This report examines the conservation economy in the Monsoonal North of Australia. It first describes the drivers behind the development of a conservation economy in the region and why this is important. It then takes a step back to describe what a conservation economy is, and provides simple explanations for the concepts and terms that populate the literature. It identifies how investments are prioritised and where priority areas for conservation management are located in the Monsoonal North. Finally, it provides a compendium of conservation economy opportunities operating in the region, and examines prospects for future development. The conservation economy has largely been driven by community concern over the deteriorating condition of our land, seas, water and atmosphere; by consumer demand for ethically and sustainably-produced products; and Indigenous people's desire to derive income from their traditional lands. The conservation economy literature provides a framework for assessing the value of conservation management and who should bear the cost of this management. Its basic principles include recognition of the dependence of humans on ecosystem services and the valuation of managing those services. There is the expectation that production systems should be managed sustainably, and where it is profitable to do so, the producer should bear the cost of adopting sustainable management. Payment can be expected for conservation management that is beyond reasonable expectations, and provides public rather than private benefit. Conservation economy priorities are driven by international conventions covering biodiversity conservation and social justice. As a signatory to these conventions, the Australia Governments has accepted obligations to list and protect threatened species and World Heritage sites; operate a protected area estate; mitigate climate change; adhere to sustainable development goals and alleviate poverty among Indigenous people in Australia and the third world. Non-government organisations (NGOs) also largely subscribe to these aims. The Monsoonal North has extensive tracts of intact landscapes that are largely in good condition. It scores well in conservation prioritisation schemes based on these natural values, but poorly in schemes prioritising habitat fragmentation, land degradation and threatened species. Priority areas for biodiversity conservation largely coincide with areas of Indigenous held land, so are attractive areas for conservation investment that incorporates social justice goals. External investment in the conservation economy in the Monsoonal North comes from governments, NGOs and the voluntary efforts of property owners and managers. Most funding comes from the Australian Government, either through grants programs or fee-for-service arrangements. This funding has declined over the last decade, and disproportionately so in the Monsoonal North. This has left a sizeable dint in the region's conservation economy. However, funding for Indigenous cultural and natural resource management has been largely maintained, because Indigenous economic development continues to be a high national priority. The Australian Government has also established the Emission Reduction Fund as a marketplace to purchase emission reductions from land and agricultural management, and is considering a national marketplace for water. The Queensland and Western Australian governments also subsidise conservation management through grant programs and conservation covenants, though this funding has also declined in recent years. In the Northern Territory, conservation agreements are brokered by the Natural Resource Management (NRM) body. Most NRM groups in the north also run devolved grants schemes, though these are funded by the Australian Government's National Landcare Programme. Governments also regulate for adherence to duty-of-care principles in the management of weeds, pest animals, vegetation management and water quality management; and provide extension program and structural adjustment loans to support adoption of sustainable practices. NGOs are increasing their presence in northern Australia, particularly working in partnership with Indigenous communities to support their cultural and natural resource management aspirations. Indigenous communities are active participants in the conservation economy. Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) now constitute one-third of Australia's National Reserve System. Indigenous rangers are employed to undertake cultural and natural resource management, including protection of cultural heritage; transfer of Traditional Knowledge; weed, fire and feral animal management; and biodiversity monitoring and management. Fee-for-service arrangements operate for biosecurity surveillance, collection of marine debris and emission abatement. The pastoral industry can also benefit from the conservation economy. However, other than entering into agreements to reserve parts of their land for biodiversity conservation and reducing methane emissions from cattle, this is unlikely to be in the form of external payments. Rather, adopting recognised best practice herd management will not only reduce emissions and improve land condition by decreasing grazing pressure, it will also increase profitability. Voluntary uptake of such practices is also likely to circumvent increased government regulation of the industry. Because such practices are profitable, they are unlikely to attract stewardship payments. However, assistance through the necessary transition can be provided through extension programs and structural adjustment loans. In summary, the principal prospects in the conservation economy in the Monsoonal North are: • Greenhouse gas abatement activities • Indigenous Land and Sea Management supported by governments and NGOs • Protection of high priority biodiversity on private or leasehold land funded through development offsets, and through government-funded programs • Taking advantage of the inherent financial benefits of herd management to improve animal performance and land condition. Hence, the conservation economy is operating in northern Australia and is likely to grow, but it is also subject to variation with shifting government policy and consequent market opportunities. Growth is most likely to be driven by the international priorities of conservation of listed threatened species, protection of World Heritage values, establishment of a protected area estate and alleviation of poverty among Indigenous people and in the third world, adherence to sustainable development goals and mitigation of climate change. These priorities are likely to inform future investments by governments, NGOs and private donors.
Dwarfing the direct losses due to ruminant abortions and flock mortality, the main economic impact of RVF is systemic and ensues from the trade restrictions aimed at its containment. Indeed, past outbreaks of RVF in East Africa and Middle East came as disturbing events in a commercial context of high specialization in trade of small ruminants and interdependence between East-African exporters and the Middle-Eastern importing countries. The two successive bans imposed by Middle-Eastern countries on livestock products coming from the Horn of Africa in 1998-1999 and 2000-2002 highlighted this interdependence. Both bans caused an abrupt stop in exportations from IGAD countries. Nevertheless, the impact of the outbreaks motivating these bans differed due to their unique timing with regard to the Muslim celebrations that trigger the main flow of livestock from the Horn of Africa to Mecca. Hence, in 2000, the worst impact was observed on pastoralist households because the ban was imposed in September, prior to the Haj festival, when the main seasonal export flow had not been realized yet. Regarding the 1997 outbreak, the ban was implemented only in February 1998, after the main trade flow had occurred. The impacts of the bans on Somalia were particularly severe, due to the high specialization of the concerned region in an export-oriented livestock sector, benefitting from a niche market organized around the above-mentioned religious festivals and Arab consumers preferences. The country was all the more affected, as they own two main ports involved in this trade, i.e. Berbera (Somaliland) and Bossaso (Puntland). Prior to the bans, the size of the export market from Somalia to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates was estimated around US$600 million, with Saudi Arabia representing 66% of the total. The bans led the Somali livestock market to collapse. Losses for the livestock industry were estimated at US$109 million and US$326 million, for the first and second ban respectively. The government also directly incurred an important loss around US$45 million from foregone export taxes and docking fees. In the same time, livestock exporters lost a net cumulative profit of US$330 million, whereas producers estimated their annual losses at over US$8 million. Hence, the successive RVF-related trade bans impacted the employment rate, the public treasury, the exchange rate of national currency and thus, the price of imported goods, inducing a general inflationary pressure and important socio-economic upheavals. More generally, the livestock market in the whole East Africa was affected, due to the fall in prices caused by the loss of outlets for livestock. Using market equilibrium models taking these shocks into account, the impact of the trade bans on the Somali region of Ethiopia were estimated at a 36% fall of the GDP. Other impacts originated in the closure of markets inside East Africa, being part of national control strategies. In Kenya, e.g., the closure of the Garissa Market, which is a major outlet for Somali and Ethiopian livestock, resulted in a more than 25% decrease in the price of cattle, inducing a total loss of US$10 million for the value