, sistemas, la cultura, la conducta del líder y las necesidades psicológicas de los empleados (Benjamin et al., 2013). El cambio organizacional y el clima se enmarcan en los factores psicosociales de las organizaciones, los cuales tiene un amplio espectro, se convierten en un tema importante para la salud laboral. La situación actual por la que atraviesan las organizaciones y el mercado de trabajo generan problemas importantes para las organizaciones por lo tanto es importante entenderlos y afrontarlos de manera adecuada. Las nuevas modalidades de trabajo implican contratos a corto plazo. Adicionalmente el mercado global cada vez es más competitivo genera como resultado por parte de los empleados una creciente presión para poder aumentar la productividad y responder a las necesidades del entorno, forjando como resultado reporte por parte de los empleados de altos niveles de estrés incrementando el riesgo de enfermedad física y psicológica. La inminencia del cambio en diferentes esferas de la organización se desplaza a los trabajadores generando diversas reacciones que afectan el balance trabajo-familia, su desempeño y su percepción del clima organizacional (Connelly & Gallagher, 2004) Gil - Monte (2012) argumenta que los cambios técnicos, como los socioeconómicos, demográficos, políticos, económicos entre otros, han incrementado los riesgos psicosociales. Algunas de las causas de estos riesgos son: a) cambios organizacionales provocados por factores internos (nuevos procesos, tecnología, lugar de trabajo) o externos (sociales, políticos, económicos), b) nuevas formas de contratación, c) poca estabilidad laboral, d) envejecimiento de la población, e) incremento en la carga laboral, e) exigencias emocionales en el trabajo, f) desequilibrio trabajo – familia. El autor concluye que los riesgos psicosociales siempre han estado presentes, pero lo que se ha modificado es la percepción social que hay sobre ellos, esto se ve reflejado en el incremento de este tipo de riesgos en las organizaciones por tanto se convierte en un problema el cual se debe atender de manera oportuna por parte de los directivos de las organizaciones. En la actualidad con la amenaza de salud pública generada por el (COVID-19) se ven afectados varios sectores económicos como el turismo, la salud, la educación, entre otros, los cuales deben desarrollar nuevas estrategias y replantear nuevas formas para poder llegar a la población y reactivar su economía (Wen, et al, 2020). Estas estrategias crean retos que implican promover nuevas formas de trabajo y asumir un incremento en las demandas de los empleados del sector público y privado que pueden tener consecuencias negativas para éstos (Mañas, Estreder, Martinez-Tur, Díaz-Fúnez, & Pecino-Medina 2020). De igual forma, ante estos eventos significativos como la pandemia mundial las organizaciones deben tener la capacidad para desarrollar tácticas que le permitan adaptarse al cambio (Beech, et al, 2020). En este orden de ideas, ante las situaciones adversas que se presentan debido a la pandemia que afectan al mundo en lo económico, social y político, las personas que hacen parte de las organizaciones deben ser capaces de adaptase a los cambios lo cual los hace más resilientes (Jiang, Jiang, Sun,, & Li 2020). La capacidad de recuperación ayuda a las personas a superar las tensiones, lo cual permite mantener un estado de vida o un trabajo aceptable (Cope, Jones, & Hendricks, 2016). Esto implica que los individuos deben establecer un equilibrio entre sus roles laborales y los familiares, que no ser posible generarían situaciones de agotamiento emocional como una respuesta psicológica a los estresores laborales y a su vez afecta el desempeño de los trabajadores (Karatepe, 2013). Resultado de los diversos cambios que han debido asumir las organizaciones como el reemplazo de la fuerza laboral por generaciones más jóvenes, multiculturalidad de trabajo, escasez en la mano de obra, desafíos demográficos, el lugar de trabajo se ha convertido en un espacio muy exigente. Adicionalmente se espera que las personas de desempeñen de forma mucho más eficiente en el trabajo y en el hogar (Ilies, Schwind, Johnson, DeRue, & Ilgen, 2007). Estos cambios han propiciado en las personas que se encuentran en las organizaciones síntomas de estrés que pueden las pueden afectar en su cotidianida personal, familiar y laboral (Biron, Cooper & Bond, 2009). Estas situaciones han generado investigaciones relacionadas con las diferentes condiciones del ser humano en las que en algunas oportunidades sobreviven y prosperan ante la adversidad. El estudio del comportamiento humano positivo dio origen a la psicología positiva (Seligman 1998) y el comportamiento organizacional positivo (Luthans & Youssef, 2007). Este cambio de paradigma del estudio del comportamiento organizacional negativo al positivo deriva nuevas teorías que proponen que la resiliencia es un recurso flexible que cualquier persona puede aprender y fomentar (Norman, Luthans & Luthans, 2005). El trabajo es importante para las personas, ya que tiene muchos beneficios para éstas (Henry, 2004). Las ayuda a establecer su identidad, brinda una posibilidad de interacción social más allá de los netamente laboral, fomenta compromiso, brinda un significado, proporciona la posibilidad de tener estatus e ingresos. Es una actividad facilita a las personas recursos para vivir, de igual forma, la familia es una parte importante de la cotidianidad de las personas que influye en la sensación de bienestar de estas (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). Ryan & Deci (2001), consideran que el concepto de trabajo se puede ampliar e incluyen aspectos relacionados con el crecimiento personal y el bienestar de las personas. Para Voydanoff (2005), el trabajo como la familia son dos dominios importantes en la vida de las personas y por tanto pueden llegar a causar conflictos entre sí (Allen, et al, 2000). Sin embargo, estos dos elementos pueden llegar a ser sinérgicos y complementarse, el lado positivo de esta interacción (trabajo – familia) puede mejorar el bienestar de la unidad familiar (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Según Rahim (2011) considera que equilibrar efectivamente el trabajo y la familia es importante en las organizaciones. Las demandas del ambiente conllevan a que las organizaciones aumenten la productividad, por lo tanto, hay una mayor demanda de tiempo de los