Suchergebnisse

COVID-19 is transforming cities globally. Across the world, cities have been hotspots for COVID-19 outbreaks, but they have also been at the forefront of efforts to adapt and innovate to protect citizens from COVID-19 and the damage it is causing. So far, cities across Myanmar have rightly focused on managing their short-term response to the COVID- 19 pandemic. DAOs and CDCs have been stretching their resources to implement lockdown measures, support businesses and meet residents' basic needs. However, as it is becoming clear that COVID-19's effects will not disappear quickly, it is important that DAOs/CDCs also consider how they can keep functioning sustainably in the longer-term. This report looks specifically at the sources of municipal revenue which cities need to keep running. It considers how revenues could be affected by COVID-19 and what DAOs and CDCs can do about these effects. DAOs and CDCs receive minimal financial support from Myanmar subnational and union governments and so must levy a mixture of taxes and fees on local economic activity to fund their activities. The arrival of COVID-19 has caused a slowdown in local economic activity and made it practically challenging for DAO/CDC officials to collect some revenues safely. The result is that municipalities face a difficult challenge – just as municipal revenues are urgently needed to fund a swift response to COVID-19 and sustain urban services, municipalities face the prospect of a dramatic decline in revenues. This report considers how DAOs and CDCs can respond sustainably to this new challenge. Although COVID-19 in Myanmar could remain relatively well contained with lesser health implications than in neighbouring countries, there is still a huge amount of scientific, economic and political uncertainty facing cities. The economic shock from COVID-19 is likely to be global and the risk of a second outbreak of infections is a very real threat.1 In a best-case scenario where the effects of virus are contained, we hope this report provides a useful overview of municipal revenues. In a worst-case scenario, where COVID-19 wreaks extreme public health and economic damage across Myanmar's cities, we hope that this analysis can provide a useful tool for quickly adjusting local revenue policy. Section 2 of this note looks at the current sources of municipal revenue in Taunggyi, Pathein and Mandalay to identify which sources of revenue are most important for municipalities. Section 3 considers the characteristics of each source of revenue in detail and how they are likely to be impacted by COVID-19. Section 4 considers the policy options available to DAOs, and Section 5 presents a scenario analysis exploring the possible impact of different policy options. Finally, Section 6 concludes.

This publication helps guide investment planning and financing across key urban infrastructure sectors of Azerbaijan to improve the performance of cities—with a focus on economy, equity, and environment. The National Urban Assessment for Azerbaijan is among a series prepared by the Asian Development Bank for selected developing countries under its Urban Operational Plan 2012–2020.

This paper sets out to systematically assess urban citizens' tax attitudes in Myanmar. It focuses on three of the most important taxes in Myanmar: income tax, commercial tax, and property tax. Income and commercial taxes are the biggest sources of tax revenue, and property tax is widespread and salient. The study is restricted to citizens living in cities, where exposure to these taxes is greatest. The paper relies on data from the 2017 City Life Survey undertaken by The Asia Foundation in partnership with the Yangon School of Political Science as part of the Myanmar Strategic Support Program (MSSP). The City Life Survey is the first of its kind in Myanmar, tracking public perceptions and lived experiences of urban life.

At a time when migration policies are beleaguered with controversies brought to the fore by national security and economic concerns, the issue of labor migration has proven to be a polarizing subject that has fueled debates among policymakers and world leaders. Interminable discussions have run the gamut from impacts and challenges of migration to crafting policies that will guarantee equal opportunities for both migrants and the local workforce. While it remains unclear how migration policies will play out in the coming years, one of the challenges faced by states is how to move forward in an increasingly globalized and highly competitive era where states are grappling for scarce resources, including skilled people. In migration discourse, brain drain is considered a ubiquitous phenomenon. Brain drain refers to the international transfer of resources in the form of human capital, i.e., the migration of relatively highly educated individuals mostly from developing to developed countries. This phenomenon is deemed challenging as it leads to talent deficit in the countries of origin.

Since the global financial crisis there have been diverging trends in labor market conditions in Europe. The unemployment rate in Southern Europe still remains at its record high, while Northern Europe maintains a relatively stable employment figure. Such diverging labor market conditions have been reflected on the labor movement within the EU. Countries such as Germany and the UK attract more immigrants to their job markets, while southern countries become 'net exporters' of their labor to other parts of Europe. For example, the outflow of migrants from Greece and Portugal increased three times between 2008 and 2012. The two countries lost almost 2% of their population during this period due to this migration. The outflow of migrants from Spain and Italy reached 300,000 during the same period. Spain used to be a migration destination for a long time, but its net migration has been negative since 2012.

To discuss some of the key issues of interest to Bangladesh's migrant workers, the Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD) organised a dialogue titled Safeguarding Interests of Bangladesh Migrant Workers: Issues of Financial Inclusion and Social Protection on 21 October 2015 at Lakeshore Hotel, Dhaka jointly with the Ministry of Expatriates' Welfare and Overseas Employment (MEWOE), Government of Bangladesh and the International Labour Organization (ILO), Country Office in Bangladesh. The dialogue was an opportunity to raise awareness of the public in general, and policymakers in particular, as regards advancing the interests of Bangladesh's migrant workers in view of the emerging demands.

This paper is intended to provide a brief overview of the different SEZ experiences in China and Africa, the key lessons that Africa can learn from China, as well as the recent Chinese zones in Africa. For this purpose, the paper is structured in the following way: section 1 starts with definition of SEZs, then followed with the Chinese experiences (section 2), African experiences (section 3), the lessons that Africa can learn from China (section 4), Chinese zones in Africa (section 5), and then concludes.