chain. The emergency destocking response of distressed households also participated to the fall in prices and worsening of terms of trade. Together with flock mortality and abortion, destocking moreover affects the herds' dynamics on the long run and the commercial potential of households. These mechanisms show greater impact on smallholders, due to threshold effects in livestock capitalisation and the loss in risk management ability in such variable environmental conditions. In the Middle East too, the bans showed drastic economic impacts. In Yemen, e.g., the bans caused a loss of US$15 million from foregone custom taxes and US$27 million profit losses for traders. The two bans, combined with the prolonged ban maintained till 2009 by Saudi Arabia on Somalia, contributed to a restructuration of trade within and between the two regions. Indeed, trade actors soon reorganized their activity, as highlighted through official figures, notwithstanding the importance of informal trade. Hence, Yemen and the United Arab Emirates appeared as major alternative entry points on Arab Peninsula for Somali livestock. The latter could also transit through Djibouti or Sudan to reach Saudi Arabia. Benefitting from the prolonged bans on Somalia, the port of Djibouti emerged as a major player in the region between 2006 and 2009, thanks to massive investment in port infrastructures and agreements with Saudi importers. Therefore the private sector played a considerable role in adapting to new risks. The Djibouti port diverted much of the livestock trade previously handled at the Berbera and Bossaso ports. On this occasion, as it has been the case in Somalia after ban lifting in 2009, the Middle East has been a source of investment for the Horn of Africa for biosecurity infrastructure. Finally, the second ban led to the emergence of Australia as a major livestock supplier for Saudi Arabia from 2000 till now, and to a certain a point Australia has been a country of major Saudi investments which is seen as another way of adapting for some major value chain agents. In the two last decades, the intraregional livestock trade grew rapidly in East Africa, spurred by the urban demand. Most of this trade is informal, thus lacking official figures. It nevertheless shows a great importance regarding poverty alleviation aspects, the small to medium actors being the main operators of this trade. In recent years, a considerable growth in recorded intraregional trade is noticed, mainly due to a growth of recorded exports from Ethiopia to neighboring countries, as a result of a policy aiming at the facilitation of registration procedures through the CAC/AP-system. As a conclusion, livestock export to Middle East and the growing intraregional East-African livestock trade are both threatened by RVF-linked bans due to loss of outlets and price volatility. Thus, stability of the livestock sector being crucial to human and economic development in the region, a high priority must be given to RVF prevention and control, as supported by figures of impact of past outbreaks. ; Peer reviewed
The main feature for a production to be considered sustainable is to assume that nature is finite, avoiding thus the unlimited growth. The search of the sustainability in shrimp farming has been a constant preoccupation of environmental agencies. The use of probiotics have been currently appointed as an efficient means of treating of the organic matter in the water column and ponds soil, allowing to minimize the use of water in farming, which is one of the fundamental requirements to make shrimp farming environmentally responsible. Probiotics also act as a natural product for prophylaxis of diseases, promoting better growth of the cultivable aquatic organisms. Thus, the first part of this research had purpose to evaluate the effects of two commercial probiotics, which different compositions, on the zootecnical potential and resistance to stress of larvae and post-larvae of the species Litopenaeus vannamei in commercial scale. The second part investigated management practices adopted by micro producers of shrimp in the southern coast Rio Grande do Norte, also characterize the social and environmental aspects of shrimp farming perceived by these producers. In the first phase, In the first phase, the cultivates of the species Litopenaeus vannamei began in the larval stage (nauplius V), with duration of 18 days, this time submitted for two treatments: P1 - probiotic one; P2 - two probiotic. The experimental units consisted of six tanks of 15,000 L, and each treatment had three repetitions. The probiotics were applied daily as recommended by the manufacturers, and the parameters salinity, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen monitored. The post-larvae submitted to P2 had higher mean values (p <0.05) in length (in PL 1 and PL 5), wet and dry weights (PL 5) and metamorphosis percentage (90%) when compared to the other treatment; the other variables did not differ. The final survivals were 56.4% and 64.9% for postlarvae submitted to P1 and P2, respectively. It was observed that the probiotic 2 more effective in the improvement of the biotic parameters. In the second phase, 27 interviews were conducted through of semistructured questionnaires, with producers of the South coast of Rio Grande do Norte. It was found that 85.2% of the producers are men, with low illiteracy rate (3.7%), earning 2 to 5 minimum wages (44.4%) and 22.2% have shrimp farming as main source of income. It was found that less than 50% received technical assistance in the last year and few are the biosecurity measures adopted by them. With regard to good management practices recommended by the Brazilian Association of Shrimp Farmers (ABCC), only 11.1% of shrimp farmers make to use of probiotics and this variable has no relationship with the monthly family income or with survival rates obtained in cultivation. Management practices such as water fertilizing and soil liming, as well as questions about the environmental problems also not associated with schooling, with a homogeneous management among interviewed. The micro properties producers of shrimp, representative of the region of the South coast of Rio Grande do Norte, point the need of guidance and support of the government and appropriate technical assistance to enable them to implement good management practices, in order to suit the shrimp responsible recommended by the ABCC. ; A principal característica para que uma produção seja considerada sustentável é assumir que a natureza é finita, evitando-se desta forma o crescimento sem limites. A busca da sustentabilidade na carcinicultura tem sido uma preocupação constante dos órgãos ambientais. A utilização de probióticos tem sido atualmente apontada como uma eficiente forma de tratamento da matéria orgânica presente na coluna d'água e no solo dos viveiros, possibilitando a minimização da utilização de água nos cultivos, que é um dos requisitos fundamentais para tornar a carcinicultura ambientalmente responsável. Os probióticos também atuam como produto natural na profilaxia das enfermidades, promovendo um melhor crescimento dos organismos aquáticos cultiváveis. Dessa forma, a primeira parte desta pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos de dois probióticos comerciais, de diferentes composições, sobre o potencial zootécnico e resistência a estresse de larvas e pós-larvas da espécie Litopenaeus vannamei cultivadas em escala comercial. A segunda parte investigou as práticas de manejo adotadas pelos micro produtores de camarão do litoral Sul do Rio Grande do Norte, caracterizando-se também os aspectos sociais e ambientais da carcinicultura percebidos por esses produtores. Na primeira fase, os cultivos da espécie Litopenaeus vannamei tiveram início na fase larval (náuplio V), com duração de 18 dias, quando foram submetidos a dois tratamentos: P1 - probiótico um; P2 - probiótico dois. As unidades experimentais consistiram em seis tanques de 15.000 L, com três repetições para cada tratamento. Os probióticos foram aplicados diariamente conforme recomendação dos fabricantes, sendo os parâmetros salinidade, temperatura, pH e oxigênio dissolvido monitorados. As pós-larvas submetidas ao P2 apresentaram valores médios maiores (p < 0,05) para comprimento (em PL 1 e PL 5), pesos úmido e seco (em PL 5) e percentual de metamorfose (90%) em relação ao outro tratamento; as demais variáveis não diferiram. As sobrevivências finais foram 56,4% e 64,9% para pós-larvas submetidas ao P1 e ao P2, respectivamente. Observou-se que o probiótico 2 foi mais efetivo na melhoria dos parâmetros bióticos. Na segunda fase, foram realizadas 27 entrevistas através de formulários semi-estruturados, com produtores do litoral Sul do Rio Grande do Norte. Constatou-se que 85,2% dos produtores são homens, com baixa taxa de analfabetismo (3,7%), com renda de 2 a 5 salários mínimos (44,4%) e que 22,2% têm a carcinicultura como principal fonte de renda. Verificou-se que menos de 50% receberam assistência técnica no último ano e poucas são as medidas de biossegurança adotadas pelos mesmos. Com relação às boas práticas de manejo recomendadas pela Associação Brasileira de Produtores de Camarão (ABCC), apenas 11,1% dos carcinicultores fazem uso de probióticos e essa variável não possui relação com a renda mensal familiar ou ainda com as taxas de sobrevivência obtidas nos cultivos. Práticas de manejo como fertilização da água e calagem do solo, assim como questionamentos sobre a problemática ambiental também não apresentaram relação com a escolaridade, havendo um manejo homogêneo entre os entrevistados. As micro propriedades produtoras de camarão, representativas da região do litoral Sul do Rio Grande do Norte, apontam a necessidade de orientação e apoio do governo e da devida assistência técnica para que possam implementar boas práticas de manejo, de forma a se adequar à carcinicultura responsável recomendada pela ABCC.