trabajadores y una reducción el tiempo de los trabajadores con sus familias. Haar & Bardoel (2008) resalta que se han generado muchos cambios que afectan esta relación trabajo – familia, la composición de la fuerza laborar ha cambiado, se ha incrementado el número de mujeres en el lugar de trabajo, las familias con dos ingresos, aumento en el número de padres/madres solteras. Greenhaus & Buetell (1985), argumentan que el conflicto trabajo – familia se presenta cuando los roles en el que las presiones del trabajo y los dominios familiares no son compatibles. Wang, et al, (2004), consideran que independientemente del término que se utilice para describir el conflicto trabajo – familia, éste es causado principalmente por las excesivas demandas laborales, las cuales repercuten en resultados familiares negativos. Para el actual mercado laboral la productividad es crítica, los gerentes tienen como meta alcanzar el máximo rendimiento laboral involucrando a los empleados en esta particular dinámica, se busca que los trabajadores estén dispuestos a contribuir en la organización más allá de lo que exigen los requisitos formales de trabajo. En esta lógica los colaboradores se encuentran atrapados entre las demandas de la familia y las del empleador. El resultado de estos roles múltiples es el conflicto trabajo – familia debido a la incongruencia entre ambas áreas, debido a que las demandas de uno dificultan el cumplimiento de las demandas del otro (Rabenu, Tziner, & Gil, 2017). Liu, et al, (2019) resaltan que el equilibrio trabajo – familia es una percepción que se presenta de manera simultánea en dos sentidos: bajo conflicto trabajo - familia y alto enriquecimiento trabajo – familia, lo cual implica que se incluyen experiencias entre los roles tanto positivos como negativos. Es tos aspectos positivos o negativos tiene una relación con el desempeño laboral. Pandey (2019) destaca naturaleza multidimensional del desempeño clasificándola en dos aspectos: a) recursos: individuales, laborales, organizacionales, sociales, b) estresores: individuales, laborales en donde el autor señala que estresores afectivos como el agotamiento es una variable importante que agota los recursos y decrementa el rendimiento laboral, familiares, según el autor las variables a nivel familiar son un inhibidor del desempeño laboral cuando actúan como estresores. En este orden de ideas el conflicto trabajo familia es una variable importante que genera interferencia entre las demandas de estos dos dominios entre sí. Gragnano, Simbula, & Miglioretti (2020), resaltan el hecho de que los trabajadores son conscientes de la importancia de la salud para lograr un equilibrio trabajo-vida, demostraron que este equilibro es tan importante como el dominio familiar, por tanto, los investigadores deben considerar el dominio de la salud en el dominio familiar cuando se indaga el equilibrio trabajo – vida. Karatepe & Tenkiskus (2006), afirman que el conflicto trabajo – familia y el agotamiento emocional son variables críticas que tienen efectos adversos en los resultados. Yavas, Babacus & Karatepe (2008), consideran las dificultades que tienen los empleados de primera línea para equilibrar las demandas de sus múltiples roles pueden afectar el desempeño y como consecuencia los empleados pueden tomar la decisión e irse de las organizaciones. Wright & Cropanzano (1998), señalan que un indicador dé bajo desempeño laboral es el agotamiento emocional, considerado como un estado crónico tanto físico como emocional, el cual es producto del exceso de trabajo y el estrés continuo. El agotamiento emocional se manifiesta en los empleados en una perdida general de sentimiento de preocupación, confianza e interés (Maslach, 1982). Schaufeli & Greenglass (2001) consideran que el agotamiento emocional ocurre cuando los empleados experimentan una exigencia emocional ante una situación laboral en un período de tiempo prolongado. Estudios realizados en el sector público, contribuyen a entender la manifestación de sentimientos de agotamiento emocional. Los profesionales de la salud se encuentran bajo altos niveles de presión debido a las largas jornadas laborales que producen trastornos del sueño, la responsabilidad profesional en donde deben proporcionar un servicio de alta calidad sin margen de error. De igual forma, su trabajo implica alta carga emocional dada la naturaleza del trabajo, esto hace que los profesionales en la salud sean más vulnerables al agotamiento emocional (Babyar, 2017). De acuerdo con Gerard (2018), es necesario tener en cuenta factores como los resultados financieros, el rendimiento del capital, lo cual justifica el éxito en las organizaciones de atención médica, lo cual va vas allá de la calidad en la atención o la naturaleza de actividad. La estructura de las organizaciones de salud pública suele ser poco flexible lo cual hace más difícil el funcionamiento de estas entidades y por tanto el trabajo de los profesionales que laboran en ella generando perdida de energía y sentimientos de agotamiento emocional. Cropanzano, Rupp & Byrne (2003) argumentan que el agotamiento emocional tiene un efecto perjudicial en el desempeño laboral del empleado, lo cual repercute posteriormente en la productividad de la organización. El estudio realizado por Wang, et al (2019) muestran la relación entre el conflicto trabajo – familia (WFC), el conflicto familia – trabajo (FWC), el agotamiento emocional y el desempeño. Los resultados muestran que WFC se relaciona positivamente con el agotamiento emocional. También se encontró que el cuidado de la organización reduce las influencias de WFC en el agotamiento emocional. En conclusión, es importante resaltar que todas las variables que se han considerado para realizar este estudio se relacionan entre sí. Por un lado, en un marco amplio se encuentra el cambio organizacional, el cual influye en el comportamiento y la percepción de las personas en la organización afectando el clima organizacional. Por otro lado, pero en la misma dirección se encuentran los factores psicosociales que también se ven afectados por los cambios en las organizaciones y que involucrarían factores como el balance trabajo – familia, el desempeño, el agotamiento emocional. Sin embargo, se debe rescatar que la forma como las personas en las organizaciones afronten estos aspectos, va a generar una mayor capacidad de resiliencia y adaptación de las personas en la organización.

