Suchergebnisse

When the G-20 leaders met on 24-25 September 2009 in Pittsburgh, USA, they agreed in their Communiqué that, building on the efforts of many countries to, reduce fossil fuel subsidies while preventing adverse impact on the poorest?, they were committed to, rationalize and phase out over the medium term inefficient fossil fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption. This draft report has been developed jointly by the International Energy Agency (IEA), Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and World Bank in response to this request. It draws on the relevant expertise and work of the four tasked organizations, but also on input and comments from other organizations and experts. The report includes: a) discussion of the scope of energy subsidies; b) estimates of energy subsidies, and identification of the gaps in the existing data and issues around the measurement of energy subsidies; c) modeling-based analysis of the implications of phasing-out energy subsidies on the economy, including socio-economic and trade impacts, the environment, and the energy sector; and d) suggestions for the implementation of phase-out of inefficient subsidies leading to wasteful consumption, drawing on country case studies, including discussion of how to address social impacts.

25 páginas, 6 figuras, 2 tablas ; Characterization of the genetic landscape of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related dementias (ADD) provides a unique opportunity for a better understanding of the associated pathophysiological processes. We performed a two-stage genome-wide association study totaling 111,326 clinically diagnosed/'proxy' AD cases and 677,663 controls. We found 75 risk loci, of which 42 were new at the time of analysis. Pathway enrichment analyses confirmed the involvement of amyloid/tau pathways and highlighted microglia implication. Gene prioritization in the new loci identified 31 genes that were suggestive of new genetically associated processes, including the tumor necrosis factor alpha pathway through the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex. We also built a new genetic risk score associated with the risk of future AD/dementia or progression from mild cognitive impairment to AD/dementia. The improvement in prediction led to a 1.6- to 1.9-fold increase in AD risk from the lowest to the highest decile, in addition to effects of age and the APOE ε4 allele. ; This work was funded by a grant (EADB) from the EU Joint Programme – Neurodegenerative Disease Research. INSERM UMR1167 is also funded by the INSERM, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille Métropole Communauté Urbaine and French government's LABEX DISTALZ program (development of innovative strategies for a transdisciplinary approach to AD). Full consortium acknowledgements and funding are in the Supplementary Not ; Peer reviewed

Issue 50.1 of the Review for Religious, January/February 1991. This is a special 50th anniversary issue on Ignatian spirituality. ; Review for Religious Volume 50 ¯ Number 1 January/February 1991 Ignatian Spirituality Ellard ¯ Grace ¯ Barry ¯ Ong ¯ Klaas Murphy ¯ Divarkar ¯ Cannon ¯ Fischer Fleming ¯ Flynn ¯ Townsend ¯ Wickham REVIEW FOR R~;Uc~OUS (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at St. Louis University by the Mis-souri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus; Editorial Office; 3601 Lindell Blvd., Rm. 428; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-535-3048. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis MO. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to REVIEW FOR Rr:LI(;Iot,sP.O. Box 6070; Duluth. MN 55806. Subscription rates: Single copy $3.50 plus mailing costs. One-year subscription $15.00 plus mail-ing costs; two-year subscription $28.00 plus mailing costs. See inside back cover fi)r subscription information and mailing costs. 01991 Rv.w~.:w voa RELII;IOUS. David L. Fleming, S.J. Philip C. Fischer, S.J. Micheal G. Harter, S.J. Elizabeth McDonough, O.P. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David J. Hassel, S.J. Mary Margaret Johanning, S.S.N.D. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Sean Sammon, F.M.S. Wendy Wright, Ph.D. Suzanne Zuercher, O.S.B. January/February 1991 Volume 50 Number I Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editnr should be sent to Rt:\'~t:w t't~a Rt:u~aous; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. lamis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Eliza-beth McDonough, O.P.; 5001 Eastern Avenue; P.O. Box 29260; Washington, D.C. 20017. Back issues shnuld be ordered from Rt:w~:w voa Rt:~J~;~ous; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. la~uis, MO 63108-3393. "Oat Df print" issues are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major portion of each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write to the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. Review for Religious Volume 50, 1991 Editorial Offices 3601 Lindell Boulevard, Room 428 Saint Louis. Missouri 63108-3393 David L. Fleming, S.J. Philip C. Fischer, S.J. Michael G. Harter, S.J. Elizabeth McDonough, O.P. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS iS published in January, March, May, July, Sep-tember, and November on the twentieth of the month. It is indexed in the Catholic Periodical and Literature Index and in Book Review Index. A microfilm edition of REVIEW FOR REL~GOUS is available from University Microfilms International; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Copyright© 1991 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. A major portion of each issue of R~wEw FOR RZL~G~OUS is also regu-larly available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually im-paired. Write to the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. PRISMS. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS begins its fiftieth year of publication with this issue. To celebrate, we are dedicating this entire issue to contemporary reflections on Ignatian spirituality, the spirituality that enlivened and in-spired the three founding editors--Augustine Ellard, Adam Ellis, and Ger-ald Kelly, all Jesuit priests. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS has never been identified as the publication of a particular school of spirituality or of one religious-life tradition. In the vision of the founding editors, the journal was to serve all religious-life communities and at the same time to be a forum for the wide exchange of ideas and developments in the spiritual life and apostolic mission of the Church itself. Over the years all religious groups and spiritual-life traditions have been represented among the authors and through the arti-cles found in the pages of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. The strength and the ap-peal of the journal have been in its broadening of our horizons for both understanding and developing our Catholic spiritual and apostolic lives. To use the imagery recalled in the title of this foreword, the authors and articles have given us various prisms through which we can view from various angles the Christian calling to be with Jesus in the bringing about of the reign of God. This issue, however, in one sense narrows that focus and centers on lgnatian spirituality, not just as a tribute to the founding editors, but also as a particular contribution to the celebration of the lgnatian anniversaries~50 years from the founding of the Society of Jesus and 500 years from the birth of Ignatius Loyola. The contribution which Ig-natius has made to the spiritual vitality of Christian life is especially evi-denced in the widespread retreat experience of laity, clergy, and religious according to the method of the Spiritual Exercises. At its beginnings, lg-natian spirituality played an important role in the Church renewal stimu-lated by the Council of Trent. In a similar way, since Vatican II the lg-natian tradition of discernment has been key to religious chapter renewal and choice of apostolic mission, in addition to personal and parish re-newal. Because of the widespread influence of this lgnatian tradition over the centuries on both the Christian devotional life and the de-velopment of religious-life forms, the decision was made to let this is- Review for Religious, Janua13,-February 1991 sue take its "Ignatian" shape from various unsolicited articles recently submitted for possible publication and from a few "classical" Ignatian articles reprinted from earlier issues. One of the founding editors, Father Augustine Ellard, S.J., provides us with an overall review of the elements of Ignatian spirituality; when the article was originally published in 1952, it was one of a series on vari-ous religious-life spiritualities. Two other articles drawn from early past issues deal with the meaning of the A.M.D.G. motto and its directional value for our living (written by Walter Ong, S.J.) and with the retreat movement as influenced by the Ignatian Exercises (written by Augustine Klaas, S.J.). Parmananda Divarkar, S.J., touches upon the apparent Ignatian para-dox between a growing sense of personal freedom and an ever more bind-ing loyalty to Christ and to his Church; he finds his reflections embod-ied in the former superior general of the Society of Jesus, Father Pedro Arrupe. In a similar way, William Barry, S.J., traces the development of a freeing experience in the self-and-God imagery of Ignatius as a possi-ble model for our own growth. In their two articles, David Townsend, S.J., and David Fleming, S.J., consider two different aspects of the lg-natian prayer tradition captured in the contemporary phrases of "find-ing God" and "centering." In two articles which specifically consider the Spiritual Exercises, John Wickham, S.J., introduces us to a deeper appreciation of the com-munal dimensions involved in the Ignatian Exercises, while Dr. Helen Murphy shares her experience of familiarizing people, particularly col-lege students, with the movements of the Exercises. William Barry, S.J., proposes an understanding of discernment as particularlyrelevant to the spiritual crisis of our time. Then in two articles reflecting on ministry today, David Fleming, S.J., points to the "secret" of an Ignatian way of ministering, and James Flynn, S.J., reviews the contemporary collabo-rative effort to share the lgnatian spirit among all the parties who make up a complex apostolic institution, such as a Jesuit university. What Ig-natian spirituality, especially in the form found in the Christian Life Com-munities, has meant to lay people is reflected in Mrs. Ligeia Cannon's article. How deeply intertwined Ignatian spirituality is with the Church's devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus inspires a fresh and invigorating re-examination by Edmond Grace, S.J. The book-review section, too, centers on Ignatian spirituality. Be-sides the reviews of three recently published books dealing with Ignatian spirituality, with the Spiritual Exercises in daily life, and with the per- Prisms sonal diary of the Jesuit John Eagan, Philip Fischer, S.J., provides a sum-mary introduction to the many publications of the Institute of Jesuit Sources since its beginning in the 1960s. He also calls our attention to some of the books dealing with Ignatian themes which have recently ap-peared or have been published consistently by certain other publishing houses. We hope that the authors and their articles in this unique issue pro-vide all our readers with a way to share in the celebration of the Ignatian anniversaries and the fiftieth anniversary of this journal. The editors also want to express our deep appreciation for the cover design produced by Thomas Rochford, S.J., and Michael Harter, S.J., which sets off and marks this issue as special. For those who may want to share this issue with others, individual copies can be ordered from the editorial offices in St. Louis at $3.50 plus $1.50 for postage and handling. Ad multos annos! David L. Fleming, S.J. Ignatian Spirituality Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. Father Augustine Ellard, S.J., along with Fathers Adam Ellis, S.J., and Gerald Kelly, S.J., is a founding editor of REvw.w FOR RF~.~C~OUS. These three Jesuits re-mained the editorial board for the first fifteen years of the journal. The following article was published in the May 1952 issue. Although some of the militaristic stress of Ignatian spirituality would be mitigated by commentators today, the article re-mains an excellent summary of lgnatian principles. Father Ellard died on February 17, 1970--the last of the founding editors to die. I Ignatian spirituality is one of the modern schools. It acknowledges its jun-ior status, and gladly and gratefully accepts the rich inheritance that the older schools of Catholic spiritual tradition have put at its disposal. Fa-ther Dudon, in his St. Ignatius of Loyola, devotes the whole of chapter twelve to showing that just when he was working out his own ideas and ideals, St. Ignatius was under the influence of a rather large number of different currents of spirituality. The two principal instruments of his con-version were the Life of Christ by Ludolph of Saxony and the Lives of the Saints by Jacopo de Voragine. The former was a Carthusian, and the latter a Dominican. Ignatius often thought: "St. Dominic did this, St. Francis that; should not I also do as they?" As a matter of fact, for a time he thought of becoming a Carthusian. His favorite book through-out life was Thomas ~. Kempis; thus he put himself in debt to the "De-votio Moderna" that the Brothers of the Common Life and the monks of Windesheim were propagating. These three works were major forces in his formation. In addition to these he came under the personal influ-ence of the Benedictines at Montserrat, of the Dominicans with whom he lived at Manresa, of the Franciscans, of the Hieronymites, of the Cis-tercians, and probably of others also. It is the opinion of at least one man who has made a very special Ignatian SpiritualiO, / 7 study of Ignatian spirituality, namely Boeminghaus, that Ignatius fused two streams of spirituality which before him had come down in more or less parallel lines (Boeminghaus, Die Aszese der lgnatianischen Exerci-tien, 10-34). These traditions were those typified by Thomas fi Kempis and St. Francis of Assisi. During the later years of the Middle Ages the school of spirituality that was most fresh and vigorous was that of the Christian Renaissance, just referred to under the Latin name that it usu-ally goes by, namely, "Devotio Moderna." It marked a reaction against excessive speculation in piety and stressed the supreme importance of be-ing practical in one's religious life. In particular, it tended to put more method into the spiritual life and especially into the mental prayer that should animate and vivify it. In a word, one may say that its asceticism was that which we are all familiar with from the Imitation of Christ. The second stream was the Franciscan. It taught pious souls to take the Gospel literally, to seek evangelical simplicity and poverty, to look to Jesus in his human nature as he really existed in time and place, to respond to him as a person with love and devotion, to keep united with him as intimately as possible, and finally to live and work with him. Hence vitality, enthusiasm, and personal response characterize it, as prac-tical method and earnestness marked the other. Boeminghaus sums up his idea in suggesting that, to a great extent, St. Ignatius took his method from the Christian Renaissance group and the content of his system from the Franciscan tradition, and then united them in his own original way. In these pages Ignatian spirituality is taken to include not only the teaching of St. Ignatius himself, but also that of his order. For the saint's own doctrine the primary written sources are, besides his Spiritual Ex-ercises and the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus, his Spiritual Jour-nal and some of his letters. Certain letters are very important and do not always get the attention they deserve by those who profess to present his doctrine, especially on mental prayer. Some of the letters, too, are equiva-lent to little didactic treatises; examples are the celebrated Epistle on Obe-dience and the letter on perfection to the students of the Society at Coim-bra (May 7, 1547). The spiritual teaching of the Jesuits is to be found partly, in certain official documents, for instance, letters of the Fathers General, and principally in the numerous published works of Jesuit as-cetical and mystical authors. Moreover, Ignatian spirituality is understood to comprise both that according to which Jesuits themselves try to live, including a certain con-ception of the religious life, of the vows, and especially of obedience, and also that which they propose for others who accept their instruction. Of course, it is not implied in presenting Jesuit ideals that all Jesuits Review for Religious, Janua~3,-February 1991 fully realize them. Basic Ideas The fundamental element in any school of spirituality is the theory or set of ideas underlying it and giving it life and direction. There must be some definite conception, for example, of God, of Christ, of human nature, and of the world. Different initial views on these fundamental re-alities or their relations necessarily give rise to different attitudes of will and divergent practical principles. St. Ignatius's mentality ,was not at all theoretical. Hence the general intellectual outlook in his system is simple and concrete. It is decidedly akin to that of the Synoptic Gospels rather than to St. John or St. Paul. It is not learned or theological, like, for instance, that of the Dominican Fathers or of the French Oratory. God is conceived mostly as a great and good king, as a grand mon-arch on the divine scale. It is emphasized especially that he is the crea-tor and hence the sovereign lord of all. St. Ignatius liked to refer to God as "His Divine Majesty," or "the Supreme Goodness." Among the di-vine attributes liberality is often singled out for mention. God is not thought of as "All in all" or as "Prime Mover" or as "the Divine Spouse." Christ, the God-man, is so rich in various aspects that no one person or group of his disciples could exhaust them all. Hence different schools of spirituality emphasize different phases of the great reality that he is. One could consider him as an adorable divine king sitting at the right hand of the Father, surrounded by a heavenly court of angels and saints, and receiving the homage of prayer and work from devout men on earth. Another could concentrate attention and affection above all on the scenes of the crib and the cross. A third, utilizing the concepts of theology, could make much of the Word Incarnate. St. Ignatius sees Christ mostly as the son of the divine King, and a king himself, but with a kingdom still to be conquered. He is a crusading king, at the head of his army, announcing his intentions, and inviting men to volunteer for service. The peculiar temper of a school may depend much on how it con-ceives human nature, to cite an historical example: ancient Alexandrine spirituality took intelligence rather than any other faculty to be the great thing about being human and accordingly it stressed the place of con-templation in the perfect life. The modern French School (Cardinal de B~rulle) is noted for its pessimistic conception of human nature and the effects upon itof original sin. St. Ignatius is characterized in this matter by a certain optimism and voluntarism. Human nature is indeed some- lgnatian Spiritualio, / 9 thing that needs chastening and training, but basically it is good and to be developed and put to work in the cause of Christ. If all creatures have their value, afortiori human nature has; in fact a human being is the end and purpose of all other things. Bodily strength is not t6 be diminished by indiscreet austerities, but to be brought under control and made ef-fective for service of God. The voluntarism of St. Ignatius is abundantly illustrated throughout the Exercises; he never ceases to refer to "what I wish." The Ignatian view of the world, too, is rather distinctive. Unlike many ascetics of old he did not look upon it as something evil to be fled from and shunned as much as possible. Nor like St. Bernard did he con-sider it better to avoid creatures than to use them. He did not share St. Francis's tender sentiment toward lowly creatures as brothers and sisters. St. Bonaventure and many holy people of the Middle Ages stressed the fact that all things are likenesses of God and should be looked upon as enlightening us about him and attracting us to him. St. Ignatius is more utilitarian and practical. For him everything in creation is a means to help people to work out their destiny; everything is to be regarded and treated solely with reference to that purpose. Corresponding to the ideas that one conceives of God and of human being will be one's ideal of perfection, that is, what one takes to be the completely right relation between God and us. Of course, the followers of St. Ignatius would be entirely submissive to their Creator and Supreme Lord. They would make God's ends their own and seek to achieve them by the means that God prefers. To the divine liberality they also respond with magnanimous liberality. Enrolled in the apostolic campaign with Christ, they endeavor to associate themselves as closely as possible with their great leader, to work with him as effectively as possible, and to imi-tate him in all respects, but especially in bearing poverty and humiliation nobly. Thus in everything they strive to love and serve the Divine Maj-esty. They conform their will altogether to that of God. "What I wish" becomes precisely what God wishes. Leading Principles Logically and naturally the basic ideas of a system of spirituality, in themselves more or less theoretical, give rise to practical principles in-dicating the appropriate action that should follow. The Divine Purpose and Plan The first and supreme principle of lgnatian asceticism is to seek the end for which God created one. "Man is created to praise, reverence, Review for Religious, Januat3,-FebruaO, 1991 and serve God our Lord, and by this means to save his soul": the "First Principle and Foundation" in the Spiritual Exercises (23).(Quotations from the Exercises are from Louis J. Puhl's translation: the figures refer to the paragraph enumeration introduced by the editors of the critical edi-tion, Madrid, 1919.) As God begins, and we may also add, ends, with a certain definite purpose, so does St. Ignatius, and so too will his disciple. In fact, we are invited to intend just what God intends. Between God and us there are to be no cross-purposes. Moreover, and especially, one should seek, not a part of what God intends, but all of it, and to work it out always by using precisely the means and method preferred by God: what is this but to have just the same plan as God? Praising and reverencing God is substantially the same as glorifying him. Striving for the greater glory of God, "Ad majorem Dei gloriam," is very probably what the name of Ignatius is most apt to suggest to most people who have some knowledge of him. It is well known that when-ever St. Ignatius wrote or dictated he was constantly referring to the glory of God. In the little book of the Exercises the glory or praise of God is proposed as the end no less than 33 times. In the Constitutions of the Society the reference occurs about 135 times in 247 pages (the edi-tion of 1937; so Lawlor, "Doctrine of grace in the Spiritual Exercises," Theological Studies, 1942, 524). Nor was the expression always on his lips only. Seeking to make God better known and loved was ever in his thoughts and aspirations and supremely strong and dominant among them. Hence explicit and uninterrupted aiming at the greater glory of God is a conspicuous mark of Jesuit spirituality. A similar and more or less equivalent idea that was a great favorite with St. Ignatius and occurs still more frequently is "service." "Lo-cutions such as 'to the greater service of God,' 'to the greater service of God and the help of souls,' and their like, are repeated 157 times in the Constitutions" (Ibid). Serving God is, of course, the same as work-ing out his purposes or extending his glory, and it may be said to be cen-tral in Ignatius's whole conception of what our relations and activities toward God should be. Some religious leaders would no doubt put prayer or even mortification in the central place; for Ignatius, everything, prayer, recollection, self-abnegation, and so on, must be subordinated to the glory and service of God. Intending what God intends, seeking his glory, serving him, all this implies the need and use of means. St. Ignatius is broad enough to re-gard all created things as these means. He is insistent, too, that they are Ignatian Spirituality to be used neither more nor less than in the measure of their utility with respect to the final end. In no way or degree are they to be sought for their own sake as goals if they be pleasant and attractive, and no repug-nance to a useful but disagreeable means is to be allowed to interfere with using it. To the noblest end the best means is always to be chosen. Hence, another celebrated term and idea of Jesuit spirituality: namely, indifference. Association with Christ A second leading principle in St. lgnatius's system is "Associate yourself with Christ as closely as possible," or "Know, love, and imi-tate Christ as far as possible." The divine purpose and plan become more specifically the program of Christ. All Christians, of course, strive to as-sociate themselves with Christ, or to know and love and imitate him, but not all in precisely the Ignatian way, that is, in the spirit of "The King-dom" and the "Two Standards." As we have seen, St. Ignatius likes to consider Christ as "Our Lord, the Eternal King," a prince who is organizing a military expedition or crusade, to conquer the whole world and bring it back to loyal submis-sion to its divine sovereign. He summons all good people to become re-cruits in his army, to share his warfare, and then to rejoice with him in the fruits of victory. Both the royal commander and his soldiers are to live and fight under the same conditions of toil, combat, and suffering, that subsequently they may enjoy the same glories of victory together. The motives for enlisting are considered so attractive that nobody with good sense could decline; one would at least join the expedition as a com-mon soldier. But with this degree St. Ignatius is not at all satisfied. In view of the singularly magnetic qualities of the Leader and the ex-cellence of his cause, any with a spark of spirit about themselves will volunteer for distinguished service. They will be glad to show their love and affe~ztion by offering themselves for deeds of greater value beyond the call and strict.requirement of duty. They will i~ot wait to be attacked, but will themselves take the offensive and carry the war into the enemy's territo'ry ("acting against"). In particular they will first make a perfect conquest of their own interior foes, and aggressively overcome their own "sensuality and carnal and worldly love." They will profess themselves ready to imitate their great king in bearing humiliations and poverty. It is, therefore, a cardinal principle of Ignatian spirituality that to the sum-mons of Christ the King one should respond with all the magnanimity and generosity that one can muster. The eager new recruit soon gets lessons in the basic principles of strat- "12 '1 Review for Religious, January-Februat3, 1991 egy of the leader and also of the enemy chief. These are presented in the colorful exercise called "A Meditation on Two Standards." They are further developed and enforced in rules for the discernment of spirits. Lucifer's tactics are to be understood well, and since they are insidious one is ever to be on guard against his deceits. His general ruse is first to seduce people into an inordinate ques~ for riches and honor, these be-ing indifferent, and then into pride and finally into all vices. The inten-tion of Christ is just the contrary, that is, by example and precept he in-duces people to cultivate the spirit of poverty, or even actual poverty it-self, to conceive "a desire for insults and contempt," to acquire the virtue of humility, and thus then to attain all the different virtues. It will be noticed that St. Ignatius makes great efforts to have his discipline look especially to two aspects of Christ's moral character, namely, his pov-erty and his humility. In the Constitutions of his order and in certain of his letters he adds a third great virtue, that is, obedience. At least for the members of the Society this gets so much emphatic commendation and insistence that it is in a sense the point in which Jesuits are supposed to specialize. The Third Mode of Humility The "third mode of humility" is so highly characteristic of St. Ig-natius's whole doctrine and so important in itself that it should, it seems, be proposed as a third leading principle. It is presented in the Exercises as the last disposition to be sought in the ideal preparation of soul to dis-cern and choose the will of God in ordering one's life. It is also the high-est point that one could reach in conquering self, in achieving the vic-tory over one's disorderly and rebellious impulses, and in bringing them into that order which the divine plan and the program of Christ require. In the first mode of humility one submits to God in everything that is of serious obligation. The second degree disposes one so to submit as to avoid not only venial sin but also every defect of indifference and hence all positive imperfections (failure to carry out counsels). In the third kind "whenever the praise and glory of God would be equally served, I desire and choose poverty with Christ poor, rather than riches, in order to imitate and be in reality more like Christ our Lord; ! choose insults with Christ loaded with them, rather than honors; I desire to be accounted as worthless and a fool for Christ, rather than to be esteemed as wise and prudent in this world. So Christ was treated before me" (Ex-ercises, 167). In a word, the perfect associate of Jesus makes oneself like him as far as possible, in all virtues, but especially, other considerations being equal, in poverty and humility. Evidently reverence and love and lgnatian Spirituality devotion to him can go no farther. Practically one prefers just what Christ prefers. To Love God A fourth leading principle in Ignatian spiritual training is "in all things to live and serve the Divine Majesty" (Exercises, 233). Every school of spirituality, merely to be Christian, must keep in the forefront the primacy of love. Some people have been disappointed that in express-ing the end for which God created the human person St. Ignatius did not mention love. True, it is not named there; but as surely and as fully as it enters into the divine plan and intention, it is there by implication. The constant desire, too, to choose only that which is most conducive to the end would involve much love for God. Even in meditating upon hell it is St. Ignatius's mind that love should have a certain priority: one prays "that if through my faults I forget the love of the eternal Lord, at least the fear of these punishments will keep me from falling into sin" (Exer-cises, 65). Throughout the second, third, and fourth weeks of the Exer-cises the prevailing general objective is to achieve, with an intimate knowl-edge and exact imitation, an ardent love for the God-man. The climax is reached in the celebrated "Contemplation to attain the Love of God" (Exercises, 230-237). Love shows that it is genuine by "deeds rather than words." It con-sists especially "in a mutual sharing of goods." On his part God pre-sents us with the whole gamut of creation, the totality of his external goods, and then in addition "the same Lord desires to give himself to" his beloved "according to his divine decrees." In grateful and gener-ous response one breaks out into the "Suscipe," relinquishing to the great Infinite Lover the complete possession and disposal of oneself. Every word in this magnificent exercise prepares one to love the ineffa-ble Divine Goodness literally with all the energies of one's soul and body and to demonstrate the truth of one's affection by really doing everything that pleases God and nothing that could displease him. Before working out the Constitutions for his Society St. Ignatius laid it down as the first principle thai it was not any exterior regulations that were to guide the order, but rather the interior law of love and charity that the Holy Spirit inscribes in the human heart. One of the Society's first rules is that its members should strive in all their acts to serve and please the infinitely good God for his own sake and with a view to re-paying his love and his immense liberality to them. Hope for rewards or fear of punishment are to have only a secondary role. God is to be loved in all his creatures, and conversely too they all in him. Review for Religious, January-FebruaO, 1991 A distinction has been drawn between two philosophies of love: one, called physical, emphasizes the tendency of love to base itself on unity and to proceed to ever greater union; it is seen for example, in the desire to be with one's parents or relatives. The other, termed ecstatic, empha-sized duality or division and the inclination in certain cases for a lover to go outside of oneself, as it were, or to give oneself up for the sake of the beloved; it is exemplified in the self-sacrifice of mothers for their children or of soldiers for their countrymen. Likewise attention has been called to two theological conceptions of charity: one, that of personal desire, we might say, considers the act whereby one wills the Infinite Good to oneself to be charity; so, for instance, St. Bonaventure. The other, that of pure benevolence, regards this act as belonging to hope and excludes such self-reference from charity; so Suarez; it would love God simply and absolutely for his infinite goodness or for himself. Corresponding to the'se two philosophical and theological views one may discern two general types of spirituality: the first centers around the direction of seeking greater union with God. It would find gospel war-rant in the text: "That they all may be one; that, as Thou, Father, art in Me, and I am in Thee, they also may be one in us" (Jn 17:21, Spencer version). It would like to save its life. A mystery of predilection for it is the Incarnation, the supreme union of God and man. It is illustrated in the lives and doctrines of Saints Augustine, Thomas, Teresa, John of the Cross, John Eudes, and many others. It makes for contemplation, and would like to "taste" or "enjoy" God. The second type of spirituality takes rather the direction of self-giving. It gets inspiration from the text: "Greater love has no one than this--that one should lay down one's life for one's friends" (Jn 15:13). It is glad to lose its life (Mk 8:35). Naturally the passion and death of Christ are favorite mysteries. Martyrdom would be its great consumma-tion. Representatives of this type are St. Francis of Assisi, Thomas a Kempis, Francis de Sales apparently, and certainly Margaret Mary Alaco-que. St. Th6r~se's idea of love was "to give all, nay, to give oneself!" Clearly with these latter, exemplifying the ecstatic tendency of love, and the pure-benevolence conception of charity, and the self-sacrificing type of spirituality, St. Ignatius and his school are to be ranged. The whole tenor of his spirit, with its climax in the third mode of humility, or in serving the Divine Majesty in everything, is not toward union, but serv-ice; not toward enjoyment, but sacrifice; not toward rest in God, but work for him (See De Guibert, ~tudes de Th~ologie Mystique, 239- 281). lgnatian Spirituality Union and Familiarity with God Finally, a fifth major principle in St. Ignatius's general method con-cerns union and familiarity with God. He was wont to formulate it in some such terms as these: "to seek God in all things"; "to find God in all things"; to be a pliable "instrument" in "the divine hand." In the Constitutions, IX, 2, St. Ignatius gives a rather long and par-ticularized account of what the ideal general of the Society should be. Naturally this picture is at the same time a characterization of the Saint himself. Among the qualifications required in a future general the first is as follows: "that he should be most fully united with God our Lord and familiar with him, as well in prayer as in all his actions." Similar prescriptions are made for others who are to be appointed to lesser of-fices (Epitome Instituti, No. 740). Thus the Founder showed his supreme concern that above all else members of the Society should cultivate the closest and most intimate union with God. The large place which work holds in the Jesuit ideal and the relations between prayer and work in it are highly characteristic. In no other school, as far as I know, is there so great a tendency to favor work at the expense of prayer. A deep foundation of mortification and solid vir-tue being presupposed, from, say, the novitiate, or some similar train-ing and including a thirty-day retreat, prayer is to be cultivated until one has the proper disposition, that is, the will to love God with all one's heart and to carry out the whole of the divine design for one. But then, in view of the grave necessities of souls and the needs of the Church, one should leave prayer and give all one's energies to doing God's work, saving and sanctifying others, long ago pronounced to be, of all divine things, the divinest. When one goes about one's work precisely as God's, doing just what he indicates, because he wills it, and in the manner that he wishes, it is relatively easy and natural to pass back and forth between prayer and work. Striving to do God's work according to the mind and in the spirit of God may be said to be itself not the least form of prayer. Faithful disciples of St. Ignatius are "contemplatives in action." To illustrate the union that should exist between one who works for God and God himself, a favorite comparison of St. Ignatius was that of instrumental adaptation. The human worker should be a completely pli-ant instrument in the divine hand. A perfect personal instrument would be fully sensitive and responsive to all the motions of that hand. To give one such instrumental flexibility is, according to St. Thomas, the ten-dency of the gifts of the Holy Spirit (I, II, 68, 3). The most exquisite docility to the Holy Spirit is a capital aim in the doctrine of one of the Review for Religious, Januat3,-Februat3, 1991 Society's most distinguished spiritual masters, Fr. Louis Lallemant. Distinctive Practices Certain practices are characteristic of Jesuit asceticism. Nowadays some of these are more or less universal in the Church. But in origin, or at least in their wide diffusion, they are due largely to the influence of Ignatius. Spiritual Exercises, Retreats Perhaps the practice that is most obviously distinctive of those who follow the Jesuit school is that they make retreats and attach great im-portance to them. And more particularly, they do it according to the scheme and sequence of exercises sketched out long ago by the knight-convert at Manresa. The Exercises were originally calculated to last for a solid month, and in this integral form they are made by all Jesuit nov-ices and again by Jesuit priests and brothers toward the end of their train-ing. Other Jesuits regularly repeat them in a condensed form for eight days every year. So also, for varying periods, do many who do not be-long to the Society and still make use of its spiritual aids. The numerous students in Jesuit high schools and colleges throughout the world make annual three-day retreats. Moreover many devout lay men and women make Jesuit retreats annually. St. Ignatius himself did not advocate regular retreats. The custom gradually grew in the Sogiety and was made a matter of rule only in 1609. It is very largely due to Ignatius's influence, directly or indirectly, that now the practice of making annual or regular retreats is for relig-ious and clerics a point of canon law and a received ascetical usage in the Church. The Particular Examen Another practice that was originally most characteristic of the Igna-tian approach is the particular examination of conscience. Essentially it is nothing else than using in the war with one's faults that ancient prin-ciple of strategy: "Divide and conquer!" In more modern and universal terms one might say that it exemplifies the rule: "Specialize! Concen-trate on a limited field!" The particular examen was always a great fa-vorite with St. Ignatius. It is now one of the common techniques of Catho-lic asceticism. Sometimes it is censured by men who concentrate all their scrutiny of it upon some minor detail or other in the method and over-look what is substantial about it. On the other hand, even some of the minor features of it have of late been getting commendation from sci- lgnatian Spirituality/17 entific psychologists. Direction A third practice that is distinctive in its way of Ignatian spirituality is its idea of direction. St. Ignatius considered it especially useful, if not necessary, to prevent one from falling victim to the illusions that may come either from one's own imagination and emotions or from the de-ceits and snares of the evil spirit. As compared with the older schools, St. Ignatius advocates, if I mistake not, a more thorough-going and a more methodical use of it. On the other hand, he did not employ it like St. Francis de Sales or others in seventeenth-century France. The Exer-cises were originally designed to be made individually with a private and experienced director and the exercitant was urged to be very frank and open with the director. In the Society it is expected that subjects should make themselves, even their innermost consciences, all their good and bad points, culpable or inculpable, fully known to their superiors or con-fessors and in return receive individual paternal guidance. Any eager ad-herent of Jesuit asceticism will, if possible, seek constant expert direc-tion from another in the problems of one's interior life. Complete can-dor of soul and docility toward a director or superior fit in very well with certain qualities of character that were particularly dear to St. Ignatius: namely, his preferences for mortification that is interior, of judgment and will, for prudence, humility, discipline, and obedience. Mental Prayer An outstanding mark of any system of asceticism is its doctrine on prayer. If one compares the modern theory and practice of prayer with the ancient or the medieval, one will notice great differences in the rela-tive positions of vocal and mental prayer. The changes had been coming of necessity in the historical evolution of the spiritual and the religious life. In determining the actual extension and form that they have taken since the sixteenth century the influence of St. Ignatius, direct or indi-rect, was a major factor. In making the Exercises and then later in striving "to arrive at per-fection in whatever state or way of life God our Lord may grant us to choose" (135), it is considered most vital that one's soul should be filled with "the intimate understanding and relish of the" great Christian truths (2). Often enough people refer to the first method of mental prayer in the Exercises, the one there named from "the three powers of the soul," as "the Ignatian method." As a matter of fact, in that little booklet the Review for Religious, Jamlao,-February 1991 Saint proposes at least six methods, and this one, used for the consid-eration of abstract truths, is almost immeasurably outnumbered by the "contemplations," according to persons, words, and actions, that deal especially with the life and passion of Christ. Except when misconceived by ill-informed critics or misused by ig-norant persons, Ignatian methods of prayer do not hinder liberty of spirit or stand in the way of the Spirit's inspirations. It is the most rudimen-tary principle of Jesuit spirituality to keep the end clearly in mind, to pre-serve liberty with respect to the means, and to select and use the most apt of the means. Even in the Exercises, written especially for beginners, to aid them in the specific and passing task of rightly determining their vocation, the admonition is given: It "should be noted: . . . I will re-main quietly meditating upon the point in which I have found what I de-sire, without eagerness to go on till I have finished" (76). And again later on: "If in contemplation, say, on the Out" Father, he finds in one or two words abundant matter for thought and much relish and consola-tion, he should not be anxious to go on, though the whole hour be taken up with what he has found'" (254). Incidentally, one may notice that thus from the start St. Ignatius promotes the tendency to pause in contempla-tion rather than to busy oneself with discursive or analytic reflections. Outside of retreat time Jesuits and their followers may and should cultivate those forms of mental prayer, including the highest degrees of contemplation, that will most effectively advance them in loving God and in executing his designs. Naturally, of course, the prayer of apos-tolic workers will differ from that of cloistered Carmelite nuns. Similarly the inspirations of the Holy Spirit will be in harmony with one's divine vocation, not contrary to it. St. Ignatius was a great mystic himself, as his Spiritual Journal am-ply attests. In others as a rule be looked to solid virtue and mortification rather than exalted states of prayer. If we may generalize from a letter to Francis Borgia while the latter was still the Duke of Gand~a, that form of prayer is to be considered best in which divine favors are received most liberally: "The best thing for each particular person is that in which God our Lord communicates himself most freely, bestowing his most holy gifts and spiritual graces, because he sees and knows what is most suitable for him, and, as knowing all, he shows him the way . These gifts I take to be those that are not within our power, to have when we wish, but rather they are pure presents from him who gives and can do all that is good; for example . an intensification of faith, of hope, of charity, delight and repose of spirit, tears, intense consolation, eleva- lgnatian Spirituality tion of mind, divine impressions and illuminations, with all the other grati-fications and spiritual feelings ordained to such gifts" (Monumenta His-torica Society lesu, lgnatiana, Series i, Epist. et Instruct., 1548-50, 233- 237). With respect to mysticism, as in Catholic spirituality generally, so also in Jesuit spiritual teaching, it is possible to distinguish two histori-cal currents, the one decidedly mystical, and the other rather ascetical. To the first belong, for instance, St. Alphonsus Rodriguez, De la Puente, Alvarez de Paz, Caussade, Grou; to the second, Rodriguez, Roothaan, Meschler. Of the masters in mysticism the one best known is Louis Lallemant (France, 1587-1635). He was followed by a number of noted and influ-ential disciples. The work which presents his teaching, The Spiritual Doc-trine of Louis Lallemant, has traditionally been used in the Society to form its young priests in their year of third probation in much the same way as the ascetical Rodriguez is used for the instruction of the novices. Certain spiritual writers of the Society have been considered anti-mystical; among them are Mercurian, Rodriguez, and in a way, Scara-melli. When their statements are viewed against the historical back-ground, properly interpreted with allowances for changed terminology, and compared with the utterances of other authorities of their times, then the significance of the anti-mystical bias is seen to be more apparent than real. In any case, no matter how great it should seem to be, it is com-pletely outweighed by what other Jesuits have done for the cause of mys-tical contemplation. Moreover, no Jesuit ever went so far as to deny that one should fully develop his gifts of the Holy Spirit, welcome every in-fusion of grace that God should wish to give him, and then eagerly make the most of it all. In the recent controversies over the nature of infused contemplation, its place in the general economy of the spiritual life, and the call to it, there have been Jesuits on both sides. Self-Abnegation The lgnatian and Jesuit practice of mortification is very different from the ancient and medieval austerities, and it in turn appears to have had great influence in determining what the use of it should be in the mod-ern Church generally. Now, evidently, bodily penances do not occupy so prominent a place in the total scheme. They are more consciously and more narrowly subordinated to the greater and superior elements in the spiritual life. The employment of them is muchmore under the control of directors and confessors. There is far greater tendency to seek the nec-essary self-abnegation in the hardships of community living and espe- 90 / Review for Religious, Januarv-Februar\, 1991 cially in laborious work for souls. The body is spared much punishment and in exchange it is expected to become a more effective instrument for the spirit. In principle lgnatian mortification is as austere as one could wish. The indifference of the Exercises implies that one should be willing, when-ever the divine purpose or plan requires it, to forego the most pleasant means or undergo the use of the most unpleasant. Self-conquest and self-control are to be so complete that no movement of the lower propensi-ties can draw the deliberate will after it. Asking Christ, crucified for one's own sins, what one should do for him and then giving the decent answer to one's questions also includes the utmost degree of self-crucifixion. The noble knight's response to the summons of Christ the King and Captain involves the fullest oblation of self, and in particular the firm determination to take the offensive in waging war on one's own sensuality and worldliness. Finally the climax of self-abnegation is reached in the third mode of humility: preferring, other things being equal, the poorer and humbler things just to be more closely united with Christ poor and humiliated. One of the rules that St. Ignatius left for his sons is that their chief pursuit should be to seek in the Lord their greater mortification and, as far as possible, constant self-abnegation. In dispo-sition of will he exacts as much as St. John of the Cross does, but his manner of doing it is much less forbidding, as it in turn is harsher and less attractive than that of St. Francis de Sales. In applying the principle or in practice St. Ignatius would have disciples be careful not to injure their health or diminish their bodily forces and interfere with their spiri-tual development or ability to work efficiently. The outcome has been that Jesuit direction and influence have tended greatly to moderate the use of corporal inflictions by pious people. The interior mortification of the mind and will, in perfect obedience, for example, is assigned a large margin of priority. Devotion to the Sacred Heart A practice that is very prominent in modern Jesuit spirituality and cannot be said to characterize the original asceticism of St. Ignatius is devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. In the revelations made to St. Mar-garet Mary, Christ expressed the desire that cultivating the devotion and propagating it as widely as possible among all the faithful should be a special charge of the Society of Jesus. The Society, whether in its supe-riors or its members generally, has always felt that this commission was peculiarly in keeping with its primitive spirit, and hence has been glad to do whatever it could toward making the heart of its great Leader and Ignatian Spirituality/21 King better known and loved¯ Any means to win hearts to Jesus is wel-come, and this devotion to his loving but neglec ted heart is a most at-tractive and effective one. Fostering and deepening their own dedication to the heart of Jesus ts considered by all Jesmts to 15e one of the best meas-ures that they can take to sanctify themselves anld. to vivify their apos-tolic activity. One could not be a student in a Jes,6it school or amember of one of their parishes without being under a certain constant urging to honor the heart of Christ. Great multitudes of the faithful daily make the offering of all their works and sufferings in union with the intention of that heart¯ Nor could one read very far in modern Jesuit spiritual litera-ture without finding much that gives it all a turn toward loving the heart of the Savior. Distinctive Traits Modernity is a mark of Jesuit spirituality, obviously in the chrono-logical sense, and especially also in that its genius is not ancient or me-dieval, but in harmony with the modern Catholic mentality. Negatively, and by way of "going against," it has animated men who were in the forefront of the Church's war against Lutheranism, Calvinism, Jansen-ism, and Quietism. Positively it possesses certain points of affinity to mod-ern social conditions. In contrast to the Middle Ages, Catholics now are in a more hostile milieu, and an aggressive type of spirituality befits them. Men and women cultivating the supernatural life now as a rule get less help from cloistered seclusion, live in the turmoil of large cities, are required to give more attention to action and less to contemplation, and lastly must be educated as well as devout. For the loss of the cloister Jes-uit spiritual training compensates in various ways, all designed to make up in interior individual strength for the external aids that had to be given up. From "the Kingdom" and "the Two Standards" on, it is thor-oughly orientated toward living and struggling in the midst of groups. Its