Search results

Affrontare la questione dell'antimperialismo in José Martí risulta particolarmente impegnativo sia per l'ampiezza e la multiformità dell'opera dell'eroe nazionale cubano, attraversata da questo tema in tutte le sue declinazioni, sia per la mole di studi che da più di un secolo hanno cercato di approfondirla, prendendola in considerazione da molte angolazioni diverse. Attorno al progetto di integrazione dei popoli dell'America latina come unico modo per affrontare l'incipiente imperialismo nordamericano, intuito da Martí nelle sue basi socio-economiche, ruota un intreccio di implicazioni politiche, filosofiche, culturali, artistiche. La dialettica costante tra esperienza e capacità di rielaborazione creativa sotto il profilo artistico e filosofico, che ha sempre trovato la sintesi sul piano dell'azione, rende l'opera multiforme di Martí un unico "sistema", alla cui costruzione permanente concorrono una molteplicità di trame e di percorsi, affidati a linguaggi diversi, dalla poesia all'articolo di giornale, dalla lettera al racconto per l'infanzia, dal teatro al romanzo. Accanto a studiosi, come il cubano Roberto Fernández Retamar, che hanno proposto una chiave di lettura complessiva dell'antimperialismo martiano, ve ne sono moltissimi altri che hanno affrontato il tema a partire dallo studio di specifici aspetti del pensiero e dell'opera di Martí, guardando ad esso da prospettive diverse, dalla critica letteraria, alla storia, all'antropologia, e contribuendo ad arricchirne la comprensione sempre più profonda. Purtroppo, se in America Latina e in primo luogo, ovviamente, a Cuba, gli studi martiani continuano ad essere fiorenti, e, in concomitanza con i processi di integrazione continentale in atto da circa quindici anni, vivono una fase di particolare fermento, altrettanto non si può dire dell'Europa, dove Martí è ancora poco conosciuto. Questo lavoro si propone di individuare e approfondire alcuni filoni tematici, seguendone il dipanarsi all'interno dell'opera martiana, con l'obiettivo di approssimarsi ad una visione di insieme della dimensione antimperialista del pensiero e dell'opera martiani, permettendo di indagarne la complessità attraverso l'analisi di alcuni testichiave, e di stabilire relazioni all'interno della sua produzione. Nel primo capitolo, ripercorrendo brevemente la traiettoria della vita e dell'azione di Martí, dalle cospirazioni giovanili alla fondazione e alla guida del Partito Rivoluzionario Cubano, strumento della guerra di liberazione, si metteranno in evidenza le tappe principali della presa di coscienza della sottomissione a cui andava assoggettandosi l'America latina ad opera della crescente potenza nordamericana, e della necessità di concepire la lotta di liberazione di Cuba dal dominio spagnolo all'interno di un progetto di integrazione continentale. Nel secondo capitolo verrà analizzata l'esperienza di Martí in Messico, Guatemala e Venezuela, mettendo in risalto il percorso che porterà il cubano a quella che Fernández Retamar, nel suo saggio Martí en (su) Tercer Mundo, ha chiamato «la rivelazione della "nostra America"»: nei tre paesi latinoamericani, Martí si inserisce nella vita politica e culturale, e assume progressivamente la coscienza della profonda unità del continente, che chiamerà "nostra America", e della necessità che il progetto di liberazione ed integrazione latinoamericana segua percorsi politicamente e culturalmente autonomi rispetto ai modelli delle metropoli coloniali. Si farà riferimento in particolare al lavoro portato avanti da Martí prima con il tentativo di pubblicazione della "Revista Guatemalteca" e poi con i due numeri della "Revista Venezuelana", per poi gettare uno sguardo alla visione martiana dei grandi uomini della "nostra America", degli "eroi" latinoamericani, prendendo in considerazione la relazione di Martí con la figura del Libertador Simon Bolívar. Il terzo capitolo è dedicato alle Escenas nortemericanas, il corpus degli articoli scritti da Martí durante il suo soggiorno di quindici anni negli Stati Uniti. L'esilio gli permise di conoscere a fondo l' "altra" America, quella a nord del Messico, caratterizzata dall'ascesa di un nuovo, feroce modello di sviluppo economico e culturale, che iniziava a rivelare in quegli anni le proprie ambizioni imperialiste verso l'America latina. Martí entra nel marchingegno del nascente imperialismo, cogliendone i fondamenti socio-economici e culturali, e il sostrato di sfruttamento e sottomissione, e descrivendolo nel caleidoscopio delle sue cronache, destinate a pubblicazioni giornalistiche di vari paesi latinoamericani e determinante terreno di sperimentazione per un profondo rinnovamento della lingua. Martí raggiunge una comprensione profonda dei caratteri della modernità nordamericana, da un lato fonte di stupore e di apprezzamento, dall'altro vista, nei suoi risvolti "mostruosi", come inadatta ad essere importata in America latina, oltre che come una delle cause stesse del permanere di quest'ultima in una condizione di arretratezza e sottosviluppo. Preso in esame il percorso che porta il cubano a cogliere le dinamiche dell'imperialismo statunitense, si analizzeranno alcune cronache che rivelano la visione martiana della modernità, e alcuni ritratti martiani di nordamericani, figure eminenti della politica e dell'arte contemporanee, attraverso i quali è possibile cogliere una strategia educativa rivolta ai lettori latinoamericani, attraverso la presentazione di modelli e antimodelli di comportamento: al centro delle cronache si colloca l'esigenza di mettere in guardia da un'adesione acritica a modelli alieni dalle specificità della "nostra America", e di denunciare il pericolo mortale costituito dall'imperialismo. Infine si prenderanno in considerazione, analizzando alcune cronache che raccontano gli scioperi operai e le proteste anarchiche del maggio 1886 a Chicago, le idee di Martí rispetto ai problemi sociali e al ruolo delle classi lavoratrici; le esperienze e le riflessioni elaborate negli Stati Uniti saranno determinanti al momento di gettare, pochi anni dopo, le basi teoriche e organizzative della guerra di liberazione, quando Martí riconoscerà negli operai e nei lavoratori i soggetti principali che avrebbero potuto condurre, in nome dei valori del lavoro e della giustizia sociale, la battaglia antimperialista. Negli anni trascorsi in America latina Martí ha individuato nel mestizaje, ovvero nel confluire di europei, indios, afroamericani nella costruzione dell'identità latinoamericana, il tratto distintivo di quella che ha chiamato "nostra America"; nel quarto capitolo si proverà ad approfondire questa concezione, rispondendo ad alcune domande, che chiamano in causa aspetti fondamentali dell'antimperialismo martiano. Qual è la visione martiana della storia dell'America latina? Quale posto occupano gli indios discendenti delle grandi civiltà precolombiane nel progetto di integrazione latinoamericana? Si ricostruirà, attraverso una selezione di testi, la concezione martiana della Storia del continente, e i tratti del suo pensiero indigenista, che risulta caratterizzato in senso antimperialista, distinguendosi nettamente dalla visione della componente indigena dell'America latina propria, ad esempio, del contemporaneo Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. Si vedrà come gli indios rappresentassero per Martí una delle componenti che concorrono alla definizione identitaria del continente, portatori di valori e forme di pensiero con cui ogni latinoamericano è chiamato a confrontarsi: ogni forma di razzismo nei loro confronti è rigettato. Martí immaginava l'America latina futura non come mera risultante di una coesione politica, ma come spazio nel quale si sarebbe realizzata pienamente l'identità "mestiza". In altre parole, riconosceva nitidamente che era la cultura il terreno dove si doveva giocare la partita politica. L'attenzione rivolta alla cultura come arma dei popoli oppressi da un sistema non ancora definito "imperialismo" ma del quale aveva colto di fatto i nodi più profondi, si traduce in Martí in una costante preoccupazione per la questione della formazione dell'uomo. Si vedrà come nella raccolta di racconti per bambini intitolata La Edad de Oro, diversi testi, come "El padre Las Casas" e "Las ruinas indias", sono dedicati alla presentazione di personaggi e vicende della storia del continente, nei quali emerge chiaramente l'importanza attribuita da Martí alla componente degli indios. Il quinto ed ultimo capitolo si propone di sviluppare alcune considerazioni a proposito della riflessione martiana sulla cultura. La letteratura e l'arte emergono, in relazione al suo progetto storico antimperialista, come una vera e propria esigenza strategica: l'arte coeva gli appariva inefficace in quanto non era espressione dei tempi, e se lo scopo di Martí era quello di raccogliere attorno alla cultura la frammentazione sociale del continente latinoamericano, non era possibile scindere il percorso verso l'emancipazione dell'America latina da un'arte che fosse all'altezza del progettato rinnovamento. Si metteranno in luce in particolare le caratteristiche dell'ideale di intellettuale e di uomo di lettere latinoamericano, impegnato attraverso la sua opera creativa nella battaglia per la liberazione del continente dal colonialismo culturale, e della nuova letteratura concepita da José Martí, valutando come in essa confluiscano i tratti principali dell'antimperialismo studiati in questo lavoro: si vedrà come essa debba essere riflesso del mestizaje, incorporandone tutte le componenti per tendere ad una espressione originale, che rifiuti la copia di stili e correnti letterarie proprie aliene dall'autenticità latinoamericana. Gli ideali martiani riguardo alla letteratura e all'arte avranno un'influenza fondamentale su molte delle correnti del '900 latinoamericano: risulta particolarmente interessante valutare i punti di contatto tra le idee espresse da Martí e la teorizzazione del "real maravilloso" da parte del cubano Alejo Carpentier, autore impegnato, in continuità con Martí, in una riflessione costante sull'identità latinoamericana, che attraversa tutta la sua opera di giornalista e di romanziere.

This dissertation consists of three loosely related essays resident in the industrial organization literature. All three analyze recent policies, namely, a prohibition of disposal, a reduction in fine for convicted cartelists, and the recent loose monetary policy. I study how these policies affect firms' strategies and their consequences for consumers. The structure follows the timeline of the policies' adoption. In the first chapter, I study the loi anti-gaspillage (anti-waste law) recently debated in France, expected to come into effect in 2023. According to a government estimate, each year new products worth $900 million are discarded all over France. The policy aims at mitigating the waste of resources: unsold products have to be donated or recycled, and it is prohibited to dispose of them in one way or another. The less firms dispose of, the more products are on the market and prices are lower, thereby benefiting consumers. However, firms do not intentionally manufacture products to discard them: disposal typically results from a lower than expected demand. By forcing firms to recycle or donate their produced goods, firms' disposal costs increase; otherwise, cost minimizing firms would have already donated or recycled their products without the regulation. With higher costs for unsold products, firms reduce their production, resulting in a lower trade volume. Moreover, the policy may affect the production timing on top of quantities produced. Firms may outsource their production for cost reasons. Goods produced abroad have to be transported to the home market and therefore require to be produced earlier. Take, for example, the fashion industry: The biggest players on the European market are Hennes & Mauriz (H&M) and Inditex, which holds Zara, Pull&Bear, Massimo Dutti, and more. H&M mainly produces in Asia and ships its products to the European market; Inditex largely manufactures in Europe, close to the market. It claims that within two weeks of the original design clothes are in retail. Merely the shipment from Asia to Europe takes more time. In the fast fashion industry, multiple products are introduced on a weekly basis. Accordingly, H&M produces earlier to compete with Inditex. As a consequence, firms that produce later to manufacture with more information benefit from the policy. Their competitors decrease their production to mitigate costs if demand is lower than expected, resulting in a competitive advantage for the former. Depending on disposal costs, firms postpone their production leading to a change in the market structure. In general, the policy accomplishes to decrease disposal, yet at the consumers' cost. In the second chapter with Winand Emons, we analyze a policy encouraging private settlement negotiation following anti-competitive convictions. Victims of an anti-competitive infringement may claim for damages. Private damage actions enforce antitrust rules in addition to the public enforcement by competition authorities. They are, however, rare in Europe compared to the US. To encourage private damage action, the EU recommends subtracting a part of the redress paid to the victim from the fine. Some jurisdictions have followed this recommendation. In 2014, the Israeli Antitrust Tribunal approved a consent decree reached between Israeli banks and the Israeli Antitrust Authority to subtract the entire settlement payment from the wrongdoers' fine. Likewise, the Swiss Competition Commission subtracted half of the bid-rigging construction companies' settlement payment to the victim, the canton of Graubünden, from the wrongdoers' fines in 2019. The rebate has two effects. First, the surplus created by an out of court agreement goes up. Second, the defendant's marginal costs decrease: for each unit the plaintiff receives the defendant only pays a share of it. Since negotiations are voluntary, both parties get a share of the surplus. The first effect thus benefits the plaintiff and the defendant. The second affects the defendant's bargaining behavior: the defendant settles for larger amounts. In our framework, the first effect dominates the second resulting in a lower payment for the defendant. A leniency program is the most important investigative tool for detecting cartel activity. The leniency applicant does not pay a fine. Consequently, there is no fine that can be reduced; the measure does not affect a leniency applicant. However, it decreases the other cartelists' payment, thereby reducing the relative advantage of blowing the whistle. Overall, a leniency program may be weakened due to this policy. Cartelists typically know the damage caused by their illegal activity better than consumers. Consequently, a defendant has an information advantage compared to the plaintiff when it comes to a trial. We study the case when the plaintiff has all the bargaining power yet an information disadvantage. Due to the information asymmetry, some cases end up in court, although this is ineffcient. Rebating part of the fine decreases the number of cases resulting in a ruling and thereby relieves courts. Nonetheless, the defendant's expected payment decreases due to the redress. The policy accomplishes an increase in the settlement amount, thereby benefiting victims of anti-competitive conducts, yet it also lowers deterrence. Consumers may therefore suffer from augmented anti-competitive manner. In the third chapter, I study how the current monetary policy affects firms' collusive behavior. Low interest rates mark the last decade: as a reaction to the financial crisis, central banks worldwide lowered the nominal interest rate to boost the economy. The real interest rate peaked around 2009 and has declined since. Nowadays, with the additional challenge of a pandemic, central banks are expected to continue their loose monetary policy. It is well known that the interest rate determines the time value of money. When interest rates are low, a dollar today has almost the same value as a dollar tomorrow; future values are little discounted. Colluding firms set higher prices than if they competed to make additional profits to the detriment of consumers. A cartelist could, however, deviate from the collusive agreement: by undercutting the price, the deviating firm could capture a large market share and ensure an even higher profit. Yet, when a cartelist undercuts the collusive price, the cartel breaks down. After a firm's deviation, firms no longer collude and start competing, resulting in lower future profits. Consequently, if interest rates are low, a large immediate profit does not outweigh constant high future profits, and cartels are stabilized. In my framework, an additional effect comes into play. Typically, firms finance their production with outside capital borrowed on the financial market. The interest rate thereby directly affects a firm's balance sheet: the higher the interest rate, the higher the firm's costs. If costs are high, it is not profitable to serve a large market share. Thus, it does not pay to undercut the cartel price to increase demand. By contrast, if interest rates are low and thus costs are low, firms can inexpensively invest in their production. They have the financial means to serve large parts of the market. Thus, deviating from the collusive agreement is more profitable. Accordingly, cartels are destabilized if interest rates are low. While the former effect facilitates cartel formation in times of low interest rates, the latter fosters break-ups. The time value of money is most affected by low interest rates: it is doubled if the interest rate moves from 1% to 2%, yet less than doubled if it increases from 2% to 3%. By contrast, the latter effect is small for low interest rates. The cost increase cause firms to serve fewer customers. The lost consumers are, however, the ones with the lowest willingness to pay, i.e., the least valuable customers. Accordingly, for a low interest rate the first effect dominates, and for a relatively high interest rate, the second effect dominates, resulting in a U-shaped relation between a cartel's stability and the interest rate. Analyzing a dataset of 615 firms active in 114 cartels convicted by the European Commission yields empirical evidence supporting the theory. Cartels are stable if interest rates are low or relatively high and are vulnerable for intermediate values. More precisely, stability is measured as the probability that a cartel does not break-up or, alternatively, as the duration of a firm's participation in the cartel. The empirical evidence has to be treated with caution since only convicted cartels are in the dataset resulting in a biased sample. The current loose monetary policy is, thus, accompanied by the adverse effect of stabilizing existing cartels and encouraging new ones' formations.