The behavioural location theory emphasises high importance of the limited rationality and the subjective perception of space in selecting of the location for a business activity. The article discusses key competencies from the scope of behavioural location theory. Ac-cording to the Authors, the behavioural location theory is rather complementary than competitive in relation to the neoclassical or modern approach, as it allows to explain the deviations of the decision-makers from the optimisation behaviour.

Business location theory has already been discussed in this journal in various contexts, for example in articles by H. Godlewska-Majkowska, K. Kuciński, A. Rutkowska-Górak, A. Kałowski. However, to our knowledge, the behavioural approach has not yet been presented here and we would like to fill the gap and offer a review of selected authors' works and concepts from this field and hopefully inspire other scholars to develop this promising research direction. In addition, a quantitative analysis of publications on behavioural location theory will be presented.

For the purposes of this article we will define the behavioural location theory as the inclusion of psychological and subjective circumstances of the decision makers into location theory, such as bounded rationality, heuristics usage and subjective spatial perception.

The behavioural approach seems underutilised in location theory despite its potential to explain many of business location decisions which are inconsistent with the profit maximisation principle. According to R. Domański [1995]: so far it has not been satisfactorily examined how the perception of space influences spatial behaviour of people. Nobody objects that many decisions, at least in part, depend on how people perceive the space surrounding them, how they differentiate it and what value they place on different elements of this space.According to W. Dziemianowicz [1997]: the assessment of location factors by decision makers most often depends on specific qualities of the business and qualities of the decision maker. Surprisingly, decades have passed since last important contributions in the field of behavioural location theory.

Location theory has its roots in XIX century, when J.H. von Thuenen offered the agricultural activity location theory in 1826. The interest in location theory revived more than 50 years later, mainly thanks to the works of W. Launhardt [1882] and A. Marshall [1886]. Important dates are also 1909, when A. Weber developed his industrial location theory and proposed the notion of a location factor and 1933, when the first theory of services location emerged, authored by W. Christaller.

Then the development of location theory accelerated, with contributions of such authors as A. Loesch [1939], F. Perroux [1964] or P. Krugman [1991]. It can be argued that thanks to P. Krugman location theory entered the mainstream economics, which neglected spatial issues for a long time.

Different location theory traditions put the emphasis on different aspects. For example, classical approach theorists indicate minimising production cost as the goal of the location decision maker while behavioural approach suggests satisfactory choice as a goal. According to H. Godlewska-Majkowska, there are five approaches to location theory: classical, neo-classical, structural, behavioural and contemporary. Their focus points are briefly explained in Table 1.

There are three similar but distinct terms related to the business location choice: • location factors – specific qualities of particular places which have direct impact on investment volume during building of the company's plant (plants) and the net profitability of business activity run in those places [Godlewska-Majkowska, 2001],
• location virtues – specific qualities of places which contribute to it that identical investments will differ depending on location in terms of investment volume, total production cost, sales revenue and taxes [Godlewska-Majkowska, 2015],

ocation circumstances – internal and external phenomena which transform a location virtue into a location factor. Internal phenomena can be for example: industry, size and ownership structure of the business. External phenomena include among others economic, environmental and cultural issues [Godlewska-Majkowska, 2013]. Clearly, location requirements are different for various sectors. Therefore, location factors are divided into general (those applying to all or many sectors) and sector-specific (those applying to one or few sectors).

There are also other classifications of location factors. The importance of subjective factors in the location choice is reflexed in the classification by Grabow et al. [1995] into soft and hard location factors, on the basis of H. GodlewskaMajkowska [2015]. Hard factors are more traditional, have direct influence on business activity and are easily measurable, while soft factors have indirect influence on business activity and are difficult to quantify.

It is worth to note that authors of this classification consider both kinds of factors as equally important and find even the soft factors as ones, which can be parametrised, measured and compared. Figure 1 presents the classification in a more detailed way.

In our view, Grabow et al. [1995] showed an excessive scepticism when it comes to measurability of some factors. For example, the local government attitude towards investor may be measured by places in investment attractiveness rankings, such as 'Gmina na 5!' conducted every year by Institute of Enterprise at Collegium of Business Administration at Warsaw School of Economics. Apart from it, the classification should be considered to be validated as more than 20 years had passed since its publication and made more precise, because as H. GodlewskaMajkowska [2015] points out, some factors seem to overlap – social climate is presented as separate factor than local government attitude towards investor, but in fact the former includes the latter.

null

null

Each business has to choose its location and the effect of business location selection is called location decision. Location decision may be the result of a more or less formal procedure. There is a consensus among scholars that business location decision is important for entity's economic performance. At the same time, it is acknowledged in the literature that subjective factors (such as bounded rationality) play a non-negligible role in location choice. As R. Domański [2004] outlines, location decision makers usually have limited knowledge and incomplete information and in many cases the decision maker does not behave like the homo oeconomicus. Sometimes he has limited or biased information about his decision situation and at the same time he assessed the incomplete information in a subjective way.If the situation is complicated, he has to simplify it by using intuitional rules in decision making. He does not try to achieve the optimal result but rather a satisfactory one. Such statements suggest R. Domański finds bounded rationality model convincing.