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Objective: Bluetongue (BT) and epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD) are arthropod-borne diseases of wild and domestic ruminants caused respectively by viruses belonging to the species Bluetongue virus (BTV) and Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) within the genus Orbivirus of the Reoviridae. The viruses are transmitted between ruminants by biting midges of the genus Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). BTV went undetected in Reunion Island between its first documented emergence in 1979 and two other serious outbreaks with both BTV-3/ EHDV-6 in 2003, and both BTV-2/EHDV-6 in 2009. In these outbreaks, infected animals developed symptoms including hyperthermia, anorexia, congestion, prostration and nasal discharge. In order to get an overview of the circulation of BT/EHD in Reunion island, an assessment of the prevalence in ruminants native to Reunion Island by a cross-sectional study was undertaken in2011on 67 farms, including a total of 276 cattle, 142 sheep and 71 goats with a total of 489 ruminant samples. Data concerning farm characteristics, type of production, and number of animals were collected through farmer questionnaires for an evaluation of the associated risk factors. In addition, investigation of clinical cases based on the observation of clinical signs was also performed in order to get BTV/EHDV isolates with the aim to track the origins of the circulating strains. Methods: Risk factors analysis Data concerning farm characteristics, type of production, number of animals, closeness to another farm and sugar cane fields, presence of organic and other waste on the farm, exposure to wind, distance to a permanent water point, type of animal housing, presence of ticks on animals, use of treatment against ectoparasites and insects, animal's contacts with other animals or humans, grazing practice, spreading of manure on pastures, presence of Tenrece caudatus, rodent control, number of abortions in the herd in the last 12 months, purchasing behaviour, quarantine of newly purchased animals, other biosecurity factors like hygienic precautions taken by the staff or other people entering the farm (truck driver, vets and other visitors) were taken from a questionnaire which was filled in during an interview with the farmers. This questionnaire was pre-tested on five farms in a preliminary study. The final questionnaire comprised 40 questions of which 75% were closed-ended. Serological assays Specific anti-BTV antibodies were tested in serum samples with a group-specific competitive ELISA based on the VP7 protein using a commercial kit (LSIVetTM Ruminant BT Advanced II- Serum, Life technologies, France). Specific anti-EHDV antibodies were tested using a blocking commercial kit (LSIVetTM Ruminant EHDV-Serum ELISA kit, Life technologies, France). A Sunrise ELISA reader was used for reading at 450 nm (Tecan, France). Optical density values were converted to percentage inhibition (PI). According to the cut-off value of the test, test samples with PI values > 40% for BT and > 60% for EHD were considered as positive. BTV/EHDV genome detection For the BTV group specific real-time RT-PCR, 6 μl of denatured double-stranded RNA prepared with the EZ1 robot and EZ1® Virus Mini Kit v2.0 (Qiagen, France) were reverse transcribed (RT) and amplified using the onestep QuantiTect Probe RT-PCRkit (Qiagen, France) based on segment 1 developed by Toussaint et al. 2007. For the EHDV group specific real-time RT-PCR, 5 μl of denatured double-stranded RNA were reverse transcribed (RT) and amplified using the commercial TaqVetTM EHDV (Life technologies, France).The subgroup-specific EHDV RTPCR based on segment 2 was performed according to Sailleau et al., 2012.Embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) were each inoculated as previously described in Sailleau et al., 2012 Sequence analysis, alignment and phylogenetic analysis To identify the genetic relatedness of the detected virus, phylogenetic analyses were performed with published EHDV sequences. Sixteen full-length VP2 gene sequences were cleaned by hand from the results of several BLAST nucleotide searches as well as direct references from available up-to-date literature and then aligned using the ClustalW translation alignment tool in MEGA (Ver. 5.05). Phylogenetic analysis was performed using the neighbour-joining method using distance measures generated by the p-distance algorithm running 1, 000 iterations with Geneious® Pro. Statistics A Fisher exact test was used to compare differences in prevalence between diseases and species. All statistical procedures were performed using R.3.0.1. A value of P < 0.05 was considered significant. The prevalence rates were estimated as the overall mean and 95% confidence interval (CI). Results: The observed EHD prevalence rate in cattle was 63.77% (95% CI [57.99–69.55]), 5.63% (95% CI [0.03–10.99]) in goats, and 3.70% (95% CI [0.05–6.88]) in sheep, suggesting that EHD occurs more often in cattle than in goats and sheep. These findings were supported by a significant statistical difference in the EHD prevalence rate between species (Fisher exact test, P «2.2e-16). The observed BT prevalence rate in cattle was 79.62% (95% CI [74.77– 84.47]), 50.70% in goats (95% CI [39.08–62.33]) and 21.48% in sheep (95% CI [14.55–28.40]) with a significant difference in BT prevalence between species (Fisher exact test, P = 4.367e-10). Additionally, three suspected outbreaks occurred during the 2011 study period, one BTV/EHDV negative, one BTV specific and one combined BTV/EHDV outbreak. In total, 14 EHDV positive cases and 1 BTV/EHDV co - infection case were identified. Two further suspected outbreaks were confirmed to involve EHDV and BTV/EHDV. Isolations of EHDV were successful resulting in the identification of the Reunion -specific EHDV-1 serotype. Phylogenetic analyses of segment 2 showed that the Reunion isolate 6010 _2011 belongs to the group C (hypothesised in Anthony et al. 2009 together with EHDV-1 strains from Australia, 1995, Nigeria, 1967, French Guyana, 2011 and New Jersey, USA, 2011). In January 2014, once more suspected outbreaks occurred on cattle with observed clinical signs such as hyperthermia, congestion and nasal discharge. Virus isolations were successful and led us to identify a new EHDV serotype for Reunion island, the EHDV-7 serotype. Conclusion: Our results confirm that the prevalence of both BT and EHD is high and that both are likely currently circulating. A high risk of BTV and EHDV infections was associated with the introduction of ruminants from neighbouring farms without quarantine, the presence of organic and other waste on the farm, and treatment against ectoparasites and insects. New circulating EHDV serotype 1 and serotype 7 of unknown origin were isolated in 2011 and 2014 respectively. The mechanisms involved in the introduction, maintenance, and perpetuation of both BTV and EHDV orbiviruses in Reunion Island need to be further investigated. How and when the EHDV serotypes were introduced onto the island are unknown, the most likely being the introduction of infected animals from eastern and southern Africa, Madagascar or Australia over a period of many years. The introduction of Malagasy breeds, which could be considered as orbivirus susceptible breeds many decades ago, is one possible hypothesis. Since 1976, importation of domestic ruminants from these countries has stopped. Until 2008, imports were only from mainland France. The maintenance of both viruses in the livestock population could also be due to the presence of reservoirs such as deer as was the case in many places including southern California between 1990 and 2007 (Roug et al., 2012). Pathogens can easily be shared between wildlife and domestic ruminants which has implications for both the animal production industry and wildlife health. Whether animal reservoirs such as Rusa deer Cervus timorensis rusa imported from Mauritius Island and now present in Reunion Island play a role in EHDV epidemiology need to be investigated. The same species of Rusa deer was introduced on the island of Mauritius in 1639 and serological evidence of both EHDV and BTV circulation is documented. Since 1992, in accordance with European Union regulations, importation of live deer from Mauritius to Reunion Island is forbidden. The intermittent detection of certain serotypes and the occasional appearance of new serotypes suggest that, in the past, regular but separate introductions of BTV/EHDV may have also taken place from Madagascar, and from Southeast Asia including Mauritius via windborne Culicoides. Although it exists, the observed herd immunity in Reunion Island is not high enough to prevent the maintenance of an enzootic cycle, which could also be related to the abundance and activity of Culicoides throughout the year. The findings reported here provide additional hypotheses regarding the ecological characteristics of bluetongue and epizootic haemorrhagic disease and other vector -borne livestock diseases. Sentinel surveillance programmes are a useful way of documenting regionalization zones for diseases, which can be of great importance when securing livestock international markets.
