Suchergebnisse

The mutual recognition between Israel and the PLO in 1993 signalled a major shift in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. This study examines, both theoretically and empirically, the basic question of how meaning of conflict may change and how conflict may be resolved. The broad aims are: first, to analyse and empirically improve knowledge of the transitional processes from conflicting interaction to cooperation in the Israeli-Palestinian case; and second, to develop conflict research by advancing theoretical ideas concerning these processes. Three analytical concepts constitute the core of the research problem: (i) meaning, (ii) reframing and (iii) resolving. These concepts are advanced throughout this study by an adaptive interplay between theoretical concepts and empirical analysis. The meaning of conflict highlights the dominant frames of political actors and the international and domestic normative and behavioural structures of conflict. The reframing of conflict is linked to negotiation by an emphasis on such concepts as turning point, motivation, opportunity and focal point. The resolving of conflict, which is the subject of the most extensive part of the study, focuses on frame, strategy, structural characteristics, and processes of negotiation. Drawing theoretical insights from constructivism, conflict research, negotiation theory and social psychology, the author advances a dynamic theoretical model, using an agent-structure approach. The single-case study of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict covers a period of eleven years, 1988-98. The author presents an in-depth analysis of the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations during this period, which constitutes one of the first major studies to cover the entire interim period. The empirical analysis centres on the implications of the intifada for the level of agent and structure, and the behavioural turning point, constituted by the 1991 Madrid Conference. The official negotiation process from 1991 to 1998 is then analysed and categorised in three phases: public diplomacy, two-track diplomacy, and trilateral diplomacy. The negotiation process was characterised by an oscillation between competitive and problem-solving frames of negotiation, a diversity of mediation and negotiation strategies, major structural restraints emanating from the domestic arenas, and various obstacles to communication. These phases of negotiation highlight the cyclical, transformative nature of conflict.

This work is the second bibliography on the environment, based on holdings of the University Library, published in the last recent years. The first, entitled, "Environment - a select bibliography," was published in 1992 and compiled by Anita Ragonesi and Joanna Felice. This bibliography was limited to 100 titles from foreign studies. Since then, interest from students and other environmental conscious persons has grown considerably. TI1e concern of the public for environmental matters has increased as shown in the recent outcry against the proposed cement plant. Moreover, several new opportunities for environmental studies have arisen in the University of Malta. Many graduate theses and undergraduate dissertations or long essays have been submitted. One of the authors, Anton Pizzuto is a graduate of one of these new programs. He is currently the Director of the Cleaner Technology Center and Head, Scientific Division of Malta University Services Ltd., focal point on Cleaner Production of the Mediterranean Action Plan. On the other hand, Joanna Felice works as a Reference Librarian at the University Library and she is very much aware of the constant request of this important topical subject. Traditionally, the Melitensia Collection at the University Library was considered by many to hold interest only for readers from the humanities. However, a large number of works suitable for scientists and students of science are also held in this Department. In fact we document over 400 works from the area of local environmental science. Prominent Maltese scientists have written some of these works. For ease of Reference we have decided, after consulting experts in the field, that the bibliography be divided into works from the Reference Department (including encyclopedias, dictionaries, directories, Maltese legislation and legal notices) and Melitensia Department, (including papers, reports, monographs, graduate theses and undergraduate dissertations or long essays). Each holding shows title of work, author, publisher, year of publication and shelfmark. A keyword index and an author index have been included to facilitate the use of this bibliography. We are planning to up-date the bibliography regularly. [Preface by Joanna Felice and Anton Pizzuto] ; N/A

Europe and its security have seen a very rich development in the last few years of the Cold War. In fact, just six years ago we discussed the French idea of creating a European confederation, which unfortunately seems to be part of history. The Balkan crisis then turned into a kind of behavioural test of countries and international organisations, almost immediately. We are witnessing the effectiveness of the Atlantic Alliance and the confirmation of its necessity in the face of the risks of our time. It is also worth recalling the importance of the French commitment in Bosnia: the dispatch of the Rapid Action Force (FAR) units was an action that led President Clinton to deploy US units in Bosnia. In any case, US engagement in Bosnia shows that more NATO can mean more Europe tomorrow. In this article, the author focuses on Czech security policy, in particular in his relations with NATO and in collaboration with the United States. ; International audience ; Europe and its security have seen a very rich development in the last few years of the Cold War. In fact, just six years ago we discussed the French idea of creating a European confederation, which unfortunately seems to be part of history. The Balkan crisis then turned into a kind of behavioural test of countries and international organisations, almost immediately. We are witnessing the effectiveness of the Atlantic Alliance and the confirmation of its necessity in the face of the risks of our time. It is also worth recalling the importance of the French commitment in Bosnia: the dispatch of the Rapid Action Force (FAR) units was an action that led President Clinton to deploy US units in Bosnia. In any case, US engagement in Bosnia shows that more NATO can mean more Europe tomorrow. In this article, the author focuses on Czech security policy, in particular in his relations with NATO and in collaboration with the United States. ; L'Europe et sa sécurité ont connu, en ces quelques années d'après-guerre froide, une évolution très riche en événements. En effet, ...