According to classical, neoclassical and contemporary business location theory the decision maker undertakes the optimal choice, while heterodox approaches such as behavioural location theory claim making an optimal choice is impossible. The classical, neoclassical and contemporary theorists assume decision makers are homo oeconomicus, a person with perfect information about the present and the future, able and willing to make complicated calculations and not prone to psychological biases.

Behavioural economics accepts different set of assumptions about the human nature: limited (imperfect) knowledge of the decision maker, limited ability to process the knowledge and searching for satisfactory result rather than optimal. Decision maker who behaves in line with those assumptions is purposefully called homo satisfaciendus.

null

Homo satisfaciendus is the concept of decision maker used in the bounded rationality model created by H. Simon [1955], which is fundamental for behavioural economics, including behavioural location theory. In the model it is assumed that the decision makers do not aim to maximise utility from choice made (making an optimal decision) but rather search for a good enough (satisfactory) option and once they find such an option they also stop search. In practice, it means that typically a decision maker will accept the first location that meets his minimum criteria, the so called aspiration level and will not even check alternative locations. Simon points out that people may use so called heuristics, which are decision making patterns simplifying their decision problems but he did not elaborate on it.

null

The gap has been filled by D. Kahneman and A. Tversky [1975] who singled out three famous heuristics: availability, representativeness and anchoring. H. Godlewska-Majkowska [2016] argues that such heuristics are used to assess location virtues of places which a location decision maker had visited within business location decision making process.

The bounded rationality model has served as the basis for the A. Pred [1967] behavioural matrix, which linked information availability, investor's information processing ability and profitability of chosen business location. The general rule is that the more information (or information processing ability) one has, the more profitable location one chooses, caeteris paribus. An adapted version of Pred matrix is presented in Figure 2. Point A represents homo oeconomicus, who has perfect information and perfect ability to use it, so he or she will choose the optimal location. All other decision makers make suboptimal decisions and the extreme is reached in point B, where the decision maker has little information and low ability to process it, so he or she will choose a poor location that may result in a loss.