Social innovations are activities aiming at implementation of social objectives, including mainly the improvement of life of individuals and social groups, together with public policy and management objectives. The essay indicates and discusses the most important contemporary problems, solving of which requires social innovations.

Social innovations precondition the progress of civilisation. The world needs not only new technologies, but also new solutions of social and institutional nature that would be conducive to achieving social goals.

Social innovations are experimental social actions of organisational and institutional nature that aim at improving the quality of life of individuals, communities, nations, companies, circles, or social groups. Their experimental nature stems from the fact of introducing unique and one-time solutions on a large scale, the end results of which are often difficult to be fully predicted. For example, it was difficult to believe that opening new labour markets for foreigners in the countries of the European Union, which can be treated as a social innovation aiming at development of the international labour market, will result in the rapid development of the low-cost airlines, the offer of which will be available to a larger group of recipients. In other words, social innovations differ from economic innovations, as they are not about implementation of new types of production or gaining new markets, but about satisfying new needs, which are not provided by the market. Therefore, the most important distinction consists in that social innovations are concerned with improving the well-being of individuals and communities by additional employment, or increased consumption, as well as participation in solving the problems of individuals and social groups [CSTP, 2011]. In general, social innovations are activities aiming at implementation of social objectives, including mainly the improvement of life of individuals and social groups together with the objectives of public policy and management [Kowalczyk, Sobiecki, 2017]. Their implementation requires global, national, and individual actions. This requires joint operations, both at the scale of the entire globe, as well as in particular interest groups.

Why are social innovations a key point for the progress of civilisation? This is the effect of the clear domination of economic aspects and discrimination of social aspects of this progress. Until the 19th century, the economy was a part of a social structure. As described by K. Polanyi, it was submerged in social relations [Polanyi, 2010, p. 56]. In traditional societies, the economic system was in fact derived from the organisation of the society itself. The economy, consisting of small and dispersed craft businesses, was a part of the social, family, and neighbourhood structure. In the 20th century the situation reversed – the economy started to be the force shaping social structures, positions of individual groups, areas of wealth and poverty. The economy and the market mechanism have become independent from the world of politics and society. Today, the corporations control our lives. They decide what we eat, what we watch, what we wear, where we work and what we do [Bakan, 2006, p. 13].

The corporations started this spectacular "march to rule the world" in the late 19th century. After about a hundred years, at the end of the 20th century, the state under the pressure of corporations and globalisation, started a gradual, but systematic withdrawal from the economy, market and many other functions traditionally belonging to it. As a result, at the end of the last century, a corporation has become a dominant institution in the world. A characteristic feature of this condition is that it gives a complete priority to the interests of corporations. They make decisions of often adverse consequences for the entire social groups, regions, or local communities. They lead to social tensions, political breakdowns, and most often to repeated market turbulences. Thus, a substantial minority (corporations) obtain inconceivable benefits at the expense of the vast majority, that is broad professional and social groups. The lack of relative balance between the economy and society is a barrier to the progress of civilisation.

A growing global concern is the problem of migration. The present crisis, left unresolved, in the long term will return multiplied. Today, there are about 500 million people living in Europe, 1.5 billion in Africa and the Middle East, but in 2100, the population of Europe will be about 400 million and of the Middle East and Africa approximately 4.5 billion. Solving this problem, mainly through social and political innovations, can take place only by a joint operation of highly developed and developing countries. Is it an easy task? It's very difficult. Unfortunately, today, the world is going in the opposite direction. Instead of pursuing the community, empathic thinking, it aims towards nationalism and chauvinism. An example might be a part of the inaugural address of President Donald Trump, who said that the right of all nations is to put their own interests first. Of course, the United States of America will think about their own interests. As we go in the opposite direction, those who deal with global issues say – nothing will change, unless there is some great crisis, a major disaster that would cause that the great of this world will come to senses.

J.E. Stiglitz [2004], contrary to the current thinking and practice, believes that a different and better world is possible. Globalisation contains the potential of countless benefits from which people both in developing and highly developed countries can benefit. But the practice so far proves that still it is not grown up enough to use its potential in a fair manner. What is needed are new solutions, most of all social and political innovations (political, because they involve a violation of the previous arrangement of interests). Failure to search for breakthrough innovations of social and political nature that would meet the modern challenges, can lead the world to a disaster. Social innovation, and not economic, because the contemporary civilisation problems have their roots in this dimension.

A global problem, solution of which requires innovations of social and political nature, is the disruption of the balance between work and capital. In 2010, 400 richest people had assets such as the half of the poorer population of the world. In 2016, such part was in the possession of only 8 people. This shows the dramatic collapse of the balance between work and capital. The world cannot develop creating the technological progress while increasing unjustified inequalities, which inevitably lead to an outbreak of civil disturbances. This outbreak can have various organisation forms. In the days of the Internet and social media, it is easier to communicate with people. Therefore, paradoxically, some modern technologies create the conditions facilitating social protests. There is one more important and dangerous effect of implementing technological innovations without simultaneous creation and implementation of social innovations limiting the sky-rocketing increase of economic (followed by social) diversification. Sooner or later, technological progress will become so widespread that, due to the relatively low prices, it will make it possible for the weapons of mass destruction, especially biological and chemical weapons, to reach small terrorist groups. Then, a total, individualized war of global reach can develop. The individualisation of war will follow, as described by the famous German sociologist Ulrich Beck.

To avoid this, it is worth looking at the achievements of the Polish scientist Michał Kalecki, who 75 years ago argued that capitalism alone is not able to develop. It is because it aggressively seeks profit growth, but cannot turn profit into some profitable investments. Therefore, when uncertainty grows, capitalism cannot develop itself, and it must be accompanied by external factors, named by Kalecki – external development factors. These factors include state expenses, finances and, in accordance with the nomenclature of Kalecki – epochal innovations. And what are the current possibilities of activation of the external factors? In short – modest. The countries are indebted, and the basis for the development in the last 20 years were loans, which contributed to the growth of debt of economic entities. What, then, should we do? It is necessary to look for cheaper solutions, but such that are effective, that is breakthrough innovations. These undoubtedly include social and political innovations. Contemporary social innovation is not about investing big money and expensive resources in production, e.g. of a very expensive vaccine, which would be available for a small group of recipients. Today's social innovation should stimulate the use of lower amounts of resources to produce more products available to larger groups of recipients.

The progress of civilisation happens only as a result of a sustainable development in economic, social, and now also ecological terms. Economic (business) innovations, which help accelerate the growth rate of production and services, contribute to economic development. Profits of corporations increase and, at the same time, the economic objectives of the corporations are realised. But are the objectives of the society as a whole and its members individually realised equally, in parallel? In the chain of social reproduction there are four repeated phases: production – distribution – exchange – consumption. The key point from the social point of view is the phase of distribution. But what are the rules of distribution, how much and who gets from this "cake" produced in the social process of production? In the today's increasingly global economy, the most important mechanism of distribution is the market mechanism. However, in the long run, this mechanism leads to growing income and welfare disparities of various social groups.
Although, the income and welfare diversity in itself is nothing wrong, as it is the result of the diversification of effectiveness of factors of production, including work, the growing disparities to a large extent cannot be justified. Economic situation of the society members increasingly depends not on the contribution of work, but on the size of the capital invested, and the market position of the economic entity, and on the "governing power of capital" on the market. It should also be noted that this diversification is also related to speculative activities. Disparities between the implemented economic and social innovations can lead to the collapse of the progress of civilisation.

Nowadays, economic crises are often justified by, indeed, social and political considerations, such as marginalisation of nation states, imbalance of power (or imbalance of fear), religious conflicts, nationalism, chauvinism, etc. It is also considered that the first global financial crisis of the 21st century originated from the wrong social policy pursued by the US Government, which led to the creation of a gigantic public debt, which consequently led to an economic breakdown. This resulted in the financial crisis, but also in deepening of the social imbalances and widening of the circles of poverty and social exclusion. It can even be stated that it was a crisis in public confidence. Therefore, the causes of crises are the conflicts between the economic dimension of the development and its social dimension.

Contemporary world is filled with various innovations of economic or business nature (including technological, product, marketing, and in part – organisational). The existing solutions can be a source of economic progress, which is a component of the progress of civilisation. However, economic innovations do not complete the entire progress of civilisation moreover, the saturation, and often supersaturation with implementations and economic innovations leads to an excessive use of material factors of production. As a consequence, it results in lowering of the efficiency of their use, unnecessary extra burden to the planet, and passing of the negative effects on the society and future generations (of consumers). On the other hand, it leads to forcing the consumption of durable consumer goods, and gathering them "just in case", and also to the low degree of their use (e.g. more cars in a household than its members results in the additional load on traffic routes, which results in an increase in the inconvenience of movement of people, thus to the reduction of the quality of life).

Introduction of yet another economic innovation will not solve this problem. It can be solved only by social innovations that are in a permanent shortage. A social innovation which fosters solving the issue of excessive accumulation of tangible production goods is a developing phenomenon called sharing economy. It is based on the principle: "the use of a service provided by some welfare does not require being its owner". This principle allows for an economic use of resources located in households, but which have been "latent" so far. In this way, increasing of the scope of services provided (transport, residential and tourist accommodation) does not require any growth of additional tangible resources of factors of production. So, it contributes to the growth of household incomes, and inhibition of loading the planet with material goods processed by man [see Poniatowska-Jaksch, Sobiecki, 2016]. Another example: we live in times, in which, contrary to the law of T. Malthus, the planet is able to feed all people, that is to guarantee their minimum required nutrients. But still, millions of people die of starvation and malnutrition, but also due to obesity. Can this problem be solved with another economic innovation? Certainly not! Economic innovations will certainly help to partially solve the problem of nutrition, at least by the new methods of storing and preservation of foods, to reduce its waste in the phase of storage and transport. However, a key condition to solve this problem is to create and implement an innovation of a social nature (in many cases also political). We will not be able to speak about the progress of civilisation in a situation, where there are people dying of starvation and malnutrition.

A growing global social concern, resulting from implementation of an economic (technological) innovation will be robotisation, and more specifically – the effects arising from its dissemination on a large scale. So far, the issue has been postponed due to globalisation of the labour market, which led to cheapening of the work factor by more than ten times in the countries of Asia or South America. But it ends slowly. Labour becomes more and more expensive, which means that the robots become relatively cheap. The mechanism leading to low prices of the labour factor expires. Wages increase, and this changes the relationship of the prices of capital and labour. Capital becomes relatively cheaper and cheaper, and this leads to reducing of the demand for work, at the same time increasing the demand for capital (in the form of robots).

The introduction of robots will be an effect of the phenomenon of substitution of the factors of production. A cheaper factor (in this case capital in the form of robots) will be cheaper than the same activities performed by man. According to W. Szymański [2017], such change is a dysfunction of capitalism. A great challenge, because capitalism is based on the market-driven shaping of income. The market-driven shaping of income means that the income is derived from the sale of the factors of production. Most people have income from employment. Robots change this mechanism. It is estimated that scientific progress allows to create such number of robots that will replace billion people in the world. What will happen to those "superseded", what will replace the income from human labour? Capitalism will face an institutional challenge, and must replace the market-driven shaping of income with another, new one. The introduction of robots means microeconomic battle with the barrier of demand. To sell more, one needs to cut costs. The costs are lowered by the introduction of robots, but the use of robots reduces the demand for human labour. Lowering the demand for human labour results in the reduction of employment, and lower wages. Lower wages result in the reduction of the demand for goods and services. To increase the demand for goods and services, the companies must lower their costs, so they increase the involvement of robots, etc.

A mechanism of the vicious circle appears

If such a mass substitution of the factors of production is unfavourable from the point of view of stimulating the development of the economy, then something must be done to improve the adverse price relations for labour. How can the conditions of competition between a robot and a man be made equal, at least partially? Robots should be taxed. Bill Gates, among others, is a supporter of such a solution. However, this is only one of the tools that can be used. The solution of the problem requires a change in the mechanism, so a breakthrough innovation of a social and political nature. We can say that technological and product innovations force the creation of social and political innovations (maybe institutional changes). Product innovations solve some problems (e.g. they contribute to the reduction of production costs), but at the same time, give rise to others.

Progress of civilisation for centuries and even millennia was primarily an intellectual progress. It was difficult to discuss economic progress at that time. Then we had to deal with the imbalance between the economic and the social element. The insufficiency of the economic factor (otherwise than it is today) was the reason for the tensions and crises. Estimates of growth indicate that the increase in industrial production from ancient times to the first industrial revolution, that is until about 1700, was 0.1-0.2 per year on average. Only the next centuries brought about systematically increasing pace of economic growth. During 1700- 1820, it was 0.5% on an annual average, and between 1820-1913 – 1.5%, and between 1913-2012 – 3.0% [Piketty, 2015, p. 97]. So, the significant pace of the economic growth is found only at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Additionally, the growth in this period refers predominantly to Europe and North America. The countries on other continents were either stuck in colonialism, structurally similar to the medieval period, or "lived" on the history of their former glory, as, for example, China and Japan, or to a lesser extent some countries of the Middle East and South America. The growth, having then the signs of the modern growth, that is the growth based on technological progress, was attributed mainly to Europe and the United States.

The progress of civilisation requires the creation of new social initiatives. Social innovations are indeed an additional capital to keep the social structure in balance. The social capital is seen as a means and purpose and as a primary source of new values for the members of the society. Social innovations also motivate every citizen to actively participate in this process. It is necessary, because traditional ways of solving social problems, even those known for a long time as unemployment, ageing of the society, or exclusion of considerable social and professional groups from the social and economic development, simply fail. "Old" problems are joined by new ones, such as the increase of social inequalities, climate change, or rapidly growing environmental pollution. New phenomena and problems require new solutions, changes to existing procedures, programmes, and often a completely different approach and instruments [Kowalczyk, Sobiecki, 2017].