Using her capital, San Juan de Puerto Rico as its model, the paper describes city and territorial planning in Puerto Rico over the five centuries that separate the 16"C. From the present day, in doing so, taking into account both that Spanish constructive heritage and those North American influences upon the same that have been part and parcel of the country' s social and urban history. The author for this makes use of research done at archives in both in Spain and Puerto Rico as well as of maps of the island's city lay outs hitherto unavailable. With respect to Spanish colonial period, the legislation that had a bearing upon the establishing of those zones that have since become the historical planning framework are closely studied. The author gives an up-dated bibliography of studies in his field and points up matters that he feels warrant further study. That from which much might be learnt along with that which best might serve as a warning as to city and territorial planning both culled from her history are underlined as being together that which could be called the island 's live planning memory ; El artículo reseña cinco siglos de urbanismo puertorriqueño desde el siglo XVI al presente y se enfoca en su capital, San Juan de Puerto Rico. En ese recorrido se examinan la herencia constructiva española y las influencias norteamericanas que han marcado la historia social y urbana del país. El autor se sirve de la investigación en archivos de Puerto Rico y España y de la interpretación de planos inéditos de los espacios urbanos puertorriqueños. Para el período colonial español examina la legislación que influenció la creación de los espacios que hoy son los tejidos históricos. El autor anota la bibliografia reciente sobre el tema y va señalando asuntos que requieren futura investigación. Las buenas lecciones y los malos ejemplos de la historia están plasmados en el territorio nacional como memoria viva de la tradición urbana.

Die Dissertation leistet einen Beitrag zu einem maßgeblichen Diskussionsstrang der Transformationsforschung, der politische, administrative und gesellschaftliche Auswirkungen kultureller Aspekte im Vereinigungs- und Integrationsprozeß Ostdeutschlands analysiert. Am Beispiel Ost-Berliner Bezirksverwaltungen wird der Verlauf ihrer Transformation von einer "real-sozialistischen zur klassisch-(west-)europäischen Verwaltung" (Klaus König) untersucht. Im Mittelpunkt der Arbeit steht die Frage, ob Handlungsorientierungen des Personals, welches in der DDR sozialisiert wurde, den radikalen institutionellen Umbruchsprozeß überdauerten und inwieweit solche "legacies" (Hellmut Wollmann) Unterschiede zu Orientierungen des Personals in der West-Berliner Bezirksverwaltung begründen. Zu diesem Zweck rekonstruiert der Verfasser realtypische Handlungsorientierungen im DDR-Verwaltungsbereich Referat Jugendhilfe (Akten- und Dokumentenanalyse, "oral history"-Interviews) und stellt sie mit Hilfe eines fünfdimensionalen Schemas denen in der Verwaltung westdeutscher Prägung gegenüber. Anschließend werden unter Verwendung von qualitativen und quantitativen Methoden der Einstellungsforschung Orientierungen des Personals in der Sozial- und Jugendverwaltung Ost- und West-Berliner Bezirksverwaltungen vergleichend analysiert. Im resümierenden Fazit entwickelt der Verfasser Hypothesen zu (verwaltungs-)kulturellen Aspekten des Integrationsprozesses Ost-Berliner Bezirksverwaltungen und stellt sie in den Kontext des Verlaufes ostdeutscher Verwaltungstransformation. ; This dissertation contributes to the important theme of discussion, analysing the transformational development of the political, administrative and sociological effects and their impact on cultural aspects, with regards to the reunification and reintegration process in East Germany. East Berlin borough administrative bodies have been used as examples to research the course of their transformation from a "socialist, to a classical (west) European administration" (Klaus König). This work centres around the question of how the personnel coped with the orientation, which in the GDR was socialist, survived the process of radical institutional change, and how far such "legacies" (Hellmut Wollmann) provide reasons for differences in the orientation of the personnel in the boroughs of West Berlin. For this reason, the author has reconstructed the typical GDR-orientations in the field of Youth-Work-Administration (Analysis of files and documents, oral-history interviews), which stand in opposition, with the help of a five dimensional scheme, to the administrative character of West Germany. A comparative analysis follows making use of qualitative and quantitative methods regarding recruitment development orientation of the personnel through a comparison of the Social and Youth-Work administrative bodies of East and West Berlin boroughs. In conclusion, the author develops hypotheses regarding (administrative-) cultural aspects of the integration process of the East Berlin borough administrations, and places these in context with the course of the East German transformation.