VANDA ARAMAVIČIŪTĖ – Habilitated Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Professor at the Department of Education, Vilnius University; Research interests: general educology, education and spiritual development of personality, methodology of educational research; Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: aramaviciute@gmail.comTATJANA BULAJEVA – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Associate Professor at the Department of Education, Vilnius University; Research interests: education policy and management with the current focus on teacher education policy, language education policy; Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: ttjnbulajeva@gmail.comDAIVA BUBELIENĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences; Šiauliai University, Faculty of Education, Department of Education Research interests: human resource management, quality of life, social research methodology Address: 25 P. Višinskio Str., Šiauliai, Lithuania; E-mail address: daivabubeliene@gmail.comDAIVA JUOZAPAVIČIENĖ – Psychologist of the Valakupiai Rehabilitation Center Address: 69 Vaidilutės Str., LT-10100 Vilnius; Lithuania; E-mail address: daiva.juozapaviciene@reabilitacija.ltANTANAS KAIRYS – Doctor of Social Sciences (Psychology), Lecturer at the Department of General Psychology, Vilnius University; Research interests: time psychology, career psychology, personality traits; Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str.,LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: antanas.kairys@fsf.vu.ltDAIVA GRAKAUSKAITĖ KARKOCKIE- NĖ – Doctor of Social Science (Psychology); Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology of Didactics, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences; Research interests: psychology of creativity, gifted children, family psychology. Address: 39-328 Studentų Str., LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: daiva.karkockiene@leu.ltMARGARITA KOZHEVNIKOVA – PhD, Senior Researcher at Institute of Teacher and Adult Education, Russian Academy of Education, St. Petersburg, Russia; Research interests: philosophy of education in the Buddhist tradition; teacher's self-awareness as a philosophical problem; a model of education as bringing to the personal maturity; language of pedagogy; phenomenological aspects of researching the methodology of pedagogic educational research methodology; ethnic and religious problems in education; E-mail address: margaritakozh@ya.ruAUDRONĖ LINIAUSKAITĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Psychology), Professor at the Department of Psychology, Klaipėda University; Research interests: psychological time, career psychology, psychological well-being; Address: 5 S. Nėries Str.,LT-92227 Klaipėda, Lithuania; E-mail address: audrone.liniauskaite@gmail.comGEDIMINAS MERKYS – Habilitated Doctor of Social Sciences, Professor, Head of the Social Research Laboratory, Kaunas University of Technology; Research interests: social research methodology (quantitative and qualitative), diagnostics in psychology, management diagnostics, social indicators, sociology of organizations; Address: 20 K. Donelaičio Str., Kaunas, Lithuania;E-mail address: gediminas.merkys@ktu.ltBIRUTĖ POCIŪTĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Psychology), Associate Professor at the Department of General Psychology, Vilnius University; Research interests: educational psychology, psychology of career choice, learning; Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str.,LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: birute.pociute@fsf.vu.ltRASA RUDŽINSKIENĖ – PhD student of Faculty of Education, Šiauliai University; Director of employment agency "Jurgvita"; Research interests: planning of career, professional counselling, coaching; Address: 25 P.Višinskio Str., LT-76351 Šiauliai, Lithuania; E-mail address: karjerosprojektavimas@gmail.comVADIM ROUK – PhD candidate, Tallinn University; Researcher at the Institute of Educational Sciences, Tallinn University;Research interests: curriculum history and theory; curriculum development; political history of Estonia; history of France, Great Britain and South Arfica; holistlic philosophy; Address: Tallinn University, Rüütli 6, 10130, Tallinn, Estonia; E-mail address: vadim.rouk@tlu.eeAUŠRA RUTKIENĖ – PhD, Associate Professor at the Department of Education, Vytautas Magnus University; Research interests: methodology of social research, qanititative research, statistical data analysis, adult learning; Address: 52-301K. Donelaičio Str., LT-44244 Kaunas, Lithuania; E-mail address: a.rutkiene@smf.vdu.ltRŪTA SARGAUTYTĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Psychology), Associate Professor at the Department of Clinical and Organizational Psychology; Research interests: vocational rehabilitation, cross-cultural psychology, medical psychology, patient education; Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: ruta.sargautyte@fsf.vu.ltEDITA ŠATIENĖ – Directress of the Valakupiai Rehabilitation Center; Address: Vaidilutės Str., 69, LT-10100 Vilnius; Lithuania; E-mail address: edita.satiene@reabilitacija.lt. El. paštas: i.tandzegolskienė@smf.vdu.ltILONA TANDZEGOLSKIENĖ – PhD, Lecturer at the Department of Education, Vytautas Magnus University; Research interests: expression of Students' independent activities, preparation of career specialists, career and labour marker, career in different stages of human development, possibilities for employability, levels in the qualification frameworks, preparation of description of qualifications, objectives of scientific activity; Address: 52-301 K. Donelaičio Str.,LT-44244 Kaunas, Lithuania; E-mail address: i.tandzegolskienė@smf.vdu.ltVILIJA TARGAMADZĖ – Habilitated Doctor of Social Sciences (education), Professor at the Department of Education, Vilnius University; Research interests: social education; education management; problem-based learning; Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: vilija.targamadze@gmail.comONA TIJŪNELIENĖ – Habilitated Doctor of Social Sciences (education), Professor at the Department of Education, Klaipeda University; Research interests: philosophy of education, methodology of educational research, history of educology; Address: 5 S. Nėries Str., LT-92227 Klaipėda, Lithuania; E-mail address: onatij@one.ltIEVA URBANAVIČIŪTĖ – PhD, Lecturer at the Department of Psychology Didactics, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences; Research interests: career psychology, work psychology, learning and work motivation; Address: 39 Studentų Str., LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania; E-mail address: ieva.urbanaviciute@gmail.com ; VANDA ARAMAVIČIŪTĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) habilituota daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: bendroji edukologija, ugdymas ir asmenybės dvasinis brendimas, ugdymo tyrimų metodologija. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius; El. paštas: aramaviciute@gmail.comDAIVA BUBELIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) daktarė, Šiaulių universiteto Edukologijos fakulteto Edukologijos katedra. Mokslinių interesų sritys: žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymas, gyvenimo kokybė, socialinių tyrimų metodologija. Adresas:P. Višinskio g. 25, Šiauliai; Tel. 8 41 595 718; El. paštas: daivabubeliene@gmail.comTATJANA BULAJEVA – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: švietimo politika ir vadyba, mokytojų rengimo politika, kalbų mokymo politika. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius; El. paštas: ttjnbulajeva@gmail.comDAIVA JUOZAPAVIČIENĖ – Valakupių reabilitacijos centro vyr. psichologė. Adresas: Vaidilutės g. 69, LT-10100 Vilnius;Tel. (8-5) 247 7545; El. paštas: daiva.juozapaviciene@reabilitacija.ltANTANAS KAIRYS – socialinių mokslų (psichologija) daktaras, Vilniaus universiteto Bendrosios psichologijos katedros lektorius. Mokslinių interesų sritys: laiko psichologija, karjeros psichologija, asmenybės bruožai. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius; El. paštas: antanas.kairys@fsf.vu.ltDAIVA GRAKAUSKAITĖ-KARKOCKIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (psichologijos) daktarė, Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto Psichologijos didaktikos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: kūrybos psichologija, gabių vaikų psichologija, šeimos psichologija. Adresas: Studentų g. 39-328,LT-08106 Vilnius; Tel. 8 683 11803;El. paštas: daiva.karkockiene@leu.ltMARGARITA KOZHEVNIKOVA – dr., Rusijos švietimo akademijos, Mokytojų ir suaugusiųjų švietimo instituto vyriausioji mokslo darbuotoja. Sankt Peterburgas, Rusija. Mokslinių interesų sritys: ugdymo filosofija budizmo tradicijoje, mokytojų savimonė kaip filosofinė problema, asmenybės brandą skatinančio ugdymo modeliai, pedagogikos kalba, edukologinių tyrimų metodologijos fenomenologiniai aspektai, etnines ir religines ugdymo problemos.El. paštas: margaritakozh@ya.ruAUDRONĖ LINIAUSKAITĖ – socialinių mokslų (psichologija) daktarė, Klaipėdos universiteto Psichologijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: laiko psichologija, karjeros psichologija, psichologinė gerovė. Adresas: S. Nėries g. 5, LT-92227 Klaipėda; El. paštas: audrone.liniauskaite@gmail.comGEDIMINAS MERKYS – socialinių mokslų habilituotas daktaras profesorius, Kauno technologijos universiteto Socialinių tyrimų laboratorijos vedėjas. Mokslinių interesų sritys: socialinių tyrimų metodologija (kiekybinė ir kokybinė), psichologinė diagnostika, vadybos diagnostika, socialiniai indikatoriai, organizacijų sociologija. Adresas: K. Donelaičio g. 20, Kaunas.Tel. 8 37 300 144; El. paštas: gediminas.merkys@ktu.ltBIRUTĖ POCIŪTĖ – socialinių mokslų (psichologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Bendrosios psichologijos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: pedagoginė psichologija, karjeros psichologija, mokymasis. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius; El. paštas: birute.pociute@fsf.vu.ltRASA RUDŽINSKIENĖ – Šiaulių universiteto edukologijos doktorantė, Įdarbinimo agentūros "Jurgvita" vadovė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: karjeros projektavimas, profesinis konsultavimas, koučingas. Adresas: P. Višinskio g. 25, LT-76351 Šiauliai.Tel. +370 611 66794; El. paštas: karjerosprojektavimas@gmail.comVADIMAS ROUKAS – Talino universiteto (Estija) doktorantas, Talino universiteto Ugdymo mokslo instituto tyrėjas. Mokslinių interesų sritys: ugdymo turinio istorija ir teorija, ugdymo turinio tobulinimas, Estijos politinė istorija, Prancūzijos, Didžiosios Britanijos ir Pietų Afrikos istorija, holistinė filosofija. Adresas: Rüütli 6, 10130, Tallinn, Estonia. El. paštas: vadim.rouk@tlu.eeAUŠRA RUTKIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologija) daktarė, Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Edukologijos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: socialinių tyrimų metodologija, kiekybiniai tyrimai, statistinė duomenų analizė, suaugusiųjų mokymas. Adresas: K. Donelaičio g. 52-301,LT-44244 Kaunas; El. paštas: a.rutkiene@smf.vdu.ltRŪTA SARGAUTYTĖ – socialinių mokslų (psichologija) daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Klinikinės ir organizacinės psichologijos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: profesinė reabilitacija, tarpkultūrinė psichologija, medicinos psichologija, pacientų mokymas. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. Tel. 85 2667605;El. paštas: ruta.sargautyte@fsf.vu.ltEDITA ŠATIENĖ – Valakupių reabilitacijos centro direktorė. Adresas: Vaidilutės g. 69, LT-10100 Vilnius. Tel. (8-5) 247 7544;El. paštas: edita.satiene@reabilitacija.ltILONA TANDZEGOLSKIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologija) daktarė, Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto, Edukologijos katedros lektorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: studentų savarankiškos veiklos raiška, karjeros specialistų rengimas, karjera ir darbo rinka, karjera amžiaus tarpsniuose, įsidarbinimo galimybės, kvalifikacijos sąrangos lygmenys, kvalifikacijos aprašo rengimas, mokslinės veiklos uždaviniai. Adresas:K. Donelaičio g. 52-301, LT-44244 Kaunas.El. paštas: i.tandzegolskienė@smf.vdu.ltVILIJA TARGAMADZĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) habilituota daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: socialinis ugdymas, švietimo vadyba, probleminis mokymas. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. Tel. (8 5) 266 76 25;El. paštas: vilija.targamadze@gmail.comONA TIJŪNELIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) habilituota daktarė, Klaipėdos universiteto Edukologijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: ugdymo filosofija, ugdymo tyrimų metodologija, pedagogikos istorija. Adresas: S. Nėries g. 5, LT-92227 Klaipėda. El. paštas: onatij@one.ltIEVA URBANAVIČIŪTĖ – socialinių mokslų (psichologijos) daktarė, Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto Psichologijos didaktikos katedra lektorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: karjeros psichologija, darbo psichologija, mokymosi ir darbo motyvacija. Adresas: Studentų g. 39, LT-08106 Vilnius. El. paštas: ieva.urbanaviciute@gmail.com