Slavery is a historical antecedent, which affected all continents, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes successively; its genesis is the sum of all that happened during an intermediate period of history. Paradoxically, slavery and slave trade still exist today under various pseudonyms: servants, nannies, prostitutes, indentured servants, extremely low paid workers. The examination here is confined to the Atlantic Slave Trade and its implications to Africa and its people, both in Africa and in Diaspora. Various aspects and instruments of law, particularly, international and inter-temporal law were examined to justify or repudiate the demand for compensation vis-à-vis reparation. The Atlantic Slavery, which began in the year 1440 was first abolished in 1787 throughout British Empire and in 1833, the British parliament abolished slavery in its colonies. In 1838, the slaves were emancipated and by 1880, slavery had been abolished in southern United States and across the world an estimated figure of over 14 million blacks was forcibly transported to overseas countries. This figure does not include those who died before they arrived to their various destinations. The thesis that slavery and slave trade contributed to the development of capitalism because slave trade constituted an essential element in the early mercantilist stage of capitalist development and abolition, which was a reflex of the resulting industrialism and its free commercial policies may have adherence here and there. Apparently, the increased demand for slaves not only reallocated resources, but also produced externalities thought to impede long-time development in Africa. These impediments were constraints on the growth of African states, increase in ethnic and socio stratification and sustained a culture of political violence. The history of West Africa will be used as a model for the economic marginalisation and depopulation of Africa. While most scholars agree that the depopulation of Africa was a consequence of Atlantic Slave Trade and must have reduced the aggregate population between 1700 and 1850, nevertheless it is problematic to assess the causal impact of slave population growth and development. The regular slave raiding was a constraint to production, social life obscured the ethnic boundaries and the inability to distinguish insider from outsider as the people scattered to escape the risk of being caught. Between the 16th and 19th centuries more than 14 million slaves were produced in Africa and transported to overseas. Book one Chapter I addresses the term "Slavery" and its concepts in all its ramifications. The instruments of semantics, philology and biology e.t.c. were used to arrive at an acceptable definition of slavery. Chapter II have as its priority the examination of slavery as an ancient institution of all cultures and the subsequent break of this culture by the Europeans. Enough evidence were advanced to prove that almost every continent and country practiced one form or another of slavery and slave trade, but this seemingly established culture and norm were put to question by the Europeans. The practice of the Atlantic triangular slave trade and the colonial Plantation economy with the attendant exploitation of the slave workers were extensively discussed in this chapter. Chapter III have as its priority racism, cultural differences, and above all, economics as the motives for Atlantic slave trade vis-à-vis triangular slave trade. The roles and the works of intellectuals, movies, newspapers, and physical contacts with the Africans contributed to slavery and also to the Atlantic slave trade. Book Two Chapter IV dealt with the examination and analysis of the motives of Atlantic slavery and slave trade using the economic, social and political yardstick as the most compelling factors. Mathematical calculations and economic diagrams were used here to describe the demand and supply of slaves and its effect on African economies. In Book Two, the implications of Atlantic slave trade to Africa and its people in strictly economic and demographical terms were examined. Chapter V presented various definitions of natural law and present its prominent progenitors and contributors. The role of natural law in the examination of the atrocities of the Atlantic slave trade cannot be underestimated considering the fact that during this period, international law or positive law as we understand it today, had hardly existed therefore, the only appropriate yardstick open for the examination of the treatment and trade of the Africans appear to be the instrument of natural law vis-à-vis moral law. Chapter VI examined in detail the merits and demerits of the concept of "Pacta sunt servanda" as applied by the Europeans in trade with his African partners. The unfolding implications that resulted because of the failure of adherence to "Pacta sunt servanda" to the contracting persons, nations, villages also featured here prominently. It is on record that the European expansion over other parts of the world was undertaken by the acts of states and governments and later also private business partners participated in the slave trade. Therefore, the implication of this under international law was evaluated. Chapter VII combined the extent and influence of the Radbruch's Formula of Ratio Juris, its logicality and the nature of legal theory and Robert Alexy's conceptual analysis and the theory about the nature of law to determine the degree of morality and justice embodied in the slave laws enacted in the United States during the Atlantic Slave Trade. For example, Radbruch postulated that the objective of legal philosophy is to appraise the law in terms of congruency with its ultimate goal, i.e. to realize the ideas of law. Chapter VIII highlighted the abolition and emancipation of slavery and emphasized the role of Quakers, Anglicans and most importantly anti-slavery campaigners, like Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson. They initiated, campaigned and fought for the abolition and emancipation of African slavery, without which the history of Africa and its people would have being hitherto be rewritten today. Just as the instruments of publications, sermon, pamphlets, treatise, poems, narratives, newspaper articles, reports and petitions were used to promote and aggravate Atlantic slave trade and slavery so also were these instruments used to fight for the emancipation of slavery. Though the cause of reparation for Africans and Africans in Diaspora cannot be seriously questioned, particularly under natural law and the laws of morality, the conceptual, legal, moral and historical issues were discussed extensively in Chapter IX. The normative arguments for and against reparations and the identity of beneficiaries and those sued for reparations were the object of analysis. Causation and attenuation arguments of reparations, particularly in tort liability, for example, act attenuation, victim attenuation and wrongdoer attenuation will help to determine culpability. Tort law analogy in slavery reparations and more so lawsuits for Jim Crow, constitutional requirements and unjust enrichment are all indispensable legal instruments to ascertain the merits and demerits of reparations. The concepts of restitution and genealogical determinism are also essential parts of this chapter. And finally, the philosophy of Libertarianism also constituted to the evaluation of the case for reparations. Reparation has been a common feature or idea in public international law before the emergence of international human rights law. The various international courts have defined the notion of reparation in relation to the notion of international responsibility of the state in • Art. 31: ILC (s. pages 238, 241) • Art. 3: ILC • Art. 13 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • Art. 11(2) • Art. 7(1) The international law advances that any conduct, which is attributable to the state and which constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the state is an international wrongful act and comes under the state responsibility. The international law that adjudicates on state responsibility stipulates that there must be a link between a past wrong and present claim, consequently any legal claim for reparation at the international level will be confronted with the problem of proving that the present day western countries caused the injury inflicted on slaves. Other bodies of law like restitution, which deals with benefit-based liability or benefit-based recovery, has become an increasingly powerful tool in the case of reparation, particularly for mass wrongs. The merits and demerits were done justice to in this Dissertation. Natural Law has played an important role in the affairs of men through the ages because it entails basic principles of moral law and legislation and is in some cases objective, accessible to reason and based on human nature. Though, the concept of natural law is controversial, however, the Nuremberg War-Crimes trials after World War II, had no foundation in written laws. The prosecutors and judges justified their sentences on the assumption of natural laws binding all human beings and the present insistence on human rights also implies the affirmation of a kind of natural law. Natural law is therefore, a reflection of morality and consequently, legally valid if they conform to morality. He appraised human rights as surpassing all written laws and advanced that the law of nature should be sufficient to address the issue of restitution. Therefore, the kidnappings, the involuntary enslavement, the killings or murder of protesting or rebellious African slaves were an offence and a crime that needed to be addressed. Africa and the Africans in Diaspora can seek for justice albeit post mortem of the slaves.

Editor's note: Last updated on Nov. 5 at 7:27 p.m.The U.S. has significantly increased its military presence in the Middle East in the nearly three weeks after Hamas launched attacks against Israel and took hundreds of hostages on Oct. 7. Among other things, the Pentagon has deployed two aircraft carrier strike groups as well as a range of fighter aircraft to the region.The official reason for the new deployments is to deter Hamas's allies, including Iran and Hezbollah, from launching attacks against Israel and sparking a wider regional war. That logic will be put to the test in the coming days if Israel follows through on its planned ground invasion of Gaza, which is sure to face sharp condemnation from throughout the Middle East.Meanwhile, the Pentagon has accused Iranian-backed militias of carrying out a series of attacks against the roughly 3,400 U.S. forces that remain in Syria and Iraq; 24 U.S. personnel have been injured so far. In total, reports say there are currently about 35,000 U.S. troops throughout the region, though most are stationed at bases in the Gulf, far away from the fighting.Below is a full timeline of new, publicly reported deployments of U.S. troops and military assets to the region since October 7. RS will continue to update this tracker as the crisis continues.Nov. 5:CENTCOM announced that an Ohio-class submarine entered into its area of responsibility but did not share details about the vessel's exact location.Nov. 3:The Islamic Resistance in Iraq — an apparent cover group for Iran-linked militias in the country that has emerged since Hamas's attack — claimed to have hit an American base in Erbil. The Pentagon has yet to comment on the alleged strike.Nov. 2:The Pentagon is actively flying surveillance drones over the southern Gaza Strip in an attempt to help with hostage recovery efforts, according to the New York Times. Officials told the Times that these drones have been doing surveillance missions in the area for much of the past month, suggesting a deeper level of direct U.S. involvement in the conflict than has previously been revealed. The sources denied that the drones are providing any assistance to Israeli ground operations.Oct. 31:American special operations commandoes are working on the ground in Israel to help find hostages held by Hamas, according to an assistant secretary of defense. The soldiers are not directly participating in hostilities but are helping "advise" the Israel Defense forces on their operations in Gaza.The Pentagon announced that it will send an additional 300 soldiers to the Middle East, specifying only that they are not going to Israel. A spokesperson for the Defense Department also said that U.S. forces have now faced 27 separate attacks in Iraq and Syria since October 17. Earlier in the day, armed drones attacked America's Ain Al-Asad Airbase in Iraq, marking the 23rd strike on U.S. forces in Iraq and Syria since October 17. The attack did not result in any injuries.Oct. 30:Jordan requested that the U.S. send it additional Patriot missile batteries to bolster the country's border defenses amid ongoing tensions in the region, according to a spokesperson for the Jordanian military. The comment appears to confirm previous reports that the Pentagon has dispatched troops and missile defense systems to support Amman, a potentially controversial decision given widespread pro-Palestine views in the country. A spokesperson for the Jordanian Armed Forces also denied that the Department of Defense was using Jordan's territory to transport weapons to Israel.Oct. 27:The Pentagon said it struck "two facilities in eastern Syria used by Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and affiliated groups" following recent attacks by Iranian-backed militias in Iraq and Syria. The Defense Department insisted that the strikes "are separate and distinct from the ongoing conflict between Israel and Hamas, and do not constitute a shift in our approach to the Israel-Hamas conflict."Oct. 26:900 additional U.S. troops are headed to the Middle East under CENTCOM command, the Pentagon told Politico. These soldiers will operate the additional air defense equipment that the Defense Department has moved into the region in recent weeks. The report also noted that the U.S. is sending two more Iron Dome missile defense systems to Israel.Politico reported that 19 of the service members injured by attacks in Iraq suffered traumatic brain injuries. The diagnosis can include a wide range of symptoms, including headaches, dizziness, and blurred vision. All injured soldiers have since returned to duty.Oct. 24:The Pentagon announced that the U.S. is sending an additional squadron of F-16 fighter jets to the Middle East to "further enhance the ability of U.S. forces to defend themselves." The Department of Defense also noted that it has put a variety of units on "prepare-to-deploy orders" ahead of potential future movement of troops to the region."Our message to any country or group thinking about trying to take advantage of this situation to widen the conflict is: Don't," warned Pentagon Press Secretary Pat Ryder.On the same day, the military confirmed that 24 U.S. personnel had been injured in at least 13 attacks in Syria and Iraq since October 17.Oct. 23:The U.S. sent a Marine general and several other military officers to Israel in order to advise the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) on their ongoing campaign of airstrikes in Gaza, according to Axios. The American officers are not expected to remain in Israel following the invasion of Gaza, the report continued.Oct. 22:The USS Dwight D. Eisenhower aircraft carrier strike group was redirected to CENTCOM's area of responsibility after initially being sent to the eastern Mediterranean Sea to join another American aircraft carrier in the region, according to the Pentagon. The statement did not say exactly where the carrier would be based, but CENTCOM covers the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and other waters near the Arabian Peninsula.Oct. 21:Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin announced that the Pentagon is sending an additional THAAD missile defense battery and several Patriot missile defense battalions to the Middle East. While Austin did not reveal the locations of these deployments, the Wall Street Journal reported subsequently that the THAAD battery is headed to Saudi Arabia, while the Patriot systems are being sent to Kuwait, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.Oct. 19:The USS Carney shot down three missiles launched by the Houthi militant group in Yemen. The missiles appeared to be headed toward Israel, though their exact targets remain unclear.Oct. 18:The Ain al-Asad air base in Iraq came under attack from drones that were most likely launched by Iran-backed militias. U.S. forces shot down some of the drones, while others hit their targets and caused minor injuries.Oct. 17:CENTCOM Gen. Michael Kurilla visited Israel and held a series of meetings with Israeli military officials. "I'm here to ensure that Israel has what it needs to defend itself, and am particularly focused on avoiding other parties expanding the conflict," Kurilla said.Meanwhile, CNN reported that the U.S. is sending an additional 2,000 Marines to a location off the coast of Israel in a further attempt to deter Hamas's regional allies from joining the fight. The rapid response unit is on the USS Bataan, which had previously been in the Gulf of Oman."Taken together, the moves are aimed at forestalling a wider regional war," CNN reported. "But they also risk deepening the US' involvement in a conflict in which the Biden administration is trying to avoid direct military action."Oct. 14:The Pentagon announced its decision to move a second aircraft carrier strike group into the eastern Mediterranean as "part of our effort to deter hostile actions against Israel or any efforts toward widening this war following Hamas's attack on Israel."The group, led by the USS Eisenhower, also includes a cruiser and two destroyers as well as numerous fighter aircraft. The U.S. also said that it has moved additional F-15, F-16, and A-10 fighter aircraft to the region.Oct. 13:Defense Secretary Austin visited Israel, where he held a series of meetings with Israeli political and military leaders, including Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. "Hamas attacked at a time of global challenge, but the United States is the most powerful country in the world, and we remain fully able to project power and uphold our commitments and direct resources to multiple theaters," Austin said in response to concerns that the U.S. military is stretched thin by the wars in Israel and Ukraine. He also noted that American security assistance is "already rapidly flowing into Israel."Oct. 10:The USS Gerald R. Ford aircraft carrier strike group arrived in the eastern Mediterranean, where it will help with intelligence operations and planning for efforts to rescue hostages, according to Al Monitor. The strike group also includes five smaller warships and a number of fighter aircraft.Oct. 8:Austin announced that the United States will move the USS Gerald R. Ford aircraft carrier strike group to the eastern Mediterranean. He also promised that the Pentagon "will be rapidly providing the Israel Defense Forces with additional equipment and resources, including munitions.""The first security assistance will begin moving today and arriving in the coming days," Austin added.CENTCOM also said that it has "taken steps to augment U.S. Air Force F-15, F-16, and A-10 fighter aircraft squadrons" in the Middle East.Oct. 7:President Joe Biden said the U.S. is offering "all appropriate means of support to the government and people of Israel" and warned regional actors from "seeking advantage in this situation." CENTCOM said that it was tracking the situation in the region.