Sanz Menéndez, L. (1996).La construcción institucional de la política científica y tecnológica en el franquismo. Redes, 6 (3), 77-123 ; Para comprender la situación actual de la investigación científica y del desarrollo tecnológico en España es un requisito necesario explorar la herencia institucional y organizativa de la posguerra española, resultado de batallas y procesos políticos que se produjeron dentro del régimen franquista. Desde este marco el presente artículo pretende hacer una breve revisión de la historia reciente, de algunos hechos y aspectos de las actividades de investigación científica y el desarrollo técnico en España, pero sobre todo de las acciones del estado con relación a los mismos. Se comienza por la primera manifestación de intenciones del nuevo régimen en relación con la ciencia, plasmada en la constitución del csic, cuya organización y funciones le otorgarán un papel clave en el sistema español de l+D. Luego se aborda la etapa de crecimiento económico y de los planes de desarrollo y el papel que se pretendía otorgar a la investigación y a la tecnología en el desarrollo español. Finalmente, a través de esta descripción se llega hasta el comienzo de la transición a la democracia. ; In order to understand the current situation of scientific research and technological development in Spain, it is necessary to explore the institutional and organizational legacy of the Spanish post-war period, an outcome of battles and political processes that took place during Franco's regime. Within this framework, this article presents a concise revision of recent history, of some facts and aspects of scientific research and technological development in Spain, mainly steps taken by the State with regard to them. The article presents the first evidence of intentions from the new regime toward science in the creation of csic, an organization whose structure and aims give a key role to the Spanish system of R+D. Then the author discusses the stage of economic growth and Plans for Development, and the role that research and technology were to have in the Spanish development. Lastly, through this description, the author reaches the beginnings of the transition period toward democracy.

The author tries to analyse certain key texts in order to elucidate the (concealed) principles that form the basis for the construction of an "Austrian Nation". The semantic analysis shows that the self-image of an historically-rooted Austrian ,,cultural nation" - an image that has primarily been constructed by historians - is closely linked to a process of differentiation from stereotypical representations of the "German nation". This process of differentiation has its origins in the Prussian defeat of Austria in 1866 and the subsequent formation of the German Empire. During that process, the rise of Germany was connected with what were seen as "naturally male" characteristics. The pejorative association of the "Austrian character" with supposedly "female" qualities (a description which was understood to include political passivity and an incapacity for leadership) was then intensified through the use of borrowings made from turn-of-the-century antifeminist theories. Paradoxical as it may seem, most theorists positively identified with this complex of characteristics after 1945. This proved to be politically successful, thanks the fact that it remained tied to the realms fo the imagination. ; The author tries to analyse certain key texts in order to elucidate the (concealed) principles that form the basis for the construction of an "Austrian Nation". The semantic analysis shows that the self-image of an historically-rooted Austrian ,,cultural nation" - an image that has primarily been constructed by historians - is closely linked to a process of differentiation from stereotypical representations of the "German nation". This process of differentiation has its origins in the Prussian defeat of Austria in 1866 and the subsequent formation of the German Empire. During that process, the rise of Germany was connected with what were seen as "naturally male" characteristics. The pejorative association of the "Austrian character" with supposedly "female" qualities (a description which was understood to include political passivity and an incapacity for leadership) was then intensified through the use of borrowings made from turn-of-the-century antifeminist theories. Paradoxical as it may seem, most theorists positively identified with this complex of characteristics after 1945. This proved to be politically successful, thanks the fact that it remained tied to the realms fo the imagination.