The article gives an analysis of different socio-economic, legal-organizational, info-educational, technical and technological aspects of waste treatment, and also the most used models and instruments in the realm of municipal waste management, applicable in the civilized world. A special attention is paid to the main imperfections of the existing waste treatment system in Ukraine and other countries. A comparative method helps to understand the differences, and the crucial problems in waste processing models used in developed and developing countries, in order to make necessary corrections to environmental policy, with implementation of new social-ecological, psychological, legal and economic incentives. A study of the successful waste-reducing and utilization experience of some countries gives a reason to conclude, that their governments and local authorities have created not only the expedient infrastructure for recycling, but also a proper moral-ethical background in the municipal waste management. As we hope, the most significant tools and methods of mentioned environmental policy have been unfolded in this research. ; В статье анализируются применяемые в Украине и мире организационно-правовые, социально-экономические, информационно-просветительские, технологические средства в сфере обращения с бытовыми (муниципальными) отходами, которые продуцируются в мегаполисах. Изучаются терминологические различия между такими процессами и операциями, как переработка отходов, утилизация, рециклинґ, регенерация, рекуперация. Делается акцент на том, что различные этапы и формы обращения с бытовыми отходами (включая их сбор, перевозку, сортировку, хранение, обработку, переработку, утилизацию, удаление, обезвреживание, захоронение) взаимно детерминированы. Обращается внимание на то, что, хотя бытовые отходы производит каждый человек, однако структура этих отходов у каждого человека отличается - в зависимости от страны проживания, социального класса, менталитета, персонального культурного уровня, привычек, профессиональной и конфессиональной принадлежности, морально-этических установок и мировоззренческих ориентиров, уровня информированности и экологического сознания и тому подобное. Наблюдается тенденция, что в странах с развитым гражданским обществом обычно внедряются более рациональные и "эко-дружественные" модели обращения с отходами. Способом системного решения проблемы муниципальных отходов в мегаполисах является организация их промышленной переработки. Наиболее оптимальными технологиями обращения с бытовыми отходами на сегодня являются: термическое переработки (в основном это т.н. энергетическое сжигание, в некоторых случаях - простая инсинерация), биотермическое аэробное компостирование (с получением биотоплива), анаэробная ферментация (с получением биогаза), сортировка, с удалением ценных компонентов для вторичного использования, вредных компонентов - для дальнейшей дезактивации, оставшихся веществ - для применения к ним наиболее технически, экономически-и экологически обоснованных операций. Не менее важными, чем технологические и социально-экономические аспекты обращения с бытовыми отходами, являются психологические аспекты, касающиеся мотивации людей организовывать собственное поведение должным образом. Постепенно в социуме, прежде всего, в развитых странах, укореняется убеждение, что каждый человек способен внести свой вклад в сокращение бытовых отходов: если оптимизирует структуру своего потребления; минимизирует использование полимерной тары и упаковки, заменяя их более "эко-дружественными" аналогами; если ответственно подходить к сортировке собственных отходов. К тому же и само государство в таких странах прибегает к финансовому стимулированию экологически ответственного поведения своих граждан, а также компаний и предприятий, устанавливая определенные налоговые и коммунальные льготы для тех, кто уменьшает генерацию бытовых отходов и добросовестно относится к их сортировке. Один из главных принципов системы обращения с отходами - собирать и сортировать мусор нужно на самом раннем этапе, как можно ближе к источнику его образования. При этом, среди важнейших достижений правительств и муниципальной власти в деле обращения с отходами в развитых странах, можно назвать то, что им удалось приучить абсолютное большинство своих граждан к мысли о необходимости самостоятельной сортировки бытовых отходов. Комбинация принципа экономической выгоды от рационального обращения с отходами, и символического, однако весьма значимого для людей эффекта причастности к региональному экологическому благополучию - одна из ключевых предпосылок уменьшения засоренности территорий и повышения качества жизни человечества. ; У статті аналізуються уживані в Україні та світі організаційно-правові, соціально-економічні, інформаційно-просвітницькі, технологічні засоби у сфері поводження із побутовими (муніципальними) відходами, які продукуються у мегаполісах. Вивчаються термінологічні відмінності між такими процесами й операціями, як перероблення відходів, утилізація, рециклінґ, регенерація, рекуперація. Робиться акцент на тому, що різні етапи і форми поводження із побутовими відходами (включаючи їхнє збирання, перевезення, сортування, зберігання, оброблення, перероблення, утилізацію, видалення, знешкодження, захоронення) є взаємно детермінованими. Звертається увага на те, що, хоча побутові відходи продукує кожна людина, однак структура цих відходів у кожної людини відрізняється - залежно від країни проживання, соціального класу, менталітету, персонального культурного рівня, звичок, професійної та конфесійної приналежності, морально-етичних установок й світоглядних орієнтирів, рівня інформованості та екологічної свідомості тощо. Спостерігається тенденція, що в країнах із розвиненим громадянським суспільством зазвичай впроваджуються більш раціональні й "еко-дружні" моделі поводження з відходами. Способом системного вирішення проблеми муніципальних відходів у мегаполісах є організація їхньої промислової переробки. Найбільш оптимальними технологіями поводження із побутовими відходами на сьогодні є: термічне перероблення (переважно це т.зв. енергетичне спалювання, у деяких випадках – проста інсінерація), біотермічне аеробне компостування (із одержанням біопалива), анаеробна ферментація (з отриманням біогазу), сортування, із видаленням цінних компонентів для вторинного використання, шкідливих компонентів – для подальшої дезактивації, решти речовин – для застосування до них найбільш технічно-, економічно- й екологічно-обґрунтованих операцій. Не менш важливими за технологічні й соціально-економічні аспекти поводження із побутовими відходами, є психологічні аспекти, що стосуються мотивації людей організовувати власну поведінку належним чином. Поступово у соціумі, насамперед, у розвинених країнах, укорінюється переконання, що кожна людина здатна зробити свій внесок у скорочення побутових відходів: якщо оптимізує структуру свого споживання; мінімізує використання полімерної тари й упаковки, замінюючи їх більш "еко-дружніми" аналогами; якщо відповідально підходитиме до сортування власних відходів. До того ж і сама держава у таких країнах вдається до фінансового стимулювання екологічно-відповідальної поведінки своїх громадян, а також компаній і підприємств, встановлюючи певні податкові та комунальні пільги для тих, хто зменшує генерацію побутових відходів і сумлінно ставиться до їхнього сортування. Один з головних принципів системи поводження з відходами - збирати й сортувати сміття потрібно на самому ранньому етапі, якомога ближче до джерела його утворення. При цьому, серед найважливіших досягнень урядів і муніципальної влади у справі поводження з відходами, в розвинених країнах, можна назвати те, що їм вдалося привчити абсолютну більшість своїх громадян до думки про необхідність самостійного сортування побутових відходів. Комбінація принципу економічної вигоди від раціонального поводження із відходами, та символічного, однак вельми значущого для людей ефекту причетності до регіонального екологічного благополуччя, – одна з ключових передумов зменшення засміченості територій та підвищення якості життя людства.