Turkey now hosts the largest refugee population in the world. The Government of Turkey (GoT) estimates the total number of registered Syrians under Temporary Protection (SuTPs) at 2,225,147. The objective of this policy brief is to collate existing publically available material on the situation of SuTPs in Turkey and to summarize: (i) the strategy and principles of Turkey's unique response to its displacement crisis; (ii) the challenges in managing the socioeconomic dimensions of displacement; and (iii) remaining critical policy issues and the road ahead for Turkey, as well as implications for other countries' refugee response efforts.

As India continues to urbanize and move towards a less agricultural- and more industry-based economy, land demands will continue to grow. Its urban population is expected to increase by more than 200 million by 2030, requiring 4 to 8 million hectares of land for residential use alone. Demands for infrastructure and industry could add a similar amount, summing to total land demand of 5 to10 percent of the land area currently used for agriculture. If not handled well, such massive land use change may increase vulnerability and food insecurity, rent-seeking, environmental problems, social dislocation, inequality, and conflict. But it also provides an opportunity to address the underlying structural issues, propelling India into the league of middle-income countries and laying the ground for significantly advancing shared prosperity and reduced poverty. This synthesis report presents results from land governance self-assessments by six states: The fact that land is a state subject implies that actions to improve land governance need to be initiated at state level. To identify opportunities, six states implemented the Land Governance Assessment Framework (LGAF), a tool that allow comparing the status of their land governance against international good practice along a set of dimensions in a very participatory process. Results are summarized in state reports that were validated publicly and discussed with policy makers in each state. This national report complements these and draws out common areas.

Violent crime has emerged as a growing development challenge, affecting large segments of societies, and taking a severe toll on economic development. In many high crime environments, weak institutions, fiscal constraints, and political resistance have undermined the effectiveness of development programs and threatened their sustainability. The World Bank has begun to confront this challenge. The country of Honduras is the most violent in the world as measured by its homicide rate, which reached 90.4 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012. This report presents the findings of a study of crime dynamics and prevention practices focused around a comparison of nine neighborhoods in three of the most violent cities in Honduras: La Ceiba, El Progreso, and Choloma. The research revealed that although the transnational drug trade, economic downturn, and political crisis have deepened the country's vulnerability, some neighborhoods have successfully prevented crime. Drawing from extensive qualitative research in these neighborhoods, the study identified practices that communities pursue to prevent violence through collective responses. It also examined the characteristics of communities, societal factors, and institutional context that have enabled or constrained these responses. The research points to measures that can be built upon, scaled up, and tested through future research and programming to strengthen community-based crime prevention. It illustrates how deep examination of the dynamics of insecurity - and the ways communities manage it - can inform efforts to improve public safety in violence-prone countries.

This study briefly summarizes the development experiences of special economic zones in China and Africa, the lessons that Africa can learn from China, and the preliminary results of the Chinese investments in special economic zones in Africa. The study makes recommendations on how to unleash the power of special economic zones and industrial zones in Africa through strategically leveraging the Chinese experiences. The success factors of Chinese special economic zones include the strong and long-term commitment of the government, a conducive business environment in the zones, strategic locations, technology upgrading and skills training, and strong linkages with the local economy. However, the Chinese experiences highlight some pitfalls to avoid, such as the "mushroom approach" and high-level overlaps at the later stage, environmental degradation, and the unbalance between industrial development and social dimensions. This calls for a bigger role for the market. Sub-Sahara Africas experience with traditional economic zones has been relatively poor, except in a few countries, such as Mauritius. The key challenges include the poor regulatory and institutional framework, lack of effective strategic planning, weak governance and implementation capacity, and inadequate infrastructure, among others. Since 2006, China has implemented special economic zone projects globally, including in four countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is still too early to conduct a full assessment of these projects; however, the evidence shows that some zones have begun to attract investments and make important contributions to the local economy. The main challenges include access to land, regulatory barriers, resettlement and coordination issues, and lack of external infrastructure.

This paper estimates slum residents willingness to pay for formalized land tenure in Pune, India. In so doing, it offers evidence that the legal assurance of slum residents occupancy of their lands could benefit them. Previous studies have discussed legal and non-legal factors that substantially influence the tenure security of residents in informal settlements. However, it remains unclear to what extent, and how, the assignment of legal property rights through the formalization of land tenure improves the tenure security of residents in informal settlements and living conditions, even in the presence of other legal and non-legal factors that also contribute to their tenure security. To address the question, this study focuses on the city of Pune, India, where government agencies have formalized slums by legally ensuring the occupancy of the residents under slum declaration. Applying a hedonic price model to an original household survey, this paper investigates how slum residents evaluate formalized land tenure. A spatial econometrics method is also applied to account for spatially autocorrelated unobserved errors. The spatial hedonic analysis finds that the premium of slum declaration is worth 19 percent of the average housing rent in slums. The associated marginal willingness to pay is equivalent to 6 percent of the average household expenditure, although it is heterogeneous depending on a households caste and other legal conditions. This finding suggests that the assurance of occupancy rights is a vital component of land-tenure formalization policy even if it does not directly provide full property rights.

Despite clear aspirations by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to create an effective and transparent framework to facilitate movements among skilled professionals within the ASEAN by December 2015, progress has been slow and uneven. This report examines the challenges ASEAN member states face in achieving the goal of greater mobility for the highly skilled, including hurdles in recognizing professional qualifications, opening up access to certain jobs, and a limited willingness by professionals to move due to perceived cultural, language, and socioeconomic differences. The cost of these barriers is staggering and could reduce the region's competitiveness in the global market. This report launches a multiyear effort by the Asian Development Bank and the Migration Policy Institute to better understand the issues and develop strategies to gradually overcome the problems. It offers a range of policy recommendations that have been discussed among experts in a high-level expert meeting, taking into account best practices locally and across the region.