This book is written in a polemic style as a follow-up to Ivan Illitch's criticism of the profession in his Medical Nemésis (1975). The objective? Denounce the perversion (or perversity) of the ideals of medicine. Petr Skrabanek, who has recently died, refuses, like his predecessor, that doctors exercise a monopoly on health and individual well-being. The problem would not be to be for or against illness or death, resigned or revolved, but to take the normative measure of modern hygienism, which tends to standardise individual behaviours in a compliant lifestyle. For Skrabanek, the slogan "Health for All" works as an instrument of coercion, driven by political and economic interests. The author, who is a doctor, thus denounces the medical utopia of indefinitely delayed death, the denial of ageing and a new health worship, which has replaced that of religion. ; International audience ; This book is written in a polemic style as a follow-up to Ivan Illitch's criticism of the profession in his Medical Nemésis (1975). The objective? Denounce the perversion (or perversity) of the ideals of medicine. Petr Skrabanek, who has recently died, refuses, like his predecessor, that doctors exercise a monopoly on health and individual well-being. The problem would not be to be for or against illness or death, resigned or revolved, but to take the normative measure of modern hygienism, which tends to standardise individual behaviours in a compliant lifestyle. For Skrabanek, the slogan "Health for All" works as an instrument of coercion, driven by political and economic interests. The author, who is a doctor, thus denounces the medical utopia of indefinitely delayed death, the denial of ageing and a new health worship, which has replaced that of religion. ; Cet ouvrage est rédigé dans un style polémique en s'inscrivant dans le prolongement de la critique de la profession faite par Ivan Illitch dans sa Némésis médicale (1975). L'objectif ? Dénoncer la perversion (ou la perversité) des idéaux de la médecine. Petr Skrabanek, ...

After positioning the topic in a historical framework, sketching the main paradigm in discussion, the article concentrates on three main areas: 1) the challenge of discussing subjectivity within a marxist tradition which is mainly concentrated on the economic sphere; thus linking the possibility to change society to the necessity of changing oneself. 2) the challenge of criticizing Marx' concept of labour and value-theory and thus bringing domestic labour into the heart of marxism, and connecting the problem with the necessity of reorganizing 'work-society' today. 3) the challenge of linking the critique of political economy to patriarchy and thus doubting the usefulness of thinking domination in a one-dimensional way, and offering a new idea on the fundamental part women's oppression plays in capitalist society. The author summarizes the main discussions from the seventies up to now and links them to her own experiences and contributions in this field. As a feminist she transgresses the boundaries of academic disciplines and covers psychology, sociology, economy and politics. ; After positioning the topic in a historical framework, sketching the main paradigm in discussion, the article concentrates on three main areas: 1) the challenge of discussing subjectivity within a marxist tradition which is mainly concentrated on the economic sphere; thus linking the possibility to change society to the necessity of changing oneself. 2) the challenge of criticizing Marx' concept of labour and value-theory and thus bringing domestic labour into the heart of marxism, and connecting the problem with the necessity of reorganizing 'work-society' today. 3) the challenge of linking the critique of political economy to patriarchy and thus doubting the usefulness of thinking domination in a one-dimensional way, and offering a new idea on the fundamental part women's oppression plays in capitalist society. The author summarizes the main discussions from the seventies up to now and links them to her own experiences and contributions in this field. As a feminist she transgresses the boundaries of academic disciplines and covers psychology, sociology, economy and politics.

To date there is no cohesive historical account of the international development of the auxiliary cruiser, and the scattered investigations of various single aspects of this ship category do not add up to a comprehensive survey. These were the circumstances discovered by the author as, upon request of the editor of this publication, he undertook to provide an introduction to the report by Captain Meyer of the only voyage of the "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" as an auxiliary cruiser (see the following article). The first task was thus to gain an overall impression of this history. "Auxiliary cruisers", as defined here, were passenger steamships kept ready for battle by large shipping companies in countries with significant naval power. These ships were technically equipped for the installation of weapons, and their conversion could be carried out within a few days. The auxiliary cruiser was first to put into service by the Russians, who felt threatened by the British Royal Navy after the Russian-Turkish Balkan War. At that time a newly established shipping company, later called the "Russian Voluntary Fleet", bought three steamships from the Hamburg-America Line and had them converted for combat purposes. By the turn of the century, this originally Russian idea had been adopted by all of the world's Iarge navies . This brief study also touches on the various attempt worldwide to incorporate the legal status of the ship type "auxiliary cruiser" into international public and military law. Because of geopolitically based conflicts of interest between the naval powers, these endeavours were only partially successful. ln conclusion the author examines the auxiliary cruiser concept of the Imperial German Navy, whose goal it was to interfere with and impair the enemy's overseas commerce. The express Iiners originally designated for this purpose, however, were for various reasons inconceivably ill-suited to it. As early as 1915 the German Navy proceeded to commission cargo vessels as auxiliary cruisers, as they were inconspicuous and easier to supply. This was then the mode of operation employed by the navy during World War II.