El Salvador, has been one of the last countries in the Americas to report COVID-19 cases. Since January 2020, the Government implemented a diversity of preventive measures, even before the reporting of the first cases. One of the foremost measures taken was the home quarantine for people with or without COVID-19 related symptoms. To avoid contagion, measures were taken to forbid the entrance of tourist to the country coming from China and other countries such as Italy, South Korea, Spain, Germany and Iran. Measures were intensified as the COVID-19 cases worldwide and particularly in Latin America were increasing. Testing to detect the COVID-19 was implemented in February 2020. On march 13th 2020, the Government issued a home quarantine at national level for 30 days. During that time, all kind of work, academic or tourism related activities were suspended, with the exception of those activities related to provide supplies for the pandemic. Crowds of people all over the territory were prohibited and the public and private health system external consultations were suspended giving priority to the sanitary emergency. On March 14th, the commercial flights were prohibited, and on March 17th all international borders and non-official points of entries were closed. Lately, and with the increment of positive cases in the central American region, a nationwide state of emergency was pronounced. On March 18th the first COVID-19 positive case was identified in the country, a Salvadorean national coming from abroad. The first quarantine lost effect as of April 11th, being prorogated for four days to give time to the National Legislative Assembly to discuss a new quarantine. A second 15 days quarantine was approved, which was prorogued for another 15 days on April 30th. As of June 16th, the population was allowed to circulate and do some activities with some restrictions and the recommendation to implement biosecurity measures such as the personal distancing, use of masks and hand sanitizers. Measures were applied in commercial establishments, offices, public transportation and public areas, to reduce the infection risk for the population. The public and private industries and academic sectors adopted the strategy of home working for most of their employees. Notwithstanding, every day activities were gradually reestablishing and, for the end of the year 2020, all activities were almost completely regained, except the academic activities of the public and private education sector, which continued in a virtual mode. According to government data, once the house quarantine was over, the contagion increased. During the first week of August, the first epidemiological curve presented a maximum of 449 cases. Lately, a rapid reduction of positive cases started, presenting a very different performance from what was expected. On the second week of September, a new increment was observed, reaching 330 daily cases. All countries around the world presented under reporting of cases and deaths due to the magnitude of the pandemic emergency. Some countries have taken steps to undertake seroprevalence studies to develop an approximation to the real number of deaths by COVID-19. In El Salvador, the official reporting of COVID-19 suspicious deaths has been made based on data from those who died having being tested and confirmed by RT-PRC tests. The epidemiological surveillance of new COVID-19 cases, has been strengthened through the installation of mobile booths for sampling. This can present an impact on cases, given that asymptomatic cases can be easily detected, providing the opportunity to take epidemiological measures when necessary. Nevertheless, distribution and use of tests should be made taking into consideration the epidemiological aspects, priorities, and the identification of suspected cases, populations at risk, age groups and so forth. The impact of the pandemic has bared a toll upon the health system, the economy and the social ways of the population. General consultations were temporarily suspended as well as those related to specialties, being evident in the reporting system, where consultations, controls and new case reports have diminished. The population will be affected if they are not attended in their health needs by an adequate medical consultation or control, and can adopt a self-medication behavior developing other types of illness or worst, the resurgence of contagious diseases which were already controlled under a strict surveillance in pre pandemic time. Despite all preventive measures implemented to reduce the risks of transmission, it is difficult to determine if they have had a positive impact in the pandemic control, due to a diversity of factors such as the pandemic occurrence and intensity, availability of laboratory tests, the characteristics of the country and of the Salvadorean population, which can be different from other countries. Notwithstanding, it is important to continue developing research that can lead to the prevention of the illness. In the following years, no doubt, the social and economic impact will be perceived by the population in general, and particularly by those in conditions of vulnerability; therefore, early mitigation measures are in order to deter the negative sequels of the pandemic. Finally, it is important to highlight the fact that the results concerning the pandemic care in the country should be presented to the attention of different scientific media given that this is the way to scientifically and epidemiologically report it, to contribute to the decision making for a better understanding and a better approach to the pandemic in El Salvador and other countries. Therefore, the country's scientific community must take this opportunity to make the best with the scientific information and platforms for the publication of their research, data and epidemiological analysis. ; Sr. Editor, El Salvador ha sido de los últimos países de América en reportar casos de COVID-19. Desde inicio de enero 2020, el gobierno implementó diversas medidas de prevención antes de confirmarse los primeros casos en el país. Una de las principales medidas tomadas fue la cuarentena domiciliar para personas con o sin síntomas relacionados al COVID-19, procedentes de países que ya reportaban los primeros casos. Con el fin de evitar el contagio, se prohibió el ingreso de turistas procedentes de China y de otros países como Italia, Corea del Sur, España, Alemania e Irán. A medida que los casos de COVID-19 aumentaban en el mundo, y sobre todo en Latinoamérica, las medidas de prevención se intensificaron. Fue así que se iniciaron las pruebas para la detección del COVID-19 en febrero de 2020. El gobierno decretó cuarentena domiciliar a nivel nacional durante 30 días a partir del 13 de marzo de 2020. Durante ese tiempo, se suspendieron todas las actividades laborales, académicas y de turismo, a excepción de las instituciones e industrias indispensables para atender la pandemia. Las aglomeraciones de personas fueron prohibidas en todo el territorio nacional. Se suspendió la consulta externa en todo el sistema de salud público y privado, priorizando la atención de la emergencia sanitaria. El 14 de marzo se prohibió el ingreso de vuelos comerciales al país y el 17 de marzo se cerraron las fronteras terrestres y el control de puntos de ingreso no oficiales. Posterior a estas medidas, y con el incremento de casos en países de la región centroamericana, el 26 de marzo se decretó estado de emergencia a nivel nacional. El 18 de marzo se identificó el primer caso positivo de COVID-19 en el país, un salvadoreño procedente del extranjero. A partir del 11 de abril quedó sin efecto la primera cuarentena, dando paso a una prórroga por 4 días, mientras la asamblea legislativa discutía la aprobación de una nueva cuarentena. De esta forma se aprobó una segunda cuarentena por 15 días, que fue prorrogada por 15 días más el 30 de abril. Al finalizar la prórroga de la segunda cuarentena, entró en vigencia una tercera cuarentena que duró 30 días más. A partir del 16 de junio, la población comenzó a circular con ciertas restricciones y con la recomendación de implementar medidas de bioseguridad como el distanciamiento físico, uso de mascarillas y desinfectantes de mano. En los establecimientos comerciales, empresas, transporte público y espacios públicos se tomaron medidas para disminuir el riesgo de contagio. Una estrategia utilizada por el sector laboral y académico, también fue el trabajo desde casa. Sin embargo, las actividades cotidianas de la población fueron restableciéndose, paulatinamente, y, al final del año 2020, se recobraron casi por completo en todo el país a excepción de las actividades académicas del sistema público y privado que continuaron las actividades de forma virtual. Después de finalizada la cuarentena domiciliar, el número de contagios aumentó, de acuerdo a datos del gobierno salvadoreño. En la primera curva epidemiológica se registró un máximo de 449 casos en la primera semana de agosto. Posteriormente comenzó una disminución rápida del número de casos, teniendo un comportamiento diferente a lo esperado según la tendencia reflejada. La segunda semana de septiembre registró un aumento gradual de casos, alcanzado un diario máximo de 330 casos. El subregistro de casos y de muertes se ha observado en muchos países, debido a la situación de emergencia y la magnitud de la pandemia. Esto ha llevado que algunos países realicen estudios de seroprevalencia para tener una aproximación de la cantidad real de personas infectadas y número real aproximado de personas fallecidas por COVID-19. En el caso de El Salvador el registro de muertes por sospecha de COVID-19 es reportado de manera oficial partiendo de aquellos casos fallecidos con prueba confirmada RT-PCR. La vigilancia epidemiológica de los casos nuevos de COVID-19 fue fortalecida a través de la implementación de cabinas móviles para la toma de muestra. Esto puede influir en el reporte de casos, debido a que tienen la capacidad de detectar casos asintomáticos lo que ofrece la oportunidad de implementar medidas epidemiológicas donde sea necesario. Sin embargo, la distribución y uso de las pruebas debe realizarse de forma priorizada, tomando en cuenta aspectos epidemiológicos, como identificación de sospechosos, poblaciones en riesgo, grupos etarios, entre otros. La pandemia ha tenido un impacto negativo en el sistema sanitario, económico y social. Debido a esta emergencia, las consultas generales y especializadas se suspendieron temporalmente. Esto es evidente en los reportes del sistema público, en el que se observa una disminución de consultas, controles y reporte de casos nuevos de enfermedades de interés epidemiológico para el país. Como consecuencia, puede verse afectada la salud de la población, que, al no recibir una atención médica especializada, pueden optar por la automedicación y esto desencadenar otra serie de problemas de salud o incluso el resurgimiento de enfermedades contagiosas que en tiempos prepandemia se mantenían controladas bajo una estricta vigilancia epidemiológica. A pesar de todas las acciones preventivas realizadas para disminuir el riesgo de transmisión, es difícil establecer si estas tuvieron un impacto positivo en el control de la pandemia, debido a diversos factores como la intensidad y comportamiento de la pandemia, disponibilidad de pruebas de laboratorio, características propias del país y la sociedad salvadoreña, que pueden ser diferentes a otras partes del mundo. Sin embargo, es necesario seguir desarrollando acciones e investigaciones que contribuyan con la prevención de la enfermedad. Sin duda, el impacto económico y social serán percibidos por la población en general, especialmente las poblaciones en condiciones de vulnerabilidad en los próximos años. Es importante tomar medidas tempranas para mitigar los efectos negativos secundarios de la pandemia. Finalmente, es importante que los resultados provenientes de la atención de la pandemia en el país, se den a conocer en los diferentes medios científicos ya que esta es la mejor forma de registrar los sucesos científicamente y epidemiológicamente para contribuir a la toma de decisiones para un mejor abordaje de la pandemia en El Salvador y en otros países del mundo. Por lo tanto, es importante que la comunidad científica del país aproveche las diversas plataformas y fuentes de información científicas para la publicación de resultados de sus investigaciones y análisis epidemiológicos.