Droughts are phenomena that occur worldwide, in humid and arid environments as well as in the Global North and the Global South. They are considered as slow onset hazards that affect more people than any other natural process with an estimated economic damage of USD 135 Billion and 12 Million casualties globally between 1900 and 2013 (Masih et al., 2014, p. 3636). Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a major drought hot-spot due to vulnerable livelihoods (e.g. dominance of rain-fed agriculture), limited capacities (e.g. financial, institutional), weak infrastructure (e.g. water, mobility) and political instability (e.g. conflicts, corruption). When droughts occur, as recently triggered by El Niño (2015/2016), vulnerability conditions of the affected societies determine, if drought risk manifests as a disaster. As a critical, recent example, the drought in Somalia resulted in a serious humanitarian disaster primarily as the precarious vulnerability situation was further deteriorated by political and violent conflicts (Maxwell et al., 2016). Overall, SSA faces severe challenges to manage drought risk, primarily due to two reasons: First, despite progress, the living conditions remain difficult with prevailing poverty, limited health services and ongoing political unrest in many regions (UNECA et al., 2015). This is alarming, especially against the projected population growth of about 1.3 Billion people in Africa until 2050 (UN-DESA, 2015, p. 3). Second, achieving good living conditions for all, as envisioned by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), is a challenge, as climate projections indicate a likely increase of drought frequency and severity in SSA. Higher rainfall variability paired with a strong increase in average temperatures (Niang et al., 2014) will render today's exceptional droughts as the new normal in the near future. These urgent problems require sustainable solutions to improve short- and long-term adaptation. Transdisciplinary science that conflates the strengths of academic disciplines and stakeholders from politics and society is needed to develop risk reduction strategies. Under the umbrella of the Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL), this thesis makes a contribution to integrated drought risk management schemes by assessing the drought hazard conditions and the societal vulnerability settings in a case study region: the Cuvelai-Basin. This transnational region across Namibia and Angola regularly experiences droughts as recently during 2012 – 2015 with hundreds of thousands of people being water and food insecure (DDRM, 2013; UN-OCHA, 2012). Environmentally, it covers a gradient from humid in the north to semi-arid conditions in the south with associated vegetation patterns. The population practices subsistence agriculture and livestock herding with tendencies of urbanization and lifestyle changes. The societal pre-conditions in both countries are heterogeneous with Angola having experienced decades of civil war until 2002 while Namibia saw continuous institutional and infrastructural development particularly after independence in 1990. To capture the multi-layered impacts of droughts on people's livelihoods, the thesis follows an interdisciplinary approach in the sense of integrating methodologies from physical and human geography. Key questions to be answered are (i) how droughts impact on local livelihoods, (ii) how the environmental drought hazard manifests, (iii) which societal groups are most vulnerable and (iv) what are risk mitigation strategies. Based on the theory of societal relations to nature, a guideline for a social-ecological drought risk assessment is proposed and exemplarily carried out in this thesis. First, a qualitative research phase was conducted to gain system knowledge, followed by quantitative analyses of environmental parameters on the drought hazard and socio-economic variables for drought vulnerability. Finally, this data was conflated in the Household Drought Risk Index (HDRI) to gain orientation knowledge and quantify risk levels among the households in the basin. This provided transformation knowledge to develop and identify risk mitigation strategies. The initial qualitative survey (n = 26) explored the drought impact on local livelihoods. It revealed structural insights into people's utilization of water resources and the negative impacts of drought on physical and mental health, family/community life and livelihood maintenance. Coping mechanisms were identified on multiple levels from the household level (e.g. selling of agricultural products) via the community (e.g. neighbourly support) to the governmental level (e.g. drought relief). As critical entry point for droughts, the water and food consumption patterns were identified that shape a household either more or less sensitive. The internal capital endowment (human, social, financial, physical and natural) and the infrastructural and institutional endowment of an area determine a household's ability to cope with drought. These qualitative insights culminated in the construction of the HDRI indicator that was populated with data in the subsequent research phases. To capture the drought hazard, three common drought indicators were combined in the Blended Drought Index (BDI). This integrated drought indicator incorporates meteorological and agricultural drought characteristics that impair the population's ability to ensure food and water security. The BDI uses a copula function to combine common standardized drought indicators that describe precipitation, evapotranspiration, soil moisture and vegetation conditions. Remote sensing products were processed to analyse drought frequency, severity and duration. In this regard, the uncertainty among a range of rainfall products was evaluated to identify the product that corresponds best to local rain