Abstract. This first article on Product Liability in Europe focuses on the implementation of the Council Directive no. 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 and its interpretation. Ten out of twelve Member States have now adopted legislation to implement the Directive. The author gives a survey of the way in which the various countries have made use of the options which the Directive leaves them. He submits that late implementation of the Directive may lead to state liability towards victims of defective products. The author then points to the influence the Directive has. Existing national law in the field of product liability must be interpreted with regard to the Directive. The Directive also transposes other Community texts into liability law. Finally, various non-EC Member States have adopted the Directive, which has also had an impact on some non-European countries. It is unlikely that the Commission will submit proposals for a fundamental revision of the Directive in 1995.
Résumé. Ce premier article sur la responsabilité du fait des produits en Europe met plus spécialement l'accent sur l'étude de la mise en oeuvre de la directive communautaire n° 85/374 adoptée par le Conseil le 25 juillet 1985 et son interprétation. Dix des douze Etats membres ont maintenant adopté des législations spécifiques dans ce but. L'auteur étudie ainsi la façon dont les différents pays ont usé des options que leur laissait le texte. Il soutient en outre qu'une application tardive de son dispositif pourrait entraîner la responsabilité des Etats envers les victimes de produits défectueux. Il relève ensuite l'influence que peut avoir la directive. Les droits nationaux existants doivent d'abord être interprété au regard de ses dispositions. La directive transpose en outre d'autres textes communautaires en droit de la responsabilité. Enfin, divers Etats non membres de la Communauté ont adopté la directive, qui a ainsi eu une influence sur plusieurs pays non européens. Il est donc peu probable que la commission soumette de nouvelles propositions en vue d'une révision fondamentale de la directive en 1995.

The surprising finds at Aldaieta (Alava) and Buzaga (Navarre), that had revealed the presence - in the south of the Pyrenean range- of human comunities of - apparently- a strong military component and with elements of material civilization referring without doubt to a world with north-pirenean influences, have made the author wonder about the credibility of the famous and controversial text -that of Pseudo-Fredegario- which talked about a Cispyrenean enclave that paid taxes to the Merovingians Kings at around the end of the sixth century and/or beginning of the seventh century. A careful examination of the subject makes the author think that, in the light of the mentioned archaeological finds, wich in the said text war more schocking and gaudy bccomes now less incongruent or improbable, and that other set of onomast ical and textual hints, that were before left out due to the lack of hermeneutical references minimally acccptable, becomcs nowadays, in the light of these same finds, of a new intcrpretative dimension. enigmatic and upseting ; Los sorprendentes hallazgos de Aldaieta (Álava) y Buzaga (Navarra), que han revelado la presencia -al Sur de la cadena pirenaica- de comunidades humanas de -al parecer- fuerte componente militar y con elementos de civilización material a referir inequívocamente a un mundo de influencias norpirenaico (del área aquitano-novempopulana, más concretamente), han hecho que el autor vuelva a preguntarse sobre la credibilidad de un célebre y discutido texto - el del Pseudo-Fredegario-, que hablaba de un enclave cispirenaico que pagaba tributos a los reyes francos allá por los finales del siglo VI y/o comienzos del VII. Un detenido examen de la cuestión lleva al autor a pensar que, a la luz de los referidos hallazgos de orden arqueológico, lo que en dicho pasaje resultaba de más chocante y llamativo se vuelve ahora menos incongruente o inverosímil, y que otra serie de indicios de naturaleza textual y onomástica, que antes venían siendo preteridos a falta de referentes hermenéuticos mínimamente aceptables, cobran hoy, a la luz de esos mismos hallazgos, una nueva dimensión interpretativa, enigmática y turbadora.

En este artículo el autor explica la manera como la política nacional interfiere en los aspectos urbanos de la política local, y enfatiza sobre la necesidad del intervencionismo estatal en materia de política urbana. La urbanización profundiza la división del trabajo, amplía el mercado y aumenta las ventajas de una mayor especialización, razón por la cual existe una correlación directa entre urbanización y alto ingreso per cápita. No obstante, Currie pone en duda el beneficio de las economías de escala brindadas par el crecimiento urbano en ausencia de políticas de planificación si bien, señala el autor, el crecimiento económico tiende a ser autoperpetuante, esta tendencia puede ser acelerada o retardada por las políticas. La numerosas e importantes economías de escala deben ser confrontadas con las deseconomías y los costos sociales que implica la centralización. Una planificación encaminada al diseño de "ciudades dentro de las ciudades" puede contribuir simultáneamente a los objetivos de acelerar el crecimiento y procurar, a la vez, un hábitat agradable para la población urbana. ; In this article the author explains how national policies interfer in the urban aspects of local policies, and emphasizes the need for government intervention in urban policies. Urbanization deepens the division of labor, widens the market, and increases the advantages of greater specialization. For these reasons, there is a direct correlation between urbanization and a high income per capita Nevertheless, Currie expresses doubt about the benefits of economies of scale offered by urban growth in the absence of planning po1icies. The author points out that although economic growth tends to be se1f·perpetuating, this tendency can be accelerated or slowed down by these policies , The numerous and important economies of scale should be confronted with the diseconomies and the social costs which are implied by centralization. Planning which is directed to the design of "cities within cities" can contribute simultaneous1y to the goals of accelerating growth and obtaining, at the same time, a pleasant habitat for the urban population.

summary One form of the 'responsibility system' recently introduced in the Chinese countryside grants households on a contractual basis the right to the use of land or other means of production owned by the production team in return for the obligation to deliver a certain amount of produce to the state. On the basis of the analysis of essays written by Chinese sociology students attending a course conducted by the author in China, the author finds that peasant responses to these new policies, together with certain characteristics of the Chinese socialist state, may well jeopardise the long‐term goal of voluntary recollectivisation.Resumen Producción familiar socialista: implicaciones del nuevo sistema de responsabilidades dentro de la República Popular ChinaUna variedad del 'sistema de responsabilidad' recientemente incorporada al campo chino, concede a la familia el derecho a usar, en base contractual, la tierra y otros medios de producción propiedad del equipo de producción, a cambio de la obligacion de entregar cierta cantidad del producto al estado. Basándose en el análisis de los ensayos escritos por estudiantes chinos de sociologia asistentes a un curso celebrado en China bajo la dirección de la autora, ésta observa que las reacciones de los campesinos ante estas nuevas politicas, junto con ciertas caracteristicas del estado socialista chino, pueden muy bien derrumbar la meta a largo plazo del recolectivismo voluntario.Résumé La production familiale socialiste: quelques implications de la nouvelle responsabilité. Système de la République Populaire de ChineUne forme du 'système de responsabilité' récemment introduit dans la campagne chinoise accorde aux familles, sur une base contractuelle, le droit d'utiliser la terre ou d'autres moyens de production que possède l'équipe de production, en retour d'une obligation à livrer une certaine quantité de produits à l'état. Sur la base de l'analyse de essais écrits par les étudiants sociologues chinois assistant à un cours dirigé par l'auteur en Chine, ce‐dernier trouve que les réponses des paysans à ces nouvelles politiques, en même temps que certaines caractéristiques de l'état socialiste chinois, risquent de mettre en danger le but à long‐terme de la recollectivisation bénévole.

It has been said of Alexis de Tocqueville that he is the most frequently quoted and least read author of all, rivaling and surpassing even William Shakespeare for this dubious honor. Virtually every American social scientist who as much as pays lip service to tradition manages to quote Tocqueville at least once. But this deference is to the author of Democracy in America, not of The Old Regime and the Revolution, for the latter book is, with the exception of one passage, neither read nor quoted. The Old Regime is neglected today because it is a political history, and today political history is not appreciated. What is "political history"?Tocqueville's "political history" belongs to a genre of which he considered Montesquieu's "Sur la grandeur et la decadence des Romains" to be the finest example. Tocqueville thought that the nature and habits of his intellect suited him to evaluating modern societies and foreseeing their probable futures, but at the same time he believed he could do this most effectively in historical studies. While flatly denying that one can learn lessons from history in any simple sense, he did nonetheless hold that from an examination of historical particulars one can grasp the universal principles of social existence. His intention in writing The Old Regime was to enable his reader to achieve this same grasp. He, like Montesquieu, would not merely recount facts, but make known their causes and consequences and judge them. He would have to choose his facts well, so that they supported his theses. He would have to present them without making "the character of the work … visible" in the hope that "the reader would be conducted naturally from one reflection to another by the interest of the narrative." Thus what I have called political history is understood by Tocqueville to be a selective, but not necessarily incorrect, use of the facts of history for the purposes of shedding light on the present and of teaching others to see and judge the present for themselves. Given Tocqueville's stated intention, we cannot read his work as either scientific history or political polemic.