connections with the active life in the Church and education need no comment. Another note of Ignatian asceticism is its high degree of organiza-tion. It is hardly conceivable that one could become well acquainted with the Spiritual Exercises or the Society of Jesus and their spiritual system without remarking what a complicated but strictly unified order or method characterizes all three of them. No other school of spirituality is so consciously methodical and insistent about prudently arranging means to ends. From a military office one might expect well-thought-out strategy. However, the aim of it all being union of the human spirit 99 / Review for Religious, Janttat3,-Februat3, 1991 with the divine spirit, there is nothing mechanical about it. Ignatian spirituality is conspicuously and eminently apostolic. Typi-cal is the injunction said to have been given by him to St. Francis Xavier when dispatching him to the Orient: "Go, and inflame the world!" Jesuit asceticism is eminently practical. There is nothing theoretical about it. It emphasizes above all the actual accomplishment of the divine will and purpose. Doing the will of the Father is always possible, feasi-ble, and most fruitful. The directives given are clear, precise, and am-ple, but not more restrictive than the divine plan itself. Personal initia-tive is encouraged, and it is suggested, with both St. Augustine and St. Thomas (In Mt XXV, 15), that where there is more effort, there also there will be more grace. Natural means are cultivated and exploited to supernatural ends. A peculiarly distinctive mark of lgnatian spirituality is the milita~3, and chivalrous note that runs through it. Don lfiigo Lopez de Loyola was born and brought up an aristocrat. By profession he was an army officer. Early sixteenth-century Spain was still tense with the spirit of the crusades. Upon the soldier's conversion divine grace sublimated to the supernatural sphere his knightly ideas and ideals. The very title of the Exercises states that they prepare one for "the conquest of self." Of all those exercises his two favorites were "the Kingdom" and "the Two Standards," both of them thoroughly military and crusading in in-spiration. The Society of Jesus is dedicated to "waging war for God un-der the standard of the Cross." It was conceived as a sort of shock troop to be thrown into battle wherever the Church's danger seemed to be worst. Its name originally was, and as a matter of fact in several lan-guages still is equivalently, "the Company of Jesus." It was its first su-preme commander's great aim to be himself, and as far as possible to make everyone else, "a noble knight of Jesus Christ." Another note that appears to characterize lgnatian ascesis is a cer-tain dynamism; that is, in a special sense it is marked by force, power, energy. There is not much about it that is gentle, tender, or mild. St. Ig-natius himself was naturally a virile personality of great earnestness and intensity. He came into the history of the Church at a most critical turn-ing point. In particular, the early Protestants were preaching the depre-ciation of good works. An emergency situation called for the most vig-orous reaction, and that is just what the Saint's magnanimous nature in-clined him to. In our days he has been reproached by Henri Bremond with being, "not a master of prayer, but a professor of energy." He would have his disciples share in God's own eagerness to communicate lgnatian Spirituality/93 his goodness and in the Eternal King's ardor to conquer all souls. The feeling dominant in the Jesuit spirit is not one of seclusion and peace: rather it is a sense of war and battle. Nor is it one of quiet study or contemplation: it is rather an air of tenseness and activity. Nor is it one of want or suffering: instead it is an eagerness to make use of things and to get a great task done. "Ad maiorem Dei gloriam" suggests this fact: it points to the incessant, irrepressible, dynamic, straining for ever greater and greater accomplishments for God that the Jesuit sets as his goal. Finally, to conclude, we might sum up Ignatian and Jesuit spiritual-ity in some such terms as these: the first and basic principle is to pursue the divine purpose and plan; the central principle, to know, love, and imi-tate Christ as fully as possible; and the last and highest, "in all things to love and serve the Divine Majesty." ANIMA CHRISTI--aTraditional Prayer Soul of Christ, sanctify me. Body of Christ, save me. Blood of Christ, inebriate me. Water from the side of Christ, wash me. Passion of Christ, strengthen me. O good Jesus, hear me; Within thy wounds hide me; Suffer me not to be separated from thee; From the malignant enemy defend me; In the hour of my death call me, And bid me come to thee, That with thy saints I may praise thee Forever and ever. Amen. Spiritual Exercises I Loyalty as Liberation: Ignatius of Loyola and Pedro Arrupe at La Storta Parmananda R. Divarkar, S.J. Father Parmananda Divarkar, S.J., served as one of four General Assistants to Fa-ther Pedro Arrupe, who was Superior General of the Society of Jesus from May 1965 to September 1983. Father Arrupe was well-known among all religious since he served as President of the International Union of Superiors General for five consecu-tive terms. Father Divarkar can be addressed at St. Marys: Mazagaon: Bombay 400010: India. The last public statement of Father Pedro Arrupe, which may well be re-garded as his testament, is the homily that was read out for him at a sol-emn Eucharist on the 4th of September 1983. "It is in many ways fit-ting," the text begins, "that at the conclusion of my ministry as Su-perior General of the Society of Jesus, I should come here to La Storta to sing my Nunc Dimittis--even though it be in the silence imposed by my present condition." The little chapel at La Storta, on the outskirts of Rome, is tradition-ally associated with a very special experience of Saint Ignatius of Loyola, "that God the Father placed him with Christ his Son," while on his way to offer to the Pope the services of the group of young men that had gath-ered around him. This chap, el and the memories it evokes were for Fa-ther Arrupe an inexhaustible source of inspiration and strength in the midst of the many challenges he had to face in the difficult period fol-lowing Vatican II. Ignatius recounts his experience in what is popularly known as his autobiography but is, in fact, an untidy collection of reminiscences cov-ering just one third of his life. He did not actually write anything but spoke out his story, in bits and pieces and under trying circumstances, 24 Loyalty as Liberation because of the insistence of his disciples who desired that before he died he should compose an account of his intimate dealings with God, which might serve as a model for future Jesuits. Such a document, he was told, would be his testament, and to produce it would be truly to found the Society of Jesus. In the language of today, the demand was for an authori-tative statement of the charism of the founder--and that is what stands out clearly in an otherwise clumsy text. All through the narrative one sees that Ignatius had a veritable gen-ius for loyalty--even a felt need to be loyal, to find a person or cause that might claim his total devotion. As a young man he is constantly get-ting caught up in unrealistic ambitions, and not even the sobering expe-rience of a shattered leg can break the spell that holds him captive. But some accidental reading reveals to him the true object of his ceaseless quest: it is Christ. In his encounter with Christ, Ignatius experiences the paradox of loyalty as liberation. Loyalty is something that binds, but loy-alty to Christ is a liberation from all that hampers true and total growth. For through intimate union with Christ one comes to share in his own experience, of God as Absolute and all else as relative. This is the truth that makes for freedom. As the story proceeds, each succeeding situation brings to Ignatius the realization that commitment to Christ carries with it other commit-merits-- which may seem to tie him down once again, to be a restriction, but are experienced as a further release, as new opportunities calling forth fresh generosity: loyalty to Christ means loyalty to the Church, loy-alty to the Church means loyalty to the Pope . After many adven-tures, accompanied by singular graces, the process of bringing his loy-alty into ever sharper focus comes to a peak point in a mystical experi-ence at La Storta, of the Father placing him with the Son, of the Son bear-ing the cross and inviting him to service, of a promise that the power of God would support his little group in Rome. This group of recently ordained priests, who had earlier called them-selves Friends in the Lord, took it for granted that once they had fulfilled their resolution to be at the disposal of the Pope for any task he might entrust to them, their fellow~ship would end in dispersion. But, at the very point of parting, they realized that their mutual loyalty, the bond that held them together, had never been a bondage but rather a liberation of their latent talents and the very condition of their availability for serv-ice. So they decided to remain united both in spirit and as members of one body, even when they scattered. Paradoxically, the very thing that would have separated them--their commitment to the Pope--became Review for Religious, January-February 1991 "the basis and chief foundation" of a new religious order, compact but mobile: so the Society of Jesus was established on the principle of loy-alty as liberation. Father Arrupe has an intuitive grasp of this principle, and a lived ex-perience of its validity. Herein is the clue to the distinctive feature of his personality that stands out among all his admirable qualities and charm-ing traits: an unshakable attachment to whatever is'fundamental and a fear-less openness to all that is relevant. This it was that put him so finely in tune with the formula for the renewal of religious life proposed by the Second Vatican Council: fidelity to the foundational charism and adjust-ment to present circumstances. It explains his great popularity and ef-fectiveness as a spiritual leader in the post-conciliar Church--as well as the incomprehension and rejection he met in certain quarters. Not all could understand that adherence to the old and acceptance of the new were not two things for him. So some were alienated by what they perceived as inconsistency, while others followed him erratically, without the delicate balance and unflinching loyalty that characterized Arrupe himself--who was free, bold, and innovative, not in spite of be-ing traditional, but precisely because he held on so tenaciously to the sources of his being. Speaking at a thanksgiving on the completion of fifty years as a Jes-uit, he made a simple profession of the triune loyalty that ruled his life-- to Christ, to the Church, "and to the Society of Jesus. He named them in reverse order and called them his loves: three loves, flowing one from the other, feeding each other, and united in one loyalty that embraced everything and everyone. It pained him to see people, Jesuits especially, caught in a conflict of loyalties. Conversely, he could not hide his joy in the midst of sor-row on the several occasions when his men met with violent death in fi-delity to their mission among the poor. His big concern as General was to bring the Society to an ever greater fraternal unity and apostolic fruit-fulness through a deeper understanding and a more meaningful practice of Ignatius' ideal of loyal service. A small but significant expression of this concern was his desire and effort to get Jesuits all over the world interested and involved in the proper renovation of the chapel of La Storta, which had been badly dam-aged and poorly repaired during World War II. He had the joy of seeing this satisfactorily accomplished just as he retired from office. But the oc-casion was signed with the cross--as was the original experience of Ig-natius. Father Arrupe's closing years are marked with many kinds of suf- Loyalty as Liberation / 97 fering. It is a bittersweet consolation, and a potent inspiration, to think that what he did not entirely succeed in achieving in a decade and a half of earnest striving, he in large measure obtains at the end through the manifold pain he bears with such fortitude and submission. When in the wake of his crippling stroke there came the papal in-tervention in his government, many people--Jesuits and others-- thought that the move would split the Society of Jesus--indeed would splinter it, with bits flying in all directions. Nothing of the sort happened. Rather the contrary: the reaction, led by Arrupe, but universal, was one of faith and fidelity. There was a renewed sense of belonging together, and a rallying around the banner of the cross "to serve the Lord alone, and his Bride the Church, under the Roman Pontiff." For countless Jesu-its, the challenge to identify themselves with a Society that lay in sor-row and humiliation was a supremely purifying and enlivening experi-ence: an experience of loyalty as liberation, with a wholesome impact on the whole Church--a parting gilt, a legacy from their much-loved Gen-eral, who said at the conclusion of his homily at La Storta: What was for Ignatius the culmination and summing up of so many spe-cial graces received since his conversion, was for the Society a pledge that it would share in the graces of the Founder in the measure in which it remained faithful to the inspiration that gave it birth. I pray that this celebration, which is for me a farewell and a conclusion, be for you and for the whole Society represented here, the beginning of a new period of service, with fresh enthusiasm. May the collaboration of the whole Society in the renovation of the chapel of La Storta be an abiding sym-bol and an unfailing inspiration for a united effort at spiritual renewal, trusting in the graces whose memory is enshrined in La Storta. I shall remain at your side with my prayers. The Changing Self-God Image of Ignatius of Loyola William A. Barry, S.J. Father William Barry, S.J., is currently rector of lhe Jesuit community at Boston College. His address is Jesuit Community: Boston College; Chestnut Hill, MasSa-chusetts 02167. ~]~'e have become accustomed to describing the developing relationship of a person with God in interpersonal terms. I have tried such a descrip-tion in a monograph on Jesuit formation where I spoke of prayer as con-scious relationship and then attempted to describe the development of that relationship in terms of the dynamic of the Spiritual Exercises. ~ Those of us who use such a framework often use a form of what Freudi-arts call "object relations theory" and apply it to the relationship with God. According to this theory, we all carry around with us self-other sche-mata learned in our interactions with significant people. With these sche-mata we approach all new people. Such a theory serves to explain in-stant likes and dislikes. A new person is assimilated to an image of some-one in my past life whom I liked or disliked. The theory is also used to explain how people get into repetitive destructive relationships without ever learning from experience. These schemata are self-other psychic structures; they are relational in nature because they are learned through relationships. In other words, the images with their associated feelings and thoughts are of the self in relation to another and others. All our self-images are relational. According to this theory, we also meet God with learned self-God schemata which derive from our relationships with parents and others, from teaching about God, and from past experiences of the Mystery we call God.z These schemata are always distorted and untrue to the reality 28 The Changing Self-God hnage / 29 of who God really is for us. In other words, our experience of God is impoverished because of our self-God schemata. We could say that the development of the relationship with God consists in the learning of pro-gressively more realistic images of self and God in relationship through the actual encounter with God in sacraments, prayer, and life in general. The development could be seen as a process of losing our idols or false images of God (and self) through the encounter itself just as the actual encounter with a new person in our life will teach us something new about ourselves and that person if we let the relationship develop. While these ideas have become more and more commonplace for those of us steeped in the psychological culture of our age, we do not expect such psychological theories to color the descriptions of older spiri-tual writers. The question is: Can their experience of the relationship with God be understood in terms of such a theory? Recently I had occasion to read The Autobiography of St. Ignatius of Loyola3 with some under-graduate students in a class on Jesuit spirituality. I believe that the expe-riences Ignatius describes in the first three chapters of that work can be understood in terms of Ignatius' progressive education about his relation-ship with God. In other words, the changes he describes can be under-stood as changes in his self-God schema. In the course of demonstrating this thesis we will discover that Ignatius, who calls himself the pilgrim in the Autobiography, shows himself to be a pilgrim from an impover-ished image of God to an image of God as Lover pat" excellence. In the process his own self-image changes as well. First, let us note that Ignatius' initial conversion experience came about through noticing the difference between two sets of daydreams as he convalesced from his wounds and the leg operations those wounds en-tailed. In one set of daydreams Ignatius spent hours on end imagining the great deeds he would do, the fine words he would say to win the heart of a great lady. In the other set Ignatius spent equally long hours dream-ing of the great deeds he would do for Christ in imitation of saints like Dominic and Francis. He notes that there was a difference in the two ex-periences. When he was thinking about the things of the world, he took much dclight in them, but afterwards, when he was tired and put them aside, hc found that be w~s dry znd discontented. But when he thought of going to Jerusa-lem, barefoot and eating nothing but herbs and undcrgoing all the other rig-ors that he saw the saints had endured, not only was hc consoled when hc had these thoughts, but even aftcr putting them aside, hc rcmaincd content and happy. Hc did not wonder, howcvcr, at this: nor did hc stop to ponder Review for Religious, January-February 1991 the difference until one time his eyes were opened a little, and hc began to marvel at the difference and to reflect upon it, realizing from experience that some thoughts left him sad and others happy. Little by little hc came to recog-nize the difference between the spirits that agitated him. one from the de-mon, the other from God."~ In these two sets of daydreams the same vaulting ambition, the same vivid imagination are at work, but to different ends. The reading of the life of Christ and of the lives of the saints piqued Ignatius' interest and fired his imagination much as did the romantic literature he so enjoyed and would have preferred to read during his convalescence. Finally he noticed that the two sets of daydreams have different emotional conse-quences in his heart, and then he discerned that one set is from God, the other from the demon. With this decisive discernment Ignatius was set upon a new path, but he was not yet a new person. The rather amusing story of his encounter with the Moor on the road to Montserrat shows how far he was from be-ing a man of discernment.5 He and the Moor, both riding donkeys, got into an argument about whether Mary was a virgin after the birth of Je-sus. Perhaps the Moor felt that Ignatius was getting hot under the collar; at any rate, he spurred his mule on at a fast clip so that he was lost to view. Ignatius began to wonder whether he had done enough to uphold Mary's honor, whether he Should have struck the Moor with his dagger. He could not decide whether to follow the Moor and strike him or leave him alone. In his quandary he decided to let the mule make the decision by letting the reins go slack. The mule did not follow the i'oad the Moor took. We will never know what turn history would have taken if the mule had followed the road to the Moor. What was Ignatius' image of himself in relation to God at this time? A telling phrase occurs in the passage where he recounts his desire to enter the Carthusian house in Seville. But when he thought again of the penances he wished to do as he went about the world, the desire to enter the Carthusians cooled; he feared that he would not be able to give vent to the hatred that hc had conceived against himself.~' That self-hatred tells us much about his image of God at this time of prepa-ration for the journey that would end up in Manresa. If Ignatius hates himself so violently, we can speculate that he harbors an image of him-self before an implacable God. Not long after his arrival in Manresa we hear ominous hints of where such a self-God image can lead. Each day he begged alms in Manresa. He did not cat meat or drink wine, The Changing Self-God hnage / 3"1 even though they were offered to him. Hc did not fast on Sundays, and if they gave him a little wine, he drank it. As hc had bccn very attentive in taking care of his hair, as was the fashion at that time (and he had a fine head of hair), he decided to let it grow naturally, without combing or cut-ting it or covering it with anything by night or day. For the same reason he let his toenails and fingernails grow because he also had been attentive to this.7 He began to attack his body and his former attitudes with reckless aban-don to the point where he did permanent harm to his health, as he notes later. It is at this point that he mentions the serpent-like image that "gave him great comfort." "He found great pleasure and consolation in seeing this thing, and the more he saw it the more his consolation in-creased. When it disappeared he was saddened."8 Ignatius did not make the connection with his earlier discernment when he noted that the day-dreams of doing knightly deeds delighted him during the dreaming, but left him sad afterward. Moreover, he notes that around the time when this vision began, "a harsh thought came to trouble him by pointing out the hardship of his life, as if someone was saying within his soul, 'How will you be able to endure this life for the seventy years you have yet to live?' "9 With this temptation began the great swings of mood which led him into the terrible bout of scruples which he so poignantly de-scribes in the following pages of the Autobiography. The agony of his struggle with these scruples brought him to this point. Once when he was very upset by them he began to pray with such fervor that he shouted out loud to God, saying, "'Help me, Lord, for I find no rem-edy among men nor in any crcalurc, yet if I thought I could find ih no labor would be too great for me. Show me, O Lord, where I may find it: even though I should have to follow a little dog so he could help me. I would do it. "" While hc had these thoughts, the temptation often came over him with great force to throw himself into a large hole in his room next to the place where he was praying.~° The self-hatred has taken a very violent turn. What kind of image of God lies behind such scruples? It has to be a God who, in the words of the psychiatrist J.S. Mackenzie, "is always snooping around after sin-ners." ~ Ignatius felt that he had not completely confessed his sins. At one point a confessor ordered him not to confess any sins of the past "'un-less it should be something very clear. But inasmuch as he thought all those things were very clear, this order was of no benefit to him . "~- God must be a terrible judge ready to pounce on every sin. Finally, Ig-natius had a couple of days in which he felt free from scruples. 39 / Review for Religious, Januao,-February 1991 But on the third day, which was Tucsday, while at prayer hc began to re-member his sins one by one, and he went on thinking about one sin after the other out of his past and felt he was required to confess them again. But after these thoughts, disgust for the life he led and the desire to give it up came over him. In this way the Lord wished to awaken him as from a dream. 13 , Ignatius, we can speculate, has realized that the image of God with which he has operated thus far in Manresa was a product of the demon, and not an image of the true God. From the lessons God had given him hc now had some cxpcricncc of the di-versity of spirits, and he bcgan to wonder about the means by which that spirit had come. He decided very clearly, therefore, not to confess anything from the past anymore: from that day forward he remained free of those scru-ples and held it for certain that our Lord through his mercy had wished to deliver him.~'~ God is not implacable, but merciful, and Ignatius can count on this God. Thus he need not continually grub around in his mind for possible un-confessed sins. Immediately after recounting this discernment Ignatius describes how he rather easily discerned God's will in two matters which before would have led to agonizing indecision. He prayed for seven hours each day, but when it was time for bed, he was overcome with great spiritual con-solations which cost him much sleep. Wondering about this at times hc thought to himself that he had assigned much time for converse with God and all the rest of the day as well, and he began to doubt, therefore, whether that enlightenment came from a good spirit: he concluded that it would bc better to ignore it and to sleep for the appointed time. And so he did.~5 How his image of God has changed! In the next paragraph he describes how an experience of the image of meat compelled him to abandon with-out any hesitation or doubt his firm practice of never eating meat. Even when his confessor asked him to consider whether this was a temptation, Ignatius could not doubt that the good spirit was the source of the im-age. He then says: "God treated him at this time just as a schoolmaster treats a child whom he is teaching,''~6 and goes on to describe in five points the ways God revealed himself, culminating in the description of the extraordinary enlightenment on the banks of the Cardoner. After this experience he recognized the image of the serpent-like figure as a temp-tation. The final demonstration that the encounter with God changed lgna- The Changing Self-God hnage / 33 tius' self-God schema comes from the very next paragraphs where Igna-tius describes three instances when he faced death. The first occurred at Manresa when a fever brought him to death's door. He was convinced that he was about to die. At this a thought came to him telling him that he was just, but this caused him so much trouble that he rejected it and recalled his sins to mind. He had more trouble with this thought than with the fever itself, but no matter how much he strove to overcome the thought, he could not do so. Somewhat re-lieved of the fever so that he was not at the point of expiring, he began to cry out loudly, calling him a sinner and reminding him of the offenses hc had committed against God. ~7 Contrast this experience with the next one he describes. He was on ship from Spain to Italy and in a storm everyone on board was convinced that death was inevitable. At this time, examining himself carefully and preparing to die. he was un-able to be afraid of his sins or of being condemned, but he was greatly con-fused and sorrowful, as he believed he had not well used the gifts and graces which God our Lord had given him.~s Now Ignatius knows that he is a sinner, and that knowledge saddens him but it does not frighten him. He trusts in the mercy of God. The self- God image seems to be that of a person who is convinced that he is a sinner loved and forgiven by an all-merciful God. Then Ignatius describes a time in the year 1550 when he and every-one else were convinced that he was about to die of a fever. At this time, thinking about death, he felt such happiness and such spiritual consolation at having to die that he dissolved entirely into tears. This hap-pened so continually that he often stopped thinking about death so as not to feel so much consolation.~9 Now Ignatius seems to be enamored of God, totally caught up with the desire for ultimate union with God. Thoughts of his sins do not seem to arise. The self-God image seems to be that of beloved to lover. God has taught Ignatius the ultimate lesson of who God really is for Ignatius, and for all of us, Loverpar excellence. Fidelity to the relationship with God has changed Ignatius' image of God as well as his image of himself. Ignatius urges the one who directs the Spiritual Exercises to "per-mit the Creator to deal directly with the creature, and the creature directly with his Creator and Lord."2° In that encounter with God the retreatant can learn a new and more realistic self-God schema. All of us have sche-mata that impoverish our experience of God and, thus, of ourselves. In Review for Religious, January-February 1991 his Autobiography Ignatius shows himself as a pilgrim from a small view of God to one of God as Lover. Ignatius believed that the same change can happen to us. NOTES ~ See William A. Barry, "Jesuit Formation Today: An Invitation to Dialogue and Involvement," Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits, 20/5 (November, 1988), pp. 5- 8. 2 See Ana-Maria Rizzuto, Birth of the Living God: A Psychoanalytic Study (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). 3 Translated by Joseph F. O'Callaghan and edited by John C. Olin (New York: Har-per & Row, 1974). '~ Ibid, p. 24. 5 Ibid, pp. 30-31. 6 Ibid, p. 25. (Italics mine.) 7 lbid, p. 33. 8 Ibid, p. 33. 9 lbid, pp. 33-34. ~0 lbid, p. 35. ~ Quoted in Henry Guntrip, Psychotherapy and Religion (New York: Harper, 1957), p. 195. ~2 Ibid, p. 35. ~3 lbid, p. 36. ~'~ lbid, p. 36. ~5 Ibid, p. 37. ~6 lbid, p. 37. ~7 lbid, p. 40. ~8 /bid, p. 40. 19 lbid, pp. 40-41. 20 Louis J. Puhl, trans. The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius (Chicago: Loyola Uni-versity Press, 1951), No. 16. A.M.D.G.: Dedication or Directive? Walter J. Ong, S.J. Father Walter Ong, S.J., well-known writer of articles and books and long-time pro-fessor at St. Louis University, wrote this article for the September 1952 issue. His reflections on the A.M.D.G. motto remain just as timely today. His address is Jes-uit Hall; 3601 Lindell Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. By a kind of irresistible momentum, as an expression becomes more and more widely circulated in the form of a byword or motto, it tends to lose its original identity. There is an externality attendant on all human com-munication, which is involved with the external senses and spoken words, and this externality becomes only aggravated on the lips of a crowd. By the time an expression becomes widely quoted, its sense tends to be controlled not by the purpose of those who originally drafted it, and gave it. its identity, but by the shifting kaleidoscope of external con-ditions. Thus Polonius' "Though this be madness, yet there is method in't," when it is quoted today, takes its meaning from the current signification of method as fixed by our interests and way of living, not from what Shakespeare meant when he wrote it and what his contemporaries under-stood. Today it is generally taken to mean that Hamlet's madness was directed to some ulterior purpose. But Shakespeare was referring rather to the interior organization of tl-ie speech Hamlet had just uttered--mad as it sounded, this speech gave evidence of being coherent, of being logi-cally organized in the way speeches should be. Literary history is strewn with stock 6xpressions whose meanings are lost in such easygoing misinterpretations.' This is true of secular litera-ture, but perhaps more of spiritual literature, for the fortunes of a spiri-tual expression are even more precarious as the very terms it deals in are 35 Review for Religious, Januat3,-Februat3, 1991 more elusive and fraught with deeper implications. When we try to give them close attention, to discover their real iden-tity, spiritual sayings have a way of tripping us up unawares--and the tripping up is done not only by what we might take for recondite spiri-tual maxims but by what are downright spiritual commonplaces. It comes as a shock for us to realize that the particular manner in which we em-ploy even so basic a motto as the Ad majorem Dei gloriam, or "To the greater glory of God," associated with St. Ignatius of Loyola does not quite correspond to the older use of the term. More and more, this phrase has come to be used as a motto or de-vice which is affixed as a sort of dedication to objects--to books, per-haps, or to banners or to buildings. Certainly, against such procedure no valid theological or ascetical objection can be urged. But it is worth not-ing that this procedure does represent a significant shift in emphasis. It represents a kind of externalization, as A.M.D.G. becomes a dedicatory motto for public proclamation. In such cases, the A.M.D.G. is felt as applied to the thing, used as a sort of spiritual rocket attachment to shoot the creature off Godward. Certainly, this is as it should be. Still, it does not quite represent the basic lgnatian use which reserves the phrase rather for interior applica-tion and prefers others .for publicity purposes. While it is true that the A.M.D.G. has roots in Christian tradition far older than St. Ignatius, so that we cannot expect his use to control the whole economy of the maxim, nevertheless, since the maxim as it is used today traces chiefly to him it is worth noting the nature of the current divergence. To do so, we may start with an actual incident. Some years ago, a non-Catholic friend of mine admonished me for not putting A.M.D.G. at the head of my letters to him--as, he said, all the other Jesuits who corresponded with him always did. Of course, in my letters to him I have used the initials ever since, but not without wondering whether the other Jesuits used to bludgeon me into the practice have not themselves been dragooned into it first by this intrepid promoter of Jesuit conformity. For the fact is that not a one of the Jesuits I I~now normally writes A.M.D.G. at the head of his letters--not when he writes to me, at any rate. It is simply not the general practice of Jesuits todo so, and apparently never has been. A strange fact, if A.M.D.G. is to be taken as a dedicatory motto. The reason is to be sought in history and tradition. As is well known to readers of her correspondence, St. Teresa of Avila had the practice of writing "Jesus" at the top of her letters. An odd motto, we may A.M.D.G. / 37 think. Not even a phrase. Just one word. Still, this, and not A.M.D.G. is the motto with Ignatian antecedents. It occurs over and over again at the head of St. Ignatius' letters published in the Monumenta lgnatiana, as A.M.D.G. does not. Similarly, the seal of the Society of Jesus from earliest times im-pressed or printed on books or documents or other objects bears not A.M.D.G. at all, but again this simple word "Jesus," abbreviated in its first three letters which, written in the Greek alphabet, are simply the "IHS" known to everyone as the monogram of our Lord. It is the seal, this "Jesus," on the title pages, and not the A.M.D.G. which serves to identify early Jesuitica. "Jesus" is the dedication which is applied to objects. Things, like men, are to put on Christ. This is one dedication, it should be remarked, or one motto, which is both easy and thought-provoking. What is more, as one simple, mys-terious word, it defies distortion. A second word might offer a purchase for applying pressure to this one and thus make distortion possible. But left alone, the mysterious Name retains its self-possession. Unalloyed, isolated, the name of Jesus becomes proof against the externalization which threatens everything that human expression touches. Thus, Jesuits fail to use A.M.D.G. to head their correspondence to-day because such usage has no place in their tradition from the very be-ginning. But this is far from saying that the A.M.D.G. is not central to the Catholic tradition of spirituality which flows through the Society of Jesus. On the contrary, the expression has its principal relevance and ap-plication at the very heart of the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, which define this tradition. The relevance here is deeply interior, for here the Ad majorem Dei gloriam is referred to the individual soul at what we may call its extreme depth. It concerns the crisis within the individual consciousness which is the moment of decision, the moment when we make up our mind, the crisis so deep as to precede not only exterior ac-tion but even interior action as well, the crisis in which is set the act of the human will--"the selfless self of self," as Gerard Manley Hopkins has it, "most strange, most still." As their title is at pains to explain, the entire Spiritual Exercises are focused at these strange, still depths of decision within the soul. They have as their purpose to enable a man to make a decision as he should, without being swayed by things he should not be swayed by--"without being determined by an affection which might be badly ordered,~' the title of the Exercises states. St. Ignatius is at his most painstaking when, after the first two "weeks" of preparation, he finally comes to discuss 38 / Review for Religious, Janua13,-Februal3, 1991 how, in order so to make a decision, the individual must keep his eyes fixed on God. The discussion comes in the part of the Exercises called "Three Sorts of Humility," which bulks so large in his mind that Igna-tius does not treat it as a simple meditation in the way in which the ma-terial up to this point has been treated. Rather, introducing it here, he says that this material on three sorts of humility is to be pondered over the whole day through. This material is the last item in the Exercises before the "election" itself, the making of the decision toward which the whole Exercises are oriented. As the exercitant leaves the three sorts of humility to embark on the election itself, the state of mind which he has, with God's grace, prepared for himself is such that he is now to take his clue from God, and from God alone. In the last of the three sorts of humility he consid-ers, St. Ignatius envisions this preoccupation with God in all its present richness, at the point at which the depths of the individual soul are touched by the depths of revelation and of the Incarnation itself, which hereupon becomes an inseparable part of the Christian's way of making a choice. In the last analysis here, so much is the soul to take its clue from God and from God alone that the fact that God has decided on the Incar-nation, which means on a way of doing things more difficult than might otherwise have been, predisposes the soul to clutch to itself the difficul-ties rather than the easy things it encounters. The great manifestation of God to the world, the Incarnation, as St. Paul insists (Ph 2:6), began in an emptying-out of the Word, a step toward difficulty as, for the first time, one of the Persons of the Blessed Trinity became capable of suf-fering. The soul, eyes only on God, can never forget this initial determinant and dominant factor in the whole of the Redemption. The resulting state of mind can be called indifference in that it regards directly God alone, and not creatures. But in a sense, it is not indifference, because, in this vision of God, seen in terms of faith and the Incarnation, created reality is now included by virtue of God's own choice--Christ's body and soul are in the direct line of vision. They are testimony to the fact that, for reasons we cannot fully comprehend, God himself was not indifferent-- he chose to "empty" himself into a human body and soul, chose to be able to suffer when this was not necessary at all. The soul wants to copy God, since God is the End to which means are to be adapted. Regarding creatures as means in the light of natural reason alone, it can be indiffer-ent to them. But regarding them in the light of revelation, the soul sees A.M.D.G. / 39 that Christ's use of means involved more ,~uffering than seemed neces-sary. The result is a permanent torque boira s~ i,n the soul, an inclination toward what is difficult after the manner of Christ--an inclination justi-fiable nevertheless, curiously enough, as indifference on the score that it is a torque induced not by the means at all, but by the End, Christ, who is God. The inclination is mysterious and cannot be discussed fully here, but its authenticity is certified by the fact that the difficulties we have in explaining it parallel those we have in explaining God's choice of means to his end in the Redemption. This inclination cannot quite translate itself directly into action, for suffering is necessarily passive, and the activity involved in the direct infliction of suffering, even on self, is not what St. Ignatius has in mind, for he says nothing about it here. But the inclination is none the less a positive inclination, for in the meditation on the "Two Standards" al-though there is question of being received in the band of those who en-dure actual poverty and of bearing injuries and embarrassments, St. lg-naiius directs the exercitant to pray positively and actively to be allowed to undergo these things. The mixture of activity and passivity is of a piece with Christ's passion, which was utldergotle by Christ, not inflicted on himself, but for which he offered himself positively by an act of his human will, and which was thereby a welcome means when it was pre-sented to him. Ultimately, the mystery here traces to the fact that the end is not suffering, but God, and that by the Incarnation God became in-volved personally in suffering. This inclination or bias toward what is difficult is the matter of the third sort of humility envisioned by St. Ignatius, and it is when the exer-citant has thus descended deep into the mysteries of Christianity to find the framework for the making of a proper choice that he encounters in full force the prescription Ad majorem Dei gloriam. Two ways of mak-ing the election or choice are reviewed by St. Ignatius, and in both the exercitant is counseled to let the determinant in the balance be God's greater glory. In the first way, the soul is to consider before God con-cerning the alternatives it is faced with, "what tends more to his praise and glory." In the second, it is again to consider what, in a similar case of various alternatives, it would counsel another to do "for the greater glory of God." "Greater," it will be seen here, enters into the scheme precisely be-cause there is question of comparing alternatives. The famous expres-sion is thus as central as it is to the tradition that comes to us through 40 / Review for Religious, Januarv-Februar\, 1991 St. Ignatius because it is inseparably engaged with the focal Ignatian ac-tivity of making a choice. That the expression is thus polarized as a prin-ciple of decision rather than as a dedication of existing reality can be con-firmed in this same part of the Exercises concerning the "election." For, in this very context, when Ignatius comes to speak of something other than the making of a choice, he drops the "majorem" to say that man exists "for the glory of God" ("ad Dei gloriam" in the "Vulgate" ver-sion, that rendered by Father Andr~ de Freux, S.J., into Latin accept-able to Renaissance humanists, which Ignatius could not write, but gone over and approved by the Saint himself) or "to praise God our Lord" ("ad laudandum Deum Dominum nostrum," in the "Literal" version made to keep close to St. Ignatius's Spanish by Father John Roothaan). Because of the focus of the phrase as a principle of choice, in the "To the greater glory of God," it is the "greater" and not the "glory" which receives the psychological stress, the glory being in a sense taken for granted: any action, and more particularly any action done for God, adds to God's "accidental" glory, that is, adds something to created re-ality and activity which can be referred to him. This reference of the "greater" is eclipsed when the phrase is understood simply as a dedi-cation, and a puzzle easily results. For, simply as a dedication, how can "To the greater glory of God" be preferable to the simple declaration "To the glory of God"? If an object is devoted entirely to the glory of God, what more can be asked. The puzzle here can give rise to strange answers, expressed or implied. There is an American city in which a large Masonic temple standing opposite a much larger Catholic university bears on its facade the dedi-cation "To the glory of God." Most of the Catholic university's stu-dents are conscious of the more familiar "To the greater glory of God." Do they fix their attention on the "greater" so as to construe the uni-versity's commitment to this motto as a brag, a gesture vaunting the uni-versity's activity in the face of that of the Freemasons across the street? Nothing could be further from the truth or from the spirit animating St. Ignatius, but the interpretation is inviting insofar as the fact is lost sight of that A.M.D.G. applies primarily to the depths of one's soul. Even there, it is a principle for making choices, not for congratulating our-selves on past choices we have made. The Spiritual Exercises are the earliest of Ignatius' own major writ-ings, and they determine the case of his further written work, as of his whole life. This determination makes it possible to observe the workings of the phrase Ad majorem Dei gloria~n on an even larger field than that A.M.D.G. / 41 of the Exercises themselves. The lengthiest of St. Ignatius' written works are the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus, and in these the Ad majorem Dei gloriam occurs so often as to become almost a refrain. It does not lose its primary orientation here. This orientation toward the choice of one among various alternative means is patent enough when the phrase occurs in a place where the Con-stitutions do not determine a procedure in detail but leave the determi-nation to be made by the superior or by the subject in terms of the indi-vidual case--a thing they do far more often than persons who do not know them might believe, for St. Ignatius had a great distrust of strait-jacketed procedure. Here the Ad majoreJn Dei gloriam comes into its own, for it is posed explicitly as the instrument and directive for action, for meeting a time of decision and making a choice. For this, it avails in great things and in small. It is to be the princi-ple for decisions taken in the General Congregation of the whole Soci-ety of Jesus, which meets only on such important occasions as that of the election of the General (Constitutions, VIII, vii, I). But it is also a principle of ordinary day-by-day life. The Jesuit in his studies, wonder-ingjust what mixture of literary and spiritual conversation would be best with the other students he is thrown with, is told that he must measure his decision here, as the General Congregation must measure its deci-sion, by what in each individual case is "ad majorem Dei gloriam" (Con-stitutions, IV, iv, 6). Instances of like sort can be multiplied from through-out the Constitutions. The Ad majorem Dei gloriam is similarly oriented toward choice when it occurs in the Constitutions in places where the alternatives are not left free but a definite policy decided upon. This becomes clear when the phrase is seen in the light of what the Constitutions are and how they were written. The Constitutions are not meditations or doctrinal instruc-tions, but directives for procedure, and as such they are of their very na-ture determinations, matters on which the mind is made up, a decision taken. But if they are decisions, someone had to draft them in the first place, and it was St. Ignatius to whom the task fell. The accounts of St. Ignatius' life leave no doubt that the making of these decisions was not easy for St. Ignatius. In his own autobiography, as recounted to Father Luis Gonzales, he tells how he spent forty days coming to a decision on just two points alone, and how at these tires he was preoccupied singu-larly with God. Once the principle of choice is given and accepted in the full, it may still take labor to decide wha~ God's will really is, although we become more adept at this by spiritual maturity and by prayer. Hence, 49/Review for Religious, January-February 1991 when the Constitutions prescribe--as they do so often that it is superflu-ous to list passages--that a thing be done this way rather than that way "for the greater glory of God," we have in the phrase a reminiscence of the labor of St. Ignatius, an echo of the deliberation prefaced to this act of choice, which is protracted permanently in the Constitutions. Here it does seem that the phrase becomes almost a dedication, and, in a certain sense, it really does insofar as a dedication represents a kind of protraction of an act of the will made in the past. But if it is a dedica-tion, it is one of a special kind which arises out of what we may call a choice-situation. The apparently tautological "more" is a permanent re-minder of this fact. In this sense, the phrase is a useful reminder of a decision made for God, a means of protracting the decision and of keeping our attention on him. In this sense, too, used as a motto, the A.M.D.G. is perhaps a little disconcerting in the way it points to the interior of our own hearts. Inscribed on a building, it does more than point to the building and more than point the building to God. It points to our own interior life. In ef-fect, it says that this object represents somehow a choice we have made with our eyes on God. So long as this fact is kept in mind, the motto will notbe a perfunc-tory label. We cannot reverse the evolution of the use of this phrase, even if we should want to. Changes in emphasis such as this evolution repre-sents correspond to altered emphases within the reality around us and have behind them psychological and sociological drives which we would be hard put to counter. But the drift toward externalization here is some-thing we must always be ready to resist. It is good to remind ourselves that the A.M.D.G. is basically a directive concerned with something deep within us, with a focus of our being which none but God and our-selves can touch. It applies primarily not to buildings nor to books nor to letters, but to the brink of decision within us. "To the greater glory of God" is not a mere label, but the baring of one's soul. Finding God in a Busy Day David Keith Townsend, S.J. Father David Townsend, S.J., a member of the British Province of the Society of Jesus, is part of the staff of St. Beuno's Spiritual Exercises Centre. His address is St. Beuno's; St. Asaph, Clwyd; North Wales LLI7 0AS; Great Britain. [~]any of our current Western prayer-forms were first elaborated in earlier times, when people lived in an atmosphere of faith, and in a Europe which was Christendom. Such is the case with the examen. Until quite recently, in English-speaking countries, the examen was known popu-larly as The Examination of Conscience. Despite all attempts to modern-ize, rename, and generally rehabilitate the examen, by calling it the Con-sciousness Examen or the Daily Review of Life, its origins lie in an un-divided Christendom. Moreover, the examen owes much to its use by St. Ignatius Loyola, the sixteenth-century founder of the Society of Jesus, in his book the Spiritual Exercises. We do well to remind ourselves that we are not sixteenth-century Christians living in Europe at a time when an undivided Christendom was being rent asunder. Then, despite the religious quarrels, the vast major-ity of the citizens of Europe were Christian believers. The majority of those who were not Christian believers would tliemselves have been be-lievers in the One God. The existence of God was generally acknowl-edged to be real both in public as well as in private relationships. God was explicit. The Divine Reality was woven into every aspect of life, and at every level. The World of Today's Christian The God-pervasiveness of the past is totally unlike the atmosphere in which the twentieth-century believer lives. At least, it is quite unlike 43 44 / Review for Religious, January-February 1991 the secularism and individualism prevalent today in First World coun-tries. In earlier eras God was part of the atmosphere breathed. Then the reality of God did not have to be positively fostered. God was palpably present, not least in the hearts and minds of the people and in the shrines strewn throughout both town and countryside. Today, in the developed countries of the West, God is excluded from public relationships, except, perhaps, for great state occasions and other similar formal and cultural events. Perhaps, too, God is excluded in ef-fect from the majority of private relationships. There is a prevailing at-mosphere, if not of unbelief, then, certainly, of the suspension of belief. The atmosphere is not one of faith. At best, and perhaps for the most part, God is an irrelevancy. God rarely enters into the considerations of a person or of a group concerning the living of life or the making of decisions. For the major-ity today there is little awareness of the involvement of God in each and every aspect of life. For so many, it is not God-mindedness that lies at the center of their world and universe. Therefore, for the majority there is little attempt to discover what God might be doing in our own times. Neither individual Christians nor whole Christian communities are exempt from the effects of this lack of God-mindedness. Individual Chris-tians and whole Christian communities are not removed from the pro-cesses at