gauge measurements. The integrated drought hazard map indicates the north of the Etosha pan and the area along the Kunene River to be most threatened by droughts. Temporally, the BDI correlates well with millet/sorghum yield (r = 0.51) and local water consumption (r = -0.45) and outperforms conventional indicators. The vulnerability perspective was captured using primary socio-economic data from a household survey (n = 461). The consumption patterns reveal a statistically significant switch from critical sources (e.g. wells, subsistence products) during the rainy season to more reliable sources (e.g. tap water, markets) during the dry period. Households with a high dependence on critical sources are particularly sensitive to drought. The capital endowment of households is heterogeneous, especially on a rural-urban gradient and between Namibia and Angola. Human and financial capital turned out to be important control variables in addition to the infrastructural and institutional endowment of an area. Overall, the HDRI results show that the Angolan population shows higher levels of risk, particularly caused by less developed infrastructural systems, weaker institutional capabilities and less coping capacities. Urban inhabitants follow less drought-sensitive livelihood strategies, but are still connected to drought conditions in rural areas due to family relations with obligations and benefits. Furthermore, the spatial HDRI estimates point to areas in Angola and Namibia that are both drought-threatened and vulnerable. The thesis results indicate the following recommendations for policy and science: First, the continuous monitoring of drought patterns in the basin should consider drought indicators that go beyond precipitation metrics and incorporate people's vulnerability to develop integrated Drought Information Systems. Second, reducing the sensitivities of the population requires enhanced local water buffers via better water use efficiencies. This is true for both blue and green water flows. Water-saving irrigation schemes in combination with decentral rain- and floodwater harvesting are promising opportunities. Furthermore, centralized backup infrastructures of water supply and market systems need to be expanded. Third, local community solidarity is an important institutional backbone for the population to cope with drought and adapt to future changes. In particular rural development efforts should go beyond technological interventions and support community-building, collective-action and capacity development in water management and agricultural production to decouple livelihoods from local rainfall. ; Dürren sind Phänomene, die weltweit sowohl in humiden als auch ariden Räumen sowie im Globalen Norden und im Globalen Süden auftreten. Sie gelten als langsam einsetzende Gefahren, die mehr Menschen betreffen als jeder andere natürliche Prozess mit einem geschätzten wirtschaftlichen Schaden von 135 Mrd. US-Dollar und 12 Mio. Toten weltweit zwischen 1900 und 2013 (Masih et al., 2014, p. 3636). Sub-Sahara Afrika gilt als Krisenherd aufgrund vulnerabler Lebensgrundlagen (z.B. Dominanz des Regenfeldbaus), begrenzter Kapazitäten (z.B. finanzielle, institutionelle), schwacher Infrastruktur (z.B. Trinkwasser, Mobilität) und politischer Instabilität (z.B. Konflikte, Korruption). Treten Dürren auf, wie kürzlich verstärkt durch El Niño (2015/2016), bestimmt die Vulnerabilität der Gesellschaft, ob sich das Dürrerisiko als Katastrophe manifestiert. Ein kritisches Beispiel ist die Dürre in Somalia, die v.a. zu einer humanitären Katastrophe wurde, da die prekären Vulnerabilitäts-bedingungen durch gewaltsame, politische Konflikte weiter verschlechtert wurden (Maxwell et al., 2016). Insgesamt steht Afrika aus zwei Gründen vor großen Heraus-forderungen bei der Bewältigung des Dürrerisikos: Erstens, sind die Lebensbedingungen u.a. aufgrund anhaltender Armut, begrenzter Gesundheitsversorgung und politischer Unruhen weiterhin schwierig (UNECA et al., 2015). Dies ist alarmierend, v.a. vor dem Hintergrund eines prognostizierten Bevölkerungswachstums von 1,3 Mrd. bis 2050 (UN-DESA, 2015, p. 3). Zweitens, ist die Schaffung guter Lebensbedingungen nach den Zielen für nachhaltige Entwicklung (SDG) eine Herausforderung, da mit dem Klimawandel eine Zunahme von Dürrehäufigkeit und -stärke zu erwarten ist. Höhere Niederschlags-variabilität gepaart mit einem starken Anstieg der Durchschnittstemperatur (Niang et al., 2014) werden die heutigen extremen Dürren in Zukunft zur neuen Normalität machen. Diese Probleme erfordern nachhaltige Lösungen, um kurz- und langfristige Anpassungen zu ermöglichen. Transdisziplinäre Forschung ist gefordert, welche die Stärken wissenschaftlicher Disziplinen und Akteure aus Politik und Gesellschaft bündelt, um geeignete Strategien zur Risikominderung zu erarbeiten. Unter dem Dach des Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL) leistet diese Dissertation einen Beitrag zu integrierten Managementansätzen von Dürrerisiken, indem sie die naturräumliche Gefährdung kombiniert mit der gesellschaftlichen Vulnerabilität anhand einer Fallstudie untersucht: dem Cuvelai-Becken. Diese transnationale Region in Namibia und Angola ist regelmäßig Dürren ausgesetzt, wie zuletzt in den Jahren 2012 – 2015 mit Wasser- und Ernährungsunsicherheit für Hunderttausende von Menschen (DDRM, 2013; UN-OCHA, 2012). Naturräumlich erstreckt sich die Region von einem humiden Norden in einen semi-ariden Süden mit entsprechenden Vegetationsverhältnissen. Die Bevölkerung betreibt Subsistenzland-wirtschaft und Viehzucht, wobei Urbanisierungstendenzen und Lebensstiländerungen an Dynamik gewinnen. Die gesellschaftlichen Voraussetzungen sind heterogen: Während Angola bis 2002 Jahrzehnte des Bürgerkriegs erlebte, erfuhr Namibia v.a. nach der Unabhängigkeit 1990 eine kontinuierliche institutionelle und infrastrukturelle Entwicklung. Um