The report on enhancing control of highly pathogenic avian influenza in developing countries through compensation seeks to provide guidelines on good practice for payment of compensation as part of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) stamping-out strategies. This is especially relevant since the most widely practiced control methods for poultry involve culling birds that are infected or in regions immediately around infected animals. The most common practice to ensure the cooperation of owners of birds is to compensate them for the culling of their animals to achieve this public goal. It is meant for national and international managers and project staff involved in containing HPAI. The report is based on review of the well-established literature of compensation practices in the developed world, staff interviews, experience, and newly emerging gray literature (project documents, mission reports, and so forth) on compensation in the developing world, and specific field visits to Egypt, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Compensation is likely to remain necessary for many years to come to promote the early eradication of outbreaks and to avoid the spread of transmissible animal diseases. As such, compensation will: (1) become part of modified stamping-out strategies, with probably a lower priority to culling; (2) have to become more dependent on the countries proven political will to improve the key institutions for animal health, in particular for early alerts and independent disease reporting; (3) be funded from a mixture of national and international public funds; and (4) be funded for the large commercial sectors through private initiatives.
Introduction. Health workers are exposed to different biological pathogens, which implies a risk to their health and a cost to the system. In this population, the rate of work-related accidents and diseases is higher than desired (up to 3.2%). Airborne pathogens and infectious diseases such as tuberculosis are highly contagious and can have serious effects on health workers. Symptoms of these diseases are slow to appear, which may prevent workers from realizing that they have been exposed until symptoms appear. Among these pathogens, tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the top ten preventable causes of death. The worrying thing is that about 10 million people have suffered from TB. Many factors can contribute to accidental exposure to a biological agent, although the main ones remain lack of experience, skills or knowledge in handling materials, and anxiety, fatigue and lack of care from oneself or other professionals. In the case of TB, lack of knowledge about transmission, appropriate preventive and biosecurity measures; and diagnosis of the disease appear to play an important role. Germany has a lower rate of infection and incidence of TB than Spain, which suppose a risk for health care workers. Also, the World Health Organization (WHO) has highlighted the importance of regularly reviewing national programmes, especially plans and policies based on monitoring, reporting and recommendations. Training plans have been designed and implemented to raise awareness of risk and prevention among health workers. More attractive environments for health training have been created to improve health workers' knowledge and skills, such as virtual environments in surgery. Technological tools have changed the way people interact in their environment since the 1980s. At the same time, occupational health and safety measures have been widely implemented. The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work sees information and communication technologies as the main methods for achieving the proposed objectives of improving working life and disseminating good practice. The objetctive from this dissertation were: -To determine the link between ICT, occupational safety and pathogens -To evaluate the preventive and occupational safety measures carried out in mycobacteriology laboratories in the European Union and other continents. -To estimate the degree of protection of health workers against risks related to exposure to biological agents at work. - To compare the preventive guides or protocols in Germany and Spain. - To determine the efficacy of a educational approach based on tehcnology to quantify knowledge and prevention culture. - To design, implement and evaluate a Virtual Laboratory (VL) for the training of workers exposed to risks from biological agents. Material and Methods. A bibliometric study was carried out to find out the trends in publications focused on new technologies and occupational safety in the health sector over the last 30 years, using the database Scopus. To respond to the second and third objectives, an observational, cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out on a sample of workers in Mycobacteria laboratories in the European Union, and others worldwide, using an original and specific questionnaire that evaluates preventive and safety measures at work. In response to the fourth objective, protocols for TB prevention in Spain and Germany were studied, analysing: case notification and follow-up, treatment of latent TB, chemoprophylaxis, methods of diagnosis and treatment of TB, as well as TB care programmes. Prospective observational educational research was carried out to quantify student knowledge and prevention culture. Finally, to obtain the Virtual Laboratory, a learning methodology on occupational health and safety was applied with a technological approach focused on health workers. The design and the diagram of the creation were based on: feedback, attractive experience, creative design and evaluation of the designed programme. Results. A total of 1021 documents were located, showing an increasing trend by country, especially in the United States (p <0.001), and by year (p <0.001). Annual citations showed significant differences between articles published before 2007 (p < 0.001). The year was also linked to the variation in the publication of articles on ICT, occupational safety and health in the health sector (72.2%) and literature reviews (14.9%) (p <0.001). The most significant previous publication was a report (848 citations) indicating that the above variables linked to exposure are vital for prevention. Most of the papers were reviews (p= 0.009) with a limited number of studies on occupational safety. Occupational safety and health measures were found to be inadequate, according to the workers' opinion. Training (p <0.01), workload (p <0.05), and monitoring of protocols (p <0.001) were related to incidents and exposure to airborne pathogens. Both Spain and Germany have committed to establish guidelines for the prevention of TB in order to achieve the goals proposed by the WHO at the global level. Both countries agree on case reporting, chemoprophylaxis and treatment of latent TB. And it is essential that TB control improves the level of knowledge of health care professionals and staff, but of course also of those affected by their environment. The results on the educational approach based on the development of a technological tool, its integration in the training of students and the subsequent evaluation, prior to the integration of the educational approach, showed differences between basic and proficient knowledge and correct procedure in each academic year (p <0.05), the best year being the third academic year. The average elementary knowledge among second year students after the inclusion of the educational methodology based on information and communication technologies (ICT) improved for the academic year 2017/2018 with an average of 7.5 (1.11) and in 2018/2019 with 7.87 (1.34). This argued that the proposed educational approach could improve the culture and knowledge of prevention among students and future health professionals. The results showed that the prototype of the Virtual Laboratory was very well defined, but more profound modifications of the context and process were needed, especially to improve its attractiveness and usefulness (5/7). The current study continues to be developed and the future implications will be the integration and use among the end-user's group of health workers to determine the usefulness of the technological approach created. Conclusions. There is a growing number of publications on ICT, occupational safety and health in the health sector, although it seems that the most significant development of ICT for this field is yet to come. The hygiene behaviour and measures of Spanish workers are still unsafe and poor compared to other European workers. Although in Spanish workers as well as in workers from other European countries, from North and South America, the risks arising from exposure to airborne pathogens may be related to the lack of training and continuing education. Also, to reduce the risk among workers, greater compliance with occupational safety and health standards, monitoring of preventive measures and more research focused on monitoring these measures are needed. Germany and Spain share common actions in education, the search for the best treatments by a multidisciplinary team. They also agree on the importance of training, avoiding work overload and the way in which workers follow the relevant protocols. The new teaching methodologies, based on ICTs as a mixed model, improve the culture and knowledge of prevention among students and future health professionals. And dinnaly, the initial version of a Virtual Laboratory (VL) has been designed on a platform that includes different scenarios of exposure to biological agents, and aims to create a virtual online learning experience to improve knowledge of the risks of exposed workers, as well as the main measures for the control and prevention of pathogens. The evaluation