work in society at large. Whatever can be said regarding sociopo-litical processes and their effect on the individual Christian applies with perhaps even more force to the churches and to any.groupings of Chris-tian people. The contemporary believer, as an individual and as a mem-ber of a particular Christian community, is not spared being influenced by the prevalent atmosphere which would relegate God to particular places, to particular times and circumstances, to particular types of per-sons, even, perhaps, to complete oblivion. Reality being what it is, a Christian's first task today, and the first task of any Christian group, is the fostering of a positive awareness of, and a sense for, the reality of God in life. Believers need to ensure that they bring into each and every aspect of life a faith in God's involve-ment in the world. The individual believer, together with others, can then strive to read the signs of the times. It then becomes possible to know what God's activity is, in the wider world, and in the more personal worlds of both individual Christians and the groups to which they be-long. Today Christians have to do battle lest practical unbelief increasingly and negatively affect their manner of living with God. As always, life Finding God in a Bus), Day / 45 itself will be the reality check on the truth of such a "faith-full" God-centered life. The truth concerning the centrality and authenticity of the Christian group's faith, as that of the individual Christian, will show it-self in action: in the quality of the decisions made, in the values inform-ing those decisions, in the relationships formed, and in the quality of the attitudes informing those relationships. These qualities will show them-selves as much in the public spheres of life as in the private. The examen itself can so easily degenerate without the explicit, posi-tive fostering and nourishing of this element of belief in God being pres-ent and at work in all of life, both personal and communal. It can de-generate either into that kind of harsh moralizing which does not need God and which suffers from the absence of the God of compassion. Or it can degenerate into an un-christian and self-centered form of self-improving. The experiences of those brought up in the past on the examination of conscience suggest that both forms of degeneration can all too easily occur. Both forms of degeneration are differing forms of idolatry. The idol has no place for the life-giving, creative Trinity. The True God is effectively ousted. Something humanly created attempts to replace the uncreated Trinity (see Psalm 135:14-17). With the self focus, of course, the examen ceases to be God centered, and so ceases to be prayer. The examen becomes barren. Hardly surprisingly the result was frequently a total abandonment of this particular prayer exercise. The Day: Divine Meeting-Place A help in this crucial self-composing in faith is to consider the day as the privileged place for the moment-to-moment meeting with God. Likewise, the day is the place where that meeting with God can fail to be effective. Then, in this latter case, although there is the presence of God to the believer, this presence is neither acknowledged nor recipro-cated. There can be then no specific and concrete awareness of the pres-ence of God to the believer. There can be then no specific and concrete awareness of the presence of the believer to God. What is said here of an individual Christian speaks with greater force when applied to whole Christian communities. Christians believe that God is being revealed continually. The work of creation and salvation does not cease. The divine activity continues in and through the places, the events, the groups, and the people of the day. If this is the case, it does seem rather important to look at this day in which Christians and Christian ggoups meet and fail to meet God. The day is the providential vehicle for this meeting. It is by means Review for Religious, Januap3,-Februat3, 1991 of this daily providence that an individual's commitment to God finds, and fails to find, its expression and reality. It is, after all, in the day that believers live out, and fail to live out, the appropriate response to that particular calling of God which we name "vocation." It is in the day that a Christian family, or other Christian group, lives out, and fails to live out, its appropriate response to its "vocation." The day is where God moment-to-moment exercises loving provi-dence over all, including this believer and this believing community. The day is where Christians allow, and do not allow, God to work the divine desires for them. The day is the place where believers respond, and do not respond, to the moment-to-moment calls to the love and service of those around. The day is where the Christian community lives out, and does not live out, in concrete detail, the implications of its own special calling and vocation. With the viewpoint and the perspective of a faith in God present and at work in the world and among all the peoples of the world, the succes-sion of days allows the believer to see whether and to what extent the various human communities, including that believer's own Christian com-munity, are responding to the calls to justice, love, and service. The in-dividual believer, challenged by the Gospel of Jesus, will sense how his or her own desire is touched. The Gospel stirs in the believer desires to respond to personal and world events in a more Christ-like way. That Gos-pel challenge and the promise of Jesus, shared with others, will revital-ize the Christian community, for the life of the world. How can a person, or a group of people living and working together, grow in awareness and sensitivity to the God living and working in their own world and life? The simple answer: Look back over the day.t Not just to look back in general terms, but to look back expressly seeking to find where God has been active for that individual in his or her own world and life that day. To look back to see where concretely and spe-cifically God has been present and active for that community. To look back, to see, and to share with others what is seen. The examen is a way of initiating and facilitating this inner dialogue for each individual. The examen can become a communal experience of God's goodness and presence when shared in the family or other Chris-tian group. The examen challenges the individual and the group as if to say, "How can you say you are living a Christian life, if you never re-flect on it?" Or, "How can you say you are doing God's will if you never look to see what it is that you really are doing'?" Or, "How can you say you believe in God present and active in the world for all peo- Finding God in a Busy Day / 47 pie if you never reflect on the divine meaning of each day?" Or, "You say you want to serve Christ, and you want to live a more Christ-like life; well then, reflect on how your day has been, and let the experience of that day teach you what it will." Believers and Christian groups claim that they have faith in God work-ing through the Spirit both in their lives and in the world. Unfortunately, only very few seem to reflect positively on this crucial fact. The examen is a short prayer exercise which can assist in developing in a believer, and within a Christian community, a greater positive awareness of and sensitivity to the presence of God. There develops a sense of the con-crete ways God has been working in him, her, or them during the day. This greater positive sense of God can lead the believer, and that be-liever's community, to a more accurate and to a more immediate re-sponse to the initiatives of God's presence as they occur moment-to-moment during the day. Christians can become much more finely tuned to the presence and activity of the divine, moment-to-moment during the day. The deeper sense of the divine allows the Christian and the com-munity to respond so as to become molded according to the desires of the Trinity, to become "God's work of art" (Ep 2:10). The examen, therefore, becomes a particular application of the Con-templation To Attain The Love Of God, found at the end of the book of the Spiritual Exercises (see Ex. 230-7). There, having made the full Spiri-tual Exercises, the retreatant prayerfully becomes aware of and contem-plates the reality of the Trinity present and at work in all of creation, in the struggle, in the effort, and in the disappointment, as much as in all else. In the offering "Take, Lord, and receive" (Ex. 234), of the Con-templation To Attain The Love Of God, the retreatant makes a commit-ment to live out that contemplative presence to the divine in ,the actual realities of daily life. The examen can become an examination of the extent to which the person's actual response to this moment-to-moment divine presence, ex-pressed in that offering of the Contemplation To Attain The Love Of God, is rooted or not in the realities of actual daily living. When, by the shar-ing of individuals, the examen is allowed to become the prayer of a peo-ple, a family, a community, a church, that Christian group will be con-stantly recommitting itself, from within its contemplation of the love of God present and at work in its communal life, to a profound communal service. In our own day We experience the godly social challenge and influence exercised by such Christian groups, for example the base Chris-tian communities. 48 / Review for Religious, January-February 1991 The examen can also indicate just how inclusive or exclusive is the life of an individual Christian or the corporate life of a Christian com-munity. A community's world, like a person's world, can be larger or smaller, embracing more or less, more self-centered or more other-centered. The examen can throw light on just how much or how little of the world is allowed by believers to reveal the Trinity at work. The examen, therefore, can be the instrument whereby a Christian or the Christian community is invited by God to widen the area of peo-ple, groups, places, and circumstances in which the love and justice of God, and the God of love and the God of justice, can be found. The ex-amen can become the instrument whereby the individual Christian and the Christian group are invited to make an ever larger self-offering. The examen can be an aid to believers becoming more greatly involved in the ever wider love of God wherever it is found. The love of God urges Chris-tians as individuals and as communities to a greater concern (see 2 Co 5: 14). Traditionally, there have been five aspects or moments to the ex-amen. On any individual occasion one or more of these aspects will pre-dominate. That being so, it is enough to say here that these five aspects are not a syllabus to be plowed through relentlessly on each occasion. On any one occasion of praying the examen, the believer, and indeed a Christian group praying the examen together, gives to any of these as-pects the time needed and desired. The examen is prayer. Therefore, the one praying the examen remains in the aspect where he, she, or they find what is sought without trying to hurry through the other aspects. The First Aspect: Gratitude Thefirst aspect is the fostering of an attitude of thanksgiving, or grati-tude. For the person or group developing such an attitude, there is noth-ing that has not been given. Here, therefore, Christians are not being thankful merely for those aspects of the day that have given pleasure whilst remaining unthankful for those aspects of the day that have not pleased. The believer is not picking and choosing what to be thankful about, in the sense of choosing some things, events, or people, but rejecting oth-ers. Some aspects of the day may, indeed, stand out positively from the rest. Here Christians, as anyone would, will be grateful for such aspects. But such thankfulness for what is gratifying does not exhaust what is meant by gratitude. In praying for gratitude Christians are asking to be responsive to a God whose nature it is to givel and to give freely and constantly. This Finding God in a Busy Day / 49 is the attitude of true humility and of spiritual poverty. The believer, the believer's family, the Christian community, and, indeed, the whole of creation, is always on the receiving end of gift. The believer has noth-ing except what is given. What is given is given to be enjoyed and to be shared. In gratitude for such gift, the Giver is received. The Christian will be trying to foster this sense of gratitude in her or his own personal life experiences. The Christian community likewise will be trying to foster a communal sense of gratitude in its life experi-ences. Those areas of life, of persons, groups, places, and events, which seem to lack gratitude will stand out in contrast. Into these areas the per-son and the community will endeavor to bring both thanksgiving and the God who is thanked. Christians will not restrict the fostering of gratitude to personal life experiences. Christians will want to foster an ever wider sense of grati-tude that will embrace larger society. Such positive social fosterings of gratitude in Christian people will raise an awareness of that lack of grati-tude which is part of the fabric and organization of wider society. Christians will notice where ingratitude, where possessiveness and greed, where pride and arrogance are at work in the world, in political and social decisions, in the way corporations and public life are orga-nized. Believers will see where God is excluded effectively from public life. Believers will notice who are the ones who suffer in consequence. Believers will see the destructive effects of communal avarice and ag-gression on the life of the very world which God has given as gift to all (see Is 45:! 8). Again the person of faith and the faithful community will endeavor to bring both thanksgiving and the God of gifts who is thanked into these social areas of life. The believer, in his or her own person, is God's most crucial gift. He or she is the gift by which all other things can be known, and known as gifts. The believer is the gift in which, and by which, the person's own giftedness can be known. Gratitude, or thanksgiving, is the attitude in which the believer acknowledges, and expresses, his or her own di-vine giftedness. Gratitude allows the believer to be gift in such a way that the Giver of the gift is also received. Without thanksgiving the individual will belittle himself or herself. When the creation which is that individual is despised, so too is the Crea-tor despised and excluded. It is obvious how important it is that grati-tude and thanksgiving be the very essence of a Christian community's shared life together. St. Paul's letters to the churches are full of such ref-erences. The Christian community's great gathering and centering of life 50 / Review for Religious, January-February 1991 is called the Thanksgiving, Eucharist. Persons with faith in the goodness of God cannot but want to prize that same sense of gift in others. Seeing the God-who-becomes-incarnate in any and every human face can have the effect of helping oth-ers to believe in themselves. Individual Christians with such awareness will be less likely to denigrate another. Christian communities with such awareness will be less likely to denigrate either individuals or other com-munities. Perhaps, even, the other individuals or other groups concerned will be less likely to denigrate themselves. Individuals, whether Chris-tian or not, with a sense of gratitude in themselves are less likely to ac-cept the denigration of others, since their affirmation and encouragement comes from "the God of all consolation" (2 Co !:3). This sense of one's own personal worth, together with the sense of worth of every other individual, as being God's handiwork and being made in God's image (see Gn 1:27), will automatically throw in relief the areas in private life and in public life where such worth is lacking or where it is being withheld. Again these areas are going to relate to particular kinds of people, particular groups, particular places, and par-ticular activities. Believers will notice the cruel effects of this version of ingratitude which would try to denigrate and undermine the sense of gift and the sense of worth in a human being, or, indeed, which would try to dispar-age whole categories of human beings. All too often we, as individuals and as members of groups in society, give worth and withhold worth ac-cording to our own immediate advantage and benefit, both as individu-als and as members of wider society. Only a God-given gratitude for all will inspire and challenge individuals and larger groups to a wider, less selfish, and less self-centered vision. It is in this moment of thanksgiving that believers spend the time that is required to become aware of their need to be grateful: to savor and be in touch with the giftedness of their own lives and living; to savor and be in touch with the God who gives, who gifts. In a world that has little practical use for God, and where aggressive consumerism, productivity, success, and achievement color all, this orientation of gratitude, in faith-ful receptivity to giftedness before God, the Giver of all good gifts (see Jm i :17), is all the more important. The very effort to become aware in gratitude helps counter any tendency to be God-forgetful. Gratitude, in fact and in desire, can help stop a person or a group of people relating to themselves, to other people, to other groups, to the events and to the places of the day in a largely self-centered manner. Finding God in a Busy Day / ~ As the effects of gratitude develop, so too does the awareness that social and political decisions affect people in similarly self-centered ways. There may grow in believers a practical commitment to greater jus-tice for all in society. Gratitude centers a person and a community on the divine reality. The individual, that individual's injustices and self-centered gratifications, and the selfishnesses of that individual's society can no longer form the center of the world. Similarly that individual's family, group or community, together with that group's own self-centered gratifications, selfishnesses, and injustices can no longer form the center of the world. Christians are opened to seeing gift in the unex-pected. Such people can be surprised by the God of surprises. This first aspect of the examen also helps put believers in a better perspective before all that has been going on in the course of the day. The attitude of thanksgiving helps center Christians on the Trinity at work moment-to-moment in the day. The word "Trini.ty" reminds Chris-tians that God is "community." To be caught up into the life of the Trin-ity is to be caught,up into the lives of all aspects of creation. To be caught up into the life of any part of creation is to be caught up into the life of the Trinity (see Mt 25:31-46). So Christians will become aware of the Trinity at work not only in private life, but in the wider life of society. Gratitude allows believers and believing communities to include more and more of life and society under the challenge of the divine benevo-lence and goodness. As gratitude, or the desire for it, touches people, so those people can enter into gratitude, and respond to it in ways that seem appropriate. It may be that an individual or a community will feel drawn to make a con-crete commitment to gratitude in some public or social manner. In some way that is real to an individual or to a community, an appropriate re-sponse will be expressed to the Trinity, to the God who gives: Father, Son, and Spirit. The Evangelist St. Luke puts the Magnifica~t (see Lk !:46-45) on the lips of Mary, the Mother of the Lord, as her appropriate response to her exulting in the great things the Lord has done for her, and following her "yes" of acceptance to the invitation of God's good-ness to be at the service of the Word. The Second Aspect: Light The second aspect is to ask for light. Since believers receive all from the gifting of the Trinity, believers ask from the Trinity the gift of wis-dom, the gift of being open to seeing as the Trinity sees. The

Issue 42.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1983. ; REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X), published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty mem.bers of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial offices are located at Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. REV|EW FOR RELIGIOUS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus,.St. Louis, MO. © 1983 by REVIEW FOR REI.IGIOrdS. Composed, printed and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, MO. Single copies: $2.50. Subscription U.S.A.: $9.00 a year; $17.00 for two years. Other countries: add $2.00 per year (postage). For subscription orders or change of address, write: REVIEW Fort RELIGIOUS: P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Daniel T. Costello, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Book Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor Sept./Oct., 1983 Volume 42 Number 5 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Bivd'.; St. Louis, MO 63108. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; Jesuit Community; St. Joseph's University; City Avenue at 54th St.; Philadelphia, PA 19131. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from Rt:vlt:W EOn Rt.~LIGIOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. Letters of Gratitude-- II Robert F. Morneau The issue of September/October, 1982, carried the beginning of an experimental series of "Letters of Gratitude" addressed to various authors who have been important to Bishop Morneau's own spiritual development. Reader response has encouraged a continuance of this series. Bishop Morneau may still be addressed at Ministory to Priests Program; 1016 N. Broadway; De Pere, WI 54115. This series of letters of gratitude continues the purpose of an earlier series, i.e. to express my appreciation to certain authors who have enriched my life and to encourage the readers of these letters to read the primary sources of these authors. These Letters of Gratitude are written to Augustine of Hippo, Ra~'ssa Maritain and Dag Hammarskfi~id. Augustine (354-430) shares his innermost life with us in his famous Confessions. This masterpiece speaks to all ages and articulates movements of the inner life. that are universal No one can read this classic without being changed. Raissa Maritain (1883-1960). the wife of Jacques Maritain, has left us two precious treasures in her Raissa's Journal and We Have Been. Friends Together. The first of these works records the daily experiences of a deeply sensitive and spiritual woman; the second work narrates the story of key people who .influenced her own life as well as her husband's. The third letter of gratitude is addressed to a former secretary general of the United Nations. Dag HammarskjSld (1905-1961) was a distinguished statesman and advocate of international cooperation. In his famous Markings, HammarskjSld, candidly and with consummate skill, shared his journey. The depth of his spiritual life and the range of his concern are moving indeed "Two roads diverged in a yellow wood . "so the poet Robert Frost tells us. We cannot travel many roads personally but we can vicariously. And it is on the road that we share many hours of dialogue and rich experience. The 641 642 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 companionship of Augustine, Ra~'ssa Maritain and Dag HammarskjOM is well worth having, if only for a few minutes or a few hours'.; Augustine Hippo, North Africa Dear Augustine, I write in gratitude for the candid and direct sharing of your journey in the Lord. How many hearts have been touched through your confession of sin, confession of God's goodness, confession of deep struggle will probably never be known. But I write you to say that I am one who has been moved and challenged by your story; your conversion has led to my own. ¯ Where to begin? With the people who were instruments of the Lord, with the historical context of time and place, with the struggle toward freedom that drove you from darkness to light? Perhaps the last point presents a pattern that helps to explain the whole. You share well how you were held in the bonds of slavery on various levels. First of all, the slavery of sensuality! Passionate by nature and living in an environment that would activate the seeds of license, you were held fast by the desires of the body. In this darkness. you struggled for so many years and, even after the grace of conversion, continued to struggle violently with concupiscence. In this weakness you found your strength because, in the frustrating powerlessness of it all, you were forced to turn to the Lord for true liberty. God's mercy helped you not to become discouraged in the fight for purity and light. A second slavery, much more binding than the first because so much closer to the heart .of your person, was the hold that your intelligence had on you. If your finite mind could not reason to something, then that something had no value, indeed no existence. Your reason reigned supreme, thus your inability over many years to read Scripture. Not conforming to your rigid laws of logic, you lacked the simplicity to comprehend spiritual reality which was immaterial. These chains held you fast and, once again, only through the working of grace, teachers and certain philosophies were you able to be set free and to allow faith to give go. vernance to your rationality. Here we see that your strength became your greatest weakness, keeping you from Truth. The Lord in his own timing drew you into the embrace of love, and there you also found truth and purity. The two slaveries that held you captive, sensuality and rationality, also are the forces that sweep through our times, incarcerating our spirits and our lands. These forces have also moved through every age and thus your autobiography is for every season because it touches so deeply our experience. Letters of Gratitude / 64~1 Your modeling is so important because it reveals that order and peace can be had, that slavery excludes true happiness, that victory can be achieved with effort and grace. ¯ Just as you have touched many lives, likewise many people had a powerful hand in shaping your mind and heart. I think of your mother, Monica, loving, praying and pursuing you in great fidelity. God rewarded her and you with that powerful experience at Ostia--sheer grace. I think of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, whose fatherly tare and keen sensitivity helped you to work through your intellectual crisis. I think of the life of St. Anthony whose example of deep asceticism and total commitment caused your heart to burn for action. I think of Adeodatus, your brilliant son, whose death caused your heart such deep. grief. I think of your concubine and her deep love and fidelity toward you, severed from you by the dictates of culture--whatever did happen to her? I think of Alypius, your dear friend, with whom you shared so deeply and who later became bishop of Tagaste, your home town. I think of St. Paul whose writings helped to finalize your conversion. This awesome compahy made their mark; your receptive spirit eagerly took in their gracious gifts. Several incidents in your life are symbolic of deep patterns. The stealing of pears, relatively insignificant in and of itself, reveals the mysterious realm of motivation--to steal not because of the fruits but because of peer pressure. In narrating this event, you manifest a profound grasp of human psychology, a deep grasp of self-knowledge. You teach us here to go beyond our actions and thoughts .and to discern the deeper recesses of our,behavior: moving from the "what" to the "why," which in turn reveals our true values. Then you share that powerful mystical experience, communal in nature, that you and Monica had shortly before her death. Together in conversation you entered deeply into discussing and experiencing the dwelling place of God, already tasting in this life what was to be forever. How you must have treasured that moment throughout the rest of-y.our life, a touchstone experience against which to judge your many future dec~slons. Then you speak of reading Cicero's Hortensius, a work that inflamed your soul in its search for wisdom. Herein we see the importance of a single book in our lives, able to set us in a direction never before pondered. You tell further of Alypius' compulsion in regard to gladiatorial shows; how this otherwise kind and learned man was held captive by a game. In this you were taught a lasting lesson, one that touched the core of your person: freedom is a precious gift that must be carefully tended or it is lost. Given all these circumstances and people, the most compelling reality in your life was the ever present hunger you had for God--more accurately, God's hunger for you. Your sensual and intellectual passions and avarice could not be satiated; always you came away empty and unfulfilled. It was your spirit that ached for meaning and presence, the meaning and presence of a Person. Only God could fill you but the sensuality and rationality had to accept that radical poverty of spirit that makes room for God. The charting of your 644/ Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 journey, with the carefully described anguish and pain that necessarily accompany growth, is a helpful log for all of us, your fellow pilgrims. Your legacy has been prodigious." ~)61~mbs of comprehensive theology, vas~ and subtle philosophical reflection, powerful exegesis on the word of God, stirring exhortations, a model for community living, moral discourses of a challenging nature. But for me your greatest legacy is your humanness. Within the genius of cognitive excellence, we find a human heart that is torn and twisted by the winds of human experience. Your confessions are free from pretense, from the too common masking that infects most of our lives. For this the centuries are in your debt. You tell us that it is possible to reach the heights of holiness within the maze of failure and trial, within the morass of sin and slavery. You brought all of your life, n° part being excluded, to the Lord, and he healed and blessed you. It was your heart and not your head that became the portal for divine encounter. Your desire and passion for love was, at bottom, the key to your life. The only regret that I sensed came from your late loving. As long as history lasts, these words will touch the human heart: Too late have I loved you, O Beauty so ancient and so new, too late have I loved you! Behold, you were within me, while I was outside: it was there that 1 sought you, and, a deformed creature, rushed headlong upon these things of beauty which you have made. You were with me, but I was not with you. They kept me far from you, those fair things which, if they were not in you, would not exist at all. You have called to me, and have cried out, and have shattered my deafness. You have blazed forth with light, and have shone upon me, and you have put my blindness to fligh!! You have sent forth fragrance, and 1 have drawn in my breath, and I pant after you. I have tasted you, and I hunger and thirst after you. You have touched me, and I have burned for your peace. (254-255) Your fond admirer, RFM Death language My heart was made dark by sorrow, and whatever 1 looked upon was dea-th.~ My native place was a torment to me, and my father's house was a strange unhappiness. Whatsoever I had done together with him was, apart from him, turned into a cruel torture. My eyes sought for him on every side, and he was not given to them. 1 hated all things, because they no longer held him. Nor could they now say to me, "here he comes," as they did in his absence from when he lived. To myself I became a riddle, and 1 questioned my soul as to why it was sad and why it afflicted me so grievously, and it could answer me nothing. If I said to it, "Hope in God," it did right not to obey me, for the man, that most dear one whom she had lost, was more real and more good to her than the fantasy in which she was bade to hope. Only weeping was sweet to me, and it succeeded to my friend in my soul's delights. (98) 1 had learned from you that nothing should be held true merely because it is eloquently expressed, nor false because its signs sound From The Confessions of St. Augustine, translated and annotated by J. G. Pilkington, M.S., by permission of Liveright Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved, 1943. Letters of Gratitude / 845 Prelense Fear Anger Disposition Integration Friendship harsh upon the lips. Again, 1 learned that a thing is not true because rudely uttered, nor is it false because its utterance is splendid. I learned that wisdom is like wholesome food and folly like unwholesome food: they can be set forth in language ornate or plain, just as both kinds of food can be served on rich dishes or on peasant ware. (119:120) That man of God (Ambrose) received me in fatherly fashion, and as an exemplary bishop he welcomed my pilgrimage. I began to love him, at first not as a teacher of truth, which 1 utterly despaired of fir~ding in your Church, but as a man who was kindly disposed towards me. (130) But as often happens, just as a man who has had trouble with a poor physician fears to entrust himself even to a good one, so it was with my soul's health. (138) What another man would take as an occasion for anger at me, this sincere young man took as a reason for becoming angry at himself and for loving me more ardently. Long ago you had said and had inserted it into your books, "Rebuke a wise man, and he will love you." (143) From experience, 1 knew it is no strange thing that the bread that pleases a healthy appetite is offensive to one that is not healthy, and that light is hateful to sick eyes, but welcome to the well. (174) It is one thing to behold from a wooded m~untain peak the l~nd of peace, but to find no way to it, and to strive in vain towards it by unpassable ways, ambushed and beset by fugitives and deserters, under their leader, the lion and the dragon. It is a different thing to keep to the way that leads to that land, guarded by the protection of the heavenly commander, where not deserters from the heavenly army lie in wait like bandits. They shun that way, like a torture. In a wondrous way all these things penetrated my very vitals, when I read the words of that least of your apostles, and meditated upon your works, and trembled at them. (180) Let a brother's mind do this, not a stranger's mind . Let it be that brotherly mind which, when it approves me, rejoices over me, and when it disapproves of me, is saddened over me, for the reason that, whether it approves or disapproves, it loves me. To such men will I reveal myself. (23 I) II Ra~'ssa Maritain France Dear Ra~sa, I write in gratitude for the insights and sensitive reflections that are contained in your journal and autobiographical writings. I have read them with excited interest and deep admiration. My only hesitancy in picking up 646 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 your journal was my concern as to whether or not you really wanted it read; your husband Jacques and your friends decided after much thought to publish it. Though questioning the principle behind their decision, I in no way question the advantages that flow from such intimate conversation. A most powerful pattern expressed in your journal revolved around the .experience of suffering. I refer both to its intensity and pervasiveness. Not having had such experiences, 1 doubt that I comprehend its full import or the depth of such pain. What seemed to be central to such a way of life is your ability to accept, in grace, that suffering as part of God's plan and, in some way, to be able to identify with the Lord in the tasting of the pain. Otherwise the result could well have been deep resentment and hostile anger. You have taken a universal human experience and dealt with it in a healthy way. Such modeling is important in an age that tends to flee from all suffering at any cost. I have tasted and now savor your response to this path of pain; your courage throughout the ordeal is inspiring. I reflect, too, on your sister who lived with you and your husband. Unheralded, without great talent, fulfilling the role of servant, she represents an entire core of people in higtory who, through their quiet dedication and humble service, have made it possible for others to be creative and productive. Your sister was fortunate in being appreciated for who she was and what she did, an uncommon fate for many like her. These unsung heroes and heroines whisper of the many flowers that are "born to blush unseen." How did you come to integrate your personal relationships so well? Did it involve a painful struggle? In reading your journal it becomes obvious that God had priority in your life; he was indeed the ground of your being; all of life's meaning came from your deep faith. Yet, from other reflections you have shared, your husband Jacques and other individuals were extremely close to you as you were all friends together. Theoretically this is no problem: love for God and our fellow creatures is certainly not exclusive. Yet on the practical level, given the reality of making choices that necessarily exclude other options, such balance in our lives is not easy to come by. Perhaps you could send me further reflection on this. Two incidents from your life impressed me deeply. One was the time you and Jacques were studying at the university in Paris and in your searching were unable to find sufficient meaning for life. So intense was the search that you both opted for suicide, if you could not find meaning. Such was the seriousness of your endeavor and such was the grace given by God that you discovered Thomistic thought. Cpming out of this rich theologic and philoso-phic loam you were to find a perspective sufficiently sustaining that suicide no longer remained an option. Our own age stands in need of meaning-systems to provide us with a reason to live, a reason to die. The great metaphysical and cosmological questions continue to haunt the human mind and heart, prodding us until some type of resolution is found. Too often suicide becomes a "viable" option. Recently I heard of several people who had picked up some Letters of Gratitude of Jacques' works. He has become an instrument for passing on a wealthy tradition enabling the human spirit to deal with movements towards insight and hope. Your personal contributions to the poetic world have served the same purpose. The second incident that sounded a chord in me was the remark that Bergson made to you: "Always follow your inspiration." What a challenging statement, one not free from danger as he realized when sometime later he commented that he could not say that to just anyone. Your interpretation of the advice was to always act freely so that your true self could emerge. What wisdom when we are in touch with our deepest selves; what danger when, on some superficial levels, our personality seeks expression regardless of the effect on ourselves or others. At bottom, in a faith context, our inspiration is not really ours but the Lord's. Without knowing it, Bergson became an instrument of God calling you to foster and nourish a discerning heart, a core element in the development of the spiritual life. Inspiration is a fact, a part of everyone's experience; how it is interpreted and whether or not it is responded to depends upon the disposition of each person. You responded well to the movements of God's Spirit. Simplicity, as a virtue and way of life, was a constant call for you. What simplicity as well as its sister, purity, mean, boggles my mind. Certainly they are inseparable but they contain such mystery and are so grace-laden that it is hard to describe their essences. To will one thing, to be transparent, to possess unmixed motivation and a sense of detachment--all of these are hints and clues. Only experience allows their meaning to enter the heart. By contrast, complexity disrupts our !onging for the simple as compromise discolors the pure stream of love. Testing the reverse side of the coin draws us painfully into the poverty of our lives. Your writings are expressions of deep honesty. You state what you feel and think, not what others might expect you tO say. In going before God, you bring your real self, warts and all. In dryness of spirit you bring your emptiness and nothingness before the Lord. In the joy of friendship, you recognize its source with gratitude. All these reflections center on one thing: truth. Again the confidence that truth can be comprehended; certitude is possible. With the truth comes freedom from moral, psychological, and spiritual paralysis. Time and again the hunger and thirst for truth, which at bottom is that infinite desire for God, emerges and demands constant bnergy. You, your husband and friends were searchers; your find has been graciously shared with us. Three loves helped to shape your life: theology, philosophy and poetry. Many individuals helped give you insight into these three loves: Thomas Aquinas, Plotinus, Augustine, Pascal, Bergson. My heart rejoices to find the formative influence of poetry in your journey: It brings the soaring and majestic flights of theological insight and philosophical reflections back to the concrete and specific. This happy triumvirate makes for a well-rounded disciple of the Lord. 641~ / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 You were a part of an exciting movement within the Church. The goal was a quality spiritual life based on strong principle and dedicated service. One senses the importance of community and friends in such an adventure. Herein is a lesson for our times: spiritual growth happens through deep participation with and among a community of believers. The search is painful but the joys are deep. Your contribution has not been forgotten; more, it continues to touch many hearts. Deep peace always, RFM Ego Virtue God Envy God Peace Truth Experience The ego is an obstacle to vision and possession. (28) Yesterday 1 had a good morning. Once again when I recollect myself, 1 again find the same simple demands of God: gentleness, humility, charity, interior simplicity; nothing else is asked of me. And suddenly I saw clearly why these virtues are demanded, because through them the soul becomes habitable for God and for one's neighbor in an intimate and permanent way. They make a pleasant cell of it. Hardness and pride repel, complexity disquiets. But humility and gentleness welcome, and simplicity reassures. These "passive" virtues have an eminently social character. (71) I get nowhere by looking at myself; I merely get discouraged. So I am making the resolution to abandon myself entirely to God, to look only at him, to leave all the care of myself to him, to practice only one thing, confidence; my extreme wretchedness, my natural cowardice leaving me no other way open to go to God and to advance in good. (83) A proud man envies the superiority which surpasses him. A humble one, on the contrary, loves good wherever he finds it, and by this love, in some sense appropriates it to himself. I enter into the presence of God with all my load of misery and troubles. And he takes me just as I am and makes me to be alone with him. (225) Sources of peace: God and trees. (328) But before all else, I had to make sure of the essential thing: the possession of the truth about God, about myself, and about the world. It was, I knew, the necessary foundation for my life; 1 could not, without letting the ground be washed away from under me, give up the pursuit of its discovery. Such was my deep instinct. And by assiduous work must I prepare myself to receive the hard secrets of the spirit. All the rest, 1 thought, would follow, would come in its time--music, the sweetness of the world, the happiness of life. (3 I) 1 began to read Plotinus outside class with great joy. Of this reading one single dazzling memory stands out for me, and throws all the rest into shadow. One summer day in the country, I was reading the Enneads. I was sitting on my bed with the book on my knees; reaching Citations from Ra~'ssa "s Journal are reproduced by permission of the publishers, Magi Books, Inc. Letters of Gratitude / 649 lnspiratibn Honesty Fa~h Suffering one of those numerous passages where Plotinus speaks of the soul and of God, as much in the character of a mystic as in that of a metaphysician--a passage I did not think of marking then and which I have not looked for since--a wave of enthusiasm flooded my heart. The next moment I was on my knees before the book, covering the passage I had just read with passionate kisses, and my heart burning with love. (96-97) One day, trembling all over, I went to Bergson to ask his advice about my studies, and even more, no doubt, about my life. It was the first time 1 had ever done anything of this kind. A few words of what he said to me are forever engraved in my memory. "Always follow your inspiration." Was this not to say, "Be yourself, always act freely'?. Much later, when I reminded him of this advice, which 1 had set about following indeed, Bergson, smiling at his imprudence, said kindly: "That was not advice I could have given to many people . "(97) Bloy appeared to us as the contrary of other men, who hide grave failings in the things of the spirit and so many invisible crimes under a carefully maintained whitewash of the virtues of sociability. Instead of being a whited sepulchre, like the Pharisees of every time, he was a firestained and blackened cathedral. The whiteness was within, in the depth of the tabernacle. (I 19) 1 think now that faith--a weak faith, impossible to formulate consciously--already existed in the most hidden depths of our souls. But we did not know this. It was the Sacrament which revealed it to ¯ us, and it was sanctifying grace which strengthened it in us. (178) This question of suffering in Beatitude, and of suffering in God himself, had already been raised by Bloy in Le Salutpar les Juifs. This conjunction of suffering and Beatitude is allowed neither by theology nor by Aristotle. Beatitude means absolute fullness, and suffering is the cry of that which is wounded. But our God is a crucified God: the Beatitude of which he cannot be deprived did not prevent him from fearing or mourning,~or from sweating blood in the unimaginable Agony, or from passing through the throes of death on the Cross, or from feeling abandoned. "Every imaginable violation of what one is accustomed to call Reason can be accepted from a suffering God," says Bloy in Le Salut. (189) III Dag HammarskfiSM c/o United Nations Building, New York Dear Secretary General, I write in gratitude for the markings of your life which you so carefully ¯ noted in your now famous diary. While busy with the affairs of the/world, while leading the United Nations in its struggle for an elusive pea(e, while 650 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 interacting socially and professionally with thousands of people, you took time to trace the movements of your spirit. Did any of your knowledgeable associates suspect the depth (or even existence) of your spiritual life? Was there anyone sensitive enough to feel the pulsating rhythm of your mind and heart? Perhaps their blindness and your own reticence kept too well hidden your dialogue with God and with life. And, as often happens, only after death is life fully manifest! We have the blessing of your journal which tells the story, a story that both inspires and challenges. So many themes! So many movements! The struggle with self and against self not being the least. Enslavement to pride and vainglory that so strongly contended with the haunting desire for self-surrender. Given your giftedness and international recognition, the self found humility no easy virtue. Yet you were able to name the struggle, you were able to admit your intrinsic weaknesses toward egoism and this already provided impetus to new freedoms. What a powerful instrument your journal must have been in this whole process. By it you kept in touch with the truth and that very truth was the gateway to authentic liberation. And even more deeply, within that whole struggle with self, was your relationship with God and your deep faith. Slavery to self was not broken through mere human discipline and strength. At the core of your religious life was the desire for purity and its most noted effect, transparency. No admixture of foreign elements into one's nature, thought or behavior. God was pure; he was love which is the essence of purity and permits transparency. You sought this God in faith, knowing that constant contact with him would bring about a personal renewal. Nor was all this a rugged individualism: all action is social, all holiness involves the well-being of other:s, all are part of a large symbiotic existence. As a youngster, I recall hearing in the dead of night the haunting whistle of the freight train cutting through the darkness with its small beacon of light. So, too, in reading your markings, I sensed the loneliness that is part of the lot of those chosen to lead. Genius and responsibility remove the engine from the rest of the cars and cause a perception among the masses that fails to take into account the real inner self. That loneliness finds expression in your reflections and these reflections come from the silence of the night. Whatever the pain, silence and loneliness are elements in the atomic formula that spell a rich imeriority. Without these qualities superficiality and mediocrity predominate. Every so often we come across vast visions contained in a nutshell; multiple truths captured by an adage; diverse beauty gently painted in a masterpiece. Your prayer is a rich theological gold mine: Give us A pure heart That we may see Thee, A humble heart That we may hear Thee, A heart of love That we may serve Thee, Letters of Gratitude / 651 A heart of faith That we may live Thee. (214) The emphasis is not on the mind or action but on the heart. Herein lies the wellspring of human life: what happens in the heart determines our fate. Thus we truly see when our hearts are pure; we hear for the first time when our hearts are humble; we serve well under the condition that our heart has made room for love; we live in God's piesence if in our heart there dwells the gift of faith. How simple! How profound! How challenging! And all of this is gift: "give us"! Not a selfish prayer made only for one's own growth, but a collective prayer asking for all peoples these gifts of single-mindedness, rich obedience, deep affectivity and spiritual vision. Only so blessed can peace come to the world; all politics must be grounded in spirituality, if any meaning at all is to be had. Resistance is for many of us a way of life. We resist our limitations, we feel hostile to the unknown, we are non-accepting of those things that do not fit into our plans. So much time and energy are consumed through the negative force of resistance that there is little, if any, left over to live a positive life. We shout a continual no to life and wonder why we are not happy. You related how one day you stopped this pattern in your life and shouted (or whispered) your yes. (205) In that moment of surrender all was different, all was new. However ambiguous and undefined this religious experience was--you were not clear as to who even put the question--that leap into affirmative acceptance was the point of conversion. A new person was born that day and with it came the precious gifts of meaning and freedom. What would, be your response to the condition of world government as it exists today? Was all your work worthwhile? Despite the powerlessness of the United Nations, despite the wars that go on daily and the fragile peace in the non-military sections of the planet, despite the narrow supercilious nationalisms causing incredible blindness, your work was not in vain. Your expertise, dedication and world consciousness have made their mark and furthered the cause of peace that is absolutely crucial for the family of man. The ideal has been kept alive and your contributions to the common good are inestimable. Hopefully, others will follow who will carry on this ministry to world peace and justice. The ultimate meaning in life which emerged time and again from your journal is love. Beyond obedience, beyond fear, beyond openness to life is this great force and power of radical care. Without it, division and alienation rage; with it, there comes the joy and peace of those who touch and have been touched by God. The beauty of life is that love found expression in action which you see as "the road to holiness" for our times. You walked it well; may we be but a step behind. With gratitude, RFM 652 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 Friendship Lislening Love HMmor Love Growth Within-hess Purity Holiness Obedience Instrumentality Fa#h Hum~ Every deed and every relationship is surrounded by an atmosphere of silence. Friendship needs no words--it is solitude delivered from the anguish of loneliness. (8) The more faithfully you listen to the voice within you, the better you will hear what is sounding outside. And only he who listens can speak. Is this the starting point of the road towards the union of your two dreams--to be allowed in clarity of mind to mirror life and in purity of heart to mold it? (13) Perhaps a great love is never returned. Had it been given warmth and shelter by its counterpart in the Other, perhaps it would have been hindered from ever growing to maturity. It "gives" us nothing. But in its world of loneliness it leads us up to summits with wide vistas--of insight. (42) A grace to pray for--that our self-interest, which is inescapable, shall never cripple our sense of humor, that fully conscious self-scrutiny. which alone can save us. (43) Our love becomes impoverished if we lack the courage to sacrifice its object. (56) If only 1 may grow: firmer, simpler--quieter, warmer. (93) To be able to see, hear, and attend to that within us which is there in the darkness and the silence. (97) To be pure in heart means, among other things, to have freed yourself from all such half-measures: from a tone of voice which places you in the limelight, a furtive acceptance of some desire of the flesh which ignores the desire of the spirit, a self-righteous reaction to others in their moments of weakness. (109) In our era, the road to holiness necessarily passes through the world of action. (122) Beyond obedience, its attention fixed on the goal--freedom from fear. Beyond fear--openness to live and beyond that--love. (129) Rejoice if you feel that what you did was "necessary," but remember, even so, that you were simply the instrument by means of which He added one tiny grain to the Universe He has created for His own purposes. (143) We act in faith--and miracles occur. In consequence, we are tempted to make the miracles the ground for our faith. The cost of such weakness is that we lose the confidence of faith. Faith is, faith creates, faith carries. It is not derived from, nor created, nor carried by anything except its own reality. (145) Humility is just as much the opposite of self-abasement as it is of self-exaltation. To be humble is not to make comparisons. Secure in its reality, the self is neither better nor worse, bigger nor smaller, than anything else in the universe. It is--is nothing, yet at the same time one with everything. It is in this sense that humility is absolute self-effacement. (174) From Markings, by Dag HammarskjiSld, translated by Leif Sjoberg and W. H. Auden, by pernaission of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. All rights reserved, 1964. Crisis in Personal Prayer: Reflections of Pope Paul VI J. Michael Miller, C.S.B. Father Miller is an Associate Professor in the Department of Theology of the University of St. Thomas, where he may be addressed: 3812 Montrose Blvd.; Houston, TX 77006. Shortly after his election to the papacy twenty years ago, Pope Paul VI confided to his friend Jean Guitton, "Montini has disappeared, Peter has replaced him."