die vielschichtigen Auswirkungen von Dürren auf die Lebensgrundlagen zu erfassen, verfolgt diese Dissertation einen interdisziplinären Ansatz im Sinne der Integration von Methoden aus der Physischen- und Humangeographie. Kernfragen darin sind (i) wie sich Dürren auf die Lebensgrundlagen auswirken, (ii) wie sich die naturräumliche Dürregefährdung manifestiert, (iii) welche gesellschaftlichen Gruppen vulnerabel sind und (iv) welche Strategien zur Risikominderung geeignet sind. Dabei entwickelt die Dissertation auf Basis der Theorie gesellschaftlicher Naturverhältnisse einen Leitfaden für eine sozial-ökologische Risikoabschätzung und wendet diesen in der vorliegenden Fallstudie an. Zunächst wurde eine qualitative Forschungsphase durchgeführt, um Systemwissen zu gewinnen, gefolgt von einer quantitativen Analyse von Umweltparametern zur Abschätzung der Dürregefahr sowie sozioökonomischer Variablen für die Abschätzung der Vulnerabilität. Schließlich wurden diese Daten im Household Drought Risk Index (HDRI) zusammengeführt, um Orientierungswissen zu generieren und das Dürrerisiko der Haushalte zu bestimmen. Daraus abgeleitetes Transformationswissen ermöglichte dann die Identifizierung geeigneter Risikominderungsstrategien. Die qualitative Erhebung (n = 26) explorierte die Wirkung von Dürren auf die lokalen Lebensbedingungen. Sie eröffnete Einblicke in die Nutzung von Wasserressourcen und die negativen Auswirkungen von Dürren auf die körperliche/geistige Gesundheit, das Familien-/Gemeinschaftslebens sowie den Lebensunterhalts. Bewältigungsmechanismen konnten auf mehreren Ebenen identifiziert werden, vom Haushalt (z.B. Verkauf landwirtschaftlicher Produkte) über die Gemeinde (z.B. Nachbarschaftshilfe) bis hin zur staatlichen Ebene (z.B. Dürrehilfe). Als kritische Wirkpunkte für Dürren wurden Nutzungsmuster von Wasser- und Nahrungsmitteln identifiziert, die einen Haushalt mehr oder weniger anfällig machen. Die interne Kapitalausstattung (Humanes, Soziales, Finanzielles, Physisches und Natürliches) und die infrastrukturelle und institutionelle Ausstattung eines Gebiets bestimmen weiterhin die Fähigkeit eines Haushalts, mit der Dürregefahr umzugehen. Diese Erkenntnisse ermöglichten die Konstruktion des HDRI Indikators, der in den Folgephasen mit entsprechenden Daten bestückt wurde. Zur Erfassung der Dürregefahr wurden drei Dürreindikatoren im Blended Drought Index (BDI) zusammengefasst. Dieser integrierte Dürreindikator berücksichtigt meteorologische und landwirtschaftliche Merkmale, die die Ernährungs- und Wassersicherheit der Bevölkerung beeinträchtigen. Der BDI verwendet eine Copula-Funktion, um gängige Dürreindikatoren zu kombinieren, die auf Niederschlag, Evapotranspiration, Bodenfeuchte und Vegetation zurückgreifen. Fernerkundungsprodukte wurden verarbeitet, um Häufigkeit, Stärke und Dauer der Dürren zu analysieren. Dabei wurden verschiedene Niederschlagsprodukte einer Unsicherheitsanalyse unterzogen, um jenes Produkt zu identifizieren, das am besten mit lokal gemessenen Stationsdaten korrespondiert. Die resultierende, integrierte Dürregefahrenkarte zeigt den Norden der Etosha-Pfanne und das Gebiet entlang des Kunene-Flusses als am stärksten von Dürren bedroht an. Zeitlich korreliert der BDI gut mit den Daten des Hirseertrages (r = 0,51) und dem lokalen Wasserverbrauch (r = -0,45) und übertrifft dabei konventionelle Indikatoren. Die Vulnerabilität wurde anhand von sozioökonomischen Daten aus einer Haushalts-befragung (n = 461) erfasst. Die Nutzungsmuster zeigen einen statistisch signifikanten Schwenk von kritischen Wasser- und Nahrungsquellen (z.B. Brunnen, Subsistenz-produkte) hin zu verlässlichen Quellen (z.B. Leitungswasser, Märkte) während der Trockenzeit. Haushalte mit einer starken Abhängigkeit von kritischen Quellen sind besonders sensitiv gegenüber Dürren. Die Kapitalausstattung der Haushalte variiert v.a. zwischen Land und Stadt sowie zwischen Namibia und Angola. Dabei treten Human- und Finanzkapital gemeinsam mit der infrastrukturellen und institutionellen Raumausstattung als wichtige Kontrollvariablen hervor. Die HDRI Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die angolanische Bevölkerung ein höheres Risiko aufweist, was v.a. durch weniger entwickelte Infrastruktursysteme, schwächere institutionelle- und geringere Bewältigungskapazitäten verursacht wird. Insgesamt gehen Stadtbewohner weniger dürresensitiven Nutzungsmustern nach, sind aber aufgrund familiärer Beziehungen weiterhin mit den ländlichen Gebieten verbunden. Die integrierte, räumliche Risikoabschätzung zeigt Gebiete in Angola und Namibia die sowohl dürregefährdet als auch vulnerabel sind. Die Ergebnisse erlauben zentrale Empfehlungen für Politik und Wissenschaft: Erstens sollte die Dürrebeobachtung im Cuvelai-Becken ein breiteres Spektrum von Indikatoren berücksichtigen und zusätzlich die Verwundbarkeit der Bevölkerung einbeziehen. Dies ermöglicht die Entwicklung von integrierten Dürreinformationssystemen. Zweitens, zur Verringerung der Sensitivität der Bevölkerung müssen lokale Wasserspeicher durch eine verbesserte Wassernutzungseffizienz erhöht werden. Dies gilt sowohl für blaues als auch grünes Wasser. Wassersparende Bewässerungssysteme in Kombination mit dezentralen Regen- und Flutwasserspeichern sind vielversprechende Möglichkeiten. Darüber hinaus müssen zentrale Infrastrukturen der Wasserversorgung und der Marktsysteme ausgebaut werden. Drittens, ist der Zusammenhalt der lokalen Gemeinschaften ein wichtiges institutionelles Rückgrat zur Bewältigung von Dürren und zur Anpassung an künftige Veränderungen. Anstrengungen zur Entwicklung des ländlichen Raums sind erforderlich, die über technische Interventionen hinausgehen und Gemeinschaften durch kollektive Maßnahmen und Ausbildung sowohl in der Wasserwirtschaft als auch der Landwirtschaft unterstützen und so die Lebensgrundlagen von den Niederschlägen entkoppeln.