This article considers the implementation of the right to higher education for learners with special needs in Lithuania. Although this right is guaranteed by various international documents and national legal acts, the main responsibility to ensure equality in higher education for all learners is embedded in the discretion of higher education institutions. The aim of this article is to analyse Lithuanian legal regulation regarding inclusion of students with special needs into higher education institutions and to evaluate Lithuanian university policies, as institutional documents, concerning students with special educational needs. A brief overview and comparison of all Lithuanian HEI policies illustrates the institutional approach towards educating students with SEN and the level of attentiveness to realization of their right to education. The research also considers pivotal challenges of ensuring inclusive education for those students as well as presents recommendations to address these challenges. ; Aušrinė Pasvenskienė: ausrine.pasvenskiene@vdu.lt ; Milda Žaliauskaitė: milda.zaliauskaite@vdu.lt ; Aušrinė Pasvenskienė – doktor, prodziekan i wykładowca na Uniwersytecie Witolda Wielkiego w Kownie (Litwa). Jej zainteresowania naukowe obejmują prawo edukacyjne, prawo i technologie, technologie cyfrowe i edukację, prawa człowieka w edukacji, edukację prawniczą. ; Aušrinė Pasvenskienė – Dr, lecturer at the Vytautas Magnus University, Vice-Dean, lecturer and researcher at Vytautas Magnus University, Faculty of Law (Kaunas, Lithuania). Her esearch interests include: education law, law and technologies, digital technologies and education, human rights in education, legal education. ; Milda Žaliauskaitė – doktorantka na Uniwersytecie Witolda Wielkiego w Kownie (Litwa). Posiada tytuł magistra prawa oraz magistra biznesu i zarządzania. Jej zainteresowania badawcze obejmują prawo prywatne, w szczególności prawo umów. ; Milda Žaliauskaitė – PhD student at the Vytautas Magnus University, holds master's degree in law and master's degree in business and management and is currently a PhD student in law at Vytautas Magnus University (Kaunas, Lithuania). Her research interests include private law, particularly contract law. ; Aušrinė Pasvenskienė - Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania ; Milda Žaliauskaitė - Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania ; Bessant J., 'Measuring up'? Assessment and Students with Disabilities in the Modern University, "International Journal of Inclusive Education" 2012, vol. 16, no. 3. ; Bunbury S., Disability in Higher Education – Do Reasonable Adjustments Contribute to an Inclusive Curriculum?, "International Journal of Inclusive Education" 2020, vol. 24, no. 9. ; CESCR General Comment No 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13), Office of the High Commisioner for Human Rights (1999), http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838c22.html. ; Collins A., Fara A., Rentschler R., Bringing Everyone on the Same Journey: Revisiting Inclusion in Higher Education, "Studies in Higher Education" 2018, vol. 44, no. 8. ; Colón A.M.O., Montoro M.A., Ruiz M.J.C., Toward Inclusive Higher Education in a Global Context, "Sustainability (Switzerland)" 2018, vol. 10, no. 8. ; Conclusions of the Council and of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, Meeting within the Council, on Inclusion in Diversity to Achieve a High Quality Education For All 2017/C 62/, Council of the European Union (2017), https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/f16edd4b-fae8–11e6–8a35–01aa75ed71a1. ; Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), United Nations (2006). ; Convention on the Rights of the Child, United Nations, General Assembly (1989). ; Description of the Determination of Groups of the Pupils with Special Educational Needs and Procedure of the Division of the Educational Needs into the Levels, V–1265/V–6 §, Minister for Education and Science and Minister for Social Security and Labour and Minister for Health (2011), https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/TAIS.404013. ; Disability Resources, Services, Mykolas Romeris University (2020), https://www.mruni.eu/en/university/asm_spec_poreikiais/paslaugos/. ; Disability-Friendly University, Vytautas Magnus University (2020), https://www.vdu.lt/en/studies/why-vmu/a-disabled-friendly-university/. ; Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, Records of the General Conference, 11th Session, Resolutions, United Nations (1960). ; European Convention on Human Rights, As amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, supplemented by Protocols Nos. 1, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 16 §, European Court of Human Rights. (1950). ; For Disabled, University of Kazimieras Simonavicius (2020), https://ksu.lt/neigaliesiems/. ; For Students with Disabilities, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University (2020), https://www.vgtu.lt/studies/for-students-with-disabilities-/292655. ; For Students with Disability, Lithuanian Sport University (2020), https://www.lsu.lt/studentams/neigaliems-studentams/. ; For Students with Disability, Vilniaus Gedimino Technikos universitetas (2020). https://www.vgtu.lt/studentams/studentams-su-negalia/65918. ; Fuller M., Bradley A., Healey M., Incorporating Disabled Students within an Inclusive Higher Education Environment, "Disability and Society" 2004, vol. 19, no. 5. ; Gaad E., Almotairi M., Inclusion Of Student With Special Needs Within Higher Education In UAE: Issues and Challenges, "Journal of International Education Research" 2013, vol. 9, no. 4, https://www.clutejournals.com/index.php/JIER/article/download/8080/8133. ; General Concept of Education in Lithuania, The Ministry of Culture and Science of the Republic of Lithuania (1992), https://www.smm.lt/uploads/documents/General_concept_of_education_in_Lithuania_1992.pdf. ; Grigaitė U., Human Rights Conditions and Quality of Care in ' Independent Living Homes ' for Adults, Who Have Intellectual and/or Psychosocial Disabilities , in Vilnius: Analysis of Good Practice Examples, Systemic Challenges and Recommendations for the Future, 2017. https://www.who.int/mental_health/policy/quality_rights/QRs_Lithuania.pdf?ua=1. ; Hill S., Roger A., The Experience of Disabled and Non-Disabled Students on Professional Practice Placements in the United Kingdom, "Disability and Society" 2016, vol. 31, no. 9. ; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights, General Assmebly United Nations (1976). ; Joint Report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020), 2015/C 417 §, European Commission, and European Council (2015), http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838c22.html. ; Kurth J., Mastergeorge A.M., Individual Education Plan Goals and Services for Adolescents with Autism: Impact of Age and Educational Setting, "Journal of Special Education" 2010, vol. 44. ; Langørgen E., Kermit P., Magnus E., Gatekeeping in Professional Higher Education in Norway: Ambivalence among Academic Staff and Placement Supervisors towards Students with Disabilities, "International Journal of Inclusive Education" 2020, vol. 24, no. 6. ; Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania, I–1498 §, The Parliament of the Republic of Lithuania (1991), https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/df672e20b93311e5be9bf78e07ed6470?jfwid=rivwzvpvg. ; Law on Higher Education and Research, XI–242 §, Republic of Lithuania (2009), https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/548a2a30ead611e59b76f36d7fa634f8?jfwid=rp9xf47k7. ; Lister K., Coughlan T., Owen N., Disability' or 'Additional Study Needs'? Identifying Students' Language Preferences in Disability-Related Communications, "European Journal of Special Needs Education" 2020, no. 5. ; Matthews N., Teaching the 'invisible' Disabled Students in the Classroom: Disclosure, Inclusion and the Social Model of Disability, "Teaching in Higher Education" 2009, vol. 14, no. 3. ; Mullins L., Preyde M., The Lived Experience of Students with an Invisible Disability at a Canadian University, "Disability and Society" 2013, vol. 28, no. 2. ; Nacionalinis Švietimo Plėtotės Raportas, LR švietimo ir mokslo ministerija (2001), https://www.smm.lt/uploads/lawacts/docs/687_f36e428baa3be1af5722f6d880e03896.pdf. ; Neįmanomos Studijos Virsta Įmanomomis, 15min (2016), https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/svietimas/neimanomos-studijos-virsta-imanomomis-233–653265. ; Open University for People with Disabilities, Vilnius University (2020), https://www.vu.lt/en/about-vu/university-life/open-university-for-people-with-disabilities. ; Peebles J., Mendaglio S., Preparing Teachers for Inclusive Classrooms: Introducing the Individual Direct Experience Approach, "LEARNing Landscapes" 2014, vol. 7, no. 2, https://learninglandscapes.ca/index.php/learnland/article/download/Preparing-Teachers-for-Inclusive-Classrooms-Introducing-the-Individual-Direct-Experience-Approach/663. ; Procedure on the study individualization for the individual needs of disability, Vilnius University (2019), https://www.vu.lt/site_files/Studiju_individualizavimo_pagal_individualiuosius_poreikius_kylancius_dėl_negalios_tvarkos_aprasas.pdf. ; Ruling regarding appliance of measures of financial aid for disabled that are studying in higher education schools, 900 §, Republic of Lithuania (2019), https://www.e-tar.lt/portal/legalAct.html?documentId=41bda100cfa911e9929af1b9eea48566. ; Ruling regrding granting, adminstration and returning of state loans and state support loans for students, 480 §, Government of the Republic of Lithuania (2009). https://www.e-tar.lt/portal/lt/legalAct/TAR.5D93FB6D76BC/asr. ; Sæbønes A.M., Bieler R.B., Baboo N., Banham L., Singal N., Howgego C., McClain-Nhlapo C.V., Riss-Hansen T.C., Dansie G.A, Towards a Disability Inclusive Education (Background Paper for the Oslo Summit on Education for Development), "Education for Development" 2015, https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/Oslo_Ed_Summit_DisabilityInclusive_Ed.pdf . ; Simon J.A., Legal Issues in Serving Students with Disabilities in Postsecondary Education, "New Directions for Student Services" 2011, no. 134. ; Special Needs Education in Europe – Provision in Post-Primary Education, European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, "Thematic Publication" 2017, vol. 2, https://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/special-needs-education-in-europe-volume-2-provision-in-post-primary-education_Thematic-EN.pdf. ; Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities A/RES/48/9 § (1993). https://www.independentliving.org/standardrules/StandardRules.pdf. ; Starcic A.I.,, Educational Technology for the Inclusive Classroom, "Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology" 2010, vol. 9, no. 3, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ898012.pdf. ; Students with Special Needs, LCC International University, https://lcc.lt/academics/students-with-special-needs. ; Studies and Disability, Vilnius University (2020), https://www.vu.lt/en/studies/exchange-students/living-in-lithuania/studies-and-disability. ; Target Payments, National Study Fund of the Republic of Lithuania (2020), https://vsf.lrv.lt/lt/projektas/tikslines. ; The National Strategy for Education 2013–2022 (2013). https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/TAIS.463390. ; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations (1948). ; VMU Map, Vytautas Magnus university (2020), https://www.vdu.lt/en/contacts/vmu-map/. ; Wise G., Dickinson C., Katan T., Gallegos M.C., Inclusive Higher Education Governance: Managing Stakeholders, Strategy, Structure and Function, "Studies in Higher Education" 2018 vol. 45, no. 2. ; 25 ; 4 ; 233 ; 255

The present study assesses cereal production in selected areas of NW-Bangladesh, especially with respect to the biophysical and socio-economic characterization of cereal producing farm households. Three major cereal crops, namely rice, wheat, and maize dominate the cultivated land area (84%), as well as the overall agricultural economy, of Bangladesh. Positive change to the sustainability and productivity of these cereal systems are crucial to the domestic food security of both urban and rural Bangladesh, as around 2 million people are being added to the country's population annually. The land available to agriculture in this country is also under constant pressure from land degradation and transfer to alternative uses. Meeting the growing demand for food and feed by increasing food grain production has therefore become a pressing challenge for the country, and the importance of resource conservation and productivity enhancement as part of the response is increasingly recognized in the region. Against this backdrop, the empirical part of the study estimates the economics of cereal production and conventional technology diffusion with which the potential of conservation agriculture (CA) in the region can be assessed. Primary data required for the study was collected from sampled households through personal interviews using a comprehensive and pre-tested questionnaire. The primary data collection was carried out in 18 villages of three districts in northwest Bangladesh (Dinajpur, Rajshahi and Nilphamari). The shares of cultivable area to the total land area in the study sites are 77% (Dinajpur), 74% (Nilphamari), and 63% (Rajshahi). Prior to sampling farm households, a village census was enabled to document the general village characteristics such as population, land-use, infrastructure, agricultural input-output markets and prices. A comprehensive baseline household survey (324 households) followed based upon the random selection of farm households. In order to examine the characteristics of the households more extensively, the sample was categorized into three mutually exclusive groups by landholding size: small (0.66 acres, lower 33%), medium (between 0.67 and 1.64 acres, middle 33%), and large (greater than 1.64 acres, upper 33%) farmers. Medium and smallholdings dominate the study area, with cereal producing subsistence farmers prevalent among the smallholders. Among the sampled households, crop production is the major source of income and livelihood —contributing to 38% of total annual household income, on average. Unsurprisingly, large farmers derive a greater share of their income from cropping (55%) than small farmers (25%). On average, the large farmers cultivated land 6.3 times greater in area than do the small farmers. The average rent for the leasing of the land was BDT 14,572 per acre, while the same for leasing out was BDT 17,264 per acre. The ability of farmers in developing countries to invest in land is largely influenced by some form of credit access. About 48% of sampled farmers have taken some form of credit with an average amount of BDT 18,385, with large farmers taking more credit (BDT 28,451) than small (BDT 11,140) and medium (BDT 15,688) farmers. However, small farmers are paying a higher interest rate (26%) than the medium (24%) and large farmers (19%). The major crop rotations followed in the region are rice—rice, rice—wheat, rice—maize and potato/maize (intercropping)—rice. Most of the cereal crops, especially during the Rabi season, are cultivated with irrigation. About 80% of the total irrigated area was covered by groundwater, with shallow tube wells being the dominant source (65% of the total area irrigated). Rice was the only crop in the Kharif (Amara) season; about 73% of cultivable land was occupied by open pollinated varieties of rice (OPVs) — with 90% of the sample farmers cultivating such varieties, while hybrid rice was cultivated only by two large farmers. During the Rabi (Boro) season, 54% of sampled households reported cultivating OPV rice, which occupies 31% of the cultivable land. Hybrid rice is more popular during this season, grown on 7% of cultivable land by 15% of the farm households. Wheat is grown on 18% of land by 45% of households, while maize occupies 8% of the cultivable land with 13% of households involved in its production. In the case of rice, the most preferred varieties were Swama and BR 11. The average yield (13 quintals per acre) in the study area was significant among all the farmers. The most popular wheat varieties in the study areas were Shatabdi, Prodip, and Bijoy; together these varieties accounted for about 92% of the wheat acreage. The overall average yield of wheat was approximately 11 quintals per acre and there was no significant difference across the farmer groups. Maize ranks as the third most important cereal crop after rice and wheat. Only about 8% of cultivable land (13% among crops) was occupied by Rabi maize, and 7% of cultivable land (11% of farmers cultivate) was planted to spring maize. Only hybrid maize cultivation was found in the study area; NK 40 and 900 M were the most popular varieties in both the maize seasons, and the average yield was about 30 quintals per acre across varieties. The study area is characterized by a very insignificant presence of the government and public sector (cooperatives) agencies. The village private dealers dominate the input channels with a share of 96% of the fertilizer and pesticide markets. The sources of OPV rice seeds are also mainly private dealers (93% village, 6% district, and 1% government). An exclusive monopoly of private dealers (63% village, 37% district) was observed for the hybrid rice seed market. Unsurprisingly, a similar domination by village private dealer in case of both wheat and maize seeds was found through which 91% of wheat seeds and 82% of hybrid maize seeds were sourced. Only about 40% (much lower among small farmers) of rice and wheat grain production was marketed. However, maize is produced mainly for markets in Rabi and spring seasons, with significant profit. The average price of rice and wheat grain was BDT 1,860 per quintal and BDT 1,784 per quintal, respectively. The market price of maize grain varies across the varieties cultivated; the highest price was obtained from M 1,873 (BDT 1,400/quintal) and a lower price for NK 40 (BDT 943/quintal). On average, the total paid-out cost of Aman rice is BDT 11,239 per acre; the difference among the farm size groups was small. The gross revenue of Aman rice cultivation was BDT 23,594 per acre, making rice a profitable crop with cost—benefit ratio approximately 1:1.9 after imputing family labor cost. There was no significant difference in input use or profitability of rice farming among farmer groups based on the scale of operation. On average, the total paid-out cost of Boro rice was BDT 12,603 per acre. The gross revenue of Boro rice cultivation was BDT 38,782 per acre, making rice a profitable crop with a cost—benefit ratio of approximately 1:2.5, after imputing family labor cost. This net revenue is more than twice that of Aman rice, mainly due to higher crop productivity. The average paid-out cost of wheat was BDT 9,899 per acre; small farmers were observed to be more cost-effective than other groups. The gross revenue of wheat cultivation was BDT 20,036 per acre, with only small variations between the farmer groups. The cost—benefit ratio of wheat cultivation was approximately 1:1.9 after imputing family labor cost. The average total paid-out cost of maize during Rabi was BDT 11,931 per acre and BDT 8,864 per acre in spring. The cost—benefit ratio with imputed family labor is 1:2 (Rabi) and 1:2.5 (spring); spring maize has a higher ratio due to the lower cost of cultivation compared to Rabi maize. Most farmers in the study area have adopted the use of two-wheel tractors (91%), diesel pumps (88%), and mechanical pesticide sprayers (79%), with more large farmers owning their machinery. Although awareness exists among farmers regarding technologies such as laser land levelers, seed treatment/priming, and leaf color charts (LCC), CA techniques such as turbo/ happy seeders, no-till, quality protein maize, and site-specific nutrient management are relatively unheard of. For example, only less than 2% of farmers were found adopting zero (no) tillage, direct seeded rice, and bed planting. They perceive little impact from these technologies, although 23% of non-adopters were aware of them. Understandably, given the absence of information dissemination and government encouragement, the lack of information and unavailability of the products seem to be the key constraints inhibiting wider application of CA technologies, despite the documented benefits to be gained. In summation, the results of this study indicate a small average size of farms, a high level of inequality, lack of suitable crop variety, and the inadequate presence of government or public sector input and output market channels. The overall challenge is, therefore, to reduce the dependence of farmers on external inputs, curb the total cost of production, and achieve the goal of sustainable production of cereals through the adoption of new productivity-enhancing technologies, including CA (or individual elements thereof). To achieve this, the cereal sector in this region must overcome current unawareness among farmers about these technologies, the unsuitability of some of the technologies to be applied to small and marginal farms, and the scant involvement of the government and public sector in spreading awareness, as well as making the technology affordable. In addition, there must be sufficient provision of efficient market channels in order to encourage farmers to increase yields and profitability by adopting these technologies.