Background Although there is no proof that older people become infected by SARS-CoV-2 more than younger people do (WHO 2020), "[e]xisting literature suggests that age is an important predictor of poor outcomes among patients with COVID-19" (Mills, Kaye, Mody 2020: 1). This leads to older adults (globally agreed upon as people aged 60 years and older, WHO 2018) having converted into an even more vulnerable social group during the 2019- global pandemic. To the physical and psychological fragilities connected with ageing, an entire new set of issues has indeed added itself to their conditions, as the virus impacted on this population harder. One such problematic aspect is the economic disadvantage at which high numbers of seniors have found themselves to be, for instance in the United States of America, "according to estimates from the Elder Index, a county-level measure of the income needed by older adults to meet basic needs" (Li, Mutchler 2020: 478). Nursing homes and long-term care institutions, by definition inhabited by elderly citizens, also contributed to making them subject to early, sudden and repeated outbreaks of the disease (Chen, Chevalier, Long 2021). Yet another demographic datum is that the older population that was either killed or severely affected, at various levels, by COVID-19 was mostly represented by women (Peterman et. al. 2020). Aims and methods Whether female seniors fell victim to the pandemic more than their male counterparts due to force majeure, since women over 60 are a statistically larger group than men (UN 2019), is one of the research questions this study intends to address. Another thesis will be explored, though, according to which "COVID-19 has exacerbated issues that already left older women at a significant disadvantage compared to men" (Zycher 2020). In order to investigate and evaluate the two differing positions, a discursive analysis of information about older females who have been and are being affected by the pandemic will be carried out. The depictions and representations of this specific social group shall be reconstructed and compared against hard data, from a perspective that definitely stems from Critical Discourse Studies (e.g. Wodak, Meyer 2015; Flowerdew, Richardson 2018), but will not hesitate to delve into research from other fields such as economics, sociology, health(care) and medicine, statistics and more, whenever necessary. Studies on ageing and (female) gender (e.g. Ylänne 2012, Anderson 2019) will necessarily also be consulted. Material The relationship between older women and COVID-19 will be explored in English-language a) academic research; b) texts authored, edited, published, distributed or ultimately endorsed by governmental and supra-governmental organisations (the US, the UK and other English-speaking developed countries, the EU, the WHO, etc.); c) mass media news, when reporting data and information stemming from a) and b). Due to the ample variety of text types and genres considered, and to the fact that the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic at the time of writing is far from over, though it has entered the mass vaccination phase in early 2021, the texts for analysis are expected to be collected and thus scrutinised following quality- more than quantity-based criteria. Expected results and relevance The research behind this proposal is currently work-in-progress. Results are expected to contribute, firstly, to ageing studies, at the beginning of the United Nations Decade of Healthy Ageing (2021-2030); secondly, to women-focused studies – a wording suggested as preferable to 'Women's Studies', because it includes not only Women's Studies as such but also Sex and Gender Medicine (Grego et al. 2020) and socio-economic disciplines when they focus on women. The latter, non-linguistic perspectives will of course be drawn upon only insofar as they prove functional to producing remarks on the discursive constructions and social critique conveyed by language. Methodologically, it is hoped this study may add itself to those contributing to the consolidation of trans-disciplinary approaches, which by today no longer need to be considered innovative and desirable but a necessity, if research is to address increasingly complex phenomena affecting people at a global level and creating and modifying social vulnerabilities at an unprecedented pace worldwide. Select bibliography Anderson, C. 2019. Discourses of Ageing and Gender. The Impact of Public and Private Voices on the Identity of Ageing Women. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Chen, K.M., Chevalier, A.J., Long, E.F. 2021. "Nursing home staff networks and COVID-19". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Jan 2021, 118 (1) e2015455118. Flowerdew, J., Richardson, J.E. 2018 (eds). The Routledge Handbook of Critical Discourse Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Grego, S., Pasotti, E., Moccetti, T., Maggioni, A.P. 2020. "'Sex and gender medicine': il principio della medicina di genere". G Ital Cardiol 2020; 21(8): 602-606. Li, Y., J.E. Mutchler 2020. "Older adults and the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic". Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 32:4-5, 477-487. Mills, J.P., Kaye, S., Mody, L. 2020. "COVID-19 in older adults: clinical, psychosocial, and public health considerations". Journal of Clinical Investigation Insight, 5(10): e139292. Peterman, A., Potts, A., O'Donnell, M., Thompson, K., Shah, N., Oertelt-Prigione, S., van Gelder, N. 2020. Pandemics and Violence Against Women and Children. Working paper 528, April 2020. Center for Global Development. UN 2019. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population dynamics. "Population by age and sex 2020". https://population.un.org/. WHO 2018. "Ageing and health". 5 February 2018. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health. WHO 2020. "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public: Mythbusters. Older people, younger people". 23 November 2020. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/myth-busters?gclid=CjwKCAiAm-2BBhANEiwAe7eyFI6bpBFOHEbuA3HGK2JlxWtn5TYLFTt-hqNXNXRA87z73-gNvVBk5BoC24AQAvD_BwE#older-people. Wodak, R., Meyer, M. (eds) 2015. Methods of Critical Discourse Studies. 3rd ed. London: SAGE. Ylänne, V. (ed.) 2012. Representing Ageing. Images and Identities. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Zycher, A. 2020. "The impact of the pandemic on older women". Pro Bono Australia. 7 September 2020.