Der Anbau von Gemüse in urbanen Gebieten stellt eine nachhaltige Strategie zur Nahrungsmittelsicherheit dar. Obwohl Gemüseanbau oft als Überlebensstrategie armer Bevölkerungsgruppen betrachtet wird, praktizieren ihn städtische Bewohner aller Einkommensschichten. Angesichts wachsender Bevölkerungszahlen in den Städten und steigender Armut wird der Anbau von Nahrungsmitteln zu einem entscheidenden Faktor der Existenzgrundlage, auch wenn er in vielen Entwicklungsländern – so auch in Ghana – offiziell untersagt ist. Im städtischen Großraum Tamale, im Norden Ghanas, wird Gemüseanbau durch Landknappheit, unklare Besitzverhältnisse und Wassermangel beeinträchtigt. Farmer weichen deshalb auf Flächen entlang temporärer Bachläufe, Abwasserkanäle, Erdlöcher, Brunnen, kaputter Abflussrohre und Rückhaltebecken aus. Urbanisierung und steigende Marktwerte für Land sowie unregulierte Grundstücksmärkte haben zu einem Anstieg an Landverkäufen in urbanen und peri-urbanen Gebieten geführt. Dabei konkurriert urbane Landwirtschaft mit anderen – ökonomisch gewinnträchtigeren – Formen der Landnutzung, wie beispielsweise der Industrie und des Wohnungsbaus. Für die Farmer besteht das größte Problem des rasanten urbanen Wachstums in den sich verändernden Landnutzungsmustern. Diese haben nicht nur zu einer Verringerung primärer Ackerflächen geführt, sondern auch zu geringerer landwirtschaftlicher Produktivität, einem niedrigen Lebensstandard und Nahrungsmittelunsicherheit. Die Situation im städtischen Großraum Tamale und den umliegenden Gebieten bildet diese Veränderungen besonders eindrücklich ab. Die vorliegende Arbeit analysiert die sozio-politische Konfiguration, die Ressourcenflüsse in Aktivitäten der urbanen Landwirtschaft, verstanden als Produktion und Vermarktung landwirtschaftlicher und gartenbaulicher Produkte, kanalisiert. Sie untersucht, wie die Farmer diesen Prozess durch verschiedene Governance-Systeme in ihren jeweiligen sozio-ökonomischen Umgebungen bewältigen und es notwendig machen, verschiedene Technologien in unterschiedlichem Maße zu bewerten und einzusetzen. Nach einer allgemeinen Stichprobenumfrage in Kombination mit einem Participatory-Appraisal-Ansatz zur Feststellung der spezifischen Eigenschaften des urbanen und peri-urbanen landwirtschaftlichen Systems, habe ich ein Mixed-Method-Design für meine Studie angewandt. Mit Hilfe des Global Positioning Systems (GPS) erfasste ich quantitative räumliche Daten aller freistehenden Anbauflächen. Mit einer unbemannten Drohne wurde eine Luftbildvermessung durchgeführt und mit der ArcGIS Software kartiert. Zusätzlich habe ich Google Earth-Aufnahmen mit Erinnerungen von Farmern trianguliert. Qualitative Daten erhob ich durch Gruppendiskussionen, mit Hilfe teilnehmender Fotografie, in Interviews und durch teilnehmende Beobachtung. Die Forschung fand zwischen Oktober 2013 und Februar 2015 statt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich die landwirtschaftlich genutzte Fläche in Tamale und Umgebung zwischen 2008 und 2014 trotz gleichzeitiger Entstehung neuer Gemüsefelder an den Stadträndern um 8,3 % verringerte. Obwohl die landwirtschaftlichen Flächen weniger werden, ist Gemüseanbau kein temporäres Phänomen. Der Gemüseanbau hat eine außergewöhnliche Resistenz gegen verschiedene Widerstände bewiesen und ohne externe Initiative oder Unterstützung eine Nische eingenommen. Er profitiert dabei von seiner Nähe zum Markt, der hohen Nachfrage nach schnell verderblichen Produkten und den fehlenden Möglichkeiten, Waren gekühlt zu transportieren. Obwohl Farmer immer wieder ihren Standort wechseln, sind andere Freiflächen – oftmals diejenigen, die als Bauland ungeeignet sind – das gesamte letzte Jahrhundert hindurch landwirtschaftlich genutzt worden. Die Studie zeigt, dass Konflikte zwischen traditionellen- und Regierungsinstitutionen um Landbesitz und -management die Nahrungsmittelsicherheit nicht nur gefährden, sondern gleichzeitig auch zu innovativen städtischen Versorgungsstrukturen führen. Im Zusammenspiel aus freundschaftlichen Beziehungen und Netzwerken zwischen Farmern und anderen Akteuren sind innovative Strategien hervorgegangen. Beispielsweise werden Überflutungsgebiete oder öffentliche Grünanlagen kultiviert, die weder von Chiefs verkauft noch von der Regierung bebaut werden können. Auch erschließen sich die Akteure den Kontakt zu Nichtregierungsorganisationen, die in der urbanen Landwirtschaft eine Überlebensstrategie und eine zukunftsfähige Alternative zur Herstellung von Nahrungsmittelsicherheit sehen und die Gemüsegärtner folglich unterstützen. Komplexe sozio-politische Realitäten wie der Mangel an verlässlichen legalen Rahmenbedingungen für städtischen Anbau führen durch unterschiedliche Landmanagementsysteme zu Konflikten zwischen "traditionellen" und staatlichen Institutionen. Akteure in diesen Konflikten sind Chieftaincy-Institutionen, die Landkommission, das Administrative Office of Stool Lands, sowie die Stadt- und Landschaftsplanungsbehörde. In ihrem Zusammenspiel kreieren diese Institutionen Räume, in denen Ressourcenzugang und –kontrolle in Form historischer Zugänge, öffentlicher Diskurse und Technologien immer wieder neu geformt werden. Zum Beispiel instrumentalisieren Farmer historische Erzählungen oder eignen sich Entwicklungsdiskurse an, um Landzugang einzufordern. Chiefs hingegen schöpfen ihre Autorität aus öffentlichen Diskursen, die sie als gewohnheitsmäßige Landeigentümer legitimieren. Sie beziehen sich darüber hinaus auf die Verfassung aus dem Jahr 1992, die Chiefs mit Machtressourcen ausstattet, indem sie ihnen erlaubt, Landfragen direkt zu klären sowie enteignetes Land an die Besitzer zurückzugeben, sofern die Regierung es nicht mehr benötigt. Um ihre Ansprüche auf Land geltend zu machen, errichten Farmer hingegen Umzäunungen, entfernen territoriale Markierungspfosten