of the platform showed that the users' opinion on the inclusion of this technology-based educational approach is satisfactory. ; Introducción. Los trabajadores de la salud están expuestos a diferentes patógenos biológicos, lo que implica un riesgo para su salud y un costo para el sistema. En esta población, la tasa de accidentes y enfermedades relacionadas con el trabajo es más alta de lo deseado (hasta el 3,2%). Los patógenos de transmisión aérea y las enfermedades infecciosas como la tuberculosis, son muy contagiosos y pueden tener efectos graves para los trabajadores de la salud. Los síntomas de estas enfermedades tardan en manifestarse, lo que puede impedir que los trabajadores se den cuenta de que han estado expuestos hasta que aparecen los síntomas. La tuberculosis (TB) sigue siendo una de las diez principales causas de muerte prevenibles. El tema preocupante es que alrededor de 10 millones de personas sufrieron de TB. Muchos factores pueden contribuir a la exposición accidental a un agente biológico, aunque los principales siguen siendo la falta de experiencia, habilidades o conocimientos en el manejo de materiales, y la ansiedad, la fatiga y la falta de cuidado de uno mismo o de otros profesionales. En el caso de la tuberculosis, la falta de conocimientos sobre su transmisión, las medidas preventivas y de bioseguridad apropiadas; y el diagnóstico de la enfermedad parecen desempeñar un papel importante. Alemania tiene una tasa de infección y una incidencia de tuberculosis más baja que España. Esta prevalencia de la TB es un riesgo para los trabajadores de la salud. Basándose en la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) que destacó la importancia de revisar periódicamente los programas nacionales, especialmente los planes y políticas basados en la supervisión, la presentación de informes y las recomendaciones, el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar las diferencias de prevención de la TB entre los dos países europeos a través de los protocolos de prevención alemanes y españoles. Se han diseñado y puesto en práctica planes de formación para concienciar a los trabajadores sanitarios sobre el riesgo y la prevención. Se han creado entornos más atractivos para la formación en el ámbito de la salud con el fin de mejorar conocimientos y habilidades de los trabajadores sanitarios, como los entornos virtuales en cirugía. Las herramientas tecnológicas han cambiado la forma en que las personas interactúan en su entorno desde los años 80. Al mismo tiempo, las medidas de salud y seguridad en el trabajo se han aplicado ampliamente. La Agencia Europea para la Seguridad y la Salud en el Trabajo considera que las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación son los principales métodos para lograr los objetivos propuestos de mejorar la vida laboral y la difusión de buenas prácticas. Los objetivos de esta tesis fueron: -Determinar el vínculo entre TIC, seguridad laboral y agentes patógenos. -Evaluar las medidas preventivas y de seguridad laboral que se llevan a cabo en los laboratorios de micobacteriología de la Unión Europea y otros continentes. -Estimar el grado de protección del personal sanitario frente a los riesgos relacionados con la exposición a agentes biológicos en el trabajo. - Comparación de las guías o protocolos preventivos de Alemania y España. - Se llevó a cabo una investigación educativa observacional prospectiva enfocada a cuantificar el conocimiento de los estudiantes y la cultura de prevención. - Diseñar, implementar y evaluar un Laboratorio Virtual (LV) para la formación de los trabajadores expuestos a riesgos por agentes biológicos. Material y Métodos. Se realizó un estudio bibliométrico para conocer las tendencias de las publicaciones enfocadas a las nuevas tecnologías y la seguridad ocupacional en el sector de la salud durante los últimos 30 años. Para responder a los objetivos segundo y tercero, se realizó un estudio observacional, descriptivo transversal en una muestra de trabajadores de laboratorios de Micobacteras de la Unión Europea, y otros a nivel mundial, mediante un cuestionario original y específico que evalúa las medidas preventivas y de seguridad laboral Se estudiaron, como respuesta al cuarto objetivo, los protocolos sobre prevención de la tuberculosis en España y Alemania, analizando: notificación y seguimiento de casos, tratamiento de la tuberculosis latente, quimioprofilaxis, métodos de diagnóstico y tratamiento de la tuberculosis, así como programas de atención a la enfermedad. Se llevó a cabo una investigación educativa observacional prospectiva enfocada a cuantificar el conocimiento de los estudiantes y la cultura de prevención. Por último, para obtener el Laboratorio Virtual se aplicó una metodología de aprendizaje sobre salud y seguridad ocupacional cuyo enfoque tecnológico se centró en los trabajadores sanitarios. El diseño y el diagrama de la creación se basaron en: retroalimentación, experiencia atractiva, diseño creativo y evaluación del programa diseñado. Resultados. Se localizaron 1021 documentos que mostraron una tendencia creciente por país, especialmente en Estados Unidos (p <0,001), y por año (p <0,001). Las citas anuales mostraron diferencias significativas entre los artículos publicados antes de 2007 (p < 0,001). El año también estuvo vinculado a la variación en la publicación de artículos sobre TIC, la seguridad y la salud ocupacional en el sector sanitario (72,2%) y reseñas bibliográficas (14,9%) (p <0,001). La publicación previa más significativa fue un informe (848 citas) que indica que las variables anteriores vinculadas a la exposición son vitales para la prevención. La mayoría de los trabajos fueron revisiones (p= 0,009) con un número limitado de estudios sobre seguridad laboral. Las medidas de seguridad y salud en el trabajo resultaron inadecuadas, según la opinión de los trabajadores. La formación (p <0,01), la carga de trabajo (p <0,05), y el seguimiento de los protocolos (p <0,001) se relacionaron con incidentes y exposición a patógenos en el aire. Tanto España como Alemania se han comprometido a establecer directrices para la prevención de la tuberculosis a fin de alcanzar los objetivos propuestos por la OMS a nivel mundial. Ambos países están de acuerdo en la notificación de casos, la quimioprofilaxis y el tratamiento de la tuberculosis latente. Y es esencial que el control de la tuberculosis mejore el nivel de conocimientos de los profesionales y el personal de atención de la salud, pero, por supuesto, también de los afectados por su entorno. Los resultados sobre el enfoque educativo basado en el desarrollo de una herramienta tecnológica, su integración en la formación de los estudiantes y la evaluación posterior, previo a la integración del enfoque educativo, mostraron diferencias entre el conocimiento elemental y proficiente, y el correcto procedimiento en cada año académico (p <0.05), siendo el mejor año el tercer año académico. La media de conocimientos elementales entre los estudiantes de segundo año tras la inclusión de la metodología educativa basada en las tecnologías de la información y de la comunicación (TIC) mejoró para el curso 2017/2018 con una media de 7,5 (1,11) y en el 2018/2019 con 7,87 (1,34). Lo que argumentó que el enfoque educativo propuesto podría mejorar la cultura y el conocimiento de la prevención entre los estudiantes y futuros profesionales de la salud. Los resultados mostraron que el prototipo del Laboratorio Virtual estaba muy definido, pero se necesitaban modificaciones más profundas del contexto y el proceso, especialmente para mejorar el atractivo y la utilidad (5/7). El estudio actual continúa desarrollándose y las implicaciones futuras serán la integración y el uso entre el grupo de trabajadores sanitarios del usuario final para determinar la utilidad del enfoque tecnológico creado. Conclusiones. Existe un número creciente de publicaciones sobre las TIC, la seguridad y la salud ocupacional en el sector sanitario, aunque parece que el desarrollo más significativo de las TIC para este campo está aún por venir. Los comportamientos y las medidas higiénicas de los trabajadores españoles siguen siendo inseguros y pobres en comparación con los de otros trabajadores europeos. Aunque tanto en los trabajadores españoles como en los de otros países europeos, de América del Norte y América del Sur, los riesgos derivados de la exposición a los patógenos transmitidos por el aire pueden estar relacionados con la falta de formación y educación continua. Para reducir el riesgo entre los trabajadores, es necesario un mayor cumplimiento de las normas de seguridad y salud en el trabajo, la vigilancia de las medidas preventivas y la realización de más investigaciones centradas en la supervisión de dichas medidas. Alemania y España comparten acciones comunes en la educación del paciente, la búsqueda de los mejores tratamientos y el cuidado de los pacientes y sus familias por un equipo multidisciplinar. También coinciden en la importancia de la formación, evitar sobrecarga de trabajo y la forma en que los trabajadores siguieron los protocolos pertinentes. Las nuevas metodologías de enseñanza, basadas en las TIC como modelo mixto, mejoran la cultura y el conocimiento de la prevención entre los estudiantes y los futuros profesionales de la salud. Se ha diseñado la versión inicial de un Laboratorio Virtual (LV) en una plataforma que incluye diferentes escenarios de exposición a agentes biológicos, y tiene el propósito de crear una experiencia virtual de aprendizaje en línea para mejorar el conocimiento de los riesgos de los trabajadores expuestos, así como las principales medidas de control y prevención de los patógenos. La evaluación de la plataforma mostró que la opinión de los usuarios sobre la inclusión de este enfoque educativo basado en la tecnología es satisfactoria.