Hace menos de una semana, a los 62 años, falleció Tony Judt. Estrictamente hablando, Judt se desempeñaba como profesor de historia europea en la Universidad de Nueva York. Su rol como intelectual público, sin embargo, era –y seguirá siendo- muchísimo más amplio. En los pasos de la venerable línea de un Raymond Aron, Judt se había convertido en un polifacético observador de la sociedad; observaciones que conjugaba con un erudito conocimiento de la Historia -particularmente la historia intelectual. En tiempos en que escasean los pensadores eclécticos -aquellos dedicados a las grandes ideas-, y en que el rígido corset del especialista es cada vez más común, la demasiado pronta partida de Judt se va a hacer sentir. Tony Judt nació en Londres en 1948, en el seno de una familia secular judía, con antepasados que provenían de Rusia y Bélgica. Después de una juventud marcada por un intenso sionismo (pasó varios veranos en kibutz en Israel) ingresa al prestigioso King's College de la Universidad de Cambridge para estudiar historia –profesión que según él, había escogido a la temprana edad de 12 años. Luego cruzaría el Canal de la Mancha para asistir a la École Normale Supérieure –haciendo sus primeras armas en el pensamiento francés. Judt dio clases en su propio King's College, en Berkeley y Oxford, para arribar a fines de los ochenta a la Universidad de Nueva York, donde fundó el Remarque Insitute. Varios artículos en honor a Tony Judt están disponibles en la web (ver aquí, aquí, yaquí). No vale la pena reproducir el contenido de éstos. Prefiero reflexionar sobre mis experiencias intelectuales (y en cierta medida personales) en torno a Judt. Mi primer acercamiento a la obra de Tony Judt estuvo marcado por una compartida admiración por Raymond Aron. Como experto en los debates intelectuales europeos de post-guerra, Judt había trabajado seriamente sobre la obra de Aron. El magro volumen de discusiones sobre Aron en la academia anglo-estadounidense me decidieron a darle una oportunidad a este historiador del que poco sabía. Naturalmente, el primer libro que escogí fue The Burden of Responsability: Blum, Camus, Aron (University of Chicago Press, 2007). El trabajo es un retrato de estos tres intelectuales franceses que según Judt compartieron la voluntad de ir en contra de la corriente, de primar sus convicciones sobre la "moda" de los tiempos. Si bien no es un tour de force, The Burden of Responsability es un buen ejemplo de algo más importante para Judt que la historia particular de estos individuos: la necesidad de valorar a aquellos pensadores con coraje y honestidad intelectual.Past Imperfect: French Intellectuals, 1944-1956 (University of California, 1992) prometía ser un trabajo más sólido. Mi pronóstico se cumplió. Past Imperfect es un libro genialmente logrado. Judt conoce al detalle los debates intelectuales de pre y post guerra en Francia (ya tenía otros libros sobre la izquierda francesa), además de escribir magníficamente y potenciar esa cualidad -muy característica de la academia anglo-estadounidense- de hacer entendible lo extremadamente esotérico. En un interesante pasaje, Judt deja plasmada su concepción acerca del rol del intelectual:"…the writer or scholar who aspires to that public position which defines intellectuals and distinguishes them from mere scribblers has always had to choose between being the apologist for rulers or an advisor to the people; the tragedy of the twentieth century is that these two functions have ceased to exist independently of one another, and intellectuals like Sartre who thought they were fulfilling one role were inevitably drawn to play both…The most that one may ask is that those who thus engage themselves in the public arena, and who place on the scales of political or moral choice the weight of their intellectual prestige, do so with more care, coherence, and responsibility that their predecessors, and that they measure the meaning and impact of the thing they say and how they express them." (Past Imperfect, p. 319). Judt, por su valor y prudencia como intelectual público, y su convicción de la imposibilidad de dar una "Gran Respuesta Política," como tantos creyeron poder hacer en el siglo XX, cumplió con su propia concepción del intelectual. En 2005 vino su magnum opus, Postwar: a History of Europe since 1945(Penguin). Postwar se ha transformado rápidamente en un clásico moderno. Su posicionamiento como el texto de referencia para estudiar la Europa de postguerra es indiscutible. El libro es una detallada (tiene más de 900 páginas) historia de cómo Europa pudo salir de los desastres de la primera mitad del siglo XX y del experimento político al que entusiastamente se arrojó –i.e. la Unión Europea. Además de ser enciclopédico en los temas que abarca, el texto expone brillantemente su defensa del "modelo europeo." Su apoyo al estado de bienestar europeo, aún en los momentos en que fue más atacado, marca la constancia y honestidad con que Judt perseguía sus ideas; y esto es así esté uno de acuerdo o no con las conclusiones del historiador. Los libros a través de los cuales me acerqué al pensamiento de Tony Judt generaron un vínculo puramente académico e intelectual. Lo cierto, sin embargo, es que de haber conocido solamente esa faceta de su trabajo, seguramente no estaría escribiendo este artículo. Hace dos años Tony Judt se enteró que padecía el mal de Lou Gehrig. Una enfermedad que progresivamente lleva a un estado vegetal. Hasta la fecha de su muerte Judt podía hablar pero no podía moverse. Esto no impidió que el historiador siguiese trabajando y diciendo lo que pensaba, aún bajo las terribles condiciones de tener que dictar todo a un colaborador. Sorpresivamente, ésta fue una etapa muy prolífica. A partir del año pasado el historiador comenzó una serie de mini-memorias en The New York Review of Books. Fueron estos artículos los que generaron el vínculo que ahora siento hacia Judt, que sin poder definir bien de qué se trata, sin dudas va más allá de lo puramente académico. Las memorias de Judt se tornaron apasionantes. En mi calendario, era la publicación más esperada del mes. Sus recuerdos de la infancia en un austeroLondres de post-guerra. Sus reflexiones sobre los beneficios que el estado de bienestar de los años 50 y 60 generó en su educación. Las memorables anécdotas en Cambridge y la reflexión sobre eventos tan dispares como la participación en la guerra de los Siete Días y Mayo de 1968. Bajo una pluma como la de Judt, era imposible sentir otro cosa que no fuera una honesta empatía y una mezcla de alegría por una vida que pareció haber tenido de todo y la terrible conmoción de saber que su camino se había truncado bruscamente. Tampoco faltaban sus arrojos de honestidad que desafían hábilmente al sentido común. Un comentario sobre el rol de la suerte en la formación de las carreras profesionales y la tan común (¿e hipócrita?) idea de que "el trabajo dignifica" –sin importar cuál sea ese trabajo- es un buen ejemplo:"We remain in thrall to the industrial-era notion that our work defines us: but this is palpably untrue for the overwhelming majority of people today. I ended up doing what I had always wanted to—and getting paid for it. Most people are not so fortunate. The majority of jobs are tedious: they neither enrich nor sustain. All the same (like our Victorian predecessors), we once again regard unemployment as a shameful condition: something akin to a character defect. Well-paid pundits are quick to lecture "welfare queens" on the moral turpitude of economic dependence, the impropriety of public benefits, and the virtues of hard work. They should try it some time."Este tipo de comentarios provocadores, que muchos piensan y pocos se animan a señalar, eran parte rutinaria de los escritos de Judt. Los artículos más conmovedores fueron aquellos vinculados a su salud. En una suerte de precipitada colisión contra la realidad, el lector reconoce que el disfrute en las memorias de Judt no podía ocultar que, en realidad, éstas eran una terrible carrera contra el tiempo. La valentía de afrontar su condición, comentarla públicamente y seguir adelante a pesar de ella, es una lección que siempre voy a recordar. Frente a la pregunta de un periodista sobre las razones de su apertura a la hora de hablar de la enfermedad, Judt comentaba:"This is an imprisoning disease, and every now and then there is a desperate desire to break out of the prison and tell people what it is like. The disease is like being put in prison for life, no parole, and the prison is shrinking by six inches every week. I know that at some point in the future it's going to crush me to death, but I don't know exactly when." La muerte de Tony Judt me afectó más de lo que hubiese imaginado. Mi inmersión en su trabajo había generado una sincera preocupación por este historiador, o mejor, intelectual, que decía cosas tan interesantes, y que las decía de manera exquisita. El mundo de las letras va a extrañar a Tony Judt. Para mi sorpresa, debo confesar que yo también. *Profesor Universidad ORT.Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (Tesista).

The volume examines the role of artistic and academic refugees from National Socialism acting as "cultural mediators" or "agents of knowledge" and offers a global analysis of the processes of cultural translation and knowledge transfer affecting culture, and sciences, but also everyday life

The e-mail allegedly attributed to Satoshi Nakamoto (supposedly a pseudonym) was transmitted 14 years ago, describing the development of an electronic currency (Nakamoto, 2008). The design of this electronic currency represented the solution of the general Byzantine problem, a well-known problem in computing, which, in general terms, defines that one of the parts of a system can intentionally fail, and with that, make the entire network unavailable. Therefore, the premise is that part of the system is corrupt (Dolev et al., 1982). In the few lines of the email, Satoshi Nakamoto described such a solution and published an article with the details made available on the same date. The article describes how to transmit information within a chain of blocks that are: synchronized with date and time (time stamp); combined with code that depends on a previous block (hash code); can be validated with public and private key cryptography framework anonymously and decentrally; but highly resilient to any tampering attempt and with public record. The concept of digital currency, in this case Bitcoin, consisted at that time of a code or token resulting from encryption and that could be included in these blocks. Blocks registered definitively in the ledgers distributed along the blockchain network that could be traced. The digital framework developed by Satoshi Nakamoto, although it emerged to make Bitcoin viable as a digital currency, has been separated over the last 14 years. Blockchain can be understood as a decentralized communication technology that gave rise to a family of other technological structures of encrypted communication such as ecosystems, public blockchain, private blockchain and blockchain networks, mainly (Mazumdar Ruj, 2022). Digital currencies, on the other hand, have also developed in variety and quantity, so much so that as we write this editorial there are over 10,000 digital currencies in operation. The total capitalization value of digital currencies rose from USD 18 billion at the beginning of 2017, surpassing USD 1.4 trillion by mid-2021 (Su et al., 2022). Currently, there is no technological impediment for companies to create their own digital currencies using a Bitcoin network or an Etherium network, for example, as well as many other networks available.Obviously, even today, there are technical challenges related, mainly, to the scalability of these networks and currencies. Bitcoin, when created, had a capacity of 7 transactions per second, currently, as we write this editorial, the transaction capacity of the Bitcoin network (BTS) is 14 transactions per second. The Etherium (ETH) network was born with a capacity of 20 transactions per second and currently has a capacity of 35 transactions per second. For comparison purposes, the VISA network has a capacity of 1700 transactions per second, which shows that there is still some way to make blockchain networks the new communication backbone, scalable for more mass uses (Chauhan Patel, 2022). There are implementations of the Solana network, for example, which promises to reach 50,000 transactions per second, still in the confirmation phase from a practical point of view, which could allow running Internet of Things (IoT) applications on this blockchain network (Duffy et al., 2021).At the same time, since 2013, the reorganization of the TCP IP structure from IPv4 (4.2 billion IP addresses) to IPv6 (79 octillion IP addresses or 7.9 x ) more than the total number of IPv4 addresses) has been implemented. Such implementation made it possible to expand connectivity to a level sufficient for the world demand, which is 56 octillion (56 x ) addresses per human being on earth. In terms of addressing, the possibilities of connecting new and future elements on the internet/blockchain communication network are guaranteed, making the IoT (Internet of Things) a real possibility.In addition to the traditional applications dedicated to making digital currency viable, especially in the last 5 years, certain works resulting from the combination of information technology and human creativity (also known as creative economy) brought NFT (Non-Fungible Token) to the management field. NFT are tokens (produced through encrypted code, subscribed in some blockchain network) that express the ownership of their author. Whoever acquires an NFT, has his/her record recorded in a ledger and, therefore, can exercise the rights or benefits related to the possession of that NFT. There are two main origins of an NFT, digital games and works of art or graphic expressions (Vasan et al., 2022). In the case of digital games, NFT can be used to record permanently and nominally the "achievements achieved" within a given game. Its owner now takes possession of a certain item that, previously, would only exist within the game itself, a virtual (digital) environment. In the case of graphic, artistic expressions, and other works of art, it is possible to make your possession digital. Works from the natural environment (physical), the result of expressions of human creativity, are now registered in an NFT-type token, coming to exist in the virtual world (digital). In this way, the works, and the data of their authorship and ownership, are permanently registered in the ledger of a blockchain network specialized in transacting NFT. As in the game, the possession of an NFT of a work of art allows the author to trade or use the benefits related to the possession of this NFT.From the convergence of connectivity technologies such as cloud computing, the advent of IPV6 and technologies based on tokens (blockchain, crypto assets and NFT not exhaustively) the concept of Web 3.0 becomes viable. Web 3.0 can be understood as a network of people and physical objects, making the integration between the natural world and the virtual world more intense (augmented, virtual and mixed reality). The idea of a Metaverse (Web 3.0 Application) depends on the technological availability that we describe here very succinctly and on the realization of new social behaviors that are underway (Korkmaz et al., 2022).The context described is not new to most practitioners and academics involved with innovation. However, by describing it in general terms, we can identify different research objects that may be of interest to the community working in the field of innovation management. Evidently, within the research perspectives, especially in innovation management, parallel logics can be established with the more established theories or concepts, which allow an approximation with the new technological objects available to people and companies. Such technologies have permeated traditional companies and startups that have a specific focus on these connectivity technologies described as core business or as business support.The idea of this editorial comment is to recognize the possibility of receiving more technological articles or scientific articles, perspectives and book reviews that consider connectivity and tokenization technologies as research objects. Such technologies can be positioned in research both as objects of analysis and as contextual and organizational objects. Whether contextual and organizational can bring research involving routines, capabilities, competencies and business models, whose core business process is innovation at different scales, natures, degrees of novelty, stages of diffusion or adoption. To cite just one possibility, as an example, the model by Tidd and Bessant from 2009, which describes the construct of orientation to innovation strategy, used in several research in the field of innovation since then, can be revised in the new contexts or in the face of new technologies (Ferreira et al., 2015). If such technologies are positioned as objects of analysis, research can involve every part of the innovation management process such as searching for innovations, selecting innovations, implementing innovations, generating value with innovations, and capturing value with innovations in analysis of single level or multilevel. In addition to the direct positioning of token and blockchain-based technologies, as an object or as a contextual aspect, adjacent effects are expected, for instance, involving intellectual property, environmental and social sustainability, technological governance, people management and other consequences that may be the focus of research, considering the emerging technologies mentioned above. There is also the field of research that is dedicated to the development of new products, both defining new models of digital product development and methods derived from these models, without forgetting all the implications related to the issues of information security management involved in these contexts of token transactions (Baudier et al., 2022). Although the possibilities for theoretical and managerial development for the area of innovation research, involving technologies based on tokens and blockchain, are broad, there is research that can be very relevant, but that would be better received in journals in mathematics, computer science or even software engineering and not in journals dedicated to innovation. Research that develops a new way of doing encryption, or even a more efficient algorithm that allows increasing the capacity of transactions per second, the design of a new network or a new ecosystem based on blockchain or even research that develops improvements in consensus protocols of blockchain undoubtedly has great value but would be expected in engineering or math journals. On the other hand, there are studies that bring reports of implementations of a business application on a blockchain basis, either as a business support application, or in the form of designing a blockchain-based product that will be taken to the market (Wan et al., 2022). In these cases, applied research, from the point of view of innovation research, what is expected to be found in the article is the development of knowledge that demonstrates how, why or to what extent the innovation processes were sensitized, or in what way the process of innovation contributed or presented limitations to support the reported implementation. In this way, such research can be received as technological articles, since the theoretical elements that relate the innovation process, or the management of the innovation process with the implementation based on token or blockchain, will be present, which are the bases of analysis used to support the expansion of innovation theories, innovation management or management practices in innovation contexts.Finally, we invite the entire community to submit papers with theoretical discussions related to paradigm shifts, involving the dematerialized nature of new products and their tendency towards a service-oriented view (Jain et al., 2022).As it should be clear, this editorial comment did not explore all the possibilities of research in innovation management involving technologies based on tokens and blockchain, but only a few examples that can help to obtain insights. We intend, in some way, to encourage the innovation community to develop studies considering new technologies, developing, or expanding theories and knowledge of innovation.

La causa uigur es uno de los tantos conflictos internos que aquejan a la China. Los uigures son una de las más de cincuenta etnias reconocidas en el país. De religión musulmana y origen turco, son casi nueve millones de personas que habitan en la región de Xinjiang, al oeste del gigante asiático. Rodeada por una cadena montañosa y por el desierto de Taklamakan, Xinjiang es una de las provincias chinas de mayor extensión y en ella coexisten, principalmente, dos culturas y no siempre de forma armoniosa.Los uigures, culturalmente próximos al Asia Central, religiosamente son seguidores de la rama sunní del Islam. Durante décadas fueron mayoría en la región, representando más de un 50% de los habitantes pero, en los últimos tiempos, se han visto invadidos, por no decir "copados" por una instalación masiva de la etnia "han", mayoritaria en China. Apoyado en este proceso de "recolonización" de la región por los han, Beijing está dominando este conflicto a través de una triple estrategia. Utiliza abiertamente la fuerza cuando es necesario, ejerce un "soft power" mediante cierto impulso al progreso económico y, al mismo tiempo, desarrolla la seguridad regional. Esta combinación de políticas tiene como resultado un serio cuestionamiento de la identidad de esa etnia y del cada vez más lejano sueño secesionista uigur.La represión constante y los disturbios de 2009El Islam, los deseos independentistas y la lucha armada forman un triángulo de políticas que no es soportable para Beijing, por lo que todo reclamo exacerbado de la población uigur es reprimido con dureza por el gobierno. Las protestas ocurridas en la ciudad de Gulja en 1997, que terminaron con la muerte de muchos manifestantes, motivaron políticas más duras. Actualmente los uigures se encuentran molestos por la imposición de la cultura marcada por el Partido Comunista y el sometimiento de su pueblo. La mayoría de la etnia uigur lucha por el respeto a sus valores culturales a través de medios pacíficos pero los desórdenes pueden ocurrir en cualquier momento. Pero las manifestaciones, del tipo que sean, son frenadas de forma sistemática por Pekín que, como se sabe no tiene escrúpulos en vulnerar los Derechos Humanos de esta u otras poblaciones (v.g. Tibet)En julio de 2009 en Urumqi, capital de Xinjiang, se produjo una de las mayores represiones a los uigures de los últimos tiempos. Una manifestación pacífica motivó el enfrentamiento entre las poblaciones. Los chinos han, armados con palos, salieron a las calles para enfrentarse a los uigures y el ejército cerró la ciudad. Los chinos intentaron ingresar a las mezquitas acusando a los uigures de querer modificar su cultura. Los enfrentamientos de aquel año fueron los más violentos en China desde los ocurridos en la Plaza Tiananmen en 1989.Se estima, aunque es difícil de comprobar las cifras, que murieron más de 200 personas y fueron heridas alrededor de 1800. Por fuera de estos números están las confiscaciones, secuestros, detenciones masivas y ejecuciones que el ejército llevó a cabo sin control de nadie. En aquel entonces, Human Rights Watch denunció desapariciones y el cierre de los ingresos a la ciudad.El gobierno chino justifica la violencia utilizada por una supuesta "amenaza terrorista". Aunque sean una muy pequeña minoría, los uigures que toman el camino del extremismo parecería que efectivamente existen. En 2011, China logró que Naciones Unidas incluyese al Movimiento Islámico de Turkestán Oriental en la lista de grupos terroristas. Lo que supone un intento de señalar un posible relacionamiento con los talibanes, Al Qaeda, agrupaciones chechenas, etc. La cercanía de la región con Pakistán y Afganistán, supone, efectivamente, la posible llegada de influencias islamistas fundamentalistas.El "poder suave": la economíaEl escaso desarrollo económico de la región fue visto por el Partido Comunista como una de las causas que puede provocar el crecimiento del sentimiento independentista. Más que simplistamente consideraron las autoridades chinas que una buena estrategia para combatir la secesión era reducir las diferencias entre las provincias alejadas y el resto del país. La gran inversión económica denota que hay muchos objetivos en juego; el principal radica en que Xinjiang es la puerta de entrada al corredor centro-asiático. La construcción permanente y la llegada del tren de alta velocidad implican una apuesta de China para crear una nueva Shangai al oeste de la nación.Reeditando la histórica "ruta de la seda", que unía Xian con Constantinopla, China busca formar en Xinjiang un centro logístico que conecte las regiones centrales y costeras con Asia Central. Las relaciones comerciales entre China y sus vecinos del "hinterland" han crecido mucho en el último tiempo. La explotación de materias primas en la región es creciente lo que ha disparado la demanda interna de energía. Xinjiang debe ser un territorio seguro: existen proyectos relacionados con las enormes reservas de petróleo, gas natural, carbón y uranio allí presentes. Dos claros ejemplos son el oleoducto de 3.000 km entre China y Kazajstán y el gasoducto de 7.000 km que va desde Turkmenistán hasta Shangai, pasando por Uzbekistán y Kazajstán.Horgos, ciudad fronteriza con Kazajstán, fue declarada Zona Económica Especial al igual que Kashgar, otra localidad de la zona. El objetivo del gobierno chino es atraer inversión extranjera gracias a las facilidades brindadas. Las obras de infraestructura son desarrolladas en forma constante atrayendo población de distintas provincias chinas que arriban, se instalan y generan tensiones con los uigures autóctonos. Los han ya son mayoría en las urbes, relegando a los uigures a zonas más despobladas, principalmente al sur del desierto. Los inmigrantes se ubican en las ciudades del norte, en donde se destaca la construcción constante de bancos y centros comerciales. Nicolás de Pedro1, especialista en temas de Asia Central, aduce que la principal causa del malestar de los uigures es la inmigración.En Xinjiang se ha llevado a cabo un proceso de transformación social que se ha dado en llamar2 la "hanificación": una oleada de colonización de la etnia han, de crecimiento de la cultura china y de expansión del idioma mandarín. Estos procesos generan un fuerte resentimiento en la población uigur.El control de la diásporaLa represión y el empleo de una estrategia de desarrollo económico en la zona no es suficiente para controlar las tensiones de lo que hemos llamado "la causa uigur". Para China sería difícil mantener la calma en Xinjiang sin la cooperación de los países de Asia Central y sin aplastar, al mismo tiempo, a la diáspora uigur. A través de organizaciones y tratados bi y multilaterales, China se asegura de sellar la frontera para frenar un posible apoyo a los uigures desde el exterior.China, Rusia, Kazajstán, Kirguistán, Tayikistán y Uzbekistán crearon en 2001 la Organización de Cooperación de Shangai. La misma estableció un convenio entre los países para la cooperación militar y el intercambio de información entre los servicios secretos. Este organismo es fundamental para la seguridad en Xinjiang, una provincia clave en la articulación entre China y el Asia Central.En el aspecto bilateral, China exigió un compromiso diplomático a la vecina Kazajstán, en donde vive la mayor diáspora uigur, estimada en 200.000 personas. El acuerdo supone explícitamente el no apoyo a movimientos eventualmente secesionistas y Kazajstán depende fuertemente del abastecimiento de la China. La diáspora uigur también se instaló en Kirguistán, país que posee un entorno político más abierto. Allí, donde habitan más de 40 mil uigures, se produjeron ataques a locales chinos y asesinatos. En Uzbekistán y Turkmenistán las comunidades son pequeñas y tienen pocos vínculos con las residentes en China.A nivel internacional, la causa no ha logrado apoyos significativos, como sí lo han tenido los tibetanos aunque cuenten con la figura, en la diáspora, de Rebiya Kader, exiliada tras estar encarcelada en China. Beijing realizó una campaña diplomática dura en su contra para evitar su ascenso, aunque Kader obtuvo apoyos en Japón y Australia. Su objetivo es internacionalizar el conflicto para que sea conocid0. Los uigures que llegaron a Estados Unidos, Turquía y Alemania tratan de ir por el mismo camino. El Congreso Uiguir Mundial, creado en 2004, tiene su sede en Munich. Mientras que, desde Turquía, a donde huyó una gran cantidad, se oyó la voz del presidente Erdogan, quien en 2009 pidió que finalicen las atrocidades cometidas contra este pueblo.La independencia es una utopíaLos uigures reivindican su identidad y cultura desde hace siglos. La invasión china, durante la dinastía Qing, se dió a mediados de los años 1700 pero el dominio fue frágil. Hasta fines del siglo XIX, la presencia rusa y las disputas con el imperio británico fueron características de todo el oeste de la China.Aprovechando esa inestabilidad, los uigures lograron formar una nación propia pero de vida corta; en 1933 se fundó Turkestán oriental. La nueva nación era vista como un freno al avance de China y la Unión Soviética. Stalin la derrocó y, luego, en 1949, el ejército comunista chino conquistó Xinjiang. Como toda provincia china vivió las distintas fases de la nación: los excesos, las hambrunas y la represión, así como los cataclismos políticos de la Revolución Cultural.Entre los años ochenta y los noventa se produjo el momento más cercano a la independencia para los uigures. La caída de la Unión Soviética le permitió a las naciones de Asia Central crear sus repúblicas independientes. Los cambios en China, que habían llegado de la mano de Deng Xiaoping, permitieron también cierta tolerancia y permisividad con el Islam y su lengua. Las autoridades, centradas en el control de otras zonas del país, dejaron crecer el sentimiento separatista. Sin embargo, China nunca quiso desprenderse del territorio. Si bien se concedieron permisos, se abrieron fronteras y se otorgaron visas, la secesión hubiese sido demasiado problemática para el país.Los uigures vieron su libertad en el horizonte pero el nacionalismo nunca tuvo la unidad necesaria para formar un movimiento independentista como en el Tíbet. Hoy en día a lo máximo que pueden aspirar los uigures es luchar por el respeto de sus derechos religiosos y de su cultura. Pero, en las circunstancias actuales dado el autoritarismo chino, hasta eso es imposible. El dominio chino es seguro y sólido. Parecería que hace tiempo que, con su triple estrategia, China les ganó la guerra.1-"El conflicto de Xinjiang", Nicolás De Pedro 2-"La silenciosa conquista China", Juan Pablo Cardenal y Heriberto Araujo Sobre el autorLic. en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad ORT-Uruguay

Wer steuert was in Schule? Welche Aufgaben haben Schulleitung, Kommune, Land? Im Interview diskutieren Vertreter der drei Ebenen über Fehler im System, bürokratische Hürden und Möglichkeiten einer effektiveren Zusammenarbeit.

















Rainer Schulz, Christine Wolfer, Holger Köster (von links). Fotos: Claudia
Masur, Sascha Kreklau, Hendrik Lüders.






Herr Köster, wie frei ist man eigentlich als Schulleiter?



 



Holger Köster: Die meiste Zeit des Tages fühle ich mich frei. Und zwar in allen Dingen, die mit der Gestaltung von Schulalltag und Unterricht zu tun haben, da erfahre ich
viel Unterstützung auch aus Stadt und Landkreis. Absolut unfrei fühle ich mich, wenn es um die Modernisierung unseres Schulgebäudes geht oder um die Suche nach neuem Personal. Dann kommt es mir
vor, als würden die Behörden über die Köpfe von uns Schulen hinwegentscheiden. Es kostet im Alltag viel Kraft, immer wieder um vermeintliche Selbstverständlichkeiten kämpfen zu müssen.



 



Frau Wolfer, das deutsche Schulsystem gilt als komplex. Sie arbeiten für einen kommunalen Schulträger,
die Stadt Jena. Können Sie in drei Sätzen erklären, wofür Sie zuständig sind und wofür nicht?

Christine Wolfer: Als Stadt bestreiten wir die äußere Schulträgerschaft, sind, vereinfacht gesagt, verantwortlich für Bänke, Stifte und Tafeln. Die innere Schulträgerschaft
liegt dagegen beim Land, also die Unterrichtsgestaltung, die Personalbewirtschaftung, die Schulentwicklung. Dass diese Aufteilung nicht wirklich sinnvoll ist, hat der Städtetag schon 2007 in der
sogenannten Aachener Erklärung festgestellt und umfassende Änderungen gefordert. Leider bis heute ohne Erfolg. In Jena haben wir immerhin einen Schulversuch in die Richtung unternommen.


Herr Schulz, als Staatsrat für Schule und Berufsbildung in der Hamburger Senatsverwaltung vertreten Sie hier die Länderseite? Müssen die Zuständigkeiten im deutschen Schulsystem stärker
vom Ziel her gedacht werden?



 



Rainer Schulz: Ganz bestimmt. Oft geht es weniger um das Ziel als um das Festhalten an bestehenden Prozessen. Doch sollte einen das nicht davon abhalten zu tun, was man für
richtig hält. Ich war selbst über viele Jahre Leiter einer Berufsschule und habe ähnlich empfunden wie Herr Köster: Das Drumherum nervte, aber im schulischen Alltag litt ich selten
unter Gängeleien. Der Gestaltungsspielraum ist also











Christine Wolfer ist Diplom-Sozialpädagogin und leitet den Fachdienst Jugend und Bildung der Stadt Jena. Damit ist sie unter anderem für die Kitas,
die Schulverwaltung und die Jugendsozialarbeit zuständig. Im Rahmen eines Schulversuchs übertrug das Land Thüringen zwischen 2011 und 2022 weitreichende Entscheidungsbefugnisse an drei Jenaer
Schulen und an die Stadt als Schulträger.








trotzdem da – was wir daran sehen, dass in Deutschland unter denselben Rahmenbedingungen Leuchtturmschulen und Failed Schools existieren. Das sollte uns aber nicht davon abhalten, über eine
sinnvollere Verteilung der Aufgaben zu sprechen.



 



Und die wäre?



 



Schulz: In Hamburg haben wir 2007 entschieden, die innere und äußere Trägerschaft in einer Einheit zu konzentrieren, und zwar in der Behörde für Schule und Berufsbildung:
Wenn Sie alles in einer Hand haben, können Sie wirklich vom Ende her fragen: Was braucht es, um gute Schule zu verwirklichen? Unsere Antwort ist die selbstverantwortete Schule. Herr Köster würde
gern selbst Personal einstellen: In Hamburg könnte er das. Selbstverantwortete Schule benötigt auch selbstverantwortete Budgets. Wenn ein Kollegium sagt, dieses Jahr brauchen wir einen neuen
Computerraum, dann können Sie genau dafür einen großen Teil der Sachmittel in dem Jahr einsetzen. Umgekehrt gehört zur selbstverantworteten Schule die Rechenschaftslegung. Die Schulen müssen uns
zeigen, ob sie mit ihren Schülern die Bildungsziele erreichen.














Rainer Schulz ist seit 2017 Staatsrat beim Hamburger Senator für Schule und Berufsbildung und Vorsitzender der Amtschefkommission
"Qualitätssicherung in Schulen" der KMK. Vorher war der Berufsschullehrer unter anderem Leiter der Staatlichen Handelsschule für Blinde und Sehbehinderte, Oberschulrat am Landesinstitut für
Lehrerbildung und Geschäftsführer des Hamburger Instituts für berufliche Bildung.





Köster: Haben Sie gerade eine Schulleiterstelle in Hamburg frei, Herr Schulz? Im Ernst: Was Sie zum Thema selbstverantwortete Schule sagen, gefällt mir sehr gut. Gerade weil
Deutschland nicht nur aus Hamburg, Berlin oder Köln besteht, sondern aus viel ländlichem Raum. Wie bei uns in Olpe, wo qualifiziertes Personal noch mal knapper ist. Und da erlebe ich es als
großen Wettbewerbsnachteil, wenn mir als Leiter einer staatlichen Schule die Hände gebunden sind, während die Ersatzschulen, deren Kosten auch zu 90 Prozent vom Staat finanziert werden, viel
freier agieren können.



 



Und wie sieht es mit dem Geld aus, Herr Köster?







Köster: Auch da vermisse ich die Möglichkeit, strategisch handeln zu können. Im Moment läuft es eher so: Ab und zu regnet es Geld von oben, der Bund oder das Land schnüren
große finanzielle Pakete, um die Qualität von Schule zu verbessern. Doch anstatt das Geld nach pädagogischen Gesichtspunkten auszugeben, finanzieren die Kommunen ihre ureigendsten Trägeraufgaben
damit. So wurden mit Mitteln aus dem Paket „Gute Schule 2020“, das die damalige Landesregierung aufgelegt hatte, keine Tablets oder andere Lernmittel angeschafft, sondern Toiletten saniert und
Dachböden gedämmt. Das wäre anders gelaufen, wenn wir Schulen bei der Verwendung der Mittel mitreden dürften.



 



Frau Wolfer, Hamburg hat die innere und äußere Schulträgerschaft in der Behörde konzentriert, Herr Köster wünscht sich Entscheidungsrechte für die Schulen beim Personal und bei den
Investitionen. Wer braucht dazwischen eigentlich noch die Kommunen?



 



Wolfer: Ich bin auch für ein stärkere Verknüpfung der Trägerschaft und für möglichst viel Autonomie für die Schulen. Ich hielte es aber für falsch, alles in den
Landesbehörden zusammenzufassen. In einem Stadtstaat wie Hamburg mag das gehen, in einem Flächenland wie Thüringen müssten wir es eigentlich genau andersherum handhaben. Aus dem Grund hatten wir
bei uns in Jena ja über zehn Jahre unseren Schulversuch.









Holger Köster ist Lehrer für Mathematik und Physik und leitet seit 2017 das Gymnasium Olpe. Vorher war er bereits fünf Jahre lang stellvertretender
Schulleiter. Die Schule mit ihren knapp 900 Schülern liegt im ländlichen, aber wirtschaftsstarken Südwestfalen und ist seit zwei Jahren als Internationale Schule für das International
Baccalaureat Diploma Programm zertifiziert.





 



Was genau haben Sie ausprobiert?



 



Wolfer: In Jena befinden sich unsere Brennpunkte in den klassischen DDR-Plattenbauvierteln. Während die Schülerzahlen Anfang der Zehnerjahre überall in der Stadt stiegen,
befanden sich die Schulen in den Plattenbauvierteln in der Krise – obwohl wir doch gerade dort gute Schulen brauchten. Wenn die Schulen gut sind, ziehen sie auch Schüler aus anderen Gegenden an,
und die sozialen Milieus mischen sich wieder. Der Schulversuch hat uns erlaubt, drei Schulleitern, die sich auf den Weg machen wollten, besonders viel Bewegungsspielraum zu geben. Sie durften
sich wie kleine Unternehmen 







 selbst ihre Lehrkräfte aussuchen, die zu ihrem pädagogischen Profil passten, ohne dabei ferngesteuert zu sein über das staatliche Schulamt oder das Landesministerium. Weil es damals
noch mehr Lehrer in Thüringen gab als Stellen, klappte das wunderbar. Die Schulen konnten sich entwickeln, sich personell vernetzen mit der städtischen Jugendhilfe, den Freizeitzentren, dem
Stadtteilbüro. Was es ihnen möglich machte, ganze Familien in den Lernprozess einzubinden. Leider erlauben die Regeln der Kultusministerkonferenz für Schulversuche nur die Maximaldauer von zehn
Jahren, und das Bildungsministerium schien an einer Fortführung in anderer Form nicht interessiert zu sein.



 



Weil alle festhängen an den bekannten Zuständigkeiten, und keiner der vielen Köche etwas abgeben will?



 



Wolfer: Da ist sicher was dran. Unser System ist sehr starr. Vielleicht liegt das auch an unserem Beamtenwesen. Wenn wir Schule und Bildung wirklich neu denken wollten, müssten
wir aber alle zu Änderungen bereit sein. Doch dafür müssten wir die Schulen zunächst stärken, indem wir sie mit zwei Leitungen ausstatten: einer pädagogischen und einer kaufmännischen. Die
kaufmännische wäre dann für das Management von Personal und Budgets zuständig und würde auch die Beantragung zusätzlicher Mittel und Programme übernehmen. Natürlich nur bis zu einer sinnvollen
und zumutbaren Grenze.



 



Wo wäre für Sie diese Grenze erreicht, Herr Köster? Wenn plötzlich jemand von Ihnen verlangen würde, selbst einen Neubau für Ihre Schule zu organisieren?



 



Köster: Dafür bräuchten wir natürlich Experten und Unterstützung, aber über deren Beauftragung könnten wir sehr wohl als Schule entscheiden. Wichtiger als die Zahl der Köche ist,
dass wir uns auf ein gemeinsames Rezept einigen. Die entscheidende Frage lautet: Was muss Schule leisten, und wie versetzen wir sie in die Lage, das erreichen zu können? Statt einer klaren
Richtung sehen wir aber ein Hin und Her. Nur ein Beispiel: Vor 15 Jahren war G8 die Innovation schlechthin. Doch wenig später geriet die Reform politisch in Verruf und wurde auch bei uns in NRW
wieder gekippt. Dabei wissen wir aus der Schulforschung, dass es zehn, 20 Jahre braucht, bis eine grundlegende Veränderung greift. Ich habe aber noch eine Frage an Herrn Schulz. Wenn bei Ihnen in
Hamburg die Schulleiter so viele zusätzliche Aufgaben haben, was tun Sie dann für deren Ausbildung?



 



Schulz: Wenn gute Schulleitungen die Motoren für die Schulentwicklung sind, dann brauchen sie erst mal die richtigen Typen, die Verantwortung übernehmen wollen und, ganz wichtig,
auch einen Plan für ihre Schule haben. In einem ersten Schritt bieten wir allen, die Spaß und Interesse an Leitungsaufgaben haben, freiwillige Seminare an, wo sie sich klar werden können über
das, was Führung in Schule bedeutet. Wer dann sagt: "Das kann und das will ich" und sich auf eine Schulleiterstelle bewirbt, der muss verpflichtend eine Anfangsqualifizierung durchlaufen, gefolgt
von regelmäßigen Fortbildungen. Jetzt kommt ein dickes Aber.



 



Welches Aber?



 



Schulz: Keine noch so sinnvolle doppelte Schulleitung und keine noch so umfangreiche Schulleiterqualifikation werden dazu führen, dass wir in Deutschland die Zahl der Köche
verringern können. Wenn eine Schule selbst entscheiden möchte, welche Lehrer sie einstellt oder wo der Anbau hinkommt, dann sollte sie das tun. Das ändert aber nichts daran, dass es auf
Landesebene einen bestimmten Betrag für Schulbauten gibt, dessen Verwendung zentral geplant werden muss – abhängig vom Zustand der Gebäude, von der sozialen Lage der Stadtteile und der
Entwicklung der Schülerzahlen. Apropos Schülerzahlen: Wenn die steigen, brauchen Sie auch eine übergreifende Strategie. Gibt es genügend Studien- und Referendariatsplätze? All das soll und muss
weiter beim Land liegen. Und damit eine Schule zu günstigen Konditionen Strom erhält und Handwerker kommen, wenn etwas kaputtgeht, braucht es auch künftig die Kommunen, alles Andere wäre
ineffektiv. Übrigens, weil immer wieder die Rufe kommen, nur der Bund könnte für das angeblich fehlende gemeinsame Rezept sorgen: Ich glaube nicht, dass irgendwas besser wäre, wenn in Berlin
jemand säße, der dafür zuständig wäre, in der Schule von Herrn Köster das Licht anzumachen.



 



Köster: Es wäre aber schon sinnvoll, wenn es für ganz Deutschland Rahmenvorgaben gäbe, etwa zur Ausstattung von Schülern mit digitalen Geräten. Oder zu der Frage, was Bildung die
Eltern eigentlich kosten darf. Beim Thema Lehrmittelfreiheit gilt von Bundesland zu Bundesland Unterschiedliches, teilweise sogar von Regierungsbezirk zu Regierungsbezirk. Und wie ist das mit der
zweiten Fremdsprache? Wie ist die Inklusion geregelt? Wenn ich von NRW nach Hamburg ziehe, habe ich auch wieder das G8-G9-Problem. Vereinheitlichung würde uns da schon weiterbringen.



 



Schulz: Wir sollten jetzt aber auch nicht so tun, als würde das totale föderale Durcheinander herrschen. Wir haben bundesweit geltende Bildungsstandards; wir haben vergleichbare
Stundentafeln, wir haben die Regeln und Inhalte der Abiturprüfungen angeglichen. Mich nervt die Kultusministerkonferenz auch oft, weil sie sich zu langsam bewegt. Die entscheidende Frage aber
muss doch lauten: An welcher Stellen sind bundesweite Regelungen überhaupt sinnvoll, und an welchen Stellen würden wir damit den Spielraum in den Schulen einschränken – von dem wir ja alle
finden, dass er wichtig und sinnvoll ist.



 



Frau Wolfer, Sie haben vorhin die Aachener Erklärung von 2007 erwähnt. Was macht Sie optimistisch, dass nach all den Jahren der darin geforderte Aufbruch noch gelingen kann?



 



Wolfer: Weil Not erfinderisch macht und die Not in unserem Schulsystem erst jetzt groß genug zu sein scheint. Durch den Lehrermangel sind viele Quereinsteiger in die Schulen
gekommen, überall einstehen kleine Inselchen, Schulen, die sich auf den Weg machen: Richtung Eigenverantortung, Richtung Multiprofessionalität in einem neuen Miteinander von Lehrkräften,
Schulsozialarbeitern und anderen Berufsgruppen. Ich habe die Wende mitgemacht und weiß, dass es immer wieder Zeitfenster für Veränderungen gibt. Meist gerade dann, wenn alles besonders schwierig
scheint. Und solche Veränderungen gehen immer von unten aus.



 



Das Gespräch erschien zuerst im Magazin sonar der Deutschen Telekom Stiftung.




Kostenfreien Newsletter abonnieren






Möchten Sie diesen Blog unterstützen?