und zapfen Wasserleitungen an. Nichtregierungsorganisationen unterstützen die Farmer, indem sie ihnen Zugang zu Technologien wie solarbetriebene Bewässerung, Treibhäuser und verbessertes Saatgut ermöglichen. Der Zugang von Frauen zu landwirtschaftlich nutzbarem Land in einer mehrheitlich männlichen dominierten Produktionsweise wird erschwert durch eine permanente Rekonstruktion von Tradition, die eine männliche Herrschaft in Landangelegenheiten reklamiert. Dennoch verfügen Frauen über eine Vielzahl flexibler Strategien, um sich trotz Knappheit Zugang zu Land zu verschaffen und ihrer Rolle in der Versorgung des Haushalts nachzukommen. An Bewässerungsstandorten, die von Regierungsbehörden kontrolliert und verwaltet werden, wurden Bewirtschaftungspraktiken zur Unterstützung von Frauen eingeführt, die es den Frauen ermöglichen, direkten Landzugang zu erhalten, anstatt wie gewohnheitsrechtlich Zugang zu Land ausschließlich über ihre Ehemänner zu erhalten. Hierdurch ergaben sich Veränderungen in den Besitzverhältnissen der Frauen gegenüber Land. Landbesitz von Frauen in der Umgebung von Bewässerungsstandorten stellt ein bislang ungeschildertes Phänomen in der Literatur über Gender und Ressourcenzugang in Ghana und in Afrika im Allgemeinen dar. Die theoretischen Implikationen der Studie beziehen sich auf die Erkenntnis, dass Farmer Akteure sind, die überlegte Entscheidungen zwischen unterschiedlichen ihnen zur Verfügung stehenden Governance-Systemen treffen, um ihre Interessen bestmöglich durchzusetzen. Indem sie beispielsweise innerhalb ihres Netzwerks aus diversen Unterstützern wie Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Chiefs und Regierungsbehören manövrieren, verhandeln sie effektiv den Zugang zu und die Kontrolle über Ressourcen. Auch nutzen Farmer diverse Foren wie zum Beispiel Versammlungen und Gerichtsverhandlungen, um ihre Ansprüche durchzusetzen und zu rechtfertigen und um bestehende Governance-Stukturen zu hinterfragen. Sie ignorieren administrative Vorgaben oder umgehen sie, um wiederum diejenigen Governance-Systeme zu stabilisieren, mit denen sie sich verbündet haben. Im Prozess des Entscheidens für ein bestimmtes Governance-System und damit gegen ein anderes, entsteht ein neues Governance-System. In einigen Fällen werden mehrere Governance-Systeme miteinander verknüpft, so dass neue, an die Interessen des jeweiligen Akteurs angepasste hybride Systeme entstehen. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen, dass Interaktionen zwischen Akteuren nicht nur Szenarien von Kooperation und Konflikt darstellen, sondern darüber hinaus auch Prozesse der gegenseitigen Gestaltung und der Ko-Konstruktion von Governance-Systemen sind. Diese spielen eine entscheidende Rolle dafür, wie Gender, Landknappheit und Nahrungsmittelsicherheit mit dem Zugang zu und der Kontrolle von Ressourcen in urbanen und peri-urbanen Gebieten interagieren. Die auf Grundlage dieser Ergebnisse formulierte Empfehlung lautet, dass Stadtplanungspolitiken das Phänomen der urbanen Landwirtschaft integrieren müssen, wenn städtische Armut verringert und Nahrungsmittelsicherheit gewährleistet werden soll. Überflutungsgebiete oder Grünflächen sollten Farmern legal und transparent im Hinblick auf die Zuteilungsmechanismen zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Neue Formen von städtischer Landwirtschaft wie Gemüseanbau in Säcken oder andere innovative Methoden, die der sozialen Realität der Stadtbewohner angepasst sind, sollten eingeführt und die Kapazitäten der Farmer gestärkt werden, sich diese anzueignen. Schlagwörter: Gemüseproduktion, Technologie, Ressourcen, Beziehungen, Legitimität, Zugang, Governance ; Vegetable farming in Ghana`s urban areas is mostly a sustainable livelihood strategy. Alt-hough it is considered a means of survival for the poor, vegetable farming is practiced by urban dwellers across the income spectrum. As poverty and urban population increase, so is the need to supplement income with privately cultivated foodstuff. In Ghana's Northern Regional capital of Tamale, vegetable farming is constrained by a number of factors including land availability, land tenure security, and access to water. As a result, many vegetable farmers have resorted to cultivating lands along streams and canals, dugouts, wells, broken sewers, and reservoirs. The scarcity of land for vegetable farming in the urban and peri-urban areas of Ghana is as the result of competition. Farming competes with other land use forms such as industry and housing, both of which attract higher economic rents. The most serious threat to farmers posed by urbanization is the changing land use pattern. Changes in land use have resulted in less availability of prime agricultural land for farming which has lowered agricultural production, food security, and standard of living. Such is the situation in the Tamale metropolitan area and its surroundings in Ghana's Northern Region. This study analyzes the socio-political process by which resource flows are directed towards the production and selling of vegetables in Ghana`s urban areas. It examines how this process is managed by farmers through different governance systems in diverse socio-economic environments which prompt them to value the different technologies differently. I employed a mixed-method approach for this study after a general random sampled survey, and a participatory appraisal was conducted to characterize the urban and peri-urban agricultural system. I collected quantitative spatial data by measuring all open space cultivated areas with a Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Aerial maps were obtained with an Un-manned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and mapped with ArcGIS software. Images from Google Earth maps triangulated farmers' recollection. Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussions, participatory photography, interviews and participant observation. This study was carried out between October 2013 and February 2015. Results reveal that the area of cultivated farmlands has decreased by 8.3% between 2008 and 2014, even as new vegetable sites emerged in the peri-urban fringes. Even though these farming areas are reducing, vegetable farming is not a temporary phenomenon. It has shown a remarkable resistance against various constraints and maintains a niche without external initiative or support as it takes advantage of market proximity, the high demand for perishable cash crops and the typical lack of refrigerated transport. Although farmers change their location over time, other open areas - usually those unsuited for construction - have been under continuous cropping for the past century. This study found that conflict between traditional and government institutions over land ownership and management has inadvertently led to innovative provisioning in vegetable production in the city, even though it has simultaneously threatened its contribution to food and nutritional security. Innovative strategies for continual vegetable production have emerged as a result of cordial relationships and networks that have developed between farmers and other actors. For example, farmers cultivate public green zones and floodplains which cannot legally be sold by chiefs nor used to construct government buildings. Farmers are also building alliances with Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) that see urban agriculture as a viable activity and survival strategy for urban and peri-urban dwellers to maintain agricultural activity. Furthermore, the lack of a legal framework for urban farming in the Tamale area has led to conflicts between traditional and state institutions with implications for land tenure management systems. The conflict is often between the various chieftaincy institutions, the Lands Commission, the Administrative Office of Stool Lands, and the Town and Country Planning Department. Claim to land and other resources is made through historical recollections, public discourses, and technology. For example, farmers use stories from past events to legitimise their claims over land or restructure development discourses while chiefs rely on public discussions and discourses which support their rights as customary landowners to lay claim to lands. Chiefs also make use of the statutory laws and the 1992 Constitution which empowers the chieftaincy institution and puts within its jurisdiction lands not claimed by the government. To circumvent boundaries created by chiefs and others, farmers employ technologies such as fencing and pipe-borne water connections systems. Their efforts are supplemented by non-governmental organizations who furnish them with equipment such as solar-powered irrigation facilities, greenhouses, and improved seeds in order to boost their production. Moreover, women's access to farmland has always been hampered by the reconstruction of traditions that support male dominance in land affairs. However, some recent policy developments have renegotiated the condition of access to farmlands in favour of women. For instance, the introduction of gender-sensitive agricultural practices on government irrigation sites has resulted in the allocation of plots of land directly to women as opposed to through their male relatives as it was previously done. This has revolutionised the traditional gender roles in agriculture and has empowered women through primary land ownership. Women's ownership of land on irrigation sites is a novel finding that contributes to the broader literature on gender and resource access in Ghana and Africa. The theoretical implication of this study is that farmers' choice of, or relationship to, various local, national, and international actors is not foreordained but is instead based, to a large extent, on pragmatism. For example, by shifting alliances between non-governmental organisations and the government or supreme chiefs, they facilitate cooperation and possible negotiation for access and control over resources in their interests. Farmers also use multiple forums like meetings and courts to be able to gain legitimacy and challenge existing governance systems. Actors sometimes ignore or employ distinct strands of governance or undermine them to achieve their aims. These challenges are often used to gain legitimacy for the governance systems they are allied with. In the process of choosing one governance system over another, a new governance system comes into being. In other cases, combinations of different governance systems are forced to construct new hybrid systems tailored to an actor's interest. To conclude, the interplay between the various actors (farmers, traditional chiefs, government and non-governmental agencies) is not always a simple case of cooperation or conflict. Instead, it is a malleable process of mutual reshaping and co-construction of the governance systems which reconfigure gender roles, improve access to scarce lands, and increase food security. It is my strong recommendation that urban planning policy makers integrate agriculture into the larger discourse about poverty reduction and the alleviation of food insecurity. Green zones and flood-prone government lands in the urban areas which are currently been wasted should be allocated to farmers for food cultivation. This, however, must come with clearly defined mandates and guidelines that err on the side of transparency in land allocation and ownership. Innovative methods such as the farming of vegetables in sacks and other locally suitable means of maximizing production should be introduced alongside the strengthening of farmers' capacity to adopt those means.