~ Of his interior life, consequently, we know very little: no Journal of a Soul, no published diaries, few unedited notes. The silence that had always surrounded his own life of prayer became absolute after he was elected pope. Nothing undoubtedly would have embarrassed this shy, inward man more than the revelation after his death that he often wore a hair shirt under his white cassock3 The fascinating spiritual biography of the pope who led the Church in its most tumultuous days since the Reformation remains to be written. Can nothing then be said about his prayer life? its difficulties? its structure? its emergence from a soul steeped in the anguish of the twentieth century's alienation and loneliness? Not a buoyant optimist as was John XXIII, Paul VI disappointed those who desired a charismatic, powerful personality to lead the Church in the wake of his popular predecessor. Especially in the last years of his pontificate, his tired and stilted movements (caused by painful arthritis) inspired little optimism. He was accused of being indecisive, lackluster, too progressive and too reactionary. Sharply aware of the "formidable burden" of his office and of his "apparent incommunicability," Pope Paul was thus no stranger to humani-ty's doubts and anxieties. Despite his reticence and his quasi-mystical assump tion of the ministry of Peter, Paul VI has nonetheless left us some reflections on the contemporary crisis in the practice of personal prayer--instructions which he shared with the people of God over the course of fifteen years of catechesis, exhortation, and homily. We can glean from these talks, which he 653 654 / Review for Religious, Sept,-Oct., 1983 wrote himself, some understanding of his own prayer life of which they are an echo. His remarks on prayer spring from a soul enmeshed in this "sad, dra-matic, and magnificent earth," as he described human existence in his last will and testament. The pope was a sensitive and compassionate man whose life of prayer was filled with a serenity and hope which belie those who thought him to be crushed by his own sense of responsibility and the suffering of both the Church and the world. While Pope Paul elaborated no systematic doctrine on prayer or the spiri-tual life, he consistently exhorted the faithful to pray and dedicated numerous discourses to the specific theme of personal prayer. On occasion he set aside for the topic two, three, or even four discourses in succession--as in August 1969, Eastertide 1970, or after Pentecost in 1976. The Holy Year of 1975--its preparation, realization, and aftermath--also stimulated his reflections on prayer. Nonetheless, Paul VI never presented a long and sustained theology on this theme such as that which John Paul II delivered in 1980 on marriage and sexuality in the opening chapters of Genesis. For this article, then, I have organized thematically material drawn from disparate talks over Paul's fifteen-year pontificate (1963-1978). At every point my primary interest is to allow the penetrating insights, concise and chiseled language, and ever-present serenity of Paul VI to speak for themselves: they reveal the contemporary person before personal prayer, the difficulties it entails, and its fundamental conversational structure. Is There a Crisis in Personal Prayer? Not infrequently Pope Paul lamented the declining practice of prayer in the modern world. He noted "with regret that personal prayer is diminishing'~ and that "unfortunately today many people no longer pray, do not pray at all. ,,4 In several discourses on prayer he mentions this decline and uses it as his point of departure: "A simple enquiry on the religious habits of the people of our time would yield sad findings on the complete, or almost complete, absence of personal prayer in a very large number of persons, now alien to, and alienated from, all expressions of inner religious feeling.'~ The crisis reaches "even those who are consecrated to the Lord [who] pray less than was once usual.TM Yet, despite, this grim evaluation of the contemporary situation, Paul VI did not take refuge in complaint. Instead he observed attentively in order to discover the reasons for the decline and, finding the reasons, to encourage hopeful signs wherever they appeared. More the pastor than the judge, he wanted to draw Christians, especially the young, to return to per-sonal prayer. Because Paul VI did not divorce his ministry from service to the world, he sought to reawaken humanity's thirst for the interior life by leading it to dis-cover in its own sterile experience of the world the foundation for prayer. He therefore tried to explain why modern men and women find it so difficult, so joyless to pray. Again and again he returns to his own straightforward ques- Crisis in Personal Prayer / 655 tion: "Why js interior life, that is the life of prayer, less intense and less easy for people of our time, for ourselves?''~ His assessment spurred him to try to ac-count for this unfortunate situation and thereby turn it to pastoral advantage. Reasons for the Crisis While Pope Paul never neatly outlined all the reasons for the contempo-rary crisis in prayer, his many discourses, however, reveal at least five explana-tions which touch the heart of the matter: Exteriorization. According to Paul VI, "we are brought up and educated to live exterior lives.TM A concentration on the marvelous and exciting things of this world has so displaced "equal training in the interior life" that few know its laws and satisfactions. The decline in practice is less a matter of man's deliber-ate unwillingness to pray than of his preference for more gratifying diversions. The ~'fascinating" media of film and television, for example, militate against the cultivation of a prayer life. If these media are watched "assiduously or obsessively," he says, they can "take the place of speculative thought, fill the mind with empty fantasies (see Ws 4:12), and urge it on to what it has seen." The human mind is reduced to the sensory world alone and "exteriorized." Given this situation, Paul goes on to ask, "Where is there any room for spiritual life, prayer, dependence on that prime principle which is God, when the consciousness is habitually crowded with these intruding and often futile and harmful images?"~ This first point is simple: a mind and heart filled with vain images leaves neither room nor interest for prayer. Materialism. A "deluded consideration that reality, the whole of reality, is that of the sense order, that of temporal and material experience" increases humanity's obliviousness to its spiritual depths. Crushed by work, study, and absorption in worldly affairs, we are in danger of closing ourselves to the transcendent, to the call to prayer. When knowledge is reduced to physical and quantitative laws, and God is "excluded as the transcendent Principle of the universe, and therefore also of every free and wise intervention in the world of our experience," Pope Paul then asks, "how could man address a word to the unknown God, try to dialogue with him, invoke his loving Providenc.6?" Whenever nothingness is proclaimed at the summit of the universe, he con-tinues, then people are "made incapable of prayer." Instead they are forced to strengthen the "mystification of self-sufficiency."0 Materialism and secularism lead to "putting prayer out of public life and private habit.TM Scientism. The frequently vaunted capacity of science to explain everything without reference to a transcendent cause calls into question the value of imploring a provident and personal God. Paul VI often follows the Thomistic .nodel of first outlining and then answering objections squarely. He comments, ~or example, that we have "to keep in mind the classic and usual objection nowadays, about the uselessness of prayer for us modern men, who by means of scientific progress have a knowledge of. the cosmos and human life ~hich makes it useless to have recourse to God to intervene in the scheme of causal- 656 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 ity, over which we ourselves either have control or know its fatality." After thus fairly presenting the objection, he answers that science "does not deem the influence of divine action superfluous in the play of natural causes, but recog-nizes it and to a certain extent., postulates it, invokes it, prays to it with increased understanding of divine and human things."~2 Paul VI refused to concede that science and technology could provide a satisfactory excuse for not praying. Rather, he insisted that scientists should not curtail the metaphys-ical and: mystical possibilities raised by the depth and precision of their disci-plines. If honestly undertaken their study should lead them not to silence but to dialogue with their Creator. Lack of a Religious Sense. Coupled with the exteriorization of the human mind, secularism, and scientism is a decline in humanity's "basic religious sense." Without this sense a personal spiritual life is impossible. Even before a person consciously prays, the person must have "that perhaps vague, but deep, mysterious and stimulating sense of God which is the basis of prayer."Is Because this religious sense is the atmosphere from which our thin voices can be raised in prayer, Pope Paul admonishes everyone to "try to find the routes leading to the religious sense, to the mystery of God, and then to colloquy and union with God.TM A world which excludes the mystery and beauty of God sweeps away the foundation of the interior life. Social Activism. Another Pauline explanation for the declining practice of prayer is the false emphasis some Catholics place on social conct~rns. The pope of Populorum progressio (1967) and Octogesima adveniens ( 1971) warned that social activism threatens to displace the interior life of prayer. Those who maintain that charity towards one's neighbor is enough are tempted to regard prayer as an obstacle to action, "as if they were competing for time, now scarce." Quite simply, according to Paul, prayer is "an indispensable coefficient of apostolic action."15 Without prayer, loving communion with Jesus Christ, the Church is unable "to contest a society in which everything is staked on apparent efficiency."~6 Without prayer, the Church would be "some kind of philanthropic humanism, or some sort of purely temporal sociological organi-zation,"~ 7 but it would not be the Body of Christ which worships the Father through the Son in the Holy Spirit. Signs of Hope Despite the "formidable, but false" reasons why many people neither want to pray nor know how to pray nor do pray, the Church remains a "prayer association." It is in and through the Church, according to the pope, that humanity "has found the authentic way of praying, through Christ the sole high priest, that is, the way of speaking to God, of talking with God, of speaking about God."~8 Anchored deeply in the life of the Church and aware of her spiritual fiches, Paul VI was nevertheless able to discern within contem-porary secular experience an opening to prayer that many others brushed aside as irrelevant or unredeemable. Not satisfied with a mere description of the Crisis in Personal Prayer crisis, he always tried to dig deeper, to unravel, to make explicit the implicit, to reveal the hidden. The key to his theological and pastoral method was his indefatigable desire to "rescue" the potential of every twentieth-century philo-sophical and cultural movement--to unearth its latent possibilities. What many perceived as weakness or indecisiveness was really the pope's ability to grasp the multi-sided complexity of the modern world and his seeking to read the "signs of the times." In his discourses on prayer he applied his own method: to bring into focus the ways in which contemporary experience, especially that of the young, has within itself the capacity to promote a loving dialogue with God rather than a monologue with nothingness. Paradoxically, then, the modern spirit contains the seeds of its possible redemption. During the Holy Year, Pope Paul commented on the plausibility of a reaction setting in among young people which would turn them once again to the practice of personal prayer. Spontaneously alienated by the empti-ness of denying God, "these young people come forward, sad and tormented by the need of a real religion, which will make it possible still to talk to God, to pray to him, to know that he is accessible and close, provident and loving."19 Rather than despair at their denial of God and of the possibility and power of prayer, Paul VI chose to encourage them to reach deeper into their own experience and acknowledge their inner thirst for God. At a Wednesday audience two years before his death he said: Is there not, perhaps, at the bottom of the contesting bitterness of so many young people today a state of mind that is lamentation, poetry, invocation, which it seems permissible to classify under the sign of prayer, a sign that has survived the hurricanes of modern disillusionment? Yes, the temple of prayer opens its doors to the men of our time, and they, most certainly, feel that it would be wonderful to go in again. But they are hesitant: how dare they? And how to pray?--they think. It is worthwhile accompanying them and inviting them again to pray with us30 Ever anxious to accompany and encourage, Pope Paul perceived that "a need, an orientation, a sympathy for some form of prayer is being born again in the heart of the present generation.'~ From the experience of alienation can emerge a rekindled interest and thirst for the Living God. Such sentiments are certainly those of a man confident that truth will eventually prevail. In a moving description of the desperation of the young and their world, Paul VI strives to discern in their pleas an unacknowledged but real prayer raised to God. He recognizes in those who "hear no other call but that of a wasteland, on which they have fallen in an attitude of listless sadness to testify to the unhappy emptiness of their existence . a kind of existential moan of their innate desire to live, to survive." He does not hesitate to call this "a prayer; yes, a prayer conscious only of the desperate devaluation of every magnified modern experience, a kind of De profundis, to the atrocious inner torment." Like the Athenians who did not recognize the objective orientation of their longing (see Ac 17:23), so today the young do not often recognize in 65~1 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 their alienation their "innate, anguished need of Life, transcendent, rising again, divine." From out of the depths of this human anguish, according tO the pope, the possibility arises of encountering "a mysterious wayfarer, exhausted under a cross, who repeats his paradoxical but fascinating invitation: 'Come to me! And I will give you rest'" (Mt 11:28).22 In the very cry of those seemingly without God is revealed the first fashioning of prayer. Always intent on reaching to the crux of the matter and belie.ving that the human person "remains radically religious, essentially oriented towards the quest for God, towards a relationship with him, and therefore eager for, and capable of, personal prayer," Paul VI regards the spontaneous cries of the heart as the beginning of authentic prayer, the ''prayer-spark" which "bursts forth from the soul" in an "almost explosive" manner. Even for those untrained in religious conversation such a cry is a minimal, sometimes unno-ticed, expression of the soul's conversation with God.23 In this way, Paul seems to suggest the presence of a kind of"anonymous prayer" in the soul of many of his contemporaries. According to him, the drama of twentieth-century thought leads either to the failure of desolate skepticism or to "a science of God, which cannot remain just inert and passive, but experiences the logic, the vital urge to express a word; a word addressed to God: a call? praise? an attempt at dialogue? In any case, a prayer.'~4 If people would but open their eyes and their mind, they would discover in their own groans the beginning of prayer. Prayer as "Intoxicating Dialogue" Though Paul VI neither provided a manual on the practice of prayer nor described its dynamics in any detail, he frequently recalled the fundamental structure of personal prayer as God's call and an individual's response. The pope often reminds his listeners that even before a word is on our tongue, God himself is within us in "that mysterious and indescribable appointment which God, the one and threefold God, deigns to make with us, for filial and over-flowing conversation within our very selves."25 God reveals himself to us from within; he is closer to us than we are to ourselves. Paul never tired of calling to mind the mystery of the divine indwelling as the condition which makes all praying possible. Everyone needs to learn to pray inside oneself and by oneself, because God is with us inviting and beckoning us to interior.persona! p.m_ y~er. Despite our laziness, our being "slow and restive interlocutors," as the pope says, it is God who precedes and loves and goes in search of us first.26 Paul Vl's emphasis on personal, private prayer stems from his keen awareness that "the essentia! crossroads at which there is a meeting with the religious mystery, with God, is within us, in the interior room of our spirit and in that personal activity we call prayer.'~7 Liturgical prayer can never replace internal awareness and dialogue with the God who encounters us from within. Both God's sending of his Son in the Incarnation and of his Spirit at Pentecost provoke a "listening" in the heart of the believer. After listening to God's invitation, the pope said, "we cannot remain silent and inert" but must Crisis in Personal Prayer / 659 seek to respond.2s Paul VI was fond of referring to prayer as "conversation" or "dialogue"---terms dear to his theological method as it emerges, for example, in his first encyclical, Ecclesiam suam (1964). The simplest raising of the heart to God is already prayer when the mysterious Other is addressed, however inarticulately, as "thou." Nor is the individual disappointed "with the new joy of an intoxicating reply: Ecce adsum; here I am."~9 Prompted by the Spirit to recognize God within, and then to address him, the person is comforted with a reply. God listens. Dialogue unfolds "through filial conversation and concen-trated silence with him."~0 Prayer, then, is simple, austere and loving conversa-tion, an "intoxicating dialogue.TM In an address directed to rekindling the religious sense among men and women of today, Paul describes the dialogue which follows upon a person's awareness of God: Prayer is conversation: a conversation carried on by our personalities with the invisible companion, of whose presence we have become aware: the holy Living One, who fills us with awe and love, the indescribable Godhead, whom Christ (see Mt 11:27) taught us to call Father through his priceless gift of revelation)2 With his customary care to answer objections anticipated in the minds of his listeners, Pope Paul insists that prayer is authentic only when coupled with trust. The fear that our words are "a voice in the darkness" or merely "despair-ing poetry" is real. But once we remember that prayer begins with God and is established by Christ, it cannot be a monologue. Our very response is necessar-ily a dialogue.33 The "essential pattern of prayer" is that of a "conversation between God and the person,"a conversation which arises from a bilateral and beneficial relationship anchored in God's graciousness and an individual's trust.~ This model of prayer is readily accessible to contemporary human experience; it needs only to be'unlocked and directed to the God who waits. Conclusion Thus spoke Paul VI on prayer. To paraphrase St. John (20:30), there are many other things which Pope Paul said about prayer, but they are not ~ecorded in this article: his unceasing encouragement of liturgical prayer as the outflow of personal prayer, his esteem for the practice of simple vocal prayer, his promotion of Marian prayer. All these themes, and many more, together make up the rich legacy ori prayer which the pope bequeathed to the Church. Though not always highly original in his instruction, he taught assiduously the value and need for prayer if contemporary humanity is to survive. Paul VI restated traditional doctrine with a vigor and finesse attuned to our contem-porary self-understanding. More than all else, however, his calm and confi-dence that God is working through our barrenness to invite us to prayer is an encouraging testimony that from the very poverty of our existence might emerge the riches of loving dialogue with the Triune God. 660 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 NOTES ~Jean Guitton, Paul VI secret (Paris, 1979), p. 12. 2Ibid., p. 15. 3The Teachings of Pope Paul VI, vol. 3 (Vatican City, 1971), p. 145 (22 April 1970). All subsequent references are to the collected works published in ~e Teachings of Pope Paul VL I I vols. (Vatican City, 1969-1979, also reprinted by the USCC). The date of the original papal discourse follows in parentheses. 4Teachings 8, p. 86 (30 July 1975). ~Teachings 7, p. 14 (23 January 1974). 6Teachings 2, p. 219 (13 August 1969). 7Teachings 2, p. 220 (13 August 1969). STeachings 2, p. 220 (13 August 1969). 9Teachings 2, p. 228 (27 August 1969). ~°Teachings 8, pp. 8687 (30 July 1975). ~ Teachings 2, p. 223 (21 August 1969). ~2Teachings 7, p. 147 (23 October 1974). ~3Teachings 2, p. 226 (27 August 1969). ~4Teachings 2, p. 228 (27 August 1969). ~Teachings 9, pp. 105-106 (8 September 1976). ~rTeachings 8, p. 415 (12 November 1975). ~TTeachings 3, p. 144 (22 April 1970). ~STeachings 3, p. 143 (22 April 1970). ~gTeachings 8, p. 87 (30 July 1975). ~°Teachings 9, p. 67 (9 June 1976). ~ Teachings 7, p. 19 (30 January 1974). 2~Teachings 7, pp. 145-146 (23 October 1974). 2aTeachings 7, pp. 14-15 (23 January 1974). ~4Teachings 9, p. 66 (9 June 1976). ~STeachings 3, p. 145 (22 April 1970). 26 Teachings 7, p. 15 (23 January 1974). :T Teachings 2, p. 221 (13 August 1969). 28Teachings 7, p. 17 (30 January 1974). ~gTeachings 2, p. 221 (13 August 1969). ~°Teachings 2, p. 225 (21 August 1969). ~ Teachings 8, p. 63 (2 June 1976). J~Teachings 2, p. 226 (27 August 1969). J~Teachings 7, p. 19 (30 January 1974). ~Teachings 9, p. 68 (16 June 1976). The "Active-Contemplative" Problem in Religious Life by David M. Knight Price: $.75 per copy, plus postage. Address: Review for Religious Rm 428 3601 Lindell Blvd. St. Louis, Missouri 63106 Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer Thomas E. Clarke, S.J. Father Clarke, theologian, writer and lecturer, is well known for his work with renewal efforts in a variety of communities. He now resides in a small pastoral community where he may be addressed: 126 West 17th St.; New York, NY 10011. It is well known that Jungian spirituality--approaches to human and Christian development which draw on the insights of Carl Jung--is experi-encing a high point of interest and influence.~ More specifically, the Jungian psychological types are attracting many, especially as these types are identified by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a preference measurement perfected over several decades by the late Isabel Briggs Myers.2 More particularly still, there is considerable interest in describing forms of prayer which correspond to the categories of the Jungian typology.3 In this context the present article seeks to identify and reflect on ways of praying which correspond to the functions and attitudes of the Jungian schema; it will also offer some suggestions and cautions towards the further exploration of such correspondences. It is written not only for those who are already acquainted with their MBTI types, but also for those seeking a basic explanation of this instrument in its usefulness for prayer. These observations are based on a dozen retreat/workshop experiences of six days which have sought to aid Christian growth by correlating Jungian type-categories with Gospel themes and Christian practices. They are also meant to supplement what has been said in a recent book transposing the retreat/workshop into print.4 The scope of this article is quite limited. First, it does not profess to know how people or groups belonging to any one of the sixteen types actually prefer to pray or, still less, ought to pray. Secondly, it does not seek to correlate each of the sixteen types with one or more forms of prayer. The basis of the correlations here suggested will be the four functions, with some consideration of the attitudes of introversion and extraversion. 661 66~ / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 The article does, however, go beyond the previously mentioned literature in three ways. First, it will speak not only of the prayer of individuals but also, though less in detail, of prayer in groups and in liturgical assemblies. Secondly, it will raise the question of prayer as a form of leisure, hence as a time for making friends with the shadow side of one's personality. And thirdly, it will raise the question of forms of prayer for individuals at different stages of life's journey. A Preliminary Observation One final preliminary re~ark needs to be made, on the method of correlation followed in our retreat/workshop, in the chapters of From Image to Likeness, and in the present article. Jungian theory and the Christian Gospel are two quite distinct and heterogeneous interpretations of what it means to be human. The properly behavioral and the properly religious dimensions of life are irreducible one to the other. Even where common terms, drawn from either sector, are used, we must be wary of assuming a univocal sense. Carl Jung presented himself principally as pursuing the science of the soul. Jesus Christ is God's Word of salvation, the founder of the faith community which bears his name. Nevertheless there are between the insights of Jung and the teachings of Jesus significant affinities, likenesses, analogies. As in the case of Plato and Aristotle, Darwin and Marx, penetrating Jungian insights into the human condition can meet, and be met by, facets of the Gospel. The method employed here, then, is one which centers on such resemblances. My impression is that much of the energy generated within Jungian spirituality today derives from the exciting discovery that these two basic perceptions of our humanity often converge in remarkable ways. The convergence on which we will focus here is that which obtains between the characteristics of each of the Jungian functions and different forms of Christian prayer. The Jungian Types My guess is that most readers of this article have already been introduced to the Jungian types either directly or through some such instrument as the MBTI. But a brief summary may be helpful, at least to those not acquainted with the types. Carl Jung's clinical experience acquainted him with the fact that while we all engage in common forms of behavior we also differ notably from one another in our behavioral preferences, and hence in the way in which we grow humanly. He used two generic terms, perceiving and judging, to designate the alternating rhythm, present in each person, of a) taking in reality, being shaped by it, and b) shaping reality, responding to it. Each of these two postures was specified, Jung postulated, in two contrasting functions. Perceiving (P) was specified as either sensing (S), the Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer / 663 function through which, with the help of the five senses, we perceive reality in its particularity, concreteness, presentness; or as intuiting (N), the function through which, in dependence on the unconscious and with the help of imagination, we perceive reality in its wholeness, its essence, its future potential. Judging (J) was also specified, in either thinking (T), by which we come to conclusions and make decisions on the basis of truth, logic, and right order; or in feeling (F), which prompts conclusions and decisions attuned to our subjective values and sensitive to the benefit or harm to persons--ourselves or others--which may result from our behavior. All four of these functions, Jung affirmed, can be exercised by way of extraversion or by way of introversion. He invented this now celebrated distinction to describe the flow of psychic energy inlany given instance of behavior. In extraverted behavior the flow of energy is from the subject towards the object of perception or judgment. In introverted behavior, the flow of energy is in the opposite direction, that is, from the object towards the subject. What makes the difference is not precisely whether the target of our perception or judgment is something outside ourselves or within ourselves, but which way the energy is flowing. Rather commonly, the impulse to share one's perception or judgment immediately with others or at least to give it bodily expression, signals the presence of extraversion (E); while a tendency to gather the perceiving or judging behavior and to deal with it within oneself marks introversion (I). Working independently of Jung, and on theoretical foundations previously explored by her mother, Isabel Briggs Myers developed an instrument which, on the basis of a preference questionnaire, indicated how the respondent prefers to behave in given situations. The typology is based on four sets of polar opposites: extraversion/introversion; sensing/intuiting; thinking/feeling; judging/perceiving. In tabular form: E-I S-N T-F J-P The four pairs of opposites in varying combinations yield sixteen types, each of which is identified with its code e.g. ESTJ; ISFP; ENFJ. In the process of decoding, which we cannot describe in detail here, one arrives at the order of preference of the four functions (described as dominant, auxiliary, third, and inferior), as well as the attitude (introversion or extraversion) of the dominant function. Thus one person's most preferred behavior will be extraverted feeling, another's introverted intuiting, and so forth. Also worth noting is that when the dominant function is a perceiving function (sensing or intuiting), the auxiliary function will be one of the two judging functions (thinking or feeling), the third function will be the other judging function, and the inferior function will be the perceiving function opposite to the dominant 664 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 function. A corresponding pattern will obtain where the dominant function is a judging function. This is one way in which Jung's view of"compensation," or the tendency of the psyche towards balance, is verified. Extensive research and testing, especially with respect to the professions chosen by people of various types, enabled Isabel Myers to construct profiles of the sixteen types. These in turn have won for the M BTI an extensive use in the fields of career guidance, personnel policy, and the dynamics of groups and organizations. The key psychological insight on which the MBTI capitalizes is that people's behavior, development, and relationships are strongly affected by their preferences in perceiving and judging, as well as by the extraverted or introverted character of the respective preferences. If one makes the assumption that persons are capable of enlightenment and growth through free exercise towards more human ways of living, this psychometric tool then becomes a vehicle of human development. Such is the conviction which has sparked enormous interest in the MBTI in recent years. Out of the work of these two American women has emerged the Association for Psychological Type, whose membership has reached 1500, and which has sponsored five biennial conferences for discussing numerous aspects of the typology. One of the interest areas provided for in APT covers religious education, spiritual growth, prayer styles, missionary service, and similar themes.5 With this brief outline of the various functions and the two attitudes which qualify human behavior, we now turn to correlating each of the four functions with forms of Christian prayer. In the case of each of the functions we will ask: What are some of the forms of prayer--individual, group, and liturgical-- which correspond to this function? Sensing Forms of Prayer Forms of prayer corresponding to the sensing function will be, in general, those ways of praying in which we pay attention to present reality in a focused way, whether with the help of the five external senses or through a simple perception of interior reality. Here are some examples of what we may call sensing prayer. l) Vocalprayer, such as the recitation of the psalms or the rosary, will be sensing prayer when the posture of the one praying is characterized by simple attentiveness, a certain contentment with each passing phrase, and an eschewing of rational thought, imaginative scenarios, and strong emotional investment. Sensing prayer tends for the most part to be simple, quiet, undramatic, contemplative, and down to earth. Vocal prayer, whether the words are recited aloud, gently murmured, or just expressed within, are apt vehicles for exercising this side of our personality. 2) The "prayer of simple regard" is a traditional term used to describe a kind of prayer which, I would suggest, has ~he characteristics of sensing prayer. It consists in just "being there," present to present reality, especially to God within the mystery of divine presence. It needs no words (except perhaps to Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer / 665 recall one from distraction) and does not involve strong y~arnings of the heart, but in simplicity accepts the "sacrament of the present moment." 3) The prayerful "application of the senses" may also be an exercise of sensing prayer. But here I understand this term as referring to the use of the five exterior senses, or any one of them, on their appropriate objects. The first part of Fr. Anthony de Mello's widely ready book Sadhana contains many such exercises which he lists under "Awareness.TM The sense of touch, for example, may be prayerfully exercised just by letting myself become aware of bodily sensation, beginning perhaps with the shoulders and working down to the soles of the feet. Touch is also exercised when I attend to how, in breathing, I feel the air as it enters and leaves the nostrils. Listening to sounds in a quiet posture of receptivity and enjoyment is another instance of sensing prayer. Provided I have entered this exercise with faith, I do not need to have recourse to the thought of God or to any devout feelings, even though, as Ft. de Mello suggests, a variation of this exercise might consist in hearing the sounds as God sounding in all the sounds made by nature and humans. Thus the chatter of voices, the purr of a motor in the basement, or the thunder of a ride on the New York subway, can be grist for the mill of sensing prayer. Something similar may be said for gazing as a form of sensing prayer. I may look at objects of devotion, at pictures in a book or album, at faces in a crowd, at the beauties of nature. Even taste and smell can be vehicles of prayer for a person exercising faith with a heightened consciousness. 4) Sensing prayer can also draw upon the interior sense, our capacity for paying attention to what is going on within us. Focusing on our breathing or our heartbeat can be a point of entry. Then we may choose simply to attend to what is happening in inner consciousness, to the words, images, or feelings which spontaneously bubble up from the unconscious. Sometimes this kind of exercise can induce a gradual slowing or cessation of inner chatter, and we can for a while just listen to the silence within. We may even come to a happy interior verification of the Quaker motto, "Don't speak until you can improve on silence." Sometimes people ask with regard ,to such exercises, "Is it really prayer?" Even if it were not, it would not be a bad way of disposing ourselves for prayer. But when it is situated within a life of faith and for the purpose of expressing and deepening our faith, it can be prayer---excellent prayer---even though we do not name God, converse with God, or experience any devout surge of the heart. Sensing Prayer in Groups So far I have been suggesting sensing forms of prayer for the individual. But groups can also pray with an accent on sensing. Various kinds of vocal prayer such as litanies or the Office in common, especially when they are engaged in with simplicity and even with a certain routine, enable the members 666 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 of a group to meet God and one another through the sensing function. It is also possible to create prayer services in which each of the five senses has its place, as, for example, by listening to the tinkle of a bell or to a guitar quietly strumming; by devoutly kissing a crucifix or extending a handclasp of peace; by smelling incense or flowers; by tasting a sip of wine; by focusing on the lighting of a candle. Sensing prayer in common leaves aside what is highly cognitive or interpersonal or imaginative. It calls the group to be together with a great deal of simplicity and quiet awareness of God, one another, and the environment. Sensing in IJturgical Prayer There are times when people come together in larger groups to pray, and particularly to participate in the official or public prayer of the Church. When we celebrate the Eucharist and other sacraments and the divine Office in large assemblies, prayer takes on what I would call a societal character, in contrast to the interpersonal character of prayer shared in small groups.7 The general thesis which I would propose is that a well-celebrated liturgy needs to attend to all four functions. Ideally, each participant and the congregation as a whole should have the opportunity to exercise both sensing and intuiting, thinking and feeling, in extraverted and introverted ways. In the present aspect, sensing prayer, liturgical celebration will meet our humanity when it evokes the exercise of the five senses in a congruous way by inviting the participants to look, listen, touch, taste, and smell, all in a fashion which nourishes their faith and deepens their solidarity. There is no need here to detail how apt the celebration of the sacraments in the Christian and Catholic tradition is for meeting this need of human personality. My impression is that consequent upon Vatican II the effort to break out of liturgical straitjackets sometimes brought an "angelism" insensitive to the importance of the senses in good eucharistic celebration. Heightened attention to the homily tended to move celebration excessively towards the cognitive, to the neglect of the sensate, elements of good celebration. To some degree we are today recovering the importance of the life of the senses in liturgy. This Jungian approach to societal prayer can assist in that recovery. Intuiting Prayer Intuiting prayer may be described as contemplative prayer drawing upon fantasy and imagination, as well as what might be called the prayer of emptiness or the "prayer of the vacant stare. The Jungian tradition uses the term "active imagination" to designate those behaviors in which we let images and symbols freely emerge from the unconscious and flow in consciousness. The term "active" could be misleading, if taken with a connotation of control or shaping reality. There is a sense in which this use of imagination is not active but passive, as the person's posture is one of receptivity. The orientation of such prayer is to what might be, to futuresdreamed of rather than planned. As Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer / 667 the five senses and the interior sense are the vehicles of sensing prayer, so the gift of imagination is what carries intuiting prayer. But, in my opinion, the intuiting function can be at work in prayer even when images are not freely flowing. The vacant stare into space aptly symbolizes a contemplative posture in prayer which is aptly subsumed under intuiting prayer. In such prayer the mind is not occupied with thoughts, the imagination is not delivering images or symbols, and the heart is not strongly surging toward the good. Such prayer of emptiness appears to differ sharply from the prayer of a simple regard, even though both forms are characterized by an absence of thoughts, images, and strong feelings. The difference consists in the focused or unfocused character of the gaze. To use a playful distinction which I once heard Brother David Rast employ, in the prayer of simple regard we are now/here, fully present to the present actuality of life, whereas in what I call the prayer of the vacant stare we are no/where (recall that the Greek term for nowhere is Utopia). Centering Prayer In this context it is worth asking just where "centering prayer" as developed by Fr. Basil Pennington is best situated from the standpoint of the four Jungian functions.8 My own inclination is to view it as a form of intuiting prayer. It is true that centering prayer makes use of a word in the journey to the center; and, as we shall see, the word in prayer belongs primarily to the thinking function. But here the word is functioning not as a mediator of rational meaning but as a carrier of the spirit to the beyond. Centering prayer .has a predominantly unfocused character and brings us to a certain emptiness. Hence I would put it with intuiting prayer. All of this having been said, here are some examples of intuiting prayer for the individual. 1) We have just discussed a first form, centering prayer in the proper sense. 2) The familiar "contemplations" of the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius are appropriately listed under intuiting prayer. But it needs to be noted that these contemplations of the mysteries of the life of Jesus belong also to feeling prayer, as we will see. The imagination is exercised with freedom, but with a view to drawing the heart in love. It is the feeling function, we shall se~, which relates to the past through reminiscence. Perhaps a large part of the power of the Ignatian contemplations consists in the fact that both the dreaming imagination and the heart are drawn on to energize the retreatant engaged in the process of "election." Something similar may be said of the contemplation of the mysteries of the rosary. The imagination freely recreates a scene which contains in symbolic form deep Christian values. 3) Various kinds of fantasy in prayer have an intuitive character. Anthony de Mello's book here again contains some interesting exercises, Christian and non-Christian, under the general heading of "Fantasy." Some which might appear at first to be quite macabre can be a source of intense joy and peace: 661~ / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 attending your own funeral, or the "fantasy on the corpse" which Fr. de Mellow borrowed from the Buddhist series of "reality meditations." 4) Ira Progoff's "Intensive Journal," both in the sections devoted to dealing with dreams and in the various kinds of dialogues, offers an abundance of forms of intuiting prayer. The dialogues may be said to combine intuiting and thinking prayer, the latter because of the dialogue form of the prayer. 5) Praying with the help of symbols engages the intuitive function in a way that can energize us greatly. The journey, the cave, the house, the tree, the Cross, the City--these are just a few of the symbolic possibilities of intuitive prayer. Books of the Bible such as the Fourth Gospel and the Book of Revelation are a source of abundant Christian symbols which can be explored in prayer. 6) Finally, one may prayerfully explore God's call by asking the question, "What would it be like if . " envisaging oneself in alternative human situations, dreaming of new ways of one's pilgrimage. Intuiting Prayer for Groups Many of the approaches to intuiting prayer just described for the individual can be adapted for groups which are praying or prayerfully reflecting together. For example, a community which has gone off to the country or to the shore for some time together might have a very meaningful time of common prayer by having each member bring back some nature-object which symbolizes something important for that person. In planning for the year ahead, a community might put to itself the question, "What would it be like if . "making sure not to become too quickly pragmatic and sensible in dealing with the dreams of particular members for life in common. Another exercise of intuiting prayer in common might be to invite each member to select a Scripture passage which is symbolic of some aspect of the community's life, and to share the passages, taking care to be contemplative, without the need for discussion or response. Intuiting in Liturgical Prayer Lyrics from two well-known religious songs aptly characterize the intuitive element which ought to be present in any liturgical celebration. "Take us beyond the vision of this moment." and "Look beyond the bread you eat . "This note of "beyond," or (in Hopkins' poem, "The Leaden Echo and the Golden Echo") "yonder," corresponds to the eschatological quality of Christian faith. In sacramental celebration, it is the complexus of ritual gestures and of symbols which principally contains the invitation to dream, to be open to a limitless future which is God. Psychologically, this facet of good liturgy is effectively present when the congregation as a whole shares, in joyful hope, this unfocused contemplative expectation of future blessing. Though it may find verbal expression, for example within the readings of the celebration, its primary vehicle will be symbol, inviting to the "vacant stare.~ Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer / 669 Feeling Prayer Forms of prayer which correspond to the feeling function are rather easily described. They will be exercises of prayer characterized by affection, intimacy, and the devout movement of the heart. More specifically, feeling prayer takes place when the exercise of memory in gratitude or compunction brings us back to the roots whence our values are derived, when we come back home, so to speak, in the mysteries of the Gospel, the origins of a particular religious heritage, or the sources in our own personal life through which the gift of faith came to us. The third section of de Mello's Sadhana contains an abundance of such exercises of prayer. Here is a briefer listing of some forms: l) Any form of prayer in which affective dialogue takes place, with God, with Jesus or Mary or any of the saints, or with those who have been important in our personal life, verifies this kind of prayer. In the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, the contemplation of the mysteries leads to such affectionate "colloquy," in which the grace being sought includes a growth in intimate love. 2) Aspirations, when they are repeated with a view to stirring the heart, are a second way of exercising feeling prayer. The "Jesus prayer" of the Eastern tradition, when said with a view to engaging the affections, is a major example. 3) One can also wander "down memory lane" in one's own life, recalling the persons, the experiences, the behaviors, which have had great influence on one's growth. Such prayer of the heart can often be combined with the exercise of imagination, as we recreate a scene of childhood, for example, or tender moments later in life which make us grateful. Gratitude and compunction are the two distinctive graces of such kinds of prayer. For each one of us, the past contains both the gifts of God, especially in the form of the goodness of persons, and our failure to respond trustingly and generously to those gifts. 4) All of us have favorite hymns and songs, and sometimes in solitary prayer our hearts can be deeply mox~ed by singing them quietly, or letting their melodies flow through our inner consciousness. 7he Feeling Function in Group Prayer When groups pray together with some regularity, it can help occasionally if the prayer is directed toward the heart. This calls for discretion, of course, for even when the members know each other well there will remain considerable differences in the ability and desire to manifest emotion in common prayer. But experience will show just what is possible and desirable. Music and song is an easy vehicle, usually unembarrassing. The group might listen to an endearing hymn, or to some instrumental music which appeals to the heart. Story telling, the sharing of personal history about a theme important for the faith life of the group, is another simple and easy way of being together in an affectionate way. 671) / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 Spontaneous prayer, in which people are free to pray aloud and from the heart, can also deepen the bonds of affection within a community, and strengthen the common commitment to shared values. This is an appropriate place to mention the relationship of spiritual direction. At least in a broad sense it is part of the prayer life of both the director and the one being directed. It calls for the engagement of all four of the functions. But, inasmuch as it is an intimate relationship of two persons of faith and aimed at the fostering of Gospel values in the life of the person being directed, it calls particularly for the exercise of the feeling function. This is not the place to discuss the question of friendship within this relationship of spiritual direction, apart from observing that there are contrary views on the subject. But, whatever discretion may be called for to preserve the character of the dialogue as one of spiritual, direction, it remains a situation where the feeling function is expressed interpersonally. Feeling in Public Prayer From'what has already been said readers will be able to describe for themselves the aspects of liturgical prayer and other forms of public prayer which correspond to the feeling function. There is significant difference, of course, between the face-to-face prayer of a small group and the largely anonymous quality of public prayer in large assemblages. There will be corresponding differences, therefore, in the ways in which this side of our humanity finds expression. In my opinion, one of the imbalances of recent years with regard to our expectations of liturgy is that we have often expected it to nourish intimacy in ways beyond its power. Concomitantly, we have tended to lose contact with the deep enrichment which can come to our affective life from such experiences of faith. However one may be personally disposed toward the large gatherings of charismatics which have become such an important part of public prayer and worship, it needs to be said that the charismatic movement is more effectively in touch with this facet of our humanity than most people are. Some of the scenes in which John Paul II has been involved in his worldwide travels provide a further illustration of the energy which flows from religious values through societal prayer and worship. In particular, hymns sung by thousands of voices can be memorable in their impact, as anyone who has been to Lourdes or Rome can testify. The Thinking Function in Prayer I have left the thinking function till last for a few reasons. One is that I find it to be neglected and even, at times, disparaged. Why this is the case is understandable in relationship to the rediscovery of the life of feeling which has taken place in Roman Catholic circles in recent decades. Prayer had, in many respects, become too "cognitized," partly through a reduction of the Ignatian tradition to what was conceived as the Ignatian method of prayer as Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer / 671 exemplified in the well-known schema of a nineteenth-century Jesuit general, John-Baptist Roothan. In any case the thinking function in prayer has a rather poor press nowadays. Even Anthony de Mello writes, A word about getting out of your head: The head is not a very good place for prayer. It is not a bad place for starting your prayer. But if your prayer stays there too long and doesn't move into the heart it will gradually dry up and prove tiresome and frustrating. You must learn to move out of the area of thinking and talking and move into the area of feeling, sensing, loving, intuiting? Ft. de Mello is faithful to this conviction, for his book is divided into three parts, corresponding more or less to the sensing, intuiting, and feeling functions. There is no section on thinking prayer. Doesn't something more positive need to be said about our capability of meeting God through the rational mind? Surely it is no less important a part of God's image in us than the life of sense, feeling, and imagination. And, within the unity of the person, it is intimately linked in its workings with the operations of these other facets of our humanity. But instead of arguing theoretically for a place for thinking in prayer, let me offer some examples of how one may pray with the rational mind. l) A clear instance of thinking prayer for the individual is the famous "First Principle and Foundation" of the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius Loyola. I can ponder it during a period of prayer and, first, try to appreciate its simple logic in the linkage of purpose, means, and attitude. After savoring its truth I can then examine my life to see where there is order and-where there is disorder, and just what area calls for the struggle to be free from inordinate affections. Knowing that I cannot free myself, I can turn to ask God's help. Then I can make a few practical resolutions touching some steps on the road to freedom. Such highly cognitive activities in prayer are really prayer, and not merely preliminaries to prayer. 