OBERÖSTERREICHISCHER PRESSVEREINS-KALENDER AUF DAS JAHR 1929 Oberösterreichischer Preßvereins-Kalender (-) Oberösterreichischer Preßvereins-Kalender auf das Jahr 1929 (1929) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Werbung ( - ) Das Jahr 1929. ([1]) Bewegliche Feste. Die vier Quatember. Mondesviertel. Die zwölf Zeichen des Tierkreises. Die vier astronomischen Jahreszeiten. Von den Finsternissen. Vom Jahresregenten. ([1]) [Kalender]: 1929 ([2]) Wetter-, Volks- und Bauernregeln. (26) Jänner. Februar. März. April. Mai. Juni Juli. August. September. Oktober. November. Dezember. (26) Landwirtschaftlicher Hauskalender. (27) Januar. Februar. März. April. Mai. Juni. Juli. August. September. Oktober. November. Dezember. (27) Heiteres. (27) Hoch - höher - am höchsten. Wo ist der Vogel ? Schlau. (27) Alphabetisch geordnetes Verzeichnis der Taufnamen nebst Angabe des Datums. (28) A-D (28) E (28) F-H (29) J (29) K-L (30) M-Qu (31) R (31) S-Z (32) Die Legende von Schauersberg. ([33]) [Abb.]: Die Wallfahrskirche zu Maria Schauersberg bei Wels. ([33]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das schöne Österreich: Das malerische Weißenkirchen in der Wachau. (2)Das schöne Österreich: Blick auf Dürnstein. (35) Tante Barbara. Erzählung von Herta Pohl. (36) [Abb.]: Weinlese in der Wachau. Im Hintergrund Krems und das Donautal. (37) [2 Abb.]: Deutsche Städte in Südtirol: Bruneck (oben) und Sterzing (unten). (41) Ein Stück Zichorienpapier. Von T. v. Wildungen. (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Neustift bei Großraming, das oberösterreichische Maria Zell (oben). (2)Maria Schnee in Südböhmen (unten). (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die neuerbaute Kirche der Salesianer in Linz, Franckstraße (oben). (2)Das neue Schulhaus der Schulschwestern in Linz, Brucknerstraße (unten). (45) Das rote Herz. Von L. Nowak, Wels-Aigen. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Welser Dragoner-Denkmal (oben). (2)Das Linzer Hessen-Denkmal (unten). (47) [Abb.]: Der Radiosender der Ravag am Linzer Freinberg (1928 eröffnet). (49) Buridans Esel. Von Hermann Wagner. (50) Das Marienkreuz. Von Max Karl Böttcher. (52) [Abb.]: Das am 1. November 1928 eingeweihte Bischof Hittmair-Gedenkkreuz im Linzer Heldenfriedhof. (53) [2 Abb.]: Die neue Ebelsberger Traunbrücke wurde am 25. November 1928 dem Verkehr übergeben. (55) [2 Abb.].: Unsere Toten. (1)Pfarrer Kanonikus Hemmelmayr, Lustenau. (2)Pfarrer Dechant Baumgartner, Wels. (57) Der Hörigott. Skizze von F. Kaltenhauser. (58) [4 Abb.]: (1)Die Linzer Olympia-Sieger Losert und Fleßl (links oben). -(2)Fronleichnam in Traunkirchen (rechts oben). - (3)Brütende Schwäne am Traunsee. (links unten). - (4)Der älteste deutsche Priester (rechts unten). (61) [2 Abb.]: (1)Salzgewinnung in Italien: Windmühlen pumpen das Salzwasser aus dem Meer in die Verdunstungsbassins. (2)Für die Beförderung der Post ist in London eine eigene Untergrundbahn gebaut worden. (63) Die Ochsen. Von F. Schrönghammer-Heimdal, Passau-Haidenhof. (64) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kirche von Santa Rose in Kalifornien ist aus einem einzigen riesigen Baumstamm erbaut. (2)Eine der ältesten deutschen Apotheken: Die "Malhaus-Apotheke" in Konstanz. (67) Der Förster Vogl und sein Wald. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Neubauten in der Hauptstadt Afghanistans. (2)Der größte Getreidespeicher der Welt befindet sich in Kanada. (69) [Abb.]: Hallstatt vom Grubkreuze aus. (71) [Gedicht]: Die alte und neue zeit. Von P. Maurus Lindemayr. (72) [Abb.]: Zur Landung des deutschen Luftschiffes "Graf Zeppelin" in Newyork. Unser Bild zeigt einen Vergleich der bisherigen drei amerikanischen Luftschiffe mit dem neuen Luftschiff "Graf Zeppelin" vor der Halle von Lakehurst. Von links nach rechts: "Pony Blimp", 100 Fuß lang, und trägt außer dem Führer drei Passagiere; "R. S. 1", von der Goodyear Company für die amerikanische Armee gebaut, ist 282 Fuß lang; "Los Angelos", früher"Z. R. 3", ist 642 Fuß lang, und das neue Luftschiff "Graf Zeppelin", das eine Länge von zirka 900 Fuß hat und bis 100 Passagiere und Mannschaften aufnehmen kann. Es ist interessant, zuwissen, daß dieses Bild bereits vor vier Jahren entstanden ist und daß es jetzt bezüglich der Dimensionen der Luftschiffgrößen und der Passagiere nach der glücklichen Landung des Luftschiffes "L. Z. 127" in Lakehurst Wirklichkeit geworden ist. (73) Der Dienstmann. Von Alfred Polger. (74) Zur Geschichte des katholischen Preßvereines. (75) [Abb.]: Mons. Johann Riegler, Obmann des Preßvereins-Komitees, starb am 30. August 1928, (75) [Abb.]: Direktor Karl Commenda. (76) [2 Abb.]: (1)Max Fasching †. (2)Ferd. Brunnmayr † (77) [2 Abb.]: (1)Josef Weiß. (2)Eugen Strobl. (78) [Abb.]: Das Reklameplakat des "Linzer Volksblattes" auf der Kölner internationalen Presse-Ausstellung. (79) Werbung (80) Schematismus der Geistlichkeit der Diözese Linz in Oberösterreich. (Abgeschlossen Ende November 1928.) Die auf Seite 103 befindlichen Abkürzungen wollen gütigst beachtet werden. (Die Kriegsauszeichnungen sind hier nicht angeführt.) (81) Oberster Hirt: Metropolit: Bischof: Domkapitel: (81) Ehrendomherren: (81) Bischöfliche Ordinariats-Kanzlei: Bischöfliche theologische Diözesanlehranstalt: (82) Bischöfliches Priesterseminar: (82) Bischöfliches Knabenseminar mit Gymnasium in Urfahr (Collegium Petrinum). (83) Bischöfliches Konvikt im Haiderhofe zu Linz. Bischöfliches Lehrerseminar in Linz. Bundes-Gymnasium in Linz. Bundes-Gymnasium in Ried. Bundes-Gymnasium in Freistadt. Bundesgymnasium in Wels. Real-Gymnasium in Linz. Real-Gymnasium in Gmunden. Bundes-Oberrealschule in Linz. Bundes-Oberrealschule in Steyr. Mädchen-Mittelschulen der Stadt Linz. (84) Lehrerbildungsanstalt in Linz. (84) Knaben-Bürgerschule 1, Spittelwiee 8. Knaben-Bürgerschule 2, Schützenstraße 13. Knaben-Bürgerschule 3, Figulystraße. Knaben-Bürgerschule 4, Wr.-Reichstraße 42. Knaben-Bürgerschule 5, Jahnstraße. Mädchen-Bürgerschule 1, Mozartstraße 30. Mädchen-Bürgerschule 2, Schützenstraße 13. Mädchen-Bürgerschule 3, Baumbachstraße 11. Mädchen-Bürgerschule 4, Raimundstraße 17. Mädchen-Bürgerschule 5, Hinsenkampplatz. Knaben-Volksschule 7 u. 8, Dürnbergerstr. 1. Knaben-Volksschule 9, Webergasse. Mädchen-Volksschule 6, Grillparzerstraße 49. Schule der Ehrwürdigen Ursulinen in Linz. Schulen der Ehrwürdigen Kreuzschwestern in Linz. Katholisches Waisenhaus. Erziehungsanstalt "Zum guten Hirten". Taubstummen-Institut. Privat-Blindeninstitut. Landes-irrenanstalt. (85) In Linz wohnende Diözesan-Weltpriester. (85) Diözesanpriester außerhalb der Diözese. Priester aus fremden Diözesen in Linz. Militärseelsorge. (86) Pfarrgemeinden der Diözese. Die Ziffern bei den Pfarrorten bedeuten die Seelenzahl. Wenn zwei Zahlen vorkommen, bedeutet die letztere die Seelenzahl der Protestanten, z. D.: Abtsdorf (P. T. Attersee) 215/12 heit: 215 Katholiken, 12 Protestanten; St. Agatha 1524 heißt: 1524 Kathoiliken. Nach der Seelenzahl steht das Dekanat. (87) A (87) B-D (88) E (88) F (89) G (90) H (91) I-J (92) K (92) L (93) M (94) N (95) O (96) P (97) R (98) S (99) T (100) U (101) V (101) W (102) Z (103) Verzeichnis der Abkürzungen. (103) Ordensstand und Kongregationen der Diözese. (104) Männer-Orden und -Kongregationen. (104) Augustiner-Chorherrenstift St. Florian. (104) Augustiner-Chorherrenstift Reichersberg. (105) Prämonstratenser-Chorherrenstift Schlägl. (105) Benediktinerstift Kremsmünster. (106) Benediktinerstift Lambach. (107) Zisterzienserstift Schlierbach. (108) Zisterzienserstift Wilhering. (108) Kloster Engelszell, Post Engelhartszell a. D. Vertretung der Mariannhiller-Mission, Süd-Afrika. Hospiz der Franziskaner in Baumgartenberg. (109) Hospiz der Franziskaner in Bruckmühl. Kloster der Franziskaner in Enns. Kloster der Franziskaner in Pupping. Kloster der Franziskaner in Maria-Schmolln. Konvikt "Vogelsang" in Steyr. Hospiz der Franziskaner in Suben. Kloster der Kapuziner in Gmunden. (110) Kloster der Kapuziner in Linz. (110) Kloster er Kapuziner in Braunau am Inn. Kloster der Kapuziner in Ried. Kloster der Karmeliten in Linz. (111) Kloster der Barmherzigen Brüder in Linz. (111) Kollegium Aloisianum der Gesellschaft Jesu am Freinberg. Residenz der Gesellschaft Jesu in Linz. Residenz der Gesellschaft Jesu in Steyr. Kollegium der Redemptoristen in Puchheim. (112) Städtisches Studentenheim der Marienbrüder in Freistadt. (112) Kollegium der Marienbrüder in Freistadt. Noviziatshaus der Marienbrüder in Mistelberg 20 (Greisinghof), Post Pregarten. Katholisches Lehrlingsheim in Linz. Noviziat und Missionsschule "Regina Apostolorum", der PP. Oblaten des hl. Franz von Sales in Dachsberg (Pfarre Prambachkirchen). (113) Missionskonvikt der Oblaten des hl. Franz von Sales in Ried im Innkreis. (113) Salvatorianerkolleg in Hamberg. Gesellschaft des Göttlichen Wortes (Societas Verbi Divini). Don Bosco-Anstalt der Salesianer Don Boscos in Linz, Lustenau. Kongregation der Brüder der christlichen Schulen in Goisern. (114) Frauen-Orden und -Kongregationen. (114) Kloster der Ursulinen in Linz. Kloster der Elisabethinen in Linz. (114) Kkarmelitinnen in Linz. Kloster der Salesianerinnen in Gleink. Kloster der Redemptoristinnen in Ried. Kloster der Ordensschestern vom Guten Hirten zu Baumgartenberg. Dominikanerinnen-Konvent "St. Josef" in Eferding. Institut der Barmherzigen Schwestern vom heil. Vinzenz von Paul in Linz. Provinzhaus der Barmherzigen Schwestern vom hl. Karl Borromäus in Stadl-Paura bei Lambach. (115) Institut der Schwestern vom heil. Kreuz in Linz. (115) Institut der armen Schulschwestern in Vöcklabruck. Institut der armen Schulschwestern zu Lahn in der Pfarre Hallstatt. Institut der armen Schulschwestern von unserer lieben Frau in Freistadt. Mutterhaus der Schwestern des III. Ordens Unserer lieben Frau vom Berge Karmel. Oblatinnen des heiligen Franz von Sales in Urfahr. Töchter des göttlichen Heilandes (Mutterhaus Wien) in St. Veit im Mühlkreis. Genossenschaft der Schwestern vom göttlichen Heiland (Salvatorianerinnen) in Hamberg, Pfarre Schardenberg. (116) Personen-Register des geistlichen Personalstandes. (117) A-D (117) E (117) F-G (118) H (118) I (119) K (119) L-O (120) P (120) R (121) S (121) T-Z (122) Richtigstellungen: (122) [Tabelle]: Postgebühren-Tabelle. ([123]) Briefe. Postkarten. Drucksachen, Geschäftspapiere, Mischsendungen. Nachnahme-Briefsendungen. Postanweisungen. Pakete, Inland. ([123]) [Tabelle]: Gottesdienst-Ordnung in Linz-Urfahr, Pöstlingberg, St. Peter u. Kleinmünchen. Vormittag Nachmittag. ([124 - 125]) Sonn- und Feiertagsgottesdienste in den oberösterr. Pfarren. 1) (Die nicht eingeklammerten Zahlen bezeichnen den Beginn des Gottesdienstes im Sommer, in der Regel ab Georgi, die eingeklammerten im Winter, ab Michaeli.) (126) Heiteres. (129) [Tabelle]: Stempelgebühren-Tarif. (130) Praktisches Verzeichnis. Auszug aus dem Stempel- und Gebührentarif für Schriften und Urkunden. (131) Verzeichnis der Boten welche in der Landeshauptstadt Linz (Urfahr) ankommen und abgehen. (133) A-R (133) S (133) T-Z (134) Heiteres. (134) Anekdoten. (134) Übertrumpft. Mißverständnis. Schlau. Er sieht den Grund ein. Ökonomie. Ärgerei. Wie man´s macht. Einmal nicht vergeßlich. Die Zigarre. Heimgegeben. Langschläfer. Tüchtige Hausfrau. (135) [Abb.]: Mißverständnis. (135) Kinderhumor. Englischer Humor. Im Vorstadtvariete. Energisch. Eine schöne Frau. (136) [Abb.]: Energisch. (136) Straßen- und Hausbesitzer-Verzeichnis der Stadt Linz samt Vororten. Das Flächenausmaß der Ortsgemeinde Linz beträgt 5229 Hektar, dazu gehören die Katastralgemeinden Kleinmünchen, Waldegg, Urfahr, Pöstlingberg und St. Peter. Die Stadt Linz hat ein Flächenausmaß von 597 Hektar. (137) Adlergasse. Altstadt. Am Damm. Am grünen Anger. Anastatsius-Grün-Straße. Andreas-Hofer-Platz. Andreas-Hofer-Straße. Annagasse. Anton-Dimmel-Straße. Anton-Weiguny-Platz. Anzengruberstraße. Auberg. (137) Aubergstraße. (137) Auerspergstraße. Auf der Gugl. Bachl. Badgasse. Bahnhofstraße. Dr. Bahrgasse Bancalariweg. Bauernberg (138) Baumbachstraße. Beethovenstraße. Bergern. Bergschlösselgasse Berggasse. Bethlehemstraße. Billrothstraße. Bischofstraße. (139) Bismarckstraße. (139) Blumauerstraße. Blütenstraße Bockgasse. Breitwiesergutstraße Brückenstraße (links). Brückenstraße (rechts). Brucknerstraße. Brunnenfeldstraße (Scharlinz). Bürgerstraße. (140) Christian-Coulin-Straße. (140) Damaschkostraße. Darrgutstraße. Derfflingerstraße. Dierzerstraße. Dinghoferstraße. Domgasse. Donatusgasse. Donaustraße (rechte). Donaustraße (linke). Drouotstraße. Dürrnbergerstraße. Dr.-Edlbacher-Straße. Ederstraße. (141) Dr.-Eigner-Straße. (141) Eisenbahngasse. Eisenhandstraße. Elisabethstraße. Fabrikstraße. Fadingerstraße. Feldstraße. Ferihumerstraße. Fichtenstraße. (142) Figulystraße. (142) Fischergasse. Flügelhofgasse. Flußgasse. Franckstraße. Freinbergstraße. Freistädterstraße. Friedhofstraße (Linz). Friedhofstraße (Urfahr). Fröbelstraße. Füchselstraße. (143) Garnisonstraße (143) Gärtnerstraße. Gerstnerstraße. Gesellenhausstraße. Ghegastraße. Gilmstraße. Glögglberg. Glögglweg. Goethestraße (144) Graben. (144) Greilstraße. Grillparzerstraße. Grünauerstraße. Gründberg. Gstöttnerhofstraße Güntherstraße. Gürtelstraße. Gußhausgasse Haerdtlstraße. Hafenstraße. (145) Hafferlstraße. (145) Hafnerstraße. Hagen. Hahnengasse. Halbgasse. Hamerlingstraße. Hanriederstraße. (146) Harbach. (146) Harrachstraße. Hauptstraße. Heilham. Heizhausstraße. (147) Herrenstraße. (147) Herstorferstraße. Hinsenkampplatz. Hirschgasse. Höchsmannstraße. Hofberg. Hofgasse. Holzstraße. Honauerstraße. (148) Hopfengasse. Hoppichlerstraße. Hörschingergutstraße Huemerstraße. Humboldtstraße. Hyrtlstraße. Jägerstraße. Jahnstraße. Im Hühnersteig. (149) Im Tal. (149) In der Neuen Welt. Ingenieur-Stern-Straße. Johann-Konrad-Vogel-Straße. Johann-Planck-Straße. Johannesgasse. Jungwirthstraße. Kaarstraße. Kaisergasse. Kapellenstraße. Kaplanhofstraße. (150) Kapuzinerstraße. (150) Karl-Fiedler-Gasse. (151) Karl-Marx-Straße. (151) Karl-Wiser-Straße. Kaserngasse. Keimstraße. Kellergasse. Keplerstraße. Khevenhüllerstraße. Kinderspitalstraße. Kirchengasse. Klammstraße. (152) Kleinmünchen (152) Klosterstraße. Knabenseminarstraße. Kollegiumgasse. Kommunalstraße Konrad-Deubler-Straße. Krankenhausstraße. (154) Kraußstraße. Kreuzstraße. Kroatengasse. Kudlichstraße. Kürnbergerweg. Landgutstraße. (155) Landstraße. (155) Langgasse. Lasingergasse. Lastenstraße. Lenaustraße. Leonfeldenerstraße. Leopold-Hasner-Straße. Lerchengasse.Lessingstraße. Limonigasse. Lindengasse. Lissagasse. Liststraße. Löwengasse. Lohnsdorfer-Platz. (156) Lohnsdorfer-Weg Ludlgasse. Lustenau. (157) Lustenauerstraße. (157) Magazingasse. Makartplatz. Makartstraße. Margarethen Mariahilfgasse. Marienstraße. Marktplatz. (158) Marktstraße. (158) Martinsgasse. Melicharstraße. Mittelstraße. Mozartstraße. Mühlkreisbahnstraße. Museumstraße. Neugasse (Urfahr). Neustraße (Scharlinz). Neutorgasse. Niedernharterstraße. (159) Niederreithstraße. (159) Nißlstraße. Noßbergerstraße. Novaragasse. Obere Donaulände. Oberfeldstraße. (160) Ottensheimerstraße. (160) Parzhofstraße. Pestalozziplatz. Petrinumstraße. Pfarrgasse. Pfarrplatz. Pfeifferstraße. Pichlerstraße Pillweinstraße. (161) Pflaster. (161) Platz des 12. November. Pöstlingbergstraße. Pöstlingberg. Prinz-Eugen-Straße. (162) Promenade. (162) Prunerstraße. Quergasse. Raimundstraße. Rathausgasse. Reindlstraße. Reinhold-Körner-Straße Reischeckstraße. Richard-Wagner-Straße. Ringstraße. Riesenhofstraße. (163) Römerstraße. (163) Roseggerstraße. Rosenstraße. Rosenauerstraße. Rosenbauerstraße. Rudigierstraße. Sandgase. (164) St. Peter. (164) St. Peterstraße. Scharitzerstraße. (165) Scharlinz. (165) Schenkstraße. Schiffbaustraße Schillerstraße. Schlossergasse. Schmiedegasse. Schmidtorstraße. Schratzstraße. (167) Schubertststraße. (167) Schulertal. Schulstraße. Schützenstraße. Schwarzstraße. Schweizerhausgasse. Seilerstätte. Semmelweißstraße. Sintstraße. Sonnensteinstraße. (168) Sophiengutstraße. Spazgasse. Spittelwiese. Stadlbauerstraße. Starhembergstraße. Steinbauerstraße. Steingasse Stelzhamerstraße. Stifterstraße. (169) Stockbauernstraße. Stockhofstraße. Strachgasse. Straßerau Talgasse. Tegetthoffstraße. Tiefer Graben. Tummelplatz. Umschlagplatz. Unionstraße. (170) Untere Donaulände. (170) Urfahrwänd. Vergeinerstraße. Verlängerte Kirchengasse. Versorgungshausstraße. Vielguthstraße. Volksfeststraße. (171) Volksgartenstraße. (171) Wachreinerstraße. Wagnerstraße. Waldegg. Waldeggstraße. (172) Walterstraße. (172) Webergasse. Weingartshofstraße. Weißenwolffstraße. Westbahnstraße. (173) Wiener Reichsstraße. (173) Wildbergstraße. Willemerstraße. Wimhölzelstraße. Wirtschaftshofstraße Wischerstraße Wurmstraße Zellerstraße. Zeppenfeldstraße. Ziegeleistraße. (174) Zizlau. (174) Werbung (175) Einband ( - )

The COVID-19 pandemic has put unprecedented pressure on public health resources around the world. From adversity opportunities have arisen to measure the state and dynamics of human disease at a scale not seen before. Early in the COVID-19 epidemic scientists and engineers demonstrated the use of wastewater as a medium by which the virus could be monitored both temporally and spatially. In the United Kingdom this evidence prompted the development of National wastewater surveillance programmes involving UK Government agencies academics and private companies. In terms of speed and scale the programmes have proven to be unique in its efforts to deliver measures of virus dynamics across a large proportion of the populations in all four regions of the country. This success has demonstrated that wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can be a critical component in public health protection at regional and national levels and looking beyond COVID-19 is likely to be a core tool in monitoring and informing on a range of biological and chemical markers of human health; some established (e.g. pharmaceutical usage) and some emerging (e.g. metabolites of stress). We present here a discussion of uncertainty and variation associated with surveillance of wastewater focusing on lessons-learned from the UK programmes monitoring COVID-19 but addressing the areas that can broadly be applied to WBE more generally. Through discussion and the use of case studies we highlight that sources of uncertainty and variability that can impact measurement quality and importantly interpretation of data for public health decision-making are varied and complex. While some factors remain poorly understood and require dedicated research we present approaches taken by the UK programmes to manage and mitigate the more tractable components. This work provides a platform to integrate uncertainty management through data analysis quality assurance and modelling into the inevitable expansion of WBE activities as part of One Health initiatives.