The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has a population living mostly in rural areas (70%). Most of this rural population (80%) are agro-pastoralists. For these households, livestock farming constitutes a form of on-farm savings that can be mobilized in case of need. Endemic infectious diseases that can be prevented by vaccination regularly threaten the main domestic animal species kept by these households. Furthermore, following the evaluation of the Performance of the Veterinary Services of DRC carried out by the OIE in 2011, these diseases, in particular the Newcastle disease in chickens, the peste des petit ruminants, the foot-and-mouth disease, the contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, anthrax and blackleg in ruminants and rabies in dogs, were ranked as priorities. At the dawn of the year 2020, no systematic control measures for these diseases had been taken at the national level. The establishment of sustainable animal vaccination services in DRC is an urgent necessity. In this situation, one way of establishing effective and sustainable vaccination services would be to establish schemes for recovering costs of vaccination from the users of the services. This doctoral research investigates the appropriateness and modalities of setting up paid animal vaccination services in a rural Congolese context marked by poverty and difficult access. Semi-structured individual interviews (SSII), focus group discussions (FGD) and stated preference surveys were used across four studies to identify the requirements for the implementation of animal vaccination services based on the user-pay principle and the One Health (OH) approach. This study used the vaccination of village chickens against Newcastle disease in three provinces of the southwestern part of DRC as a case study. This vaccination used the I-2 ND vaccine produced locally by the Kinshasa Veterinary Laboratory. This vaccine is thermostable and can be administered by eye drop. To conduct a participatory evaluation of the paid vaccination campaigns of village chickens against Newcastle disease in Kongo Central province, 12 FGD and 160 SSII were organized in four sites (study 1). This participatory process led to the design of a grid for evaluating the performance of animal vaccination services. In order to analyze the demand for paid animal vaccination services, identify preferences and understand the behavior of livestock keepers, a discrete choice experiment was carried out in eight sites out of 320 livestock keepers (study 2). To carry out a participatory evaluation of the value of OH approaches in the development of animal health services in DRC, 15 FGD and 100 SSII were conducted among professionals from Environmental Services (ES), Veterinary Services (VS) and Public Health Services (PHS) in five territories in three provinces (study 3). The expectations and benefits identified by the Congolese stakeholders were compared to the benefits of the OH approach as currently theorized in the scientific literature. This step was followed by the development of an evaluation protocol adapted from the one proposed by the Network for Evaluation of One Health (NEOH). In order to evaluate the synergy between village chicken vaccination networks and public health vaccination networks, 12 FGD and 288 SSII were conducted in six public health zones in three selected territories (study 4). The evaluations of 15 vaccination networks run by Community-Based Health Workers (CBHW) and 15 networks run by public veterinarians were carried out separately on the basis of the evaluation grid proposed by study 1. The results of the two evaluations were then compared. The assessment grid highlighted four strengths in favor of the sustainability of the paid vaccination service for village chickens organized by the Centre Agronomique et Vétérinaire Tropical de Kinshasa (CAVTK) in Kongo Central province. These were the interest expressed by chicken keepers, the perceived efficacy of the vaccine, the availability of the vaccine and the ease of vaccine use. Two weaknesses were identified, namely the poor access of chicken keepers to information and the low motivation of vaccinators. According to the assessment grid developed in this study, the paid vaccination campaign for village chickens in Kongo Central province obtained a performance score of 62.8%, with a diversity of scores between zones (study 1). Farmers preferred a paid vaccination service for village chickens, carried out according to an imposed calendar and administered by a public veterinarian (study 2). SV, SE and PHS professionals in DRC identified four of the eight benefits of the OH approach as described in the literature. Application of the adapted protocol for evaluating the OH approach showed that in DRC, there is a strong implantation of OH thinking and the OH sharing spirit, but a low level of OH learning, OH planning and OH working in the field (study 3). CBHW and veterinarians encountered the same difficulties in the field. CBHW felt that their involvement in the vaccination of village chickens had changed the collaborative relationship between the VS, ES and PHS. In general, according to the assessment grid established here, CBHW scored better (84±3%) than public veterinarians (76±8%). However, only vaccine efficacy criterion showed a significant difference. Furthermore, CBHW teams had achieved an average activity radius of 43.5±30.5 km and public veterinarians an average activity radius of 6.6±4.0 km. The priorities for improving the animal vaccination service seem to be awareness raising among animal keepers and increasing the motivation of vaccinators. The profile of paid animal vaccination service should be adapted to the expectations of farmers while meeting the technical requirements of vaccination. The public veterinarian will supervise the vaccination activities, which will be implemented by trained CBHW, through collective campaigns at fixed periods of the year. The acceptable price would allow the service to be fixed on a sustainable basis and could be increased if confidence in the service provided increases. In the DRC, the professionals of the VS, ES and PHS were willing to work together to reinforce each other and to achieve their common ideal, which is the well-being of the communities they serve. The success of such an approach would require the rejuvenation of veterinary staff in rural areas and the assignment of qualified veterinary professionals capable of designing and co-managing joint activities with the managers of ES and PHS. The results of this thesis showed that village chicken keepers in these three provinces have adopted the user-pay principle for organizing the vaccination of their chickens. The amount collected by the vaccination services could contribute to the partial financing of vaccination activities. It will be used on the one hand to renew vaccine stocks and on the other hand to pay the vaccinators. The performance achieved by CBHW in vaccinating village chickens is proof that the OH approach can help VS to set up sustainable animal vaccination services in DRC. It will be able to solve the problem of sensitization among animal keepers, motivating vaccinators and the lack of human resources. It will provide a partial solution to the cold chain problem. The financial and material resources provided by the CAVTK and the research funds of this thesis have shown that DRC's veterinary services need to develop a public-private partnership (PPP) for the implementation of activities in favor of animal health. Such a partnership could help these services to boost animal vaccination by making vaccines and cold chains available at the local VS. The failures of vaccination of village chickens observed in some places have shown that the implementation of sustainable animal vaccination services in DRC must not only face organizational, logistical and financial obstacles but must also prevent biological causes of vaccination failures. These failures will have an impact on animal keepers' appreciation of the vaccine's effectiveness and will reduce the rate of adoption of vaccination by them. On the organizational, logistical and financial level, this study showed that three pillars, namely user-pays principle, One Health approach and public-private partnership, could ensure the financing, sustainability and logistics of these services as well as the accessibility of these services to a significant number of animal keepers in the country. Laboratories must be involved upstream of animal vaccination in order to find appropriate vaccine strains, to determine the vaccination status of the herds to be vaccinated, to diagnose possible immunosuppressive diseases in the herds concerned and finally to develop appropriate vaccine strategies. It is also important that support programs be set up to teach animal keepers good animal husbandry practices and biosecurity measures. These are the conditions for an animal vaccination to be effective and for the proposed services to be organized in a sustainable way. ; La République démocratique du Congo (RDC) a une population vivant en grande partie (70%) en milieu rural. Une proportion estimée à 80% de cette population rurale serait agro-éleveur. L'élevage constitue pour ces ménages une épargne sur pied mobilisable en cas de besoin. Les principales espèces animales domestiques exploitées par ces paysans sont menacées régulièrement par des maladies infectieuses endémiques pourtant évitables par la vaccination. Par ailleurs, à l'issue de l'évaluation des Performances des Services Vétérinaires de la RDC réalisée par l'OIE en 2011, ces maladies, notamment la maladie de Newcastle chez la poule, la peste des petits ruminants, la fièvre aphteuse, la pleuropneumonie contagieuse bovine, le charbon bactéridien et le charbon symptomatique chez les ruminants et la rage chez le chien, étaient classées prioritaires. A l'aube de l'année 2020, aucune mesure de contrôle systématique de ces maladies n'a été prise au niveau national. La mise en place de services pérennes de vaccination animale en RDC représente une nécessité impérieuse. Dans cette situation, une voie envisagée pour mettre en place des services de vaccination de manière efficace et pérenne serait d'établir des schémas de recouvrement des coûts de la vaccination auprès des utilisateurs des services. Cette recherche doctorale investigue l'opportunité et les modalités de la mise en place de services payants de vaccination animale dans un contexte rural congolais marqué par la pauvreté et les difficultés d'accès. Des entretiens individuels semi-structurés (EISS), des groupes de discussion focalisée (GDF) et des enquêtes de préférences déclarées ont été utilisés à travers quatre études pour cerner les conditions requises à la mise en place de services payant de vaccination animale fondés sur le principe utilisateur-payeur et l'approche One Health (OH). Cette étude a pris pour cas d'application la vaccination des poules villageoises contre la maladie de Newcastle dans trois provinces de la partie Sud-Ouest de la RDC. Cette vaccination a utilisé le vaccin I-2 ND produit localement par le Laboratoire Vétérinaire de Kinshasa. Ce vaccin est thermostable et administrable par goutte oculaire. Pour réaliser une évaluation participative des campagnes de vaccination payante des poules villageoises contre la maladie de Newcastle dans la province du Kongo central, 12 GDF et 160 EISS étaient organisés dans quatre sites (étude 1). Ce processus participatif a permis la conception d'une grille d'évaluation de la performance des services de vaccination animale. Pour analyser la demande de services de vaccination animale payante, identifier les préférences et comprendre le comportement des éleveurs, une expérience de choix discret a été réalisée dans huit sites sur 320 éleveurs (étude 2). Pour réaliser l'évaluation participative de l'intérêt des approches OH dans le développement des services de santé animale en RDC, 15 GDF et 100 EISS ont été menés auprès des professionnels des services de l'environnement (ES), de ceux des services vétérinaires (SV) et de ceux de services de santé publique (SSP) dans cinq territoires de trois provinces (étude 3). Les attentes et les bénéfices identifiés par les acteurs congolais ont été comparés aux bénéfices de l'approche OH tels que théorisés actuellement dans la littérature scientifique. Cette étape a été suivie par la réalisation d'un protocole d'évaluation adapté de celui proposé par le Network for Evaluation of One Health (NEOH). Pour réaliser l'évaluation de la mise en synergie des réseaux de vaccination payante des poules villageoises avec les réseaux de vaccination de santé publique, 12 GDP et 288 EISS ont été menés dans six zones de santé publique de trois territoires sélectionnés (étude 4). Les évaluations de 15 réseaux de vaccination animés par des relais communautaires (RECO) et celle de 15 réseaux animés par des vétérinaires ont été réalisées séparément sur base de la grille d'évaluation proposée par l'étude 1. Les résultats de deux évaluations ont ensuite été comparés. La grille d'évaluation a mis en évidence quatre points forts en faveur de la durabilité du service de vaccination payante des poules villageoises organisé par le Centre Agronomique et Vétérinaire Tropical de Kinshasa (CAVTK) dans la province du Kongo Central. Il s'agissait de l'intérêt exprimé par les éleveurs de poules, l'efficacité du vaccin, la disponibilité du vaccin et la facilité d'utilisation du vaccin. Deux points faibles ont été identifiés, à savoir le faible accès des éleveurs de poules à l'information et la faible motivation des vaccinateurs. Selon la grille d'évaluation développée dans cette étude, la campagne de vaccination payante des poules villageoises au Kongo central a obtenu un score de performance de 62,8%, avec une diversité de score entre zones (étude 1). Les éleveurs ont préféré un service de vaccination payante des poules villageoises réalisée suivant un calendrier imposé et administrée par un vétérinaire public (étude 2). Les professionnels des SV, SE et SSP en RDC ont identifié quatre de huit bénéfices de l'approche OH tels que décrits dans la littérature. L'application du protocole adapté d'évaluation de l'approche OH a montré qu'en RDC, il y a une forte implantation de la pensée OH et de l'esprit de partage OH, mais un faible niveau d'apprentissage OH, de planification d'activités OH et de l'opérationnalisation de l'approche OH sur le terrain (étude 3). Les RECO et les vétérinaires ont rencontré les mêmes difficultés sur le terrain. Les RECO avaient estimé que leur participation à la vaccination des poules avait modifié les rapports de collaboration entre les SV, les SE et les SSP. D'une manière générale, selon la grille d'évaluation établie ici, les RECO ont réalisé un meilleur score (84±3%) que les vétérinaires (76±8%). Néanmoins, seul le critère d'efficacité du vaccin a présenté une différence significative. Par ailleurs, les équipes de RECO avaient réalisé un rayon d'activité moyen de 43,5±30,5 km et les vétérinaires un rayon d'activités moyen de 6,6±4,0km. Les priorités pour l'amélioration du service de vaccination animale semblent être la sensibilisation des éleveurs et l'augmentation de la motivation des vaccinateurs. Le profil de service de vaccination animale payante devrait s'adapter aux attentes des éleveurs tout en rencontrant les exigences techniques de la vaccination. Le vétérinaire public supervisera les activités de vaccination, qui seront mises en œuvre par des RECO formés, à travers des campagnes collectives à des périodes fixes dans l'année. Le prix acceptable permettrait de fixer le service de manière durable et pourrait être augmenté si la confiance dans le service fourni s'accroit. En RDC, les professionnels des SV, SE et SSP étaient prêts à travailler en collaboration afin de se renforcer mutuellement et d'atteindre leur idéal commun qui est le bien-être des communautés qu'ils ont en charge. Le succès d'une telle approche nécessiterait le rajeunissement du personnel vétérinaire en milieu rural et l'affectation de professionnels vétérinaires qualifiés capables de concevoir et de cogérer les activités conjointes avec les managers des SSP et des SE. Les résultats de cette thèse ont montré que les éleveurs de poules villageoises de ces trois provinces ont adopté le principe de l'utilisateur-payeur pour l'organisation de la vaccination de leurs poules. Le montant perçu par les services de vaccination pourra contribuer au financement partiel des activités de vaccination. Il servira d'une part à renouveler les stocks de vaccin et d'autre part permettra de rémunérer les vaccinateurs. Les performances réalisées par les RECO dans la vaccination des poules constituent une preuve selon laquelle l'approche OH peut aider les SV à mettre en place des services pérennes de vaccination animale en RDC. Elle pourra résoudre le problème de sensibilisation des éleveurs, celui de la motivation des vaccinateurs et celui de manque des ressources humaines. Elle apportera une solution partielle au problème de la chaine de froid. Les apports en ressources financières et matériels du CAVTK et des fonds de recherche de la présente thèse ont montré que les services vétérinaires de la RDC ont besoin de développer un partenariat public-privé (PPP) pour la réalisation des activités en faveur de la santé animale. Un tel partenariat pourra aider ces services à redynamiser la vaccination animale en rendant disponible les vaccins et les chaines de froid au niveau des SV locaux. Les échecs de la vaccination des poules villageoises observés en certains endroits ont montré que la mise en place de services pérennes de vaccination animale en RDC doit non seulement faire face à des obstacles d'ordre organisationnel, logistique et financier mais doit aussi prévenir les causes biologiques des échecs de la vaccination. Ces échecs auront un impact sur l'appréciation de l'efficacité du vaccin par les éleveurs et réduiront le taux d'adoption de la vaccination par ces derniers. Sur le plan organisationnel, logistique et financier, cette étude a montré que trois piliers, à savoir le principe de l'utilisateur-payeur, l'approche One Health et le partenariat public-privé, permettraient d'assurer le financement et la logistique de ces services ainsi que l'accessibilité de ces services à un nombre appréciable d'éleveurs de la RDC. Les laboratoires doivent être impliqués en amont de la vaccination animale afin de trouver les souches vaccinales appropriées, de déterminer le statut vaccinal des troupeaux à vacciner, de diagnostiquer les éventuelles maladies immunosuppressives des troupeaux concernés et enfin développer des stratégies vaccinales appropriées. Il est également important que des programmes d'encadrement des éleveurs les accompagnent afin de leur apprendre les bonnes pratiques d'élevage et les notions de biosécurité. C'est dans ces conditions que la vaccination animale pourra se montrer efficace et que les services pourront être organisés de façon pérenne.