2) Prayer may also take the form of setting down a personal charter or set of basic principles by which I wish to live, e.g., "Every human being I meet is worthy of my respect." Periodically I can review this set of principles in order to evaluate and improve my fidelity. 3) I may choose also to draw up for myself a plan of life, which would include a daily or weekly schedule of prayer, reading, provisions for work and leisure, practice with respect to money, and so forth. 4) From time to time I may wish to take a book of the Bible, and, with the help of a good commentary, carefully and systematically over a period of some weeks seek a deeper grasp of God's word, attending to the structure of the work, its cultural setting, the precise meaning of terms, and so forth. I may wish to write my own paraphrase of the book, or use the text as the basis of my own reflections. Most of us are accustomed to contrast prayer and study. But when study of God's word takes place within a life of faith and for the purpose of fostering faith, I believe that it lacks nothing of the reality of prayer itself. 679 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 Thinking Prayer in Groups Not all group prayer needs to be self-revelatory and strongly interpersonal in its character. The common recitation of the Office or prayer of the Church is a good example of communal thinking prayer. Such prayer is characterized by clear structure, orderly procedure, and the absence of strong emotions. While it would be untrue to say that affectivity is absent, what prevails is a sense of meaning and purpose. Especially when such prayer includes reading a passage from Scripture or from some other source, the mind's desire for meaning is being fed. Spiritual reading, which is another form of thinking prayer for individuals which might have been mentioned, can also take place within a group united in faith. Thinking in Liturgical Prayer Liturgical celebration, especially when it occurs in larger assemblies of people, takes on a societal or public character. The very term liturgy conveys this, of course. Inasmuch as the movement from the private to the public in all dimensions of our life involves a significant shift of behavioral attitudes, it brings to the fore the thinking side of our personality. As we begin to relate to people outside the circle of intimacy, it becomes necessary to create conven-tions, etiquettes, structures, which provide us with supports and safeguards as we relate to larger and more anonymous gatherings of people. It is for such reasons that our liturgical celebrations contain a good deal of structure and ritual gesture, and tend to be less highly personal than informal prayer in small groups. More of the thinking side of our humanity needs to be engaged when we celebrate the Eucharist and other ceremonies on a large scale. Similarly to what was said previously about sensing prayer in public worship, I think that we can be helped to understand both the tensions and the failures which have characterized our experience of liturgical worship during the past few decades if we bring to bear on them an understanding of personality types. At the risk of being simplistic one might say that the Tridentine liturgy had become ossified and institutionalistic in its absolutizing of the thinking mode of public worship. This made it understandable that, in the swing of the pendulum in recent decades, we experienced some loss of the basic sense of structure, decorum, and ritual which needs to preside over our public prayer. Some (not all) of the negative reactions to the kiss of peace probably stem from an uneasiness lest the distinction of private and public worship be overlooked. The present juncture, I would say, is a time when we need to recapture, without returning to rigorism and institutionalism, the rich energies of a thinking kind contained in our sacramental and liturgical traditions. We will pray much better in public if we prize this aspect of our .humanity and of our Christian prayer. Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer Further Considerations Up to now this article has offered principally a correlation of forms of prayer, chiefly individual but also interpersonal and societal, with the four functions of the Jungian personality types. As has already been said, we should be wary of too easy identification of any of the sixteen types with one or other preferred way of praying. It is not one's type alone but a variety of factors which affect our attractions in prayer. Two of these factors will now be discussed briefly. They concern 1) prayer as an exercise of leisure; 2) prayer in the stages of human development. Prayer and Leisure One plausible theory which one hears voiced in Jungian circles would have it that, when we turn from the areas of work and profession to the exercise of leisure, there is a spontaneous inclination in the psyche to move from a more preferred to a less preferred side of our personality. In terms of the functions this would mean, for example, that a person whose work or ministry calls for a great deal of extraverted intuiting--being with people in situations which call for a good deal of creative imagination--will spontaneously seek relaxation after labor by some quiet exercise of sensing: baking a cake with careful attention to measurements, or working at one's stamp collection, or hooking a rug according to a given pattern. Similarly, someone whose work is highly analytical and impersonal, let us say in dealing with a computer, might want to relax by sharing a Tchaikovsky concert or a TV sitcom with a few friends. Such a suggestion makes a good deal of sense, especially in view of the natural mechanisms of compensation which seem to be built into our psychic life. If one then adds the similarly plausible suggestion that prayer is or ought to be an exercise of leisure, then we would appear to have a useful criterion for evaluating our forms of prayer, and for suggesting new approaches to prayer, particularly when we seem to be getting nowhere. In such a view, we might profitably ask ourselves from time to time whether our behavior in prayer does not tend to be too much a compulsive continuation of the kind of behavior which we prefer in our work or ministry. And we might, if such is the case, deliberately seek ways of praying which helped to disengage us from such compulsive patterns. Someone whose primary gift, for example, is introverted intuiting, and who spends a good deal of time in the course of the day exercising that gift, might deliberately choose some extraverted sensing forms of prayer, for example, praying the rosary with simple attention to the words, the touch of the beads, and so forth. Or someone whose ministry makes heavy emotional demands---caring for the senile or the retarded, or counselling disturbed people, for example--might find some interior exercise of thinking prayer to be balancing and eventually attractive. One small suggestion regarding this experiencing of leisu're in prayer. It should take place, like all prayer, not by violence but by attrai:tion. It might well be that, though one appreciates the value of shifting gears when one 674 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 approaches prayer, it is not so easy to disengage from one's favored behavior. One might have to make an entry through the preferred function, especially an auxiliary function, before learning to exercise a less preferred function, especially the inferior function, in prayer. This use of the auxiliary function to wean us away from too exclusive a reliance on the dominant function is part of a Jungian strategy of individuation. It would seem to be applicable to strategies in prayer. For example, if thinking is my dominant function and I exercise it abundantly in my work, I may find myself attached to it even when I come to prayer. Instead of directly trying to rouse myself to feeling prayer, I might begin by letting my auxiliary sensing direct my gaze to particular objects, interior or exterior, which in turn and in due time may stir my heart to affective prayer. The philosophy of non-violence has an important area of application in prayer. Prayer and Development Numerous are the theories which, in the present century, have sought to plot the course of human development, in its cognitive, affective, social and ethical aspects. The well-known names of Piaget, Maslow, Erikson, Fowler, and others have provided rich insights into the various facets of growth. One characteristic of a Jungian perspective on development is that, in the light of the diversity of personality types, it will be wary of imposing a monOlithic pattern on the wide variety of human preferences. When prayer is viewed in this light, there are some salutary cautions and perhaps some qualifications of long-standing assumptions .about progress in prayer. Dr. W. Harold Grant has, for some years, been investigating the hypothesis of our ~pe.riods of differentiated human development, starting at age six and ending at fifty, with major switching points taking place at twelve, twenty, and thirty-five. In each of the four periods, according to the hypothesis, the person would be developing one of the four functions: the dominant in childhood, the auxiliary in adolescence, the third function in early adulthood, and, from the age of thirty-five on, the inferior function. The hypothesis includes also an alternation of introversion and extraversion in the successive periods. Prior to age six and subsequent to age fifty development would be taking place more randomly, and not selectively, as in the four periods between six and fifty. If one accepts this as a plausible hypothesis, some implications for forms of prayer at the differe.nt stages of life would seem to be present. First, one would be open to the possibility that the spontaneous employ of sense, imagination, reason, and affection in prayer may not be uniform for all persons or types. Any such prevailing assumption that growth in prayer takes place first by the use of reason and imagination and then, in a darknight experience, by their cessation, might have to yield to a view which acknowledges more diversity in the way in which the attachment/detachment phenomenon takes place in different types of personalities. Jungian Types and Forms of Prayer / 675 Secondly, the hypothesis may help to throw light on crisis periods in people's prayer lives, by suggesting that the emergence of a new function-- especially of the inferior function about the age of thirty-fiv~e--may be signaled through the decline or collapse of previously fruitful ways of praying. It might also suggest that the person involved in such a crisis might do well to explore some alternative ways of praying, ways which would be in keeping with whatever function was seeking to find its place in consciousness. Let us think, for example, of persons in whom feeling is dominant, experiencing something of a crisis in prayer around mid-life. They might do well, with the help of a. director, to exercise their thinking side in prayer, for example, by keeping a journal in which reflection on the meaning of what they are experiencing, or meditation on the meaning of some scriptural passages, was cultivated. It should be obvious that these two factors, touching the question of leisure and the question of diversity in human development, do not exhaust the sources which make for different experiences in prayer. Factors stemming from each person's unique personal history will be at least as important in deciding what course we wish to chart in prayer. And ultimately, as has already been said, it is the attraction of the Spirit of God at every juncture of life which is the primary determinant of how we choose to pray. Conclusion But if it all comes down at last to attraction, why bother consulting the Jungian types for help in praying? For two principal reasons. First, such a consultation will make us wary of being misled by stereotypes of prayer and of progress in prayer, and particularly of the monolithic character of many descriptions of growth in prayer, even among the great classics. And secondly, when persons are in a time of crisis or barrenness in prayer, they may be helped in dealing with the situation if they have had some practice in a variety of ways of praying, and if they realize the affinity between these various ways and the different functions within the Jungian personality types. With the reservations we have indicated in this article, acquaintance with one's type through the MBTI can help foster better praying. NOTES ~See, for example, Morton Kelsey, The Other Side of Silence, (New York: Paulist, 1976); idem, Transcend: A Guide to the Spiritual Quest, (New York: Crossroad, 1981); John Sanford, Healing and Wholeness, (New York: Paulist, 1977); idem, The Invisible Partners, New York: Paulist, 1980); Wallace B. Clift, Jung and Christianity: The Challenge of Reconcilation, (New York: Crossroad, 1982); John Welch, Spiritual t~'lgrims: Carl Jung and Teresa of Avila, (New York: Paulist, 1982); Robert Doran, "Jungian Psychology and Christian Spirituality," P~vtEw FOr RELtatot/s 38 (1979), pp. 497-510; 742-52; 857-66. 2See Isabel Briggs Myers, Gifts Differing, (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1980). 676 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 3See Christopher Bryant, Heart in Pilgrimage: Christian Guidelines for the Human Journey, (New York: Seabury, 1980), pp. 182-195; Robert Repicky, "Jungian Typology and Christian Spirituality," REVtEW FOR REMGtOVS, 40 (1981) pp. 422-435. 4See W. Harold Grant, Mary Magdala Thompson, Thomas E. Clarke, From Image to likeness: A Jungian Path in the Gospel Journey, (New York: Paulist, 1983). SAPT publishes a newsletter, MBTI News, for its membership, and is based at 414 S.W. 7th Terrace, Gainesville, FL 32601. 6See Anthony de Mello, Sadhana: A Way to God, (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1979). 7See Thomas E. Clarke, "Toward Wholeness in Prayer," in: William R. Callahan & Francine Cardman, 7he Wind ls Rising: Prayer Ways for Active People (Hyattsville, MD: Quixote Center, 1978), pp. 18-20. sSee Thomas Keating, M. Basil Pennington, Thomas E. Clarke, Finding Grace at the Center, (Still River, MA: St. Bede Publications, 1978). 9De Mello, p. 13. The Time for Figs There twinges in my heart A pity for that fig tree--barren-- Caught up within the eyes of Christ, Cursed by his lips. There echo in my soul Defenses for the tree's unburdened limbs Held light against the sky-- Perhaps because it's I who am the fig tree, content to wait the seasons out. But now is the time for figs-- Season or not-- IX, e looked for the sun too long, Yearned for the rain to come and comfort me, The earth to gather and to nourish. It is the time for figs-- The hungry and the weak pass by And the blossoms are an empty, bitter food. It is the time for bearing. Oh, Jesus. look again on me And cause in me such heaviness of fruit That it shall fall unreached for round your foot. The season is ripe: It is the time for figs. Sister Ann Maureen. I.H.M. 11201 Academy Road Philadelphia, PA 19154 Prayer of the Paschal Mystery: Sorrow in the Risen Lord's Company David Hassel, S.J. In this article Father Hassel continues to explore the subject of Radical Prayer (also the title of his recent book). His last article for us, "The Prayer of Daily Decisioning: Hungering for God's Will," appeared in the issue of May/June, 1983. He continues to live and teach at Loyola University, where he may be addressed: Jesuit Community; Loyola University of Chicago; 6525 North Sheridan Road; Chicago, 1L 60626. Prayer, taken radically, is a deep attitude towards life, a basic way of living in the world with God and with others. Thus prayer of reminiscence is characterized by an attitude of thankfulness; prayer of Christ's memories (Gospel prayer), by a deep wanting to companion Christ; prayer of listening-waiting., by a strong trusting in God's graciousness; prayer of contemplation; by an aCtitude of welcome to God and his worldJ How, then, would one characterize the attitude behind the life and prayer of the Paschal Mys~ery.'~ . One of the presumed grand masters of the spiritual life, Ignatius Loyola, 3 . challenges, even shocks, us when he describes the life of the Paschal Mystery and thereby implies the type of prayerful attitude of humility which, he thinks, animates this life: The most perfect kind of humility [its third stage] consists in this . Whenever the praise and glory of the Divine Majesty would be equally served, in order to imitate and be in reality more like Christ our Lord, I desire and choose poverty with Christ poor, rather than riches; insults with Christ loaded with them, rather than honors; I desire to be accounted as worthless and a fool for Christ, rather than to be esteemed as wise and prudent in this world. So Christ was treated before me.3 At first sight, this third stage of humility, i.e., this prayerful attitude of Paschal- Mystery life, appears to be incredibly negative. It is seemingly a rejection of contemporary incarnation theology which so strongly emphasizes creativity and the resurrection. In Ignatius' description of the Paschal-Mystery life, the 677 6711 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 crucified Christ seems alone to occupy one's vision, and the good Christian appears to ambition nothing more than poverty, ignominy, and degradation. In such a pessimistic, if not inhumane, way of life and prayer, Christ's resurrection and the Christian's consequent joyful creativity would seem to have little place. The shock increases when it dawns on the person praying within the Spiritual Exercises that Ignatius considered this third stage of humility the very heart of the Gospels for all Christians and not simply the storm center of life for his Jesuit sons.4 Could, then, this third stage be accurately describing the prayerful attitude and life of the Paschal Mystery? Is it possible that, in grappling with Ignatius' description, we could come to understand more satisfactorily this mystery of Christ's death and resurrection occurring within us? If such wrestling is to be worth our time, then our first effort should be to deal with those initial distracting fears and angers surfacing against the challenge of this third stage of humility. Having thus somewhat freed our hearts and minds, we could then more fairly check out whether or not Ignatius' third stage of humility expresses truly, though only partially, the Paschal Mystery of the Gospels. If it should do so, then we are ready to catch, within our experience, the four scriptural pulse-beats which may define our attitudinal prayer of the Paschal Mystery. Following this, we could seek out the signs of 'he Paschal Mystery felt within our prayer experience and later describe some imple ways of deepening this prayer within us. Here it is notable how Paschal- Mystery prayer may well be a basic attitude towards all of life even amid acute suffering. Could it possibly turn out to be a strengthening joy (the risen Christ himself?.) within our demanding apostolic endeavors? Fears Diverting Us from Praying the Third Stage of Humility On first hearing Ignatius' third stage of humility proposed, most of us experience deep fears. These quickly smother any attempts at considering, luch more praying over, this terrible challenge to our sensibility and to our .ationality. Consequently, before even trying to understand the third stage of aumility as an expression of the Paschal-Mystery life, we must face these powerful fears.5 One initial fear is that my educated skills will be lost in the muddle of becoming poor with Christ poor. My education is a richness not appreciated by the uneducated poor and not supportable in impoverished circumstances. Ask the U.S.-educated Filipino physician or Indian technician returned to his native city if this is not the case. This means that I will rarely get the time or have the equipment to pursue my art or music or sociology or psychology or computer mathematics or history or engineering~ My talents will lie dormant and later atrophied; my personality will be impoverished and made dull; my angry frustration, like a corrosive agent, will burn me out. Indeed, identification with the poor Christ would eventually strip away all prize possessions like my car; stereophonic tape and recording deck, modish Prayer of the Paschal Mystery / 679 clothes, well-stocked refrigerator, the social rounds with close friends, regular opportunities for vacations, long-distance telephone calls, comfortable bank-account, and a few other precious items. For, when one identifies with the poor in their work, neighborhood, and life-style, one inevitably assumes their ways no matter how skilled, talented or comfortably endowed one may be. A second source of fear is the call to identify with Christ dishonored. If my~ skills, talents and perquisites are enfeebled, I will certainly become less effective' in my work, perhaps, too, in my human relationships. Where once before I was respected for my skillful intelligence, artistic finesse, and guaranteed delivery of promised products; now; I am seen as the bumbler. This, in turn, could well involve a distancing from my friends, not simply because I no longer look good to them but more because our times together will be fewer, our interests different, and our cultural neighborhoods far apart. In other words, like Christ's poor, I will be gradually reduced to being a marginal person whose voice is no longer heard in the councils of the great or small. I will be lost in the masses. This last statement reveals the root-source of all ~my fears concerning the third stage of humility: self-annihilation. The fear of death, the most powerful dread of my life, repels me from the embrace of the third stage. I do not want to be the grain of wheat dying to produce a further harvest. I do not want to lose control of my life, my developing personality, my destiny. The third stage seems to demand a total trust--something which I am willing to award only to myself. Living the third stage of humility appears to be slow suicide. Historical examples abound to let me know that my fears are well grounded. Damien of Molakai identified only too well with his sick lepers and was rewarded with government disdain. Many founders of religious orders have discovered themselves made marginal within their own communities when they identified too fully with the maligned Christ; for example, Francis of Assisi, Madeline Sophie Barat, Cornelia Connelly, and Guillaume Chami-nade. 6 Teilhard de Chardin, a man all his life hidden in Christ, was considered a dangerous fool by the superorthodox Christians and a silly fool by those appreciative of his writings and paleontological competence but not compre-hending of his obedience to Church authorities.7 More recently in El Salvador, Archbishop Romero and Rutilio Grande were hated, disparaged, and then assassinated in the same way as their despised campesino friends with whom they identified,s In response to these fears stimulated by the third stage of humility, one may say that those living this stage can die to one career and then rise to a new one far more fruitful for the Church. Note how Mother Teresa of Calcutta moved out of the classroom and her congregation to dedicate her life to those literally dying in the streets of Calcutta and to the founding of a new worldwide congregation. One can also point out that those living the third stage develop new talents and skills to their own great surprise as when one priest of my acquaintance, being ordered under obedience to do spiritual 6111} / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 direction with some difficult personalities, discovered a new ability for counseling and a fresh realism of judgment which made him much more effective in classroom and pulpit, his first interest. As a third instance of victory coming out of defeat, notice how voices, suppressed or muffled with dishonor before the Second Vatican Council, now echo more strongly than ever within and outside the Church. I speak of Yves Congar, Karl Rahner, Henri de Lubac, and John Courtney Murray. Their sufferings, undergone in silent loyalty to the Church, have validated their insights and given new life to the Church. Just as the missionary letters of that long-dead "failure," Francis Xavier, populated the sixteenth-century novitiates and lured thousands to the missions; so, the lives of these contemporary heroes for Christ raise hope and ambition in countless Christians to serve the Church and her anawim (the marginal and powerless people). The above responses to fears of the third stage are unfortunately only slight glimpses into that Paschal-Mystery attitude which Ignatius' third stage of humility attempts to express. Their inadequacy is painful. Yet they indicate how greatly faith and trust enter into the living of the Paschal Mystery. This does demand of us a remarkable willingness to entrust our priceless skills, talents, possessions, reputation, friends, and hopes into the hands of the poor, dishonored, and unappreciated Christ. The great temptation is to refuse this ultimate trust lest one lose all comfort, much respect from others, and a satisfying career, when actually this "death" through trust may be the final and fullest growth of person in the Christian. The Third Stage of Humility and the Paschal Mystery If living the third stage of humility should turn out to be a deep living of the Paschal Mystery and therefore to be at the heart of the Gospel, then evidently one could never totally comprehend this third stage any more than one could exhaustively understand the Paschal Mystery. But at least one can attempt to remove some of the blinding misunderstandings of the third stage which keep people from appreciating and from living the Paschal Mystery. In other words, the best one can do here is to remove exterior obstacles for the one wishing to pray and to live the third stage of humility. Then, as this person enters into the Paschal Mystery, his or her life will be illumined and directed by a new wisdom--a wisdom which slowly dawns within any person attempting to identify more and more with Christ poor and dishonored. First of all, a frequent charge against the third stage of humility is that it is anti-creationist. This would be true if its expression of the heart of the Gospels did not fit well the first two chapters of Genesis, the first four chapters of the Letter to the Ephesians, and the first chapter of the Letter to the Colossians, where man and woman are to complete God's creation by mastering and developing it. Therefore, the third stage, if it be validly Christian, must mean that identification with Christ poor and dishonored is a creative act. It cannot be, even implicitly, a depreciation or suppression of those human skills, talents, Prayer of the Paschal Mystery / 611"1 and opportunities which make woman, man, and the universe more beautiful and more joyful. Otherwise the third stage as an attempted expression of the Paschal Mystery is inhumane and is to be regarded as unchristian. Consequently, it is vicious to interpret the third stage as insisting that we ask for and directly seek out sickness, business failure, loss of friendship, defeat, the misery of poverty, and the humiliation of dishonor in order to become closer to Christ. This would be to make the third stage a depraved description of the Paschal Life--as though it were requiring that we pursue evil in order to be more perfect Christians. Such a. style of life would not only destroy its pursuants but seriously injure all the people whom the pursuants are trying to serve and companion. Such spiritual athleticism based on a totally negative theology of the cross exemplifies more a gross pride than a Christlike humility. Man has been given a free and inventive nature so that he can cooperate with a free and inventive God to make the world more beautifully humane. In this way, man and woman attain full manhood and womanhood, that is, they become more like the risen Christ. Indeed, the Lord has promised his close followers that they will receive a hundredfold "houses, brothers, sisters, mothers, children, and land--not without persecutions--now in this present time and, in the world to come, eternal life" (Mk 10:29-30; Mt 19:27-30; Lk 18:31-33- Jerusalem Bible). It is precisely those living the third stage who are more eligible, amid persecutions, for this hundredfold of creative joy based on interpersonal relationships. Secondly, this hundredfold is guaranteed by the Christ of today, the risen Christ, who is the present Lord of the universe and the future culmination of all history. Nevertheless this Christ, under the Father, has freely chosen, even preferred, for himself and for his followers, to win his kingdom through suffering as well as joy, through defeat as well as victory. For the risen Christ is also the Christ of the passion and death; he carries the wounds in his risen body. But because he is the resurrected, immortal Lord, no Christian's suffering or defeat will be without the joy of his strengthening presence. For this rea.son, underneath the sufferings described in the third stage of humility, there must be a strong and perduring joy, namely the strength by which the suffering Christian perdures without bitterness. This is, of course, the Paschal Mystery working itself out, as simultaneous crucifixion and resurrection, in the life of every true Christian. More specifically, this joy would be union with Christ and oneness with his Church. There is a third reason for suspecting that a joyful creativity strengthens the living of the third stage: God's every action in the universe is meant to make all the human participants more human. After all, God's glory, as extrinsic to his own being, is precisely and more fully the wholesomeness of humankind, the fuller womanhood and manhood of each person. The paradox occurs when the Christian is asked to trust that a particular suffering or sorrow will not end in a diminishment, but rather in an enhancing of his or her person, so long as 6112 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1983 the pain is borne trustingly in and with Christ suffering. To look back twenty. years and to reflect with Christ upon a particular calamity is, often enough, to discover in oneself an important growth-period. But even if an objector to the third stage of humility were to agree that underlying this state would be a strengthening joy and peace, he could still accuse the third stage of encouraging individualism, simply a "me and Jesus suffering" type of piety. This forces us to clarify what is meant when the third stage urges us "to choose poverty with Christ poor, rather than riches; insults with Christ loaded with them, rather than honors." The question is: "Who is this Christ?" Is he only the historical Christ of Nazareth or is he also the mystical Christ which is the Church and which is unified by the one presence of the risen historical Christ? Because the Ignatian Exercises are aimed at enabling the retreatant to make decisions which will expand the kingdom of Christ according to Christ's standard, the Christ of the third stage must be also the Mystical Christ, the Church. Thus, the third stage of humility is basically other-centered. It makes little sense unless it represents a deeper loyalty to the historical risen Christ and to his people. Its inner dynamic is, then, to put the retreatant in contact with the poor, the abandoned, the lonely, the twisted, the sick, the unhappy of Matthew's famous last-judgment scene (25:31-46): "whatever you did to the least of these brothers of mine, you did to me." The third stage of humility, then, as an expression of the Paschal Mystery has a powerful apostolic thrust because it not only rises out of the deepest personal loyalty to the risen historical Christ of Nazareth but reaches out in wholehearted social loyalty to the Mystical Christ, the Church. Naturally, if the Christian lives deeply with these poor and dishonored of Christ, he will become marked with their characteristics. Let a priest or layman work closely with the homosexual community and he will be labeled a homosexual and treated accordingly. Let a laywoman or a nun work in a woman's rights organization and she will be labeled fanatic, abortion-minded, man-hating. The psychiatrist spending long hours with the mentally disturbed risks not only his own mental health but also the stigma of being considered "a mere shrink." It is literally dangerous to live the third stage and to identify with Christ's poor and dishonored. Thus this basic attitude of the third stage is no mere mental fiction--for example, a mental trick to be used for giving one balance against the inclina-tions of Original Sin towards the easier way of life. It is, on the contrary, a real preference to be with Christ's suffering people, a definite mind-set and heart-set which enable the Christian to do pioneer work wherever people are hurting most from neglect and weakness. Such an attitude also enables the sick person to accept his or her illness positively as an opportunity for knowing Christ better and for contributing in some hidden way to the good of Christ's people. It enables, too, the South American labor-organizer to risk his life in order to rescue his people from economic slavery and psychological degradation. Prayer of the Paschal Mystery / 15113 All this takes for granted that suffering and sorrow can be creative moments in the Christian's life. Not that suffering and sorrow of themselves are creative; they are destructive in themselves--unless good is drawn out of their evil. But the person living the third stage of humility as an expression of the Paschal Mystery is convinced in faith that God the Father intends to draw good out of the evils spawned by personal sin and by original sin. Further, he is sure that Christ the Son has preferred to achieve the liberation of man through suffering, and that the Holy Spirit prefers to achieve the unification of the Church and of mankind through human historical sufferings as he completes the universe. This is the central mystery of life, that God would want the world to reach its destiny through suffering and defeat as much as through joy and victorious accomplishment. Somehow, t.hrough suffering and sorrow, a depth of wisdom, patience and loyalty is reached, which in this present world is not available to those enjoying the easier life. Under the illumination of.Christ's resurrected life, this vital mystery of earthly suffering and joy is seen to be the Paschal Mystery of resurrection amid death, i.e., of creative power amid galling limitations and sharp agonies. This is why one can speak of creative suffering when dealing with the third stage of humility. In contrast to the stifling self-pity which arises in one who sees no reason for personal suffering except bad luck, the person of the third stage is aware that God does not waste a moment of human suffering. Instead, every twinge of pain, every throb of sorrow, every burning moment of fair and unfair humiliation, every blasted hope, can somehow, by God's providence, contribute to the final cooperative triumph of humanity and God: that Great Community of the Great Today and Tomorrow called the Communion of Saints. Man, however, must allow his sufferings and sorrows to become creative by identifying them with the risen Christ's passion and death. In this way a person wastes nothing. All his or her skills, talents, capacity to love, and opportunities to build a better world are focused positively on others and are not paralyzed by bitter self-pity. Indeed, this pers

POLITENESS STRATEGIES IN REQUEST AND COMMAND USED BY AUNG SAN SUU KYI TO RULE BURMESE IN MOVIE "THE LADY" Erna Yulianti English Literature, Faculty of Language and Art, State University of Surabaya, nana_jouly@yahoo.com Advisor: Dian Rivia Himmawati, SS., M.Hum dianrivia@gmail.com Abstrak The major aims of this study are to analyze the positive and negative politeness strategies, to analyze the characteristics of two types of politeness strategies concerned to request and command utterances, and to know how strategies that subject used influence the responses of addressee. The subject of this study is Aung San Suu Kyi, the main character of film "The Lady". The data were taken from subject's utterances classified by Brown and Levinson's theory of positive and negative politeness strategy, theory of request and command by Blum-Kulka, and theory of power language by Fairclough. The method of this study is qualitative approach. Pragmatics and critical discourse analysis are used to interpret the data analyzing. This study relates to the power language. The power means how the strategies influence the responses in the communication. As results, it's found that there are three main results. First, San Suu Kyi used both positive and negative politeness with various sub-types strategies in the utterances. Second, there are politeness characteristics built by San Suu Kyi through request and command utterances. The characteristics were presented by sub-categories of request sequences and three level of command. And the last, the strategies that subject used have great impact to the responses were given by addressee. Within analyzed the responses, this study used three constrains of power language (subject, relation, content). They were found that subject of the study has influential and instrumental power which influence addressees to give positive responses. This study also creates some findings as final result of data analyzing. The findings concerned on differential forms of three main results analyzed. Key words: politeness strategy, positive politeness, negative politeness, request, command, power language INTRODUCTION Today women contributed to the political sector. Now, the achievement of the women to share ideas and thoughts had strong influences to the society. Women had opportunity to be leader or head as same as man. Many of them were successful to bring the big change, as example were the iron lady, Margaret Tacher – prime minister of Great Britain, Aquino – president of Philipines, and Aung Saa Suu kyi (Suu) - politician who successful brought Burmese changed political guidance from military government to the democracy. It means that women had political power to influence the subordinates or society. Women successfulness was not separate from the strategy used. How to maintain and control society, how to ensure society about the ideas, and how to make society believed in what contributed were some strategies used by politician, especially woman politician. Here, the role of language was significant to gain the strategies. Therefore woman tend to use different type of language than that man. Based on Holmes (2001) one of the types of strategies was politeness, because women were more polite than man in building communication with hearer. From that issue, politeness became good character of using language point of view. Because of the function of politeness applied which not only a duty but also a favor, it would be interesting to lift politeness as topic analyzed. Politeness was one of strategies usually used to cover some goals, it also became attribution in communication. Compare to the other language strategies, politeness had higher position in its function to achieve good responses than another. It is believed that politeness is a principle of language identified character. Someone would define as good character, moreover woman, if she used polite language. By contrast, someone who lack of polite words in speech, it means (s)he has bad character. Both people and its character can be measured by the language used, because in the societies many people argued that hearer more paid attention to the speaker who had good personal character with polite way to speech. The language use has many utterances to gain wants, like apologize, warning, persuasion, invitation, thank, command, and request. They were probably used in language applied. A research conducted by Wagner used apologized related to politeness too. It could identify known or stranger participant in social relationship. It would be different from request utterances which could identify how strong speaker wanted to something. And command could identify how important speaker's position to obligate something. Because of these order more appropriate to the notion of power language which they would tend to state the ideas or thoughts in request and command statements. Asking for agreement of some programs or plans was tendency of "request" order used. Leading for conducting movement like warning or instruction of public campaign was tendency of "command" order used. The use command and request in politeness applied would influence to the hearer responses, it means good responses referred to the good speaker. Because of that, Aung San Suu Kyi put as strong politician figure which had good speaker. There were other figures that may have same position as Suu, such as Margaret Techer who successes in dominating house of representative for several periods or Aquino who became the first woman president in Philippine, but, the achievements of Suu more influential than another. Suu was politician of pro democracy in Myanmar where societies appreciate to the figure who brings democracy into the country. As politician who had great opportunities to unite Burmese under democracy consciousness, the request and command stated were intentioned by Burmese. The struggles also considered as defensive movements to the government created democracy in that country. The efforts to unite Burmese conducted in the prison and separated from family. This position made Suu appreciated by people as figure of politician who led Burmese to the democracy who has great opportunities to unite Burmese under democracy consciousness, even the speeches and talks were very influential. Every utterances used, stated Suu in high position, So that, it would be interesting to take Suu as subject of the research. Based on issues that the women more polite than men, the politeness used in request and command could identify the power, and the importance position of Suu as politician led this study to find (1) what are types of politeness strategies used by Aung San Suu Kyi, (2) what are types of request and command used by Aung San Suu Kyi, and (3) how does Aung San Suu Kyi influence addressees in order to get good responses. Those reasons decided that politeness strategies used by Aung San Suu Kyi in request and command to rule Burmese as title of this study. This study related to the other studies. Since it analyzed utterances, pragmatic and critical discourse analysis (CDA) were theory used. According to Schiffrin (1994:41), discourse can be approached to the pragmatic study. To prove her argument she describe three definitions of discourse, they are "the language above the sentence", "language use" and "utterances". Discourse can research how speakers produce utterances, what strategy that speakers used, what the goals are, and how speakers influence hearer to get good responses. Fairclough (2012:452) states that CDA investigates the social phenomena which are complex. In terms of the concept of social practice, CDA criticizes social practices such as; social subjects, social relations, instruments, objects, strategies in using language, values, etc. He emphasizes that studying discourse in society means giving focus on power, dominance and the way these reproduced by social member through talks. Those three modes often appear in social communication practices. These linguists had similar arguments which utterances spoken in society can be analyzed the meaning through discourse and pragmatics. The other study was politeness strategy in positive and negative which both of them had their own sub-strategies. Based on Brown & Levinson (1987) positive politeness was positive self-image of addressee. Doing FTA by using this strategy means that speaker (S) considers that (s)he wants hearer (H)'s wants. E.g by threatening H as a member of his/her group, a friend, or a person whose desire and personality traits are known and liked. In positive politeness, the area of redress is extended to the appreciation of H's desires or the expression of similarity between S's and H's desires. Negative politeness had at least ten sub-strategies. Here, this study provides seven sub strategies, they are: be conventional indirect, go on record (incurring debt/no indebting) H, apologize, don't coerce H, impersonalize S and H, give deference, and be pessimistic. Yule (1997) assumed that negative politeness is oriented to satisfy H's negative face, basic want of H is to be free and unimpeded. It meant that the speaker recognized and respected the addressees's freedom of action and would not (or would minimally) impede it. be optimistic, include both S and H in activity, give gifts to H, avoid disagreement, offer promise, give reason, use in-group identity maker, asserts/presuppose S's knowledge of concern for H's wants, seek agreement and exaggerate. Since the strategies used by subject [Suu] focused on request and command that theory is needed to identify the types. Based on the Blum-kulka (1987), request was part of speech act performed when a speaker wants a person (the hearer) to do something. Some types of categories provided in request utterances were: query preparatory, strong hints, mild hints, obligation statement, hedge performative, and suggestory formulae. In command utterance, Robinson (1972) argued that it referred to activities involved in the regulation when speaker produced command to fulfill by hearer. Blum-kulka gave guidance of three level of commands to identify how powerful them used for to be fulfilled by hearers. Most direct: command which directly pointed out the topic, usually imperative Conventional indirect: command which contained command form, but it is added by supporting sentence in order to decrease the directness Inconventional indirect: command which did not command form, but the essential meaning was command. To analyze the hearers' responses this study related politeness strategies to the power. Fairclough (1989) argued that power relationship has big scope which power can appears from subject, society, status, relationship etc. he gave power indentifying through three constrains that useful to identify whether speakers have power language or not. There are three types of such constrains on: Contents on what is said or done Relations. Social relations people enter into in discourse Subject or the subject positions people can occupy. RESEARCH METHOD This study was conducted by using qualitative approach, as Litosseliti (2010) said that the study of text or talk (spoken discourse) used to analyze how the politeness strategy through utterances which was spoken by main character employing the approach of politeness theory that concern with positive and negative politeness and their influence related to the power language. This included developing a description of an individual or setting, analyzed data for themes or categories, and finally making an interpretation or drawing conclusions about its meaning personally and theoretic. The data source of this study was taken from a film titled The Lady which released on 2011. The film based on true story of pro-democracy politician in Myanmar. Command and request utterances were chosen as data taken from the main - character Auu Saan Suu Kyi and added by conversational sequences. The instrument of the data was covering material by analytical thoughts, therefore media was very important in conducting this study, for instance; visual media recorder. Based on Erickson (in Litosseliti: 2010) the data were collected by using systematic attention to meaning. First step was collecting and logging data, it means logging processes were viewing film and note analytical thoughts. Second part was viewing data as research team, it means organizing them into generated criteria. Third part was sampling data, it more focus on what stands out. And the last was transcribing data by using a range of descriptive dimensions. Data selecting were utterances selection of Suu which concerned to the request and command utterances. The data selected in to sub-types of (positive and negative politeness) also selected in to sub-categories of request and command. For example: no. acts data politeness characteristics (+) (-) request command 1. 15 "Give it to me!" Give gifts to H Most direct DATA ANALYSIS 1. The Types of Positive and Negative Politeness Used by Aung Saan Suu Kyi This part analyzed about types of positive and negative politeness strategies used by Aung Saan Suu Kyi. There were many types which have their own characteristics. It tend to analyze which utterances that belong to sub types of positive politeness and which utterances that belong to sub of types negative politeness. 1.1 Positive politeness Conventional indirect that used by Suu in her utterances are an unambiguous sentences or phrases which contextually have different meaning from literal meaning. In many contexts there are many sentences which are conventionally understood differently from its literal meaning, like stated on the data below. Data 35: (A)Ne-win's delegation: "How was Mr. Aris? I'm sorry to hear that" (B)Suu: "((ne-win's delegation comes to drive suu away)) it is not your question, Norway government borrowing us an air ways ambulance, Dalai Lama send one of the best doctor to follow Michel Suu said; "it is not your question," this utterance encodes the clash of desire, Suu's desire of going on record states as the desire of going off record. In this condition means suu knows everything that would be said by delegation. As information, before suu utter that, the delegation ask about the condition of Suu's husband who suffered from cancer, but suu does not answer the question by saying good or not too good for example, There are extended desire that suu want to achieve, but she gives long explanation "Norway government borrowing us an air ways ambulance, Dalai Lama send one of the best doctor to follow Michel". Here, this information used to make hint critics to the government about why see can not meet her husband while the facilities provided. In these cases the utterances have different meaning from literal meaning. b. Go on record as (incurring debt/no indebting) H, This strategy suggests speaker [S] may redress his FTA by explicit conveying his indebtedness to hearer [H] or disclaiming any indebtedness of H. this extracts below are type of go on record without indebting H. Data 2: (A)Suu: "Be a good boy, help your father when I'm not here" (B)Children: "Yeah…" The extract contained directive form since the speaker used them in direct way. Directives are concerned with getting people to do things. The speaker which expresses directive force varies in strength. Direct typically signed by using of verb at the beginning of the sentences like be, help, don't, tell, go, stay here. Identifying directive should pay attention to the intonation and tone of voice used by the speaker. There were no claiming indebting hearer, because hearer seems know that what S wants are like a duty that they should do. c. Apologize, This strategy to show that S did not mean to impinge H apologizing. By apologizing for doing FTA, S indicates her reluctance to impose on H's negative face. Brown and Levinson suggested to communicate regret or reluctance to do an FTA. The first way is S frankly admits that she is impinging H's negative face. This strategy applies in this extracts below. Data 4: (A)Leo: "Don't you mind to call me every time you need (B)Suu: " Yes I will, thank you for everything uncle Leo The word thanks here does not mean thanks as usual, S implicitly says "sorry" under function of notion thanks. This utterance more sounds sorry than thanks, because the condition and situation tend support speaker to say "I'm sorry to bother you with everything" than "thank you for everything". H has been done everything to help S fulfill her desire in impossible and critics situation, but H can do it well, so that S showing respect to H's conducts because of the bothering. Then, S has to be sorry for it. In spite of saying thanks, it is contains of sorry implicitly. S does it strategy to not impinge H. d. Don't coerce H [hearer], another way to satisfy H's negative face is by avoiding coercing hearer especially when the FTA involves predicating act of H such as requesting help or offering something which needs H's acceptable. This condition can be created by explicity giving H the opinion not to do the expected act Data 5: (A)Suu: "What are you doing?" ((stop the activist)) (B)The activist: "we have to go" The data above contain strategy. Speaker avoids coercing H because of the utterances involves of predicate "do". In this condition, S asks for request to H "don't" do something. e. Impersonalize S and H, Pluralizing 'I' and 'you' is another technique to save H's negative face. According to the Brown and Levinson (1987:189) it seems to be very general in many languages that the use 'you' (pl) pronoun to refer to a single person is understood to show deference (P) or distance (D). Hence 'we' and 'you' can serve for 'I' and 'you' (sing) respectively to give respect to single referent 'we' is possibly the conventionalized polite form more appropriate to formal situations [campaign] and negative politeness. because it usually use in formal speech like campaign. S bring the name of party under the name of togetherness Data 12: Speech 1[Suu] Buddhist, Burmese, today, we meet here in order to unite 1our desire for freedom, we want the world look us for it. The world should hear our voice to be democratic state with multiparty. For those aim, we [NLD] want you to know…. f. Give deference, This strategy suggest that S [Suu] considers H [husband] being in higher social status than her. There are two ways in the realization of this strategy; one in which S humbles and lowers himself and the other in which S raises H's position or treats H as superior like in the extracts below. people use thanks for showing the great affection to bother about something. Data 26: (A)Suu: "Thanks for everything, I can't do anything without you, I will be right here Mikey, don't worry, prior the boys." (B)Husband: "sure I will, you have long trip, be sure to eat well, keep your health" The negative politeness shows in (data 26), those utterances appear when she talks to her husband. Before the utterances are spoken, there are a lot of things have done by her husband for helping her, so the words thanks for everything convey a lot of meaning. First, beside it applies thank for all of things, it also apply an apology. Suu feels that everything that she burdens to her husband is a load. In that case she tries to apologize by using thanks, not in sorry, because thanks listened respect, being honor to the husband. g. Be pessimistic, This strategy suggests that S may explicitly express a doubt that H is not likely to do his expected act. It means that S should be pessimistic about H's response. Data 34: (A)Suu: " As you, should I be there?" (B)Husband: "no, no Suu, you shouldn't, don't think about it" Strategy used by Suu in the data above contains modality form. In As you, should I be there? S making question with pessimist desire, she arranges it to hide the pessimistic with saving way by using modality. Modality is irrealis, counterfactual forms would, could, might etc are more polite than ability or future-oriented variant can and will. 1.2 Negative politeness a. Be optimistic, Strategy that assumes H wants what S wants for himself (or for both of them) and H will help S to obtain it. On contrary of strategy offers promise, This strategy suggests S being presumptuous or optimistic allows S to put pressure on H to cooperate with him. verb placed in the beginning of utterances "stay" possible indicates optimistic reason, it is caused by communication situation and hearer. Data 21: (A)Party member: ((take the gun on)) (B)Suu: "No, don't think about it, there's no bullet, we still continue. Stay calm, stay calm, stay here." ((walk forward face soldiers with guns pointed her)) The situation at that time is S and her party member held a meeting for campaign, but, the meeting is sabotaged by military government. They bring ready gun and weapon to stop the meeting. S as leader of the meeting, is optimist that they are not too danger to fight. So that S confidently says to the H [one of her party member] like in "No, don't think about it, there's no bullet, we still continue. Stay calm, stay here." b. Include both S and H in activity, Including both S and H in the activity is another way to perform cooperative strategy. An inclusive 'we' form which S really means 'you and me' is commonly used to make H involve in S action thereby redress FTA, some common examples are We can start it (data 10). This strategy is often use to soften requests where S pretend the requested thing too, and offers where S pretends as if S were as eager as H to have the action. At data 10, S may utters it Data 10: (A)Guests: "we come to ask you to discuss many things that occur recently Daw Suu" (B)Suu: "We can start it? for inviting the guests who come to talking about democratic crisis. Since S interested in the meeting and the topic talked, S gratefully accepts the guests, then S expresses inviting H [guests] by using direct request which in fact means "well, why don't we start it now?". The inclusive "we" used to show that between S and H are cooperate in same purpose. c. Give gifts to H, This strategy is to satisfy H's face S may grant H what H wants e.g; by giving gift H. Not only tangible gift, which indicates that S knows H's wants them to be fulfiled, but also human relations wants like the wants to be liked, admired, cared about, understood, listened to and so on.(Brown & Levinson, 1987:129) Data 8: (A)Maid: ((take the bags and case)) (B)Suu: "Give it[bag] to me ((smile)) In this extract above, S seems like command H directly. But it is uttered softly, because S act her speech while smile to H. Here, S makes communication with H [maid], as usual the maid always serves the house well, H brings S's bag, but S ignore H's act. The ignorance states in positive way, then for intended action S asks H as in Give it[bag] to me. This sentence represents S want that she gives gifts to H, the gift may not a good but something like sympathy or understanding that H has been done a lot of things well, so that S does not want to burden H more. d.Avoid disagreement, In order to satisfy h's positive face, S should avoid disagreement with H. One strategy to achieve such circumtance is by pretending that S agrees with H's statement. It called 'token agreement'. For example Data 11: (A)Guest: "Madam, it's urgent, we believe that you are the best figure to bring this country in democracy" (B)Suu: "Beside my less experience, I had leaved this place for long time, so I think, I need you to…" In the case of (data 11), S disagree with H wants. It shows by using "Beside my less experience, I had leaved this place for long time" Before this statement appears, H wants S to lead and join against military government, but S disagree. S feels do not confidence with those agreement. As consequence S intends her utterance by saying "so I think, I need you to…. S avoids H's agreement, but at the end S seems like agree, however in condition where H has to do something for S. it is like accepting through ignorance words, or in other words "yes, but…". e. Offer promise, Stressing that whatever H wants and will help to obtain. S may state offers and promise to create such condition with a purpose of showing S's good intentions in redressing H's positive face wants even if they are false. Data 27: (A)Suu: ((Walk to the gate)) (B)Soldier: "hei, no you can't, stop! (A')Suu: "What? I just want to talk with them, never try to bother me, I will talk with them" ((meet her supporter outside the gate)) "offer promise" can be applied as in data 27. S says "I will talk with them" this utterance seems like intimidates H. S creates condition with a purpose to against H. S stresses it utterance with give exact meaning of "I will talk with them and everything will be alright, you save and I save, so please don't stop me", S may want H fulfill her wants by showing positive sentence to H even if they are false. f. Give reason, Giving reason is a way of implying' I can help you' or 'you can help me, and assuming cooperation, a way of showing what help is needed. This fact directs to pressure to go off record to investigate and see H whether or not he is cooperative. Data 20: (A)General Nyunt: "you are a good wife also a good girl, after your mother passed away, surely you want to go home soon to meet your kids and husband right (B)Suu: "I think you haven't to do it [drive away] General Nyunt. Now, my big mission in Burma is joining in the national election. As soon we held the election, as possible I will beside them [family]. You may suggest Ne-Win in hurry." This strategy implies that if S has good reasons why H couldn't cooperate. This strategy can also be used to criticize H's past action why he did or didn't something without any good reason. In the other words S tries to criticize why H do not held election soon. H should do it if they want S leave soon. Here, S wants to give indirect suggest to H through positive and cooperative way. g. Use in-group identity maker, This strategy suggests that claiming implicity the common ground with H, S can use in-group membership identity maker. The address form includes generic names and terms like mac, mate, buddy, pal, honey, dear, cutie and guys. S claims common ground with H by showing that both of them in the same group of level and sharing particular desiring such as values and goals. This strategy shows as in extracts below. Data 23: (A)Suu: "My darling, I hear violence that conducted by Ne-Win military soldier happen every day. They want to found the authority with that way. So you can't back here in this time, so darling please, do your best, and don't worry about me." (B)Husband: ((seeing Suu, silence but thoughtful)) This strategy uses not only to make solidarity, but also emphasize make the communication flow in informal style since it is minimize status differences. h.Assert/presuppose S's knowledge of concern for H's wants, This strategy is declaring or employing knowledge of H's wants and willingness. In the data 24, utterance "there are many soldiers around our house" shows presuppose S's knowledge about the situation they faced. Then, S asserts of concern for H's wants is associated in maybe there's nothing happen. However, if I'm caught, I had arranged plan to send you back to Oxford. S puts a pressure on H to cooperate with her. Cooperate here meant if something happen because of S's presupposition, S wants H do something that had been arranged by H. All of utterances stated by S are significant to H's wants, the want of to be safe. Data 24: (A)Suu: "Good morning, get up boys, how was your sleep? Listen, today, this morning, there are many soldiers around our house. I don't want you be afraid, maybe there's nothing happen. However, if I'm caught, I had arranged plan to send you back to Oxford. I want you to know, everything will happen, we still love you. Ok?" (B)Children: "Yes mom" i. Seek agreement, This strategy can be achieved by S in raising safe topics. By doing 'safe topic' S is allowed to stress his agreement with H and satisfy H's want to be right or to be corroborated in his opinion. Small talk about weather, sickness, politic, and current local issues. seek agreement are some example of 'safe topic'. Data 29: (A)Suu: "Is it may a new face? ((talk to a soldier)), what's your name? ((pause)) do you speak English? So what's your name?" (B)Soldier: ((Smile)) To make good impression S uses small talk as initial of the conversation. This strategy also has big role of successful S's purpose and avoid the ignorance. j. Exaggerate, This strategy quite similar to the attend to H's interest, wants, needs, goods strategy however, S's attention or sympathy to H is indicated by exaggerating intonation, stress, and other aspect prosodic such as marvelous, the best, how beautiful etc. Data 32 (A)Suu:"You might be the best husband ever after.((hug Mikey)) (B)Husband: I will ((smile)) S's strategy also indicates a hope, S has big hope to H to do something. S wants H to be the best husband ever after for S. Its desire is spoken by giving H interest or attention in form of exaggerates. 2. The Types of Request and Command Used by Aung Saan Suu Kyi 2.1 Request, It is concern in the types of request utterances built by speaker in her utterances which may belong to positive or negative politeness. a. (-) Query preparatory, That is request utterances which contain reference to preparatory conditions such as ability and willingness, as conventionalized in any specific language. As in data 1 below, S requests for telling story. Data 1: (A)Suu: "Dad, tell me a story please" (B)Suu's Father: "I will tell you about Burma" The sequence of the sentence contains of address term "Dad" and query preparatory "tell me a story please". Here, S places the word "please" in the end of the request, means that she wants to ask H in polite way, however she begins her request by first form of verb "tell", S forms her request by showing her willingness that H can fulfill her request. (+) Query preparatory there was distinguish feature of utterances belong to the positive tend to spoken by participant who want to get closer relationship, and both speakers want the same thing. This condition also place indicate that the utterances is speaker and hearer oriented. b. (-) Strong hints, This category forms request utterances which contain partial reference to object or element needed for the implementation of the act. References used significant to hints the requests because S do not want to impose H's face S wants H learn the reference by themselves to know what S wants then understanding it to take extended acts to fulfill S's requests. However, actually the extended acts are not important, the important one is the function of the reference itself. S also uses will and conditional if associate to the hint request which is imply to the negative politeness. c. (-) Obligation statements, That is request utterances which the obligation of the hearer to carry out the act stated explicitly. It is proven by using of first form of verb like "be" and "help" S really wants H to do her request, this characteristic belongs to negative politeness strategy because of the using of positive statement which means S obligate H to do something in the way of giving good impression to H. d. (-) Mild hints, That is request utterances which does not contain reference to the request form properly, but it is interpreted as request by context. The request formed immediately go on head act, there is neither supportive move as reference nor address term. The request provided on interrogative form e.g:"What are you doing?" which it does not mean to be answered. That is a request S formed to H in order to follow S's want. At glance, there is not like a proper request, but based on the language function, it is structurally incorrect then, functionally proper. e. (-) Suggestory formulae, That is request utterances which refer to suggestion to the hearer to do act. As provided in data 34A, S tries to give suggestion to H. In the fact, that suggestion is a request form. The request made seems like contains a worry. S gives suggestion whether she's coming is needed by H. her worry appears because she cannot insure her request will be fulfilled or not by H. So that, in the name of does not want to impinge H, S make her request in the suggestion form. This suggestion belongs to the characteristic of negative politeness strategy, the evidence is the using of modality "should" it associates to the utterances which suggest or need an agreement from H to fulfill the request. (+) Suggestory formulae in positive was strategy formed by using future desire of "will". Besides that, the role of "we" as in "let we take her to the bed, then we will see what's going on and in the ""We can start it?" As sign that between S and H include in the same activity strengthen its position belongs to positive politeness strategy. This request S's characteristics is giving suggestion to H to do the thing together. f. (-) Hedge performative, That is request utterances in which the illocutionary force is named and accompanied by hedging expressions. There are address term such as "Buddhist, Burmese". Then, followed by supportive move that spoken in long sentence as references of S to ensure H, it was an effort to make sure that implicit requests which spoken successfully listened. (+) Hedge performative, Elements by means of which the speaker avoids specification in making a commitment to the illocutionary point of the utterance, in naming the required action, in describing the manner in which it is to be performed, or in referring to any other contextual aspect involved in its performance. This request category has characteristic which S tries to give "softening" effect to her request. 2.2 Command, Command in language use, is used to ask something with obligate answer. S has strong desire which has to do by H either negative or positive politeness has command utterances. a. (-) Most direct, That is explicit level, realized by command syntactically marked as such, such as imperatives, or by other verbal means that name the act as command initial first form of verb. the command utterances form by S is obeyed by H, because H treats in duty. (+) Most direct This level of command used in positive by S with provides some additional sign which indicate to the positive. It may same as negative that contains first form of verb like in the "Give it[bag] to me" S commands H to do something that it decrease H's duty or as simple words, S want to help H under the term of command. b. (-) Conventional Indirect This command's level procedures that realize the act by reference to contextual preconditions necessary for its performance, as conventionalized in a given language (these strategies are commonly referred to in speech act literature. This command utterances is not as strong as most direct one, because speaker formed her command with negation and modality S wants to show power through command, but she does not want to impinge the hearer. That's why this command belongs to negative politeness strategy. (+) Conventional indirect, command that contain invitation by calling H with first name (FN), it also can contain good impression to get H closer obviously get good responds of the command formed. the impression brought H to fulfill what S wants. However, there a "must" that contain a duty, H accepts it happily because there are prize for H. c. (+) Non-conventional indirect level, i.e. the open-ended group of indirect command (hints) that realize the command by either partial reference to object or element needed for the implementation of the act. This level contained softening command or hidden command. S forms command by using "will" as characteristic of soften command. E.g: "I will campaign…" and "never try to bother me, I will talk with them" are example implicit command used by S. To show the positive strategy, S forms the command characterized as making agreement, that is cooperation among participants to fulfill the wants. 3.How does Aung San Suu Kyi influence the addressees in order to get good responses? This part analyzed findings in previous problems which influence the hearers' responses. 3.1 Different function of "please", In communication people used term please for a willingness statement. It is so as in Suu's statement in the film, she used please for hoping something, and emphasizing the willingness. Please can be stated in front of statement or in the end. In this part subject produced word please differently. Based on the theory of request (Blum-Kulka:1987) "please" used to express hoping for something with full of willingness. The subject of the film used the function of please to utter strong request. In other situation please only for "sweetener", because there was no strong willingness occurred. Suu gave new function of please in this movie. It was different from the other study conducted request as theory which it put please only as negative politeness marker without mentioned the distinctive function. This finding showed that request utterances with please indicating social relationship where speaker put herself in higher or lower position than hearer. It is supported by theory of power relation by (Fairchlough:1989) that type of this please request tend to use by younger to elder. And Suu applied it both while talking with elder and younger. In this case Suu showed that please was not stuck in the using. In this movie subject shows that type of please used in different purpose. 3.2 Universality of "thanks", The using of thank commonly used for saying thank you for people that help or doing something for us. Involving thank words in to utterances was one of negative politeness strategy. It based on (Yule: 65), thanks could work sometimes be heard in extended talk often with hesitations. In this study, subject represented thank in apologize and gave deference. They reflected the differences of using thank or I prefer to call it universality of thank. Subject defense the theory, the possible reason was subject to show the wants differently or there were factors that force speaker (S) to use it in other sentences besides thank sentences. Universality of using thank reflected apologizing utterances also contrast to the previous study conducted by Wagner which apologizing occurred did not showing thank word. The other function of thank is used for showing deference. Deference communication appeared when S felt H need to be honor. In the case of Suu's utterances, the honorific by using thank used was as same as Brown & Levinson theory which it had function for talking to the far relationship, and if it said to the people close relation, it was not an honor, but it would be a purposeful way. Obviously, thank is universal in its using. Thank not only used for saying thank you, but also, subject in this film shows us that thank can be used to show apologize and showing deference. 3.3 Different function of inclusive "we", Based on Brown & Levinson (1987) theory we used in positive refer to main purposes of making solidarity, need to be accepted, even liked by others and to be treated as member of same group. It is same with purpose in data of inclusive we uttered by Suu. Positive-we which "we" tends to put speaker (S) and hearer (H) include in same activity. Positive-we used to built solidarity in communication. Both S and H are involved in the same topic spoken. Positive-we ask H to join in the speaker's wants or S joins to the H's wants. Here, "we" used as signal of good cooperation among of participants. In this case, positive-we have same purpose like the previous study conducted by Ayuningtyas which concern to the associate responses of children. However the hearer was different, but both this study and that previous research had same purpose. That way appropriate used to show togetherness among speaker and hearer. Otherwise, we used in negative reflected differently. They are refer to the negative politeness which have main purposes oriented to show deference, need to be independent to have freedom of action, showing respect to others, or sometime negative utterances more formal than positive one. It is proven through S uses negative-we in her political campaign where it is a formal situation. Actually, the negative-we used by S is represent if "I". Speaker wants to avoid personalize term of "I", so that she uses negative-we, because, when S uses "I" in formal situation. it Negative -we also shows that S cares about H's wants without impinge on H's negative face. The discussion shows us that inclusive "we" can be used both in positive or negative, which positive-we has function of making good cooperative communication or solidarity in same group, while, negative-we has function of represent "I" to avoid personalize, and also to show using polite pronoun in formal activity. 3.4 Different function of query preparatory (QP), suggestory formulae (SF), and hedge performative (HP) in (-) & (+) Difference of QP in negative, or it called as "–QP", it is request category which has characteristic of preparatory conditions. The request sequences are only oriented to S (speaker) wants. These are different from QP in positive, or it called as +QP. The difference of SF in negative it called as –SF. Request category which contains suggestion. Characteristic formation used by S is using suggestion through word "should" used by subject is modality form, modality sometimes shows respect, because it is more polite than "shall or will". So that she makes it as –SF to avoid impinge H. It is different from SF in positive that it called +SF. Request sequence formed with using "will". The request type used by S included both S and H in the same activity to gain same wants. It was S (speaker) and H (hearer) oriented. Then, difference in request is HP, this category appears either in negative that it called as –HP or in positive that it called as +HP. The differences of –HP and +HP state in the request function based on condition. S made implicit request in order to reach successfully listened, S used the function of upgrader. The upgrader means S and H had separation, where S here in the "up" or high position that has possibility (power). Upgrader function suggests S to persuade H fulfilled what her wants. These are different from the using of request in +HP. This request category has characteristic which S tries to give "softening" effect to her request. +HP also has function of downgrader. This condition is opposite to the –HP that has upgrader function. Downgrader places herself in lower position and down tone utterances than H. It's happen because of S wants to make "softening" request. That "softening" formed through +HP and it significant to help request become downgrader. The three request categories showed that same category can be stated in positive or negative, as the subject in this movie shown. However they are same in the terms or names, but they have their own differences when they used in positive and negative politeness. 3.5 The formulation command utterances in most direct(MD), conventional indirect(CI), and non-conventional Indirect(NCI). a. First level is most direct or easier to call it MD. It is direct command or I prefer call it "strong command", because this command directly point the purpose out. Speaker (S) directly mentions what thing becoming point of command. Usually MD level using imperative to state command utterances. That was the using of first form of verb put in the beginning of the sentences. That's why it assumed that MD level contains command formulation: Verb 1 as starting words of command, as example: Data 8: (A)Maid: ((take the bags and case)) (B)Suu: "Give it [bag] to me ((smile)) b. Second level of command was conventional indirect, or it called as CI. It is the middle of direct command which means CI is not too direct and also not too indirect. This means S formed command with some purposes, for example S wants to get closer with H or doesn't want to impinge H. The other purposes may S want to showing appreciate to H. Usually these command level has additional information / supportive sentence which following command in order to make commands did not sound too strong. They can be stated before or after command uttered. Supportive sentence / additional information can be contained of; modality, address or first name (FN), and making good impression. CI examples below have command formulation: supportive sentence + command statement. Data 6: (A)Activist: ((bring a blooded girl leave her bed)) (B)Suu: "She can't leave this place, [supportive sentence] + you should stay here", [command] c. The last command level was non-conventional indirect or NCI. This level was similar with hints/hidden command. The formation of the utterances may not command form, but the element inside the sentences has implementation of command. Here, S want to command H implicitly, and the implicit feature forms through future desire "I will…". It was not only to hide the command, but also to shows S's plans, which those plans have same function as command because they bring H involve to the utterances. In the other words, S uses "I will…" to show H what her plan is, while at the same time, S also commands H to do "something". Subject in this study used NCI level with command formulation: hints command by using "I will…". The obvious features of how did language operate in social interaction were influential and instrumental relationship with power. Influential power found in the research closely related to the dominance words that subject used, this domination mostly appears in command utterances. The position as political leader has big potential to influence the responds of the hearer whom talks with. The ability of influencing people in communication cannot be separated from successful sequences both in request and command used which well formed. The strategies used associated to the instrumental. They were like the useful tools to dress utterances being interesting, or interested in hearer. The subject capability of matching many instruments as instrumental power to gain the goal influenced to the hearer was a kind of creating power language process, so that subject had powerful language in achieving successful responses. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion This study can be concluded that, first politeness strategies used by subject Aung San Suu Kyi in the film "The Lady" are both positive politeness and negative politeness. Subject implements their sub-types, but not for all types. From fifteen sub-types of positive provided, subject used ten sub-types, and from ten sub-types of negative provided, subject used seven sub-types. Second, the characteristics of the subject that have been measured by request and command, politeness characteristics resulted are; in request, there are query preparatory, strong hints, mild hints, obligation statements, hedge performative and suggestory formulae. In command, there are most direct, conventional indirect, and non-conventional indirect. Third, the influences of subject's utterances are defined from the responses given to subject, and how far subject's strategies influence others are taken from analyzing them through content, subject, and relation. Suggestion It was suggested that the later research can conduct the same research in other aspect of discussion, for example by conducting the research with real situation as the object. It was hoped the next study would observe some politeness strategies with different backgrounds in order to know the characteristics of politeness strategies in different ways. REFERENCES Ayuningtyas, D. 2006. 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AN ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACTS IN MARTIN LUTHER KING'S "I HAVE A DREAM" SPEECH Saiko Rudi Kasenda English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University rudisaikokasenda@gmail.com Lisetyo Ariyanti, S.S., M.Pd. English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University lisetyo.a@yahoo.com ABSTRAK Memerintah seseorang telah menjadi sesuatu yang amat umum di masyarakat. Hal tersebut selalu terjadi di setiap aspek ketika berkomunikasi yang tanpa disadari terjadi. Ini dapat didefinisikan sebagai speech act yang pada dasarnya adalah suatu tindakan yang dilakukan melalui perkataan. Fokus skripsi ini adalah speech act yang diucapkan Martin Luther King di pidatonya yang berjudul "I Have a Dream". Rumusan masalah yang diajukan pada skripsi ini adalah (1) Apakah makna yang tersirat dari speech acts yang diucapkan Martin Luther King di pidatonya yang berjudul "I Have a Dream"?, (2) Bagaimana speech acts yang diucapkan Martin dapat mempengaruhi pendengarnya?, dan (3) Apakah yang diharapkan Martin melalui speech acts yang diucapkan pada pidatonya tersebut? Skripsi ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap speech acts yang diucapkan oleh Martin Luther King. Dalam hal ini, skrispsi ini mencoba menganalisa makna tersirat yang terdapat dalam speech acts yang diucapkan oleh Martin Luther King, bagaimana speech acts tersebut dapat mempengaruhi pendengarnya, serta tindakan yang diharapkan oleh Martin dalam speech acts-nya. Metode deskriptif kualitatif beserta teori dari Yule dan Searle diaplikasikan di dalam skripsi ini. Ada beberapa langkah yang diterapkan dalam skripsi ini. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah menganalisa makna tersirat dari speech acts yang diucapkan oleh Martin beserta tipe locutionary dan illocutionary-nya, menganalasi pengulangan sebagai cara bagi Martin untuk mempengaruhi pendengarnya, dan menganalisa tindakan yang diharapkan Martin dari speech acts-nya. Hasil dalam skripsi ini menunjukkan bahwa speech acts Martin memiliki berbagai makna tersirat. Hal ini merupakan pencerminan dari cara Martin mencoba mempengaruhi pendengarnya mengenai hal yang berkaitan dengan diskriminasi dan ketidakadilan yang terjadi pada orang kulit hitam pada saat itu. Pengulangan yang terdapat pada pidato "I Have a Dream" juga dapat dipahami sebagai caranya untuk mempengaruhi pendengarnya dan juga pandangannya sebagai figur yang sangat berpengaruh di masa Civil Rights Movement. Speech acts yang diucapkan Martin juga dapat dilihat sebagai caranya untuk menunjukkan harapan dan aspirasinya. Ini disebabkan karena speech acts-nya adalah wadah bagi Martin untuk menentang ketidakadilan pada orang kulit hitam. Dalam hal ini, pengulangan pada speech acts menunjukkan bahwa harapan yang dimiliki Martin sangatlah kuat. Penggunaan kekuasaan juga dapat dipahami dari speech acts Martin. Kata kunci: speech act, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act ABSTRACT Getting other people to do something has been something very common in our society. It is something that always occurs in human interaction in almost every aspect in our lives which is unconsciously done. This is defined as speech act which is basically described as type of action performed by a speaker with the utterance (Yule, 2006, p. 118). This study focuses on speech act performed by Martin Luther King Jr in his speech called "I Have a Dream". The research questions proposed in this study are (1) What are intended meanings in Martin Luther King's speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" speech?, (2) How do Martin's speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" speech engage the audience?, and (3) What are actions hoped by Martin Luther King in his speech acts?.The purpose of this study is to reveal the significance of speech acts performed by Martin Luther King. This study includes the analysis of intended meanings embedded in Martin's speech acts, how the speech acts are able to engage the audience as well as actions hoped by Martin in his speech acts. The writer applies descriptive and qualitative method and speech act theory from Yule and Searle. In the data analysis, there are several steps which are applied, they are analyzing intended meanings in Martin's speech acts as well as its locutionary act and illocutionary act type, analyzing repetition as the mean that allows Martin to engage the audience, and analyzing hope that is implied in his speech acts. The result shows that Martin's speech acts have various intended meanings. This is as the result of how Martin tried to engage the audience about matters related to discrimination and injustices towards the African-Americans or the Negro people. In this case, repetition that appears in many of Martin's speech acts is seen as the signal of his attempt to influence the audience as well as his vision as the widely influential figure who fought for justice for the Negro people during the Civil Rights Movement. As Martin's speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" are the form of his strong resistance of the discrimination and injustices, they also serve as the mean to show his hope or aspiration as well. In this case, repetitions in his speech acts are seen as the signal that Martin's hopes are strongly spoken. The use of power is also revealed in Martin's speech acts. Key words: speech act, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act INTRODUCTION When someone says something such as "I'm so thirsty" to his boyfriend, then the boy would immediately do something. He would bring a glass of fresh water to the girlfriend so that she would not be thirsty anymore. This indicates how the girlfriend as the speaker can make someone else to do something without deliberately asking the person by saying "Could you please bring me a glass of water?" or "Fetch me a glass of water, please." This is the case of how speech act occurs. It is basically defined as the actions performed in saying something (Cutting, 2002, p. 16). It can be understood through different levels and through various approaches. In this case, a speech can be understood through Speech Act Theory which is a part of Pragmatics. Speech act theory is related to description of actions such as 'requesting', 'commanding', 'questioning', or 'informing' (Yule 2006: 118). Speech acts are classified into three levels; locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts (Cutting, 2002, p.16). It will be interesting to analyze public speech spoken by someone more deeply through its speech acts since it is found that people or hearers are not actually aware about the intended meanings that a speaker has delivered. A public speech called "I Have a Dream" by Martin Luther King Jr. is chosen as the data source of the study since it contains intended meanings and associations to social phenomena that captured the portrayal of inequality, power abuse, and the use of power. Speech Acts is not something new to be analyzed. It has been analyzed by Murmaniati, Riyanto and Christy as main points of their study. Murmaniati used a book containing Soekarno's public speech as the data to analyze his speech acts. The speech is used by Soekarno as a way to protest about injustice done by the government of Netherland at that time. While Murmaniati used Soekarno's speech as her source of data, Riyanto used a literary work called 'Fences' written by Pulitzer Prize winner August Wilson. 'Fences' is a drama about black people in 1950s. He analyzed the speech acts used by characters to show how the characters in the drama could engage other characters to do something. The speech act is also employed by Christy to be analyzed in her research study. She used a literary work as her source of data as well. She used George Bernard Shaw's novel called 'Arms and the Man' to show how speech acts could raise the issue of power. This study will try to analyze speech acts spoken by Martin Luther King Jr in his "I Have a Dream" speech by applying speech act theory which is a part of pragmatics. Historical values contributing to the production of Martin Luther King Jr's speech acts such as social aspects and culture at that time will be the points that would lead to answering the conducted research questions. The research questions of this study are: (1) What are intended meanings in Martin Luther King's speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" speech mean?, (2) How do Martin Luther King's speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" speech engage the listeners?, and (3) What are actions hoped by Martin Luther King from his speech acts? This study is conducted to find the intended meanings in speech acts spoken by Martin Luther King in his "I Have a Dream" speech, to find out how speech acts in Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech engage the listeners, and to find out the actions hoped by Martin Luther King from his speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" speech. The significance of the study is to make the readers understand the significance of the use of speech acts used in Martin Luther King 's "I Have a Dream" speech. Moreover, it is hoped that this study could be a reminder of the importance of appreciating other people's right without looking at their race and social status. Several theories are applied in conducting this study. The first theory is speech act theory comes byYule and Searle. In very general terms speech acts are the type of action performed by a speaker with the utterance (Yule, 2006, p. 118). Another theory used in this study is from Hymes and Brown. In this case, the theory is referring to context that determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of an event or other occurrence. Repetition theory from Tannen and Murmaniati are also applied in this study. Another theory used in this study is by Fairclough and Foucault which refers to power in discourse. RESEARCH METHOD Descriptive qualitative is the method used in this study. Descriptive qualitative method is concerned with structures and patterns. Since this study focuses on Martin Luther King's speech acts, the subject of this study is Martin himself. He was the writer and the sole speaker of the speech. The source of data used in this study is taken from Martin Luther King Jr's "I Have a Dream" speech. The researcher uses utterances in Martin Luther King Jr's speech called "I Have a Dream" as the source of the data. Meanwhile, the data used in this study is utterances from Martin Luther King Jr's "I Have a Dream" speech. Observation is applied as the mean to find out the answers of the the research questions. In this study, the writer and "I Have a Dream" by Martin Luther King Jr. are the instruments who observes Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech. The writer uses his skill to collect the data from various sources. The point in which the writer is the primary instrument or medium through which the research is conducted (Lofland, Snow, Anderson, & Lofland, 2006, p. 3), Laptop/computer, digital files and other electronic devices are used as the tools to support the instruments and data in conducting this study. In conducting data analysis in his research study the researcher uses some procedures and techniques. There are three steps of analyzing data: data reduction, data display, conclusion, and verification (Miles and Huberman, 1992, p. 20). In order to answer the three research questions, understanding features of context is the first step that will be done. The researcher will focus on matters related to the "I Have a Dream" speech such as the addressor of the speech, the addressee in locutionary and illocutionary speech acts. The Analysis of the study are based on the three research questions: The first research question is about intended meanings in Martin Luther King's speech acts. The first step of answering the first research question is Answering Features of Context, such as participant, topic, setting, channel, code, event, key, and purpose are the first thing that will be done. Then, it will be followed by classifying Locutionary Act. In this stage utterances are classified into several locutionary acts (Declarative Imperative, or Interrogative). After that, the intended meanings are analyzed by reviewing the context and the locutionary act. After finding out the intended meanings in speech acts spoken by Martin Luther King Jr, Searle's theory and other theories are used to classify illocutionary speech act. Based on his theory, there are five categories of illocutionary speech act (representative, directive, comissive, expressive, and declaration). The second research question is about how Martin's speech acts are able to engage the audience. In this case, the question is answered by using repetition theory by Murmaniati and Tannen. The repetitions in Martin's speech acts are analyzed to find out its functions that can contribute to the speech acts. The third reserach question is about hopes implied in Martin's speech acts. The hopes are the representation of the perlocutionary acts. In order to answer the question, the first thing that will be done is reviewing the intended meanings embedded in the speech acts produced by Martin Luther King Jr and how the repetition of his speech acts employed by Martin could engage his audience. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Data Analysis On this section, the analysis of the first, the second, and the third research questions are shown each data. Each data consists of Martin's speech acts followed by the analysis which are presented by using three paragraphs. The first section displays the analysis the first research question. The second section displays the analysis the second research question. And the third section displays the analysis of the third research question. Presentation of Data 2 Intended Meanings in Martin's Speech Acts in Data 2 Two speech acts in the passage above contain Martin Luther King Jr's intended meanings, how they can engage the audience, and hope beneath them. Martin's refusal toward the notion of the absence of opportunity to achieve justice is the theme of the speech acts above. The speech acts above can be seen on paragraph 5 in line 39 to line 43. It is understood that Martin Luther King Jr's put himself as the symbol of himself and his audience who cannot accept injustice toward Negro people. In this case, Martin uses the phrase "the bank of justice" and "insufficient funds" in the speech acts to reflect Martin's denial towards the state where they do not have a chance to achieve racial justice. In this case, the speech act has intended meaning of refusal. It demonstrates Martin's disbelief that there is nothing that can be done to get racial justice and to end segregation and discrimination towards the Negro people. The speech act above also seems to have another intended meaning. It is not just about Martin Luther King Jr's refusal of injustice which is racism toward Negro people. It is also understood that the speech act has an intended meaning of suggesting. The speech act above proposes the audience to have the same belief that there is still opportunity to fight for racial justice. It shows that Martin would like to influence the audience that somehow racial justice can be achieved as long as they believe that it can be accomplished. The speech acts above can be categorized as comissive speech act which is a representation of Martin Luther King Jr's rejection toward racism of Negro people. As a speech act that has intended meaning of suggestion, which is to have the audience the same belief that racial justice can be achieved, it can be classified as directive speech act which commits other people to do something. How Speech Acts in Data 2 Engage the Audience How Martin Luther King Jr could engage his audience is associated in the use of repetition of words "we refuse to believe" in his speech acts above. It can be known that the words "we refuse to believe" are repeated twice. As can be noticed on the speech acts above, the words "we refuse to believe" is followed by clauses such as "there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation" and "the bank of justice is bankrupt." Those can be understood as the reflections of racism of Negro people. The existence of repetition in those speech acts is understood to emphasize particular circumstances. It is reflected by how the indications of strong resistance of Martin Luther King Jr toward racial injustice of Negro people are easily recognized in those speech acts. It implies Martin Luther King Jr's will to ask his audience to reject whatever segregation that happened to Negro people and to gain righteousness that had been fought for so long. It is understood that Martin Luther King Jr would like to prove his audience that there was still an opportunity that could be achieved to end racism of Negro people. The use of repetition can also be understood to give the audience a thought that racial injustice could be ended them if they have courage to make a change. Hope Implied in Martin's Speech Acts in Data 2 The speech acts above express what Martin Luther King Jr felt delivered through locutionary act of declarative. In this case, the speech acts have intended meanings of suggesting and refusing. The speech acts are intended to offer Martin Luther King Jr's audience an idea to do the same thing like Martin Luther king Jr did which was rejecting racism toward Negro people. They also have an intended meaning of refusal which put Martin Luther King Jr and his audience to have no tolerance to injustice toward Negro people. Those speech acts can be classified as comissive act which express Martin Luther King Jr's refusal. It can also be interpreted as directive speech acts having intended meaning of suggesting. The use of repetition "we refuse to believe" reflects how the strong resistance of Martin Luther King Jr toward racial injustice of Negro people is easily recognized in those speech acts. It is understood that Martin Luther King Jr would like to prove his audience that there was still an opportunity that could be achieved to end racism of Negro people. By looking at those speech acts explained before, it can be seen that Martin Luther King Jr hoped that he wanted the audience to have the same point of view that justice can achieved as long they believe that it can be accomplished. It can also be understood that Martin would like to influence the audience to refuse that there is no chance left for them to gain justice and to end racial discrimination. The realization of Martin's hope in the speech acts above is the signing of Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights of Act of 1965, and Civil Rights Act of 1968. Those acts are signed to end segregation and discrimination of the African-American people and to open opportunity for them to live and to vote. SUMMARY OF DATA ANALYSIS Summary of Intended Meanings in Martin Luther King's Speech Acts Martin's speech acts are found to have various intended meanings. They are spoken by him as statement of fact, as complaint, as refusal, as suggestion, as persuasion, and as assertion. Table 1: Intended Meanings in Martin's Speech Acts Data Speech Act Locutionary Type Illocutionary Type Intended Meaning 1 One hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free. Statement Expressive & Representative As statement of fact and as a complaint. 1 One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. Statement Expressive & Representative As statement of fact and as a complaint. 1 One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. Statement Expressive & Representative As statement of fact and as a complaint. 1 One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. Statement Expressive & Representative As statement of fact and as a complaint. 2 We refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. Statement Comissive & Directive As a refusal and as a suggestion 2 We refuse to believe that there insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. Statement Comissive & Directive As a refusal and as a suggestion 3 Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Statement Directive As a suggestion 3 Now is the time to open the doors of opportunity to all of God's children. Statement Directive As a suggestion 3 Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Statement Directive As a suggestion 4 We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. Statement Directive As a suggestion 4 We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Statement Directive As a suggestion 5 We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. Statement Expressive As a complaint 5 We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro's basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. Statement Expressive As a complaint 5 We can never be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. Statement Expressive As a complaint 6 Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. Statement Directive As a suggestion 7 "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal." Statement Representative As a persuasion 7 "I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood." Statement Representative As a persuasion 7 "I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state, sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice." Statement Representative As a persuasion 7 "I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." Statement Representative As a persuasion 8 With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. Statement Representative & Directive As an assertion and as a suggestion. 8 With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. Statement Representative & Directive As an assertion and as a suggestion. 8 With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. Statement Representative & Directive As an assertion and as a suggestion. 9 And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Statement Directive As a sugestion 9 Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Statement Directive As a suggestion 9 Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania! Statement Directive As a suggestion 9 Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado! Statement Directive As a suggestion 9 Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California! Statement Directive As a suggestion Summary of How Martin Luther King's Speech Acts Engage the Audience Repetitions in Martin Luther King's speech acts play such a significant part in his "I Have a Dream" speech. It is seen as a medium that allows Martin to engage the audience. In this case, the repetitions are found to have various functions, such as: as reminder, as an objection, to show Martin's dissatisfaction, to show Martin's assurance, as an advice, and to unite his audience. Table 2: Repetition in Martin Luther King's Speech Acts Data Speech Acts Repeated Sentence or Phrase Function 1 ""One hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land." One hundred years later As a reminder 2 "We refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation." We refuse to believe As an objection 3 "Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to open the doors of opportunity to all of God's children. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood." Now is the time To urge the audience to take actions 4 "We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence." We must As an advice 5 "We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro's basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote." We can never be satisfied To show Martin's dissatisfaction 6 "Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed." Go back to As a reminder 7 "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal." "I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood." "I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state, sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice." "I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." I have a dream. To show Martin's aspiration 8 "With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day." With this faith To show Martin's assurance 9 And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania! Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado! Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California! Let freedom ring To unite his audience Summary of Hopes Implied in Martin Luther King's Speech Acts The following is a table containing the simplification of what has been conducted on the analysis section. The table contains Martin's speech acts and hope implied beneath them. Table 3: Hopes Implied in Martin's Speech Acts Data Speech Act Speech Act Type Hopes (Perlocutionary Act) 1 "One hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land." That the audience would be reminded that the Negro people are the victims of racial discrimination for hundreds of years. 2 We refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. That the audience would have the same point of view that justice for the Negro people can be achieved as long as they believe it can be accomplished. 3 Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to open the doors of opportunity to all of God's children. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. That the audience should start to make a change by fighting for racial justice and ending segregation. That the Negro people have the same opportunity as white people have. 4 "We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence." That Martin's supporters would never use violence in protesting for justice of the Negro people. 5 "We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro's basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote." That the unfairness that the Negro people suffered must be ended in a way that they should gain the right to rest at a motel or any other facilities 6 "Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed." That the audience would have the conviction that situations in parts of The United States can be changed to the better one. 7 "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal." "I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood." "I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state, sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice." "I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." That the racist people would realize that all human beings, including the Negro, are just the same. That the States in America, heavily plagued with racial discrimination, would turn out to be the place would respect the Negro people without looking at their racial identity. 8 "With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day." That the audience would have the belief that somehow racial injustice and discrimination can be ended. 9 And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania! Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado! Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California! That freedom for the Negro people must be unleashed immediately in states in America such as New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Colorado, and California DISCUSSION In the discussion section, the elaboration of the entire analysis that has been conducted is explained to present the final result. The discussion section consists of the elaboration of the intended meaning of Martin Luther King's speech acts, how the speech acts could engage the audience, and the Martin's hope embedded in the speech acts which will be discussed with the theories that have been applied and with the previous studies which are used in this study. Discussion of Intended Meanings in Martin Luther King's Speech Acts The intended meanings that have been found are connected with how the speech acts serve as Martin's expression and his intention to persuade his audience to commit for future actions and other related matters. It is found that Martin's speech acts in his "I Have a Dream" speech are intended as statement of fact, as complaint, as refusal, as suggestion, as persuasion, and as assertion. One of the intended meanings in Martin's speech acts that can be seen is to state a fact consisting description of an event or a situation. It is how Martin, the sole speaker of the speech, was able to tell the truth of what happened as well as the history that drove the event of "I Have a Dream" to occur in August 28, 1963. This can be seen in speech acts in Data 1. In this case, it can be confirmed that Martin Luther King Jr has fulfilled the requirement of speech act, which is representative act, that drives him to confront his audience with the truth or fact regarding to racial injustice of the Negro people. Representative act is speech act whose purpose is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of the expressed position (Searle, 1975). This view is also supported by Yule that said the speech act can has the ability to state what the speaker believes to be the case (Yule, 1996, p. 53). In other words, Martin's speech act has the capacity to make his audience to have thoughts of what really happened to the Negro people as the outcome of racial injustice and discrimination. As a speech act that has an intended meaning to commit people to do a particular action, Martin Luther King's speech act supports the landmark of speech acts that says it is an action done via utterance. It has the ability to make other people to do something. In this case, the speech act has a tendency to persuade people who supported Martin to not do any harm as a part of their protest towards racial injustice and discrimination of the Negro people. The speech act can be perceived as the expression of what Martin Luther King Jr wants (Yule, 1996, p.54). It is found that there are speech acts which have more than one intended meaning. It can be seen in the speech acts in Data 1 and Data 2. Speech acts in Data 1 deals with what happened one hundred years after the Emancipation of Proclamation was approved by the US representatives. While the speech acts in Data 1 have intended meanings to state a fact and to complain, the speech acts in Data 2 have intentions to refuse and to suggest things related to racial discrimination and segregation of the Negro people. In this case, those speech acts reflect with the theory conducted by Searle and Vandeverken. It says that whenever a speaker utters a sentence in an appropriate context with certain intentions, he performs one or more illocutionary acts (Searle & Vandeverken, 1985, p.34). Therefore, it can be concluded that the speech acts in Data 1 and Data 2 fit to the theories that have been described before. Discussion of the Repetitions in Martin Luther King's Speech Acts Repetition is applied to emphasize certain elements in the mind of the listeners (Murmaniati, 2007, p. 35). According to Tannen, repetition also functions to accomplish social goals and has the ability to bond participants (the addressor and the addressee) linking the speaker in a discourse and in relationships (Tannen, 2007, p. 58-61). The repetition in Martin Luther King Jr's speech act is used as his mean to engage his audience about matters related to racial injustice and discrimination of the Negro people. In the result section, it is found that repetition is applied in many Martin's speech acts. The repetition found in the speech acts is words or sentences or phrases or clauses repeated in several different sentences. The words which are repeated in the utterances are seen to have various function, which are as reminder, to show Martin's aspiration, to unite his audience, as an advice, and as an objection. In this case, it can be said that repetition in Martin's speech acts is seen to have big contribution towards the meaning of As for the repetitions having function to bond participants, it can be seen that Martin Luther King Jr would like to unite himself with the audience. It is reflected in Martin's speech acts in Data 3. In this case, the sentence "Now is the time" is repeated three times to unite his audience. The repetition has the ability to unite his audience which eventually is able to urge the audience to take actions regarding to injustices of the Negro people. It can also be noticed in Martin's speech acts in Data 9. In data 9, it is shown that the repetition of "Let freedom ring" has the function to unite the audience as well. The repetition has the purpose to unite the audience to spread out the notion of freedom and justice of the Negro people to many states in The United States. Since Martin's speech acts in "I Have a Dream" recount very crucial issues such as racial discrimination and freedom, it can be seen that the theory from Tannen that says repetition has the capacity to accomplish social goals supports the idea of Martin's speech act itself. It can be understood that how Martin accomplish the social goal, which is to end racial segregation and discrimination, is expressed through the repetitions in many of his speech acts. Discussion of Hopes Implied in Martin LutheKing's Speech Acts As seen on the table above, it can be seen that Martin hoped that his audiences would be persuaded to act and to have a state of mind regarding to how they should deal with racial discrimination of the Negro people. One of the examples of Martin's suggestion can be seen on speech acts in Data 5. Martin's hope speech acts in Data 5 suggest that in order to fight for justice for the Negro people must be done by never using any violence for it would only show that the Negro people are as bad as the racist people who oppose them by doing harm. This shows how Martin's speech acts can persuade to do a particular thing. This fits with Austin's belief that the speech act can cause the hearers to feel a requirement to do something (Austin in Horn & Ward, 2004, p.54). Another example that can be seen regarding to how Martin's hope is embodied in his speech acts can be noticed on Data 1. The speech acts are intended to state the facts that the Negro people have been the victims of racial discrimination for so long. The hope embedded in the speech acts in Data 1 is that the audience would have a state of mind where the Negro people are the victims of racial discrimination for hundreds of years. This also matched with Austin's theory that the perlocutionary act consist in the production of effects upon the thoughts, feelings, or actions of the addressee in which it can convince the addressee of the truth of a statement (Austin in Horn & Ward, 2004, p. 54). From the explanations delivered above, it is proven that there is hope implied in Martin's speech acts. The hopes are embedded in Martin's speech acts which are to state facts or to suggest his audience to do something and so on. This shows that the speech acts do not just have the ability to make the hearers to act, but also it is revealed that speech acts have the capacity to make the hearers to have the urge in doing something. Discussion of Power Used in Martin Luther King's Speech Acts One of the indications how power is exercised is that Martin Luther King serves as someone who had an influence toward the people who wanted to embrace justice for the Negro people. In this case, Martin is seen as a force that can persuade his audience to deal with injustices of the Negro people. As what Foucault said an agent, which is Martin, has the will to influence other people who to do things which they do not wish to do (Foucault, 2003, p.34). Another circumstance that shows how power is enacted in Martin Luther King's speech acts is his description of the status quo of the Negro people. It is shown in Martin's speech acts in Data 1. In the speech acts, the Negro people are told by Martin as the victims of discrimination for hundreds of years. This is considered as a strategy to show how power is exercised. As what Van Dijk said, one strategy of exercising power in discourse is to persuasively define the ethnic status quo as 'natural', lust', 'inevitable' or even as `democratic', for instance through denials of discrimination or racism (Discourse Power and Access, Teun A van Dijk, p.91). It can be concluded that by giving the description of how difficult the Negro people's lives are can be used as an approach to persuade the audience to face the fact and start to make a change. Since Martin Luther King's speech acts deal with a matter related to the Negro people as the ones who were discriminated, it can be seen that Martin exercised power in speech acts to allow himself to effect social change. Foucault stated that it opens up the space for individuals to act, to exercise power at the capillaries in order to effect social change. (Power, Discourse, Subjectivity, p.37). It can be said that Martin tried to use his influence as a figure who can persuade his audience to start making a change in terms of ending racial discrimination and justice of the Negro people. This also shows that when power is exercised, it eventually can affect social life. CONCLUSION There are several conclusions that can be drawn regarding to results and discussion that has been conducted. In this case, the conclusions are presented as the outcome of the production of Martin Luther King Jr's speech acts. One of the conclusions is related to intended meanings in Martin Luther King Jr's speech acts. In this case, it can be seen that Martin Luther King Jr had used his speech acts to express his thoughts regarding to racial injustice and discrimination of the Negro people. It is found that he delivered his disappointment in many of his speech acts. His disappointment is delivered through how he complained by stating facts which are mostly conveyed by locutionary acts of statement. It proves that although the locutionary acts state facts of what really happened to the Negro people, the speech acts are intended as a form of Martin's protest towards racial injustice of the Negro people. As for another intended meaning in Martin's speech act, the speech acts also serve as a way to convey the audience to do a particular action. Just like locutionary acts of statement to complain, this is also done by not deliberately uttering locutionary act of imperative. There is another conclusion that can be drawn regarding to Martin's speech acts. In this case, it is related to repetition in his speech acts which is seen as a mean to engage the audience. It is found that that repetition is applied in many of Martin Luther King's speech acts. In this case, the repetition is applied by Martin to strengthen his thoughts towards racial injustice and discrimination of the Negro people. This is done in order to make sure that the points given by Martin as the sole speaker would be perceived well by the audience since the speech acts deal with such crucial circumstances. Another conclusion can be made regarding to the results and discussion that have been conducted. It is concluded that there are hopes that lies in Martin's speech acts. Since speech acts are actions via utterance which are intended to make other people to do something, the speech acts are the reflections of Martin's hopes or desires. They reveal the point of what Martin was striving for during the fight for racial justice. As Martin's speech acts reveal his intention and hope, it is also seen as a medium used by him to use power. It can be seen that the speech acts show Martin's influence as the speaker who exposed racial injustices and discrimination of the Negro people. How Martin exercised power is also shown when Martin would like to challenge those who oppose justice for the Negro people. In this case, Martin's speech acts show that they can affect social change toward the lives of the Negro people. Rather than being aggressive, it is also revealed that Martin's speech acts are the democratic approach of how Martin exercised power. The speech acts are able to give the audience the urge to fight for justice for the Negro people. SUGGESTION It can be noticed that the study is not written perfectly. The study demands a lot of critiques on many part of it. It is hoped that this research study would be useful to the readers who wanted to use speech acts as the main point of the study. It is suggested that speech acts should be analyzed with knowledge so that it can lead to full understanding. It is also hoped that the study would be a reminder of how important it is to respect people without looking at their racial identity or color skins. Judging people just because of their color skins does not make us any better than anyone else. It is so important to always believe in appreciating other people. REFERENCES Austin, J L. (1962). How to do Things with Words. London: Oxford University Press. Bogdan, R.C.and Bilken, S.K. (1982). Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theory and Method. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press. 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W. (2006) Critical Discourse Analysis on Indonesian Movement: A Study of Speech Act in Soekarno's Defence Oration "Indonesia Menggugat". Surabaya: Unesa University Press. Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to Discourse. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. Schiffrin, D., Tannen, D., & Hamilton, H.E. (2001). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Searle, J. R. (1975). A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press Searle, J. R. (1979). Expression and Meaning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Searle, J, & Vanderveken, D. (1985). Foundations of Illocutionary Logic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sidhu, R. K. (2003). Selling Futures: Globalisation and International Education. Queensland: The University of Queensland Press. Stremel, K. (2008). Communication: It Takes Two. 4. Tannen, D. (2007). Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conversational Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Weiss, G. & Wodak, R. (2003). Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Westbrook, L. (1994). Qualitative Research Methods: A Review of Major Stages, Data Analysis Techniques, and Quality Controls. Michigan: Undergraduate Library, University of Michigan. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language (3rd Ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS THE MEDIUM IN TEACHING SCIENCE TO THE EIGHT GRADERS OF "KELAS UNGGULAN" AT MTSN KEDIRI II Ana Khoirun Nikmah English Education Department, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University. Email: nikmeh08@gmail.com Rahayu Kuswardani, S.Pd, M.Appl English Education Department, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University. Abstrak Sesuai dengan program kelas unggulan, kelas yang semula hanya menerapkan proses kegiatan belajar mengajar dengan menggunakan Bahasa Indonesia sekarang diharapkan bisa menggunakan Bahasa Inggris dalam kegiatan belajar mereka, baik itu dalam hal mengajar maupun dalam pengajaran sesui materi pelajaran. Ini merupakan tantangan bagi seorang guru dalam menghadapi system pembelajaran seperti itu. Kompetensi dan keahlian guru yang baik sangat dibutuhkan dan juga dalam keseluruhan standar pengurangan Bahasa Inggris. Selain itu, system pembelajarn ini juga tidak semudah yang kita pikir. Mereka diharuskan belajar ilmu pengetahuan menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sebagai media proses belajar mengajar padahal mereka juga masih belajar Bahasa Inggris. Oleh karena itu, dalam penelitian ini, penelti melakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk memahami masalah diantara keahlian guru Bahasa Inggris dalam menguasai Bahasa Inggris ketika mengajar ilmu pengetahuan dan masalah siswa dalam memahami ilmu pengetahuan yang menggunakan Bahasa Inggris. Dari latar belakang yang sudah disebutkan tersebut, peneliti tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian berdasarkan situasi yand terjadi dengan judul "The Implementation of English Language as the Medium in Teaching Science to the Eight Graders of "Kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II". Obyek penelitian dala penelitian ini adalah kompetensi gur ilmu pengetahuan dalam mengajar ilmu pengetahuan dengan menggunakan media Bahasa Inggris dan penerapannya dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar, masalah yang dihadapi guru ilmu pengetahuan selama kegiatan belajar mengajar di kelas delapan pada kelas unggulan MTsN Kediri II. Penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian deskripif kualitatif. Sedangkan subjek penelitian ini adalah kelas delapan pada kelas unggulan MTsN Kediri II. Dalam pengumpulan data, peneliti menggunakan dua instrument, yaitu catatan observasi dan wawancara. Catatan observasi dilakukan untuk mengetahui kompetensi guru dalam mengembangkan kemampuan Bahasa Inggrisnya dalam proses belajar mengajar. Sedangkan wawancara dilakukan untuk mengetahui usaha-usaha guru yang telah dilakukan mengembangkan dan mengatasi masalah dalam penggunaan Bahasa Inggris sebagai media pembelajaran. Berdasarkan observasi yang telah dilakukan, peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa kompetensi guru dalam berbahasa inggris harus dikembangkan, terutama kosakata dan strukturnya. Sedangkan dari hasil wawancara, peneliti mengetahui bahwa guru ilmu pengetahuan kelas delapan pada kelas unggulan MTsN Kediri II selalu mengembangkan kompetensinya untuk mengatasi masalah dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar dengan cara mengikuti kursus Bahasa Inggris dan bekerjasama dengan sebuah tempat kursus Bahasa Inggris di Kampung Inggris, Pare. Karena masalah utama di dalam kelas adalah penggunaan Bahasa Inggris pada guru dan pemahaman para murid, maka materi ilmu pengetahuan diberikan dengan tetap menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sebagai medianya. Keyword: kemampuan guru ilmu pengetahuan dalam berbahasa inggris pada "kelas unggulan" Abstract The term of "kelas unggulan", which has been using teaching and learning in bahasa Indonesia is expected to perform effectively in English, to teach and acquire subject specific knowledge. It is one of challenges of teacher to face this reality. Good teacher's competency and proficiency are needed and also overall declining standard of English. In the other hand it is not as simple as everyone think. They have to learn science using English as the medium of teaching and learning process whereas they also still learning English. Therefore, to understand the problem between the English teacher's proficiency in mastery English language to teach science and the problem with the students understanding science in English. From the background above the researcher is interested in conducting research related to the situation, entitled "The Implementation of English Language as the Medium in Teaching Science to the Eight Graders of "Kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II".The objective researches of this study are the science teacher competency in explaining science using English as the medium and the implementation of it, the problem faced by science teacher during teaching and learning process at Eight Graders in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. This research use descriptive qualitative research while the subject is Eight Graders in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. In collecting data the researcher use two instruments, they are observation field note and interview. The observation field note is used to know the teacher competency in improving her English while teaching and learning process. And the interview is used to know the effort of the teacher in improving and also facing the problem in using English as the medium of instruction. Based on the observation, the researcher concludes that the teacher's competency in English needs to be improved, especially in vocabularies and structure. Then, from the interview the researcher knows that the science teacher of Eight Graders in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II always improve her competency just to overcome the problem in teaching and learning process by taking English course and doing cooperation with one of big English course in kampong English, Pare. Because the main problems in the class are the English teacher and the students understanding the science material given using English as the medium. Keyword: Science Teacher's competency in English in "kelas unggulan" INTRODUCTION In the current era of globalization, English language plays an important role in international communication. All of the aspects on live, like technology, economic, politic, art, education etc. use English Language to communicate. For example, in technology, we all know that Yamaha product is made in Japan. But when we read the direction note of Yamaha product, we will find some technical term used is English Language. We also can find this case in economic aspect. In a free market, if there are two seller were not come from English doing transaction, they will decide to use English Language to talk each other. So that is not surprising that English Language is known as the international language. In fact some countries in this world use English language to be their national language, like Singapore. And the other countries use English language as their second language besides their own national language. But in our country, Indonesia is still included in a country that used English as the foreign language. So that way is aware of along with the globalization, the need for an English language skill is increasingly apparent. Therefore, it is not surprising that experts who are involved in education feel the need to provide intensive English lessons and continuing English education to the students in middle school even since the children were still sitting in elementary school. Secondary school level has a lot of junior and senior high school who offer to pioneer international standard school and has a lot of schools that obtain international school status. The schools, which obtain international status, prepare their students for the future so that they can compete globally. Recognizing the importance of quality in education and a desire to catch up education set back with other countries, governments are encouraged to perform a major breakthrough in the field of education by designing international school. The government wants to promote educational programs in the country by turning national schools into international standard schools. Schools must make an effort to improve the quality of teaching and teachers' so that teachers' quality will not be left behind. One of the schools that used international standard is MTsN Kediri II. MTsN Kediri II is a junior high school located in Kediri, East Java. It is included one of the favorite school in Kediri because almost of their students are smart enough and often be the winner in Olympiad. Since some years ago besides use national curriculum, this school also use international standard in their education. Because of that, they divided their class into some kinds of class. That is regular and kelas unggulan. Regular class is a class that use national curriculum in their teaching learning process. In other hand, the kelas unggulan is a class based on international standard. In kelas unggulan, some subjects such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Economics should be conducted in English or in a bilingual classroom learning environment. Bilingual education involves teaching academic content in two languages that is, in a native and secondary language with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the program model. It is an educational approach that not only allows students to master academic content material, but also become proficient in two languages. It is an increasingly valuable skill in the early twenty-first century. It is the program which is intended to help children to keep up with their peers in subject such as math, science and social studies while they study English (Maria. 2001). The purpose of bilingual instruction is to increase academic achievement by using the student's home language as the main communication medium. Bilingual instruction involves the use of two languages for instructions for part or all of the activities within the classroom. One language is English and the other language is the student's home language that is the language spoken in the home. English is taught as a second language (James. 1988). Whether teaching a transitional class, a maintenance class, or a two ways bilingual class, the main difference from a monolingual class is the balance in using of the two languages. A second variable which affects the process of classroom organization is who teaches: a team, a teacher and an aide or one teacher alone. The third variable comes from the structure of the program model. There are the three major variations in classroom design which effect use of the two languages in a bilingual classroom. The first is The concurrent approach. In this approach A teacher using concurrent approach may use both languages interchangeable in a teaching content are or two teachers may team teach one lesson, each modeling a different language. The second is Pre-view-pre-view. It involves three steps in a team teaching situation: an introduction to the lesson is first given by one instructor in one language. The lesson is then presented in the other language by the second instructor. Review and reinforcement of the lesson takes place with the whole class using the two languages interchangeably in a concurrent approach, or the class is divided into dominant- language groups, led by each teacher separately. The last approach is Alternate language approach. Clearly structures a separation between the two languages. But for student is so limited proficiency in one of the language instruction, the language chosen for content area instruction can involve complex decision. In early stages, student should receive science lesson in their first language, but as they develop increasing proficiency in a second language, they may introduced to an increasing amount of science instruction in their second language. In the school that uses bilingual classroom system, the teacher must have two levels of language skills sufficient to be able to teach bilingual classes. But here, Sheelagh and Cristine (2007:6) divided two different types of teachers who have very different needs-the expertise of the language may not be shared by the content and vice versa. The first is Teacher of English who now has to teach another subject through English, rather than just teaching the language. And the other is subject teacher who now have to teach their subject through English. In this research, the researcher study about the second type of CLIL, that is subject teacher who now have to teach their subject through English, exactly science teacher. As Henderson and Wellington (2001:23) said that whilst research shows that one of major difficulties in learning science is learning the language of science, to experience the teaching and learning process would suggest that science teachers often consider the use of English in Biology lesson to be of marginal relevance to the learning of science (Henderson & Wellington. 2001:23) . They further add that in general, teachers who teach content do not recognize languages learning opportunities. If there is any effort at all in incorporating language development, they just concentrate on vocabulary development. John (1997:17) also said that some science teachers hope that the vocabulary of science will be recognized by the students as a key to its comprehension and appreciation. The teacher also must make avert efforts to interpret the nature of Biology lesson and the habits of learning Biology through its language or vocabulary. So we can conclude that science teacher must be competence in the both od the biology subject and English Language. The problem that we find in the reality is one cannot confirm that the subject teachers are able to become a bilingual who is ready to teach in two languages, Indonesian and English. How long does it take for a teacher to be ready to teach bilingual? In addition, the level of bilingual skills to a certain level is needed or that must be achieved by a teacher to be able to teach bilingual classes. Those subject teachers mostly of are not graduates of English Education, so maybe they will find difficulty in explaining their material in English. Therefore, the researcher wanted to conduct a research which intends to describe this phenomenon, the implementation of English language as the medium in teaching scdience at eight grade in "kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. By conducting this study, the researcher has purpose to find out the implementation of English language in teaching science for eight graders and the teacher's problems faced during classroom teaching and learning. By knowing the fact or the result of the study, the researcher hoped it will give meaningful contribution for The teacher who uses English, especially science teacher in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II, can improve their ability in English and the quality of teaching and learning process, and also the result is expected to contribute development of teaching science by using English in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri. It is also expected to give meaningful contribution for Indonesian government. It is hoped that the government can consider about the programs to make Indonesia to become international level in education by using English in the process of teaching and learning process. According to the government it can make the education in Indonesia becomes better than before to the international level, people argue that it does not make better education in Indonesia, but it can make the education. Worse, since the students face more problems in their study due to their English ability is still poor. This phenomenon makes the researcher puts her interest to conduct research about it. The researcher questions: (1) how is the implementation of English language in teaching science for eight grader? (2) What problems do the teachers face during classroom teaching and learning? METHOD Based on the research question and the objective of the study, the researcher used descriptive qualitative. Gay (1992) explained that Descriptive research involves collecting data in order to answer questions concerning the current statues of the subject of the study). In this study, the researcher described the implementation of English language as the medium in teaching scdience at eight grade in "kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. She concentrated on the biology class activity and the biology teacher herself. In this research, the researcher chose descriptive qualitative as the research design based on two reasons, which are the objective of this study is to describe the implementation of English language as the medium in teaching scdience at eight grade in "kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II and there is no treatment in this study. The subject of this study was the biology teacher of "kelas unggulan" in the 8th at MTsN Kediri II. The researcher chose the biology teacher because three reason. For the first, there are many students who favor Biology lesson. They like biology subject because biology is the easiest among Physic, Chemistry and Biology. The second reason is Biology lesson has a few things to be discussed about numerical, but it has many explanations. To give explanation a material in the Biology, teachers have to explain more. It means the teacher should make long sentences and more languages especially English. And the las reason is there is another language that is in Biology discussion, that is Latin language. Every plant or animals has Latin name, so students have to understand which Latin language is and which is English. This study is taken place in the 8th "kelas unggulan" and the teacher's office. For the first day, the researcher observes the condition of the school and the Biology teacher's when she was teaching in the classroom. The researcher recorded the teaching and learning process using vidio camera and tape recorder. And on the next day, the researcher came to the teacher office, actually on the biology teacher's room to interview her. The interview was used to find the data form the Biology teacher. The purpose of this interview was also to find out the information about teacher's efforts in developing the English language competency and to find out what the problems she usually faced during teaching and learning Biology by using English language. After knowing the problem, researcher could infer reasonable solution to solve the problems that were faced by the teacher. The data of this study is the condition of the biology class on 8th "kelas unggulan" in MTsN Kediri II. It included the teacher's competence in giving oral instruction by using English language in her Biology science class, for example asking question in English, giving opinion, giving explanation in English and the students' expression and utterance during teaching leraning activity. The other data is teachers' answer in the form of utterances and expressions given by the teachers during interview sessions which are transcribed into written form. Besides the result of the researcher's observation, the source of the data is the biology teacher herself. In this research, all of the data were collected by using observation field note and interview, were analyzed inductively in order to answer research questions stated in chapter one. The first step was accumulating the data recorded from the result of class observation and the answer of biology teachers through interview given. After all of data accumulated, the researcher studied the data well, she described them by classifying into the finding based on the research question. In addition, all the data were collected thoroughly as happened in the reality. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter presents the result and discussion of the study as the answers for the research questions: (1) how is the implementation of English language in teaching science for eight grades? (2) What problems do the teachers face during classroom teaching and learning? Result Here, the researcher explained about the first and second day observation done by the researcher. On the first day observation, the researcher observed the condition on 8th kelas unggulan of MTsN Kediri II. In the first observation, the researcher noticed some facts happened in their teaching learning activities. Those are: (a) when the teacher explains the material by using English, her explanation is difficult to be understood by her students. (b) The science teacher of "kelas unggulan" in MTsN Kediri II does not always use English in explaining science material. (c) When the teacher wanted to explain about the material, she was consuming too much time to find the proper words makes the students waiting for long time, and also makes them getting bored. (d) the teacher often feels nervous and automatically, she cannot control her speaking, especially in pronunciation and vocabulary. In term of pronunciations, the researcher finds some words mispronounced words form, it was pronounced this word as like forem. In the word size, it is pronounced with sez. (e) The teacher thinks that the use of translation method make the students understands the material well. So that, in the most of the time she explains the material by using mother tongue then translate in to the English. (f) Because the teacher is fully aware that she is not teaching language at all but teaching science. So, she thinks that it's not to importance to make her English perfect. It is better to teach real science rather than just focusing on the students' English skills. (g) There are three languages used in the class there are (Indonesia, Javanese and English). But the biggest portion, about eighty percent used Indonesian. On the second day of this research, the researcher done interview the biology teacher of 8th "kelas unggulan" in MTsN Kediri II. From the interview which was done on May 23th 2013, the researcher tried to analyzes the teacher efforts in improving her skills in English language. There was one teacher who was interviewed by the researcher. Mrs Zahra', she is science teacher in the eighth graders of MTsN Kediri II. Science Teacher stated that, actually, she has already tried her best effort in improving English skills. It was done by practicing the speaking skill with her daughter and son at home. Her children convinced their mother that if she always does not speak English continuously and regularly as her daily habit, it will really improve her English. Besides the effort or practice she does at home, she also joins the English course which is hosted by the school in cooperation with one of good English course in Pare. These are proves that both school wants to improve the English ability so that she teaches science by using English confidently. Besides that, the school also held TOEFL and TOEIC test to know whether the competency of the teacher has improved or not. The Teacher's Competency in using English as the Medium of Teaching Science Teacher ability plays important role in delivering new knowledge and skills to students. If the teacher wants to be regarded as excellent and competent teachers by parents based of the excellent academic achievement of the student the teacher have to works hard to get it. In the implementation of the teaching Science in English in kelas unggulan, teacher's competency in teaching the subject is really needed, it include in the way the teacher teaching, teaching strategy, etc. This is so because many of our teachers today have had very little exposure to the subjects in English. In this research, the researcher explained about science teachers' competency which contains the ability to ask question in English, the ability to use oral instruction in English and the ability to give opinion in English. The Teacher's Ability in Questioning Student In the teaching and learning process in teaching science by using English as the language medium, the science teacher of Kelas unggulan at MTsN Kediri II is expected to be able to ask question to their students about the material that she had explained by using English. If it runs well, of course, it will make the students motivated during question and answer session. However, the teacher which is expected to be a model that has perfect examples how to ask thing in English did not do so. So that way, their students also answer the question in mixed language. Based on the observation done by the researcher, the researcher conclude that the science teachers in Kelas unggulan of eight graders of MTsN Kediri II still use translation method, that she use both English and Indonesia in asking question. This condition happened because both of the teacher and student do not master English well. To her observation, both the kelas unggulan students and the teacher are have not ready to use English one hundred percent yet in the class. Even though the researcher had to agreed that the use of English one hundred percent is too difficult for students, simply because the science language is different from the English that the students are studying during English class, the teacher as the important point should push herself to use English as close as possible at least they have to reach 75% during the teaching and learning process especially in asking question. Of course, the English foreign learners or English second learners will get some difficulties to express science term in English, but they have to work hard if they really want to make the bilingual runs well. The Teacher's Ability in Giving Oral Instruction by Using English In the process of teaching and learning science using English as the language medium, the science teachers of MTsN Kediri II always tried to give oral instruction to her students beside the written instruction. These two important are things which cannot be separated one by one. It is important to oral instruction during the teaching learning process, because without oral instruction the communication in the class between teacher and students cannot runs well. In this case, as a science teacher does oral instruction to help her students to understand the task easily. However, the simple interaction only done in Indonesian language, not in English because, the teacher still has difficulty to make simple interaction by using English. Based on the result of observation, the researcher concluded that the science teacher of MTsN Kediri II tried to maximize her ability in using oral instruction in English even though it is not grammatically correct. She tried and sometimes she mixed it with Indonesian. The problem is of mixing the language because, she still uses Indonesian quite a lot when giving her oral instruction. Based on the researcher observation, the science teacher of Kelas unggulan should master the art of giving oral instruction in English to communicate with their students if she wants to make the class become the real bilingual or international standard class. The Teacher's Ability in Giving Opinion to the Students Teaching through another language for some subjects may have cause a language problem. It happens in this class also when the teacher expresses her opinion in English; she mixed it with Indonesian language. Seems that she still find difficulties. It can be frustrated for the teacher to teach subject that have different language vocabularies, especially science subject. The language for science is different from the English language which students use in English class activities. Vocabulary in Science class has special syntactic structures. Making inferences in science subject meaning give all contribute to the difficulties of many other subject subjects which use English so. The selected teacher who teaches science by using English as the language medium of interaction for Eight graders in MTsN Kediri 2 has tried to maximize her ability in using English. During classroom activities the science teacher sometimes mixed the language when she was giving her opinion to the students. The Teacher's Efforts in Improving her English Teaching Skills From the observation and the interview that has been conducted, the researcher finds some mistakes of the science teacher in expressing sentences and words in spite of her mistakes. The mistakes include the teacher still tries her best effort to use English in explaining all the science materials. In the contrary to the teacher's effort, most of the mispronouncing the words and mixing the languages between English and Indonesian, students are still difficult to handle the maximum usage of English. They have to understand the science material in English is a big challenge to them. Therefore, to maximize her students' difficulty and to overcome the challenge, teacher uses Indonesian in some of explanations. Based on the result of observation, it can be concluded that sometimes the science teacher mixed the language or does not use English at all when she was not sure with the English Especially, if the teacher who does not have a good competency with her English language. The requirements to use English can be serious problem. From the interview that has been done the researcher find some facts that: First, the science teacher doesn't have good ability in speaking English or explain the science term correctly in English. Based on that, she gets difficulties in delivering the content to the students. Second, seems that science teacher is not too familiar with the terminologies and science terms in the English language due to her minimal exposure for learning and teaching science in the English language. Since the school supports the Implementation English in science class. The teachers' competency in teaching subject needs to be improved immediately. It is so because many of science teachers in that school have had very little experience in exposure English as the language medium in the classroom especially for the class that is chosen as kelas unggulan. The Problems Faced by the Teacher During Teaching and Learning Process There were some problems faced by science teacher of Kelas unggulan in MTsN Kediri II during teaching and learning Science by using English. The main problem of successful in using English in kelas unggulan is from the students' ability to understand the material which is presented in English. This fact is also confirmed by the science teacher, Mrs. Zahra' who is the teacher of science in "kelas unggulan" of MTsN Kediri II for class said that her problem during classroom explanation when she was teaching science refer to the language competency of their students in order to understand the science language in English. She stated if the students did not understand the language, it shows that they also would not be able to do the science task correctly. The solution of this problem according to her is giving some vocabularies continuously to the students who have the difficulties in understanding the science language. One more thing that in MTsN Kediri II there are some teams which is have quite good members who has cooperation with an English course in Pare. It was had been for about 3 months. So, it means the groups still in the process of improvement. The science teacher who has a team teaching in the process of teaching science for the class of Kelas unggulan have the different problem. She said that the problem which is occurred in the process of teaching science not only the language problem but also less motivation and participation of the students to follow the class activities. The solution according to her is using different kind of teaching strategies and giving motivation to their students in every meeting. From the statement above, it can be known that every science teachers who teach using English have their own problems, and they also have their own solution to improve the skill of their students in science, besides the using various kind of learning strategies which will make the teaching learning process enjoy full. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion Based on the finding of data analysis and discussion in previous chapter, the researcher drew a conclusion: First, from the result of the research analysis, it is proved that the students' understanding of science's class taught by using English as the medium of teaching and learning science process still have no improvements, and based on the result of research question by using interview, shows that using of English as medium of teaching and learning process is not quite effective for of MTsN Kediri II. It's not because of just the teacher's ability, but also the students' English especially in understanding the words or vocabulary influence the result of learning, and in this school there are still some reasons that make the school has not been ready in applying English in teaching science, seen from the teacher's English ability and also the lack of the students' vocabulary on the lesson. Second, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science process in the science class makes the students are unable to enjoy their learning activities as well as the technique of the teacher use is not quite attracting them, and they can not understand the English teacher's explaination well. It seems that the teacher's technique cannot help them reduce the students' anxiety of learning. In addition, it cannot make them feel comfortable in learning to lead them to be better in learning. Meanwhile the goal of applying English in teaching science is that the students have to be brave to say or to express their idea in English, and the teacher's motivation is to make them confident to share the ideas. Third, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science process to the eight graders of MTsN Kediri II cannot seem to change the atmosphere of the classroom and is also unable to broaden their knowledges. Actually, it offers much wider range of language opportunities but what has happened there, the students have more difficulties in expressing the ideas, the correct vocabulary and sentences. Fourth, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science has made the class less active. The students do not have great willingness to participate without being forced by the teacher and they are still afraid of making mistakes in expressing the ideas. Fifth, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science makes the students less motivated in learning and are easier to grasp the lesson. Based on the observation has been done by the researcher there are just few students who have a bravery to express their ideas. Sixth, the other problems the students face are mostly in expressing ideas in English and lack of confidence and vocabulary. Suggestions The success in teaching not only depends on the lesson program, but also what is more important is how the teacher presents the lesson and uses various techniques to manage the class more lively and enjoyable. Regarding to the teaching science by using English as the medium of teaching and learning process, the writer gives some suggestion for the teacher. The science teacher should choose the materials that are appropriate and not too difficult for the students, the teacher should make sure that the students have fully understanding and enough information they need before assigning English as the medium of teaching science to the students, the teacher should keep controlling the student activities, the teacher should present the language in an enjoyable, relaxed and understandable way in order to make the students are attracted and enjoyed the science materials in English. Besides, the researcher suggests to the students. The students are hoped not to be shy in expressing the idea in English, to be active and creative in enriching their vocabulary, to use English when they practice or express the ideas although it is hard for them, the students should take part in teaching and learning process since being active in the class is needed. REFERENCES Collier, Virginia P. A Synthesis of Studies Examining Long-Term Language Dellar, Sheelagh and Christine Pierce. 2007. Teaching Other Subject Through English. New York: Oxford University Press. Page 6-7 Estela, Brisk, Maria. 2001. Bilingual Education from Compensatory to Quality Schooling. New Jersey London : Baston University Gay, L.R. 1992. Education Research Competencies for Analysis and Application Fourth Edition. New York: Florida International Universities Honbry,A S. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English Fifth Edition. Walton Street: Oxford University Press. Page 595 James, H. 1992. Education Research. New York : Hopper Collins Publisher Jarret, Dense. 1999. Teaching Mathematics and Science to English Language –Learners. Alaska : Nortwest Regional Education Laboratory Jinsook Choi and Joel Kuipers . Bilingual Practices in a Science Classroom Minority Student Data on Academic Achievement Washington, DC: National Clearing house for Bilingual Education. Page 87 Ovando, Carlos J.and Virginia P Collier. 1985. Bilingual and Esl Clasroom. New York : Mc Graw-Hill. Page 38 Robert C. Bogdan and friend. 1992. Qualitative Research for Education second edition. London: Ally and Bacon. Page 30

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INDEPENDENT READING ON MINI STORIES IN TEACHING WRITING NARRATIVE TEXT IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Agita Putri Aisyiah English Education Program, Faculty of Language and Arts, Surabaya State University Email: ag1t.ndutz@gmail.com Him'mawan Adi Nugroho, S.Pd., M.Pd. English Education Program, Faculty of Language and Arts, Surabaya State University Email: himmawan_95@yahoo.com Abstrak Sejak Bahasa Inggris menjadi Bahasa Internasional yang digunakan untuk berkomunikasi, pemerintah Indonesia memasukkan Bahasa Inggris menjadi mata pelajaran wajib yang harus dikuasai oleh siswa SMA. Oleh karena itu, siswa harus menguasai keterampilan dasar yang tidak hanya diucapkan tetapi juga ditulis sebagai teks meliputi mendengar, berbicara, membaca dan menulis. Dari keterampilan tersebut, menulis adalah salah satu keterampilan yang paling sulit karena siswa mengumpulkan informasi sebanyak mungkin sebagai sumber dan mengatur pikiran di atas kertas. Itulah mengapa menulis selalu menggabungkan membaca untuk mendapatkan ide-ide saat mulai menulis. Ide-ide itu sendiri didapat dari apa yang telah dibaca. Krashen di Bray (2003) menyatakan bahwa siswa yang membaca terus-menerus dapat memperoleh kemampuan menulis. Oleh karena itu dengan menggunakan Independent Reading pada cerita-cerita mini, siswa dapat berlatih menulis dan meningkatkan nilai tulisan mereka terutama yang berupa narasi. Djuharie (2008:41) menyatakan bahwa teks narasi adalah semacam cerita yang bertujuan untuk menghibur pembaca. Cerita tersebut dapat berupa cerita fiksi dan non - fiksi seperti cerita mini. Cerita-cerita mini itu sendiri berbicara tentang cerita rakyat. Dalam pengajaran menulis narasi dengan menggunakan strategi ini, guru memberikan enam langkah yang harus dilakukan oleh siswa setelah mereka menerapkan membaca independen. Ada tiga puluh lima siswa kelas XI di kelas XI - A5 di SMAN 22 Surabaya yang menjadi subjek dalam penelitian kualitatif ini yang menggambarkan pelaksanaan membaca independen cerita mini untuk mengajarkan keterampilan menulis teks naratif. Mereka dibagi menjadi tiga kategori; baik, cukup, dan buruk untuk mengetahui kemampuan siswa dalam menulis ulang. Data dari penelitian ini adalah dalam bentuk kata-kata, frase dan kalimat. Kemudian instrumen yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan data adalah lembar observasi dan penilaian menulis komposisi menggunakan rubrik. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, guru meminta siswa untuk membaca cerita di luar kelas sebagai pekerjaan rumah. Kemudian, guru melakukan konferensi, mengulas pemahaman siswa tentang teks narasi, dan menulis ulang di kelas. Dalam melaksanakan membaca independen pada cerita mini, siswa antusias melakukan pembacaan independen di luar kelas, dan ditemukan bahwa sebagian besar dari mereka dikategorikan ke dalam tingkat yang baik dan ada beberapa dari mereka masih dikategorikan ke dalam tingkat rendah. Kemampuan menulis mereka masih dalam kriteria rata-rata. Hal ini ditunjukkan berdasarkan komposisi mereka yang telah dianalisis menggunakan ESL Komposisi Profil rubrik . Akhirnya siswa menikmati membaca cerita Mini di luar kelas, mendapat kesempatan untuk membaca banyak tentang teks naratif, membangun kebiasaan membaca, dan mengorganisir komposisi yang baik dengan menggunakan kata-kata sendiri setelah membaca cerita sebagai praktek menulis mereka. Disarankan kepada guru harus memilih cerita Mini yang menarik yang masih berkaitan dengan tujuan pembelajaran sebagai bahan bacaan, guru harus memberikan siswa komentar yang baik untuk mendorong mereka untuk membaca lebih lanjut dan menggabungkan strategi membaca dengan keterampilan lain selain menulis. Selain itu, disarankan bagi peneliti lain yang bisa dilakukan dalam tingkat yang berbeda dari mahasiswa dan dikombinasikan dengan teknik atau permainan lain atau kegiatan yang menarik. Kata Kunci: pengajaran keterampilan menulis, naratif, membaca independen, cerita mini Abstract Since English becomes an International language which is used to communicate, Indonesian government include English into a compulsory subjects which has to be mastered by senior high school students. Therefore the students have to master basic skills not only spoken but also written texts as listening, speaking, reading and writing. From those skills, writing is one of the most difficult skills because the writer gathers information as much as possible as sources and organizes the thought on their paper. That's why writing always combines reading to get ideas to start writing. The ideas itself were got from what have already read. Krashen in Bray (2003) stated that the students who read continuously can gain in writing ability. Therefore by using Independent Reading on mini stories, the students can practice writing and increase their writing score especially narrative. Djuharie (2008:41) stated that narrative text is a kind of stories which purposes to entertain readers. It can be fictional and non-fictional story such as mini stories. The mini stories itself are talking about folktales. In teaching writing narrative using this strategy, the teacher gives six steps that should be done by the students after they implement independent reading. There are thirty-five eleventh grade students in XI-A5 class in SMAN 22 Surabaya were the subject in this qualitative research which described the implementation of Independent Reading on mini stories to teach writing narrative texts. They were divided into three categorized; good, fair, and poor to know the students' ability in rewriting. The data of this study is in the form of words, phrases and sentences. Then the instruments used to gain the data are the observation checklist and rubric assessment of writing a composition. Based on the result, the teacher asked students to read stories outside the classroom as homework. Then, the teacher did conference, reviewed the students' understanding about narrative text, and did rewriting in class. In implementing independent Reading on mini stories the students were enthusiastic doing independent reading outside the class, and it is found that most of them categorized into good level and there is a few of them still categorized into low level. The ability of their writing is still in average criteria. It is shown based on their composition which has been analysed using ESL Composition Profile rubric. Finally the students enjoyed reading mini stories outside the classroom, got an opportunity to read a lot about narrative texts, built reading habit, and organized a good composition by using their own words after reading stories as their practice writing. It suggests that the teacher should select the interesting mini stories which are still related to the learning objective as reading material, the teacher should give the students good comments to encourage them to read more and combine the reading strategy with other skill besides writing. In addition it is suggested for other researcher that it could be conducted in different level of students and combined with other technique or game or interesting activities. Keywords: teaching writing, narrative, independent reading, mini stories. INTRODUCTION Realizing the importance of English, Indonesian government involves English as compulsory subject that should be taught in formal schools from primary school to secondary school. As stated on 2006 English Competence Standard, the students must be able to understand and produce both spoken and written text. For the eleventh grade of senior high school students, they should master some texts which cover report, narrative, analytical exposition, spoof, and hortatory exposition. Those are the genre of the text which is required to be mastered by them in the end of learning process. Moreover, there are four skills that should be mastered by students. One of them is writing. Writing is very needed to be mastered by the students since it can affect other skills. Writing can be a great tool to help students to learn how to form language, how to spell, how to put together a plot, and how to make a logical argument. Hence, writing is needed to be mastered by the students. Unfortunately, writing is one of the skills that most students are not interested in. It is the most complex skill since every single error is counted and it cannot be easily produced. Bell and Burnaby in Nunan (1991:6) said that: "Writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity that inquires the writer to demonstrate control of several variables at once. At sentences level, they include control of contents, format, sentence structure, vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts". Teaching learning writing is not easy to do. Dhiasa (2009) stated that the students often face difficulties in learning writing. They are difficult to show their imagination. They spend much time to get the ideas to start writing. They do not have enthusiasm to write. Moreover, they have a few of literary review. These are caused by many reasons such as poor knowledge, and lack of time to practice writing. Finally, they cannot write creatively and well then they get bad score and nasty comments. Hadaway et al. in Diaz-Rico (2004:166) declared that writing can make us reach beyond ourselves. It is truly the most complex of the communication arts that combines reading and oral language. It is meant that writing is not a single activity. It is not only about writing but also about reading. Reading is completely important to start to write. It is impossible to write without having any ideas. The ideas itself can be taken from what have already been read. Reading and writing are connected each other. A new idea might appear after finishing reading, and writing is the patch to put that new idea. It means that they are inseparable activities. Krashen in Kusumawardhani (2006:2) stated that reading can help the students become a good reader, get an adequate vocabulary, master grammar, become a good speller and develop a good writing style. Reviewing the problem mentioned above, it is needed many kinds of methods, techniques or strategies to teach writing. There is a strategy to learn writing which is integrated with reading. It is called Independent Reading. Krashen (1993) in (Bray, 2002) provides an overview of research indicating that learners who read continuously can gain in reading comprehension, vocabulary development, and writing ability. Moreover, Elbow and Belanoff (2000) cited in Day (2004) stated that there is an activity which involves students in free writing. However, they are not asked to rewrite any topic they want; they are asked about what have been read, especially on mini stories. It allows the students a set period of time to think about their texts before they begin to rewrite. Therefore, Independent Reading on mini stories is seen to be the effective way in getting the students' knowledge as literary review about activities in the past before they start writing something. This strategy is applied in Senior High School which is integrated with one genre of texts that eleventh graders have to be mastered. It is a narrative text. Narrative text is a text that tells a story in the past. By mastering this text, the students are expected to be able to express their feeling, thought and ideas about the past activities after they read the mini stories. RESEARCH METHOD This research is design based on descriptive qualitative research. It described the implementation of Independent reading on mini stories in the teaching writing narrative text in senior high school. Charter (1972:78) in Rifa'i (2007) said that descriptive qualitative studies include current condition which concerns the nature group of person, a group of objects, a class, etc. and it involves of inductive, analysis, classification, or measurement. It is meant that the purpose of this study is to describe an event that happens in the society and does not examine any hypothesis. The subject of the study was the English teacher and the students of eleventh graders, XI-A5 class in SMA Negeri 22 Surabaya. This class was chosen because narrative was taught in the eleventh graders. The teacher is also implemented Independent Reading on mini stories to teach writing narrative to the eleventh graders in three meetings. The data of this study are in form of information which is taken by observing the real situation when the teaching and learning happened in the class and collecting the students' rewriting tasks in form of composition after being taught using Independent Reading. Then, the researcher classified the students' rewriting in form of composition based on its organization, content, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Composition Profile. There are two instruments are used in getting the data. They are observation checklist in the form of "yes" or "no" option and students' task to investigate the students' writing ability after being taught by using of Independent Reading on mini-stories. The data for this study are taken by observing the real situation when the teaching and learning happened in the class and collecting the students' rewriting tasks in form of composition after being taught using Independent Reading strategy. The topic was about folklore. Then, the researcher would classify the students' rewriting in form of composition based on its organization, content, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Composition Profile. This method made the researcher easier to classify and identify the elements of writing that used by the students in their narrative text writing composition. This study was analysed descriptively. There are several steps to analyse the data. The observation checklist was used to check the observed aspect by checking "yes" or "no" in the real activities which happened in the classroom when the teacher applied Independent Reading on mini stories in each step during teaching writing narrative text. The result of observation was described, presented and analysed related to the facts that happened in the class. Then, the students' task in form of composition which has been analysed by using ESL Composition Profile was divided into three groups, good, fair, and poor. It was used to describe the students' writing result after being taught by using Independent Reading strategy on mini stories. Finally all of the data was combined to make a conclusion and suggestion. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Findings The researcher used the data from observation checklist. It was limited to the material, the strategy, and the teaching learning process. Moreover, the researcher used the data from the students' task in form of composition which were collected in three meetings. They were presented through description. Then, the data were analysed and categorized into three different levels; good, fair, and poor. The Implementation of Independent Reading on Mini Stories in Writing The first observation was done on Tuesday, 4th February 2014 in XI IPA 5 class. In this meeting, the teacher introduced the Independent Reading strategy and reviewed narrative text. The students should read a mini story then rewrite it by using their own words. The teacher gave folklore story because it was familiar with the students. The folklore story was given in order to make the students read easily and happily. It is given because the folklore was based on the learning objectives. In pre-activity, the teacher greeted and checked the students' attendance list. Unfortunately, three students were absent. Then, the teacher reviewed a little bit about simple past tense and narrative text which has been taught last semester. The explanation covered the function, the generic structure and the language features of the text. Mostly, the students still remember the elements of narrative text which is shown that they could answer the teacher's questions about it. Moreover, they could analyse the generic structure of narrative text. In introducing the strategy which would be done, the teacher started to discuss about the books or texts that the students have read in their whole life. He also asked the students' feeling after they read. Surprisingly, most students like reading books but they did not read any books or texts in English. They prefer reading in Bahasa Indonesia to English. After that, he asked the benefit of their reading activity. Most students answered that they felt very happy and gave respond enthusiastically. In whilst-activity, the teacher gave the first story about Aji Saka as the reading material to the students. The story is from their English book. This story has already given in the last semester. It is chosen because the students have already comprehended the story very well to make the students feel free to read and rewrite easily. It is the way the teacher used to introduce the strategy which integrated with writing. The students were asked to read the text in the classroom. This text was the easiest and the shortest one which was aimed to make the students enjoy reading. After the students finished reading the story, the teacher asked the students to collect the story in front of class and prepared a piece of paper. Then, he started to do the writing activity. The teacher gave instruction step by step to the students to start rewriting the story they have just read. In post-activity, the teacher asked students to collect their rewriting task. Before the teacher closed the meeting, the teacher gave new stories as the second material. The students should read them at home as homework. Then, the teacher reviewed some tips on enjoying reading. In summary, in the first meeting, the researcher found that the students were lazy and bored to read the story although the story was familiar. It is because the lesson was started after the break time. It was not only that, but there also was no van which made the class hot, so the students could not read with pleasure. Moreover, the students were not sure about the instruction of writing. It is showed when the teacher gave instruction step by step; some students seemed to not understand well what they had to do. They were so confused. It is because the teacher gave the instruction in English too fast. Seeing the students did not know what they had to do, the teacher combined the language he used with Bahasa Indonesia and English slowly. He also analysed the task in order to know the students' shortcoming in rewriting a story in form of composition. It is hoped that the students could realize their mistakes and did not repeat the same mistakes for the next writing tasks. The second observation was conducted on Friday, 7th February 2014. The teacher has already analysed the students' task in rewriting narrative text on the previous meeting, so that, the teacher knew the initial ability of the students. In this meeting the teacher would ask the students to rewrite one of the stories about Jaka Tarub and Nawang Wulan or The King, The Young Poor Fisherman, and The Fish which have already been given on the previous meeting as their homework by using the same instruction. Just like in the first observation, the teacher did the same activities in the class. In addition, in this meeting the teacher asked the students' obstacles during reading, the differences between reading inside and outside the classroom and also the students' feeling after reading. Most students gave their respond after they read the stories. The obstacles that the students had were varied such as they felt sleepy during the reading and they were not interested in the material because there were not enough pictures that made them enjoy reading. However, the students felt better when they read the stories outside the classroom. It is because they did not need to read in rush so they had much time to finish their reading. Therefore they could understand the story well. Then, the students also gave their respond about their feeling after reading. Most of them were excited to read more and more. They enjoyed reading because the material that they read were understandable and the words in the story were very common. After that, the teacher reviewed the previous story for a while in order to correct the students' mistakes that they made in rewriting the story on the previous meeting. Therefore, the teacher knew the students' ability in writing. In summary, in the second meeting, the teacher found that the students have enjoyed reading outside the class and understood what they had to do in writing activity. Therefore teacher used English in giving the instruction of rewriting. It is not only that, the teacher also gave music to make the students relax. They seemed to be more confident on their ability to remind, rethink and rewrite the story than previous meeting. Then the third observation was conducted on Tuesday, 11th February 2014. It was conducted in the same class. In this meeting, the teacher asked the students to rewrite one of the stories they have already read about The Gift of Jackal, The Wicked Magician or Love Conquers Death as reading material. All the process of this meeting was the same as the second meeting. The Students' Narrative Text Result after the Implementation of Independent Reading On Mini Stories in Teaching Writing Narrative Text In this part, it deals with the students' narrative writing result after the implementation of independent reading on mini stories in teaching writing narrative text from the first, the second and the third task. The students' narrative writing were analysed by using ESL Composition Profile; that are organization, content, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. Afterwards, they were divided into three levels. They are good, fair and poor. The result can be showed in the table below, Level Number of the students First task Second task Third task Very Good - - - Good 6 9 13 Fair 8 10 12 Poor 18 16 10 Table 4.1 The Result of Students' Narrative Writing in the first, the second and the third task. In the first task, the teacher used the story about Aji Saka to rewrite. It is because the story was the easiest and the shortest. There are five aspects which have to be analysed in rewriting narrative story in form of composition. The content is the first and the most important aspect. It tells the ideas of the writer which they wanted to write. The second aspect is organization. In this part of writing narrative text, the students should write the story based on the generic structure of narrative. It deals with orientation, complication and resolution. Then, the third aspect in writing narrative text is vocabulary. It is about the words choice and usage of the writer which they want to share. The students applied the vocabulary they have learned while doing independent reading on mini stories to make their own words more different than the original. The next important aspect is language use. This aspect deals with the students' ability in language which include with sentence construction, tenses, word order or function, pronoun, and preposition. The last aspect in writing narrative text is mechanic. The term mechanics deals with convention, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing. Based on the first task in the first meeting, it can be concluded that there were many students who were still confused to develop the ideas, composing the generic structure of the narrative text, making good sentences by using sophisticated range of vocabulary, creating good construction, and also demonstrating mastery of convention. Meanwhile in the second task, it is stated that some students showed a few good changes in writing narrative text. They occasionally made errors in delivering ideas, composing generic structure and mastering convention. However, in choosing the vocabulary and using the correct tenses, the students still got difficulties to practice it into a good story. It is because most students considered that the tenses were too difficult to be understood, and also it is because the teacher usually conducts the test for only the tenses. The teacher used Jaka Tarub and Nawang Wulan and The King, The Young Fisherman and the Fish as the second mini stories as reading material. They are still about folklore. They are also longer than the first. It is because the students had some times to read them outside the class as their homework. The students could choose one of the stories above to rewrite into a good composition. In the third task, the students' writing narrative result was better than in the first and second task. They could deliver the organization of the story, rarely made the same mistakes of using past tense, arrange the story in a good paragraph. The teacher used the stories about The Gifts of The Jackal, The Wicked Magician, and Love Conquers Death as reading materials. The collections of short stories were from Indian folktale. Moreover, those stories were covered in a book which titled as Love Conquers Death and other stories. Discussions From the data through observation checklist, it is obvious that the implementation of Independent Reading on mini story can be integrated with writing in teaching writing narrative text. It is shown that the students more enjoyed reading mini stories outside the class which can be seen from their conference with the teacher before starting to rewrite. It helped the students to build their interest in reading without any forces. It is in line with Harris (1998:3) stated that independent reading refers to the outside reading activity that students do on their own with no help or guidance from the teacher. In addition, it was normal if there were some students got difficulties in understanding the steps of rewriting the story during the teaching process. From this situation, the teacher switched the language to Bahasa Indonesia. By using bilingual which covers English and Bahasa Indonesia, the teacher could know the students' comprehension in steps of rewriting a story. Thus, the students could rewrite the story using the steps of rewriting well. In the process of rewriting narrative text itself; it would need a lot of energy. It is because it had long process and need more times. Therefore, the teacher role was much needed. It is to help the students develop viable strategies for pre-writing (getting started, generating indefinite ideas, and collecting information), drafting (scrawling down the ideas, making rough draft), revising (checking rough draft, adding, deleting, modifying, and rearrange ideas), and editing (attending to vocabulary, sentence, structure, grammar and mechanic) (Gebhard, 1996). On the other side to answer the second statements of problem, which is 'How is the students' writing result after being taught by using of Independent Reading strategy on mini stories?' The data was gathered from the students' task of rewriting a mini story after being taught by using Independent Reading. The data was discussed from the first, second and the third observation in form of a composition narrative text. Based on the first students' task, the students got difficulties to compose text based on the generic structure, to implement the past tenses in the story, and also to develop the ideas more detail. Few of them were confused in using the correct spelling, punctuation, paragraphing and capitalization and selecting the appropriate vocabulary. However, most students have shown changes in their narrative writing in the second and third tasks. It means that the students practiced writing well in term of content, organization, vocabulary, language feature and mechanic from the first task to the second task then the third task and they comprehended the elements of writing well. In the end, the students got better understanding in presenting their ideas to the development of narrative text, providing vocabulary better and richer, using their knowledge of English, implementing the convention rules in their narrative writing and achieved adequate result. It is in line with was stated by Krashen (1993) in Bray (2002) that reading continuously can help the students develop a good writing style. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion It was concluded that by using Independent Reading on mini stories in writing activities, the eleventh graders of SMA Negeri 22 Surabaya have enjoyed reading mini stories outside the classroom, got an opportunity to read a lot about mini-story, built reading habit, reviewed grammar, and have organized a good composition by using their own words after reading stories as their practice writing. Moreover, in the process of doing this strategy, the teacher selected the material according to the criteria for standard competence of curriculum and based on the students' level of difficulty in vocabulary, content and sentence construction. The teacher also gives a model and steps how to rewrite a short story. The last is about the process of writing itself. This is the time when the students were asked to rewrite the story they have already read at home to know the students' result during the implementation of Independent Reading on mini stories in writing activities. The result is found that the students generally grouped as "GOOD" and few of them still grouped as "POOR". It is because the students' ability in that class is still in low level. However, this strategy could help students getting fluency in expressing their ideas in rewriting the story. It could be seen from their result that they rarely made mistakes in their rewriting. Suggestion Based on the conclusion above, it is important to give some suggestion to the teacher and other researcher. This suggestion is pointed to the teacher related to the implementation of independent reading on mini stories. First, the teacher should select the interesting mini stories which are still related to the learning objective as reading material. It is used to avoid the students' boredom on reading folklore and to make students more enjoy on reading. Second, the teacher should give the students good comments to encourage them to read more and practice more in writing. Third, the teacher should find another ways to encourage students to practice writing regularly, so the ability of students on writing is getting better. In addition the suggestion is also pointed to the other researcher. It is suggested that it could be conducted in different level of students and combined with other technique or game or interesting activities REFERENCES Abbot, Gerry et al. (1981). The teaching of English as an International Language: A practical guide. London: William Collin Sons and Co. Ltd Agustien, Helena. I.R. (2004). The 2004 English curriculum in a Nutshell (paper): presented at national seminar the teaching of ESL in Indonesia; A Reflection. 2 October 2004. Malang. Universitas Negeri Malang. Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan. (2006). Standard Kompetensi Lulusan Bahasa Inggris untuk Sekolah Menegah Atas dan Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Depdiknas Bamford, J. &Day, R. R., Extensive Reading: What Is It? Why Bother? Retrieved from http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/may/extensive.html Bell, T. (1998). Extensive Reading: Why? and How? The Internet TESL Journal, IV(12). Bray, E. (2002). Using Task Journals with Independent Readers. Retrieved from www.americanenglish.state.gov on March 19th, 2013. Brown, H. Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principle: An Interactive Approach To Language Pedagogy, Second Edition. New York: Longman: Inc. Bryne, Donn. (1991). Teaching Writing Skills. Hongkong: Longman Group Ltd. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2005). Research Methods in Education. London and New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Day, R. R. (2004). Two Writing Activities for Extensive Reading. English Teaching Forum. Day, R. R. and Bamford, J. (2002).Top Ten Principles For Teaching Extensive Reading. (Online), (http://nflrc.hawaii.edu, diakses 19 Maret 2013). Depdiknas. (2004). Kurikulum 2004: Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Sekolah Menengah Pertama Dan Madrasah Tsanawiyah. Jakarta Dhiasa, Indah Swandewi. (2007). The Implementation of "Response Journal" Strategy in Teaching Reading Narrative to the Eight Graders of SMP Negeri 5 Sidoarjo. S-1 Unpublished Thesis: UNESA Diaz-Rico, L.T. (2004). Teaching English Learner: Strategies and Methods. Boston. Pearson Education, Inc. Gebhard, Jerry Greer. (1996). Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. USA: The University of Michigan Press. Heaton, J.B. (1975). Writing English Language Test. London: Longman. Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading: Insights from the research. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Knoester, M. (2010). Independent Reading and the 'Social Turn': How Adolescent Reading Habits and Motivation Relate to Cultivating Social Relationships. Networks an Online Journal, 12(1). Kusumawardhani, Rahardian. (2010). The Implementation of Extensive Reading to the Tenth Grade Students of Senior High School. S-1 Unpublished Thesis: UNESA. Menrath, J. (2003), from http://www.menrath-online.de/documents/shortst1.pdf Nunan, David. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology: A textbook for teachers. Great Britain. Prentice Hall International Ltd. Oczkus, L. (2010). Super Practical Ways to Build an Independent Reading Program in Your Classroom: Guidelines and TOP 5 Independent Reading Strategies. Retrieved from http:// www.lorioczkus.com on February 28, 2013. O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row. Rahmawati, Yunyta Puji. (2009). The implementation of Extensive Reading in Senior High School. S-1 Unpublished Thesis: UNESA. Reid, Joy M. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing: Los Angeles. University of California. Rifa'i, A. (2007). Unpublished S-1 Thesis: the writing of analytical exposition text by the students who join English club activity in SMA Negeri 2 Nganjuk. Surabaya: UNESA Richards, J.C., Platt J. & Platt H. (1992). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman. Sim, Sangmin. (2007). Unpublished Thesis for achieving Doctor of Philosophy degree: A study on reading strategies in KSL class. Retrieved from http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/unsworks:1136/SOURCE02?view=true on November 26th, 2013. Wenden, A. & J. Rubin. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

PERANAN TOKOH AGAMA DALAM MENINGKATKAN PARTISIPASI POLITIK MASYARAKAT PADA PILKADA BUPATI 2010DI KABUPATEN HALMAHERA SELATANOleh : DEMIANUS AYANIM : 080814020ABSTRAKTokoh agama mempunyai peran yang sangat penting dalam rangka menggerakan partisipasi masyarakat dalam sebuah pilkada. Keberhasilan tokoh agama dalam rangka menggerakan partisipasi masyarakat dalam pilkada di wilayah kabupaten Halmahera Selatan sangat ditentukan oleh kemampuan atau gaya dari tokoh agama dalam memberikan orasi politiknya dalam kampanye, himbauan dan sarannya dalam mempengaruhi warga masyarakat atau juga sangat ditentukan oleh cara tokoh agama dalam menggunakan kewenangan sebagai pemimpin agama. Dengan demikian, maka peran tokoh agama dengan partisipasi politik publik mempunyai hubungan yang sangat erat dan tidak bisa dipisahkan, sebab apabila peran dari tokoh agama semakin baik maka partisipasi politik juga akan semakin meningkat. Hal ini sangat menarik untuk dielaborasi lebihlanjut, sehingga untuk melihat keterkaitan tersebut mendorong penelitian ini dilakukan.Penelitian ini berlokasi di Halmahera Selatan disaat pilkada pada tahun 2010 berlangsung. Dan metode yang dipakai dalam melakukan penelitian ini adalah melakukan wawancara mendalam kepada beberapa informan yang dianggap mempunyai pengetahuan yang komprehensif tentang informasi yang terkait dengan topic penelitian.Berdasarkan hasil penelitian di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan, tokoh agama berperan aktif dalam memberikan nasihat, ceramah atau khotbah politik terhadap masyarakat ketika menjelang pilkada bupati. Peranan tokoh agama ini didasari dengan tanggung jawab iman terhadap masyarakat dalam rangkah membina, memotivasi dan mengarahkan masyarakat dalam rangka turut aktif untuk berpartisiapsi pada pilkada.Bentuk partisipasi masyarakat masih menggunakan unsur primodialisme sebagai factor utama dalam menentukan pilihannya, maka suku terbesarlah yang menjadi pemimpin terpilih di daerah tersebut yang dalam hal ini adalah suku Togale (Tobelo-Galela).Kata Kunci : Peranan, Tokoh Agama, Partisipasi, Masyarakat2I. PENDAHULUANPemilihan langsung Kepala Daerah menjadi consensus politik nasional, yang merupakan salah satu instrument penting penyelenggaraan pemerintahan setelah digulirkannya otonomi daerah di Indonesia. Sedangkan Indonesia sendiri telah melaksanakan Pilkada secara langsung sejak diberlakukannya Undang-undang nomor 32 tahun 2004. tentang pemerintahan daerah. Hal ini apabila dilihat dari perspektif desentralisasi, Pilkada langsung tersebut merupakan sebuat terobosan baru yang bermakna bagi proses konsolidasi demokrasi di tingkat lokal. Pilkada langsung akan membuka ruang partisipasi yang lebih luas bagi masyarakat dalam proses demokrasi untuk menentukan kepemimpinan politik di tingkat lokal. System ini juga membuka peluang bagi masyarakat untuk mengaktualisasi hak-hak politiknya secara lebih baik tanpa harus direduksi oleh kepentingan-kepentingan elite politik, seperti ketika berlaku sistem demokrasi perwakilan. Pilkada langsung juga memicu timbulnya figure pemimpin yang aspiratif, kompeten, legitimate, dan berdedikasi. Sudah barang tentu hal ini karena Kepala Daerah yang terpilih akan lebih berorientasi pada warga dibandingkan pada segelitir elite di DPRD. Akan tetapi Pilkada tidak sepenuhnya berjalan mulus seperti yang diharapkan. Semua pihak-pihak yang ikut andil dalam pelaksanaan Pilkada, harus memahami dan melaksanakan seluruh peraturan perundangan yang berlaku secara konsisten. Pada dasarnya Pilkada langsung adalah memilih Kepala Daerah yang profesional, legitimate, dan demokratis, yang mampu mengemban amanat otonomi daerah dalam wadah Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (NKRI). Selayaknya Pilkada di Indonesia dilaksanakan dengan efektif dan tetap menjunjung tinggi asas demokrasi dan hukum.Masyarakat di Halmahera Selatan telah melakukan pemilihan kepala daerah dan wakilnya dalam hal ini daerah kabupaten yaitu Bupati dan Wakil Bupati, pada tanggal 10 Oktober 2010 dengan enam calon pasangan Bupati dan wakilnya. Halmahera Selatan dulunya kabupaten Maluku Utara tetapi kemudian diberlakukannya Undang-undang Otonomi Daerah kabupaten Maluku Utara dengan ibu kotanya Sofifi berkembang menjadi daerah provinsi Maluku Utara dan dibagi menjadi enam kabupaten yaitu halmahera Utara, Halmahera Selatan, Halmahera Tengah, Halmahera Barat, Halmahera Timur dan Kepulauan Sula, serta dua kota yaitu kota Ternate dan kota Tidore.Dalam proses pilkada langsung tentunya sangat dibutuhkan peran dari para tokoh agama dalam meningkatkan partisipasi politik masyarakat, karena sesungguhnya tanpa disadari dimata masyarakat tokoh agama merupakan sosok yang paling disegani dan patut untuk diteladani. Realita yang terdapat di masyarakat, Tokoh agama punya kharisma tersendiri yang dapat dan mampu3merubah sifat, cara pandang bahkan tingkah laku seseorang untuk menjadi yang lebih baik. Dalam kaitannya dengannya pilkada langsung yang dilakukan di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan partisipasi politik masyarakat tidak terlepas dari peranan para tokoh agama dalam mengoptimalkan masyarakat untuk turut aktif dalam berpartisipasi terhadap pilkada langsung yang dilakukan.Salah satu tujuan terpenting dalam pilkada adalah memilih pemimpin yang berkualitas. Kualitas pemimpin itu dpat diukur oleh berbagai instrumen seperti tingkat pendidikan dan kompetensi. Keberhasilan pilkada langsung tidak hanya diukur oleh penyelenggaranya yang lancar dan damai tetapi juga outcomes (manfaat/hasil) yang yang diperoleh apakah telah menghasilkan pemimpin yang berkualitas, terutama dari sisi manajerial dan kompetensi. Tetapi bisa saja pilkada langsung dilakukan hanya untuk ajang perebutan kekuasaan melalui mekanisme "voting" dari suara pemilih, sehingga dikhawatirkan akan menghasilkan pemimpin yang hanya populer dan diterima secara luas, namun tidak mempunyai kecakapan dan kemampuan dalam mengolah daerah, sekalipun kepala daerah jabatan politis dan tidak menuntut keahlian khusus, namun kemampuan manajerial dan kompetensi sangat penting. Abdul (2005, 116).Namun pilkada langsung hanya dijadikan ajang perebutan kekuasaan, sehingga berbagai upaya dilakukan untuk merebut suara pemilih. Ada indikasi kuat masing-masing kandidat segalah cara termasuk yang dilarang seperti "money politic" untuk mendapat dukungan. Mereka juga tidak segan-segan mengeksploitasi masyarakat dan sentimen primordial untuk menarik simpati meskipun disadari bahwa cara itu kontraproduktif terhadap perkembangan demokrasi. Banyak indikator yang menunjukkan bahwa pendekatan yang digunakan para kandidat untuk mendekat masyarakat lebih menonjolkan primordialisme. Hal itu tercermin dari ajakan untuk memilih dengan memakai sentimen kesukuan, agama, golongan, dan wilayah tertentu. Dari berbagai spanduk dan poster yang dipampangkan juga tergambar sebuah klaim dukungan terhadap calon tersebut dengan memakai bendera komunitas tertentu. Rozali (2005, 130).Partisipasi masyarakat, pilkada langsung yang sudah beberapa kali diselenggarakan di Indonesia masih tetap memerlukan upaya sosialisasi yang intensif agar potensi konflik yang membayanginya dapat diredam atau diminimalesir. Sejurus dengan upaya itu dibutuhkan partisipasi masyarakat agar sosialisasi itu berjalan optimal dan efektif, sehingga pada gilirannya masyarakat daerah dapat menggunakan hak memilih kandidat kepala daerah secara lebih rasional dan obyektif. Kegiatan seorang dalam partai dalam partai politik merupakan suatu bentuk partisipasi politik. Partisipasi politik mencakup semua4kegiatan sukarela melalui mana seorang turut serta dalam proses pemilihan pemimpin-pemimpin politik, dan turut serta secara langsung atau tidak langsung dalam pembentukan kebijakan umum. Kegiatan-kegiatan ini mencakup kegiatan memilih dan pemilihan umum; menjadi anggota golongan politik seperti partai, kelompok penekan, kelompok kepentingan; duduk dalam lembaga politik seperti dewan perwakilan rakyat, atau mengadakan komunikasi dengan wakil-wakil rakyat yang duduk dalam badan itu, berkampanye dan menghadiri kelompok diskusi dan sebagainya. Daniel dan Alvian (2002, 115).Berdasarkan pra observasi di lokasi penelitian, menunjukkan kecenderungan bahwa tingkat partisipasi politik masyarakat di desa atau kecamatan tertentu relatif tinggi, dan ada desa dan kecamatan yang tingkat partisipasi politiknya relatif rendah. Masalah tersebut di atas besar kemungkinan salah satu faktornya adalah peran dari tokoh agama di desa dan kecamatan tertentu cukup tinggi dan di desa atau kecamatan tertentu relatif rendah. Hal ini dapat dilihat oleh perbedaan dari peran tokoh agama di desa dan kecamatan tertentu lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengann desa dan kecamatan lainnyaII. KERANGKA KONSEPTUALA. Konsep PerananPeranan berasal dari kata peran. Peran memiliki makna yaitu seperangkat tingkat diharapkan yang dimiliki oleh yang berkedudukan di masyarakat. (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, 2007: 845) "peranan adalah bagian dari tugas utama yang harus dilksanakan".Soekanto (1984: 237) "Peranan merupakan aspek yang dinamis dari kedudukan (status)". Apabila seseorang yang melakukan hak dan kewajiban sesuai dengan kedudukannya, maka dia menjalankan suatu peranan.Nasution (1994: 74 ) menyatakan bahwa "peranan adalah mencakup kewajiban hak yang bertalian kedudukan". Lebih lanjut Setyadi (1986 : 29 ) berpendapat "peranan adalah suatu aspek dinamika berupa pola tindakan baik yang abstrak maupun yang kongkrit dan setiap status yang ada dalam organisasi".Usman (2001 : 4 ) mengemukakan " peranan adalah terciptanya serangkaian tingkah laku yang saling berkaitan yang dilakukan dalam suatu situasi tertentu serta berhubungan dengan kemajuan perubahan tingkah laku.Berdasarkan beberapa pendapat diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa peranan adalah suatu pola tindakan yang dilakukan oleh seseorang yang dalam hal ini adalah tokoh agama baik secara individual maupun secara bersama-sama yang dapat menimbulkan suatu peristiwa.5B. Konsep Tokoh AgamaTokoh agama termasuk kekuatan politik dalam system politik, yaitu kita bisa melihat dalam struktur poilitik.Dilihat dari tugas dan fungsi dari tokoh agama, bisa dikatakan sebagai pemimpin, kepemimpinan (leadership) adalah kemampuan seseorang (yaitu pemimpin atau pengikut-pengikutnya) sehingga orang lain tersebut bertingkah laku sebagaimana dikehendaki oleh pemimpin tersebut, Soejono Soekanto (2000 ; 318) menurutnya kepemimpinan dibagi atas 2 bagian yaitu :a. Kepemimpinan yang bersifat resmi (formal leader) yaitu kepemimpinan yang tersimpul di dalam suatu jabatan.b. Kepemimpinan karena pengakuan masyarakat akan kemampuan seseorang untuk menjalankan kepemimpinan (informal leadership).Kedua contoh kepemimpinan di atas maka kita bisa melihat tokoh agama termasuk pada informal leadership. Kepemimpinan ini mempunyai ruang lingkup yang tanpa batas-batas resmi, karena kepemimpinan demikian didasarkan atas pengakuan dan kepercayaan masyarakat.Peranan dan fungsi dari tokoh agama sangat penting dalam mengendalikan ketegangan sosial yang terjadi di masyarakat dalam iklim yang semakin demokrasi ini. Tokoh agama berperan sangat penting dalam menciptakan atau membentuk opini publik atau pendapat umum yang sehat. Oleh karena itu isu-isu yang menyesatkan dan kabar bohong yang tersebar bisa ditangkal masyarakat bila selalu berada dibawah bimbingan tokoh agama.Tokoh agama atau pemimpin adalah orang yang menjadi pemimpin dalam suatu agama, seperti : para kiay, ulama, pendeta, pastor dan lain-lain. Keberadaan tokoh agama di masyarakat seringkali lebih di dengar perkataan-perkataannya dari pada pemimpin-pemimpin yang lain.C. Konsep Partisipasi PolitikDewasa ini istilah partisipasi selalu muncul dan ramai dibicarakan baik itu pejabat pemerintah, kaum politisi maupuan kelompok ilmuan ketika mereka berbicara mengenai politik. Partisipasi politik menurut Nelson dikutip Ndraha (1987:102), mengatakan bahwa partisipasi ada dua jenis, yaitu :1. Partisipasi horizontal, adalah partisipasi sesama warga atau anggota suatu perkumpulan.2. Partisipasi vertikal, adalah partisipasi yang dilakukan oleh bawahan dengan atasan. Antara klien dengan patron atau antara masyarakat sebagai perkumpulan dengan pemerintah.6Dalam menemukan makna yang lebih kengkap, maka yang hampir sama dengan pendapat di atas adalah tindakan sosial atau seperti yang disebut oleh Weber sebagai sosial-action. Istilah ini dikemukakan oleh Weber untuk perbuatan manusia yang mempunyai arti subjektif. Dengan ini dimaksudkan setiap orang dalam mencapai tujuan terdorong oleh motivasi yang menguntungkan.Miriam Budiarjo (1982, 1) memberikan pengertian tentang partisipasi politik adalah kegiatan seseorang untuk ikut serta aktif dalam kehidupan politik, yaitu dengan jalan memilih pimpinan negara dan secara langsung mempengaruhi kebijan pemerintah (Pubclic Policy), kegiatan ini mencakup seperti memberikan suara dalam pemilihan umum, menghadiri rapat umum atau menjadi anggota suatu partai atau kelompok kepentingan, mengadakan hubungan kontanting dengan pejabat pemerintah atau anggota parlemen dan sebagainya.H. NU dan Sidney Verba dikutip Miriam Budiarjo partisipasi politik adalah kegiatan pribadi yang legal, sedikit banyak bertujuan untuk mempengaruhi seleksi pejabat-pejabat negara dan tindakan-tindakan yang diambil oleh mereka. Yang teropong utama adalah tindakan-tindakan yang bertujuan untuk mempengaruhi keputusan-keputusan pemerintah, sekalipun fokus sebenarnya lebih luas, tetapi abstrak yaitu usaha-usaha untuk mempengaruhi alokasi nilai secara otaratitatif masyarakat.Sementara Herbert Mc. Closky mengemukakan bahwa partisipasi politik adalah kegiatan sukarela dari warga masyarakat melalui mana mereka mengambil bagian dalam proses pembentukan kebijakan umum. Menurut Hoogerwerf (1985:189) mengatakan bahwa partisipasi politik adalah keikutsertaan pada kebijaksanaan pemerintah dan pada terwujudnya kebijaksanaan itu. Dari berbagai pendapat di atasa terlihat bahwa partisipasi politik mencakup aspek-aspek yang sangat luas termasuk juga tingkah laku politik dan pemilihan penguasa di dalam suatu kegiatan politik yang disebut pemilihan umum.Pengertian umum mengenai partisipasi ini biasanya sederhana yaitu keikut sertaan suatu kelompok masyarakat dalam kehidupan politik, misalnya : memilih pemimpin negara, menghadiri rapat umum, menjadi anggota suatu partai dan lain-lain. Alfian (1986, 70).7III. METODOLOGI PENELITIANPenelitian ini difokuskan pada Bagaimana peranan Tokoh Agama dalam meningktakan partisipasi politik masyarakat dalam pilkada 2010 di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan.Yang dimaksud dengan peranan tokoh agama dalam penelitian ini adalah suatu pola tindakan yang dilakukan oleh seseorang yang dalam hal ini adalah tokoh agama baik secara individual maupun secara bersama-sama yang dapat menimbulkan suatu peristiwa.Adapun dalam hal ini indikator dari tokoh agama adalah sebagai berikut:a. Himbauan atau saran dari tokoh agama kepada masyarakat dalam menghadapi pilkada.b. Politik para tokoh agama dalam menghadapi pilkada seperti pidato/kampanye.c. Nasehat, misalnya masyarakat harus hati-hati agar tidak terpengaruh dengan money politic dalam memberikan suaranya.d. Petunjuk atau perintah agar masyarakat dapat aktif dalam pemilihan kepala daerah.Sedangkan partisipasi politik masyarakat merupakan kegiatan-kegiatan sukarela dari masyarakat dalam kegiatan politik dengan mengambil bagian dalam proses pembentukkan kebijakan umum oleh pemerintah kabupaten, dalam kegiatan ini antara lain, seperti memberikan usul, saran, pendapat dalam mempengaruhi kebijakan pemerintah di kabuten Halmahera Selatan.Adapun indikator dari partisipasi politik masyarakat adalah:a. Memberikan suara dalam pemilihanb. Menghadiri rapat umumc. Menjadi anggota salah satu kelompok kepentingand. Mengadakan hubungan (contacting) dengan pejabat pemerintah atau anggota parlemen.Dengan demikian yang akan dilakukan dalam penelitian ini adalah mencari informasi yang jelas, akurat dan terpercaya baik berupa pernyataan, keterangan atau data-data yang dapat membantu dalam penyelesaian penulisan ini.Penelitian kualitatif tidak dimaksudkan untuk membuat generalisasi dari hasil penelitiannya. Oleh karena itu, pada penelitian kualitatif tidak dikenal adanya populasi dan sampel (Suyanto, 2005 : 171). Subjek penelitan yang telah tercermin dalam fokus penelitian ini ditentukan secara sengaja. Subjek penelitian informan yang akan memberikan berbagai informasi yang akan diperlukan selama proses penelitian. Informan adalah seorang yang benar-benar mengetahui suatu persoalan atau permasalahan tertentu yang darinya dapat diperoleh informasi yang8jelas, akurat, dan terpercaya baik berupa pernyataan, keterangan atau data-data yang dapat membantu dalam memenuhi persoalan/permasalahan.Adapun informan yang digunakan penulis dalam penelitian ini adalah Tokoh Agama dan Masyarakat.IV. PEMBAHASANA. Peran Tokoh Agama Dalam Menigkatkan Parisipasi Politik Merupakan Sosialisasi Politik Dalam Pilkada Bupati di Kabupaten Halmahera SelatanAgama merupakan lembaga yang menawarkan kebahagiaan dan keselamatan melalui pengajaran dan pelaksanaan ajaran-ajaran yang disampaikan oleh para peletak dasar agama, dimana ajaran tersebut kemudian dituliskan dalam Kitab Suci masing-masing. Agama sebagai sebuah lembaga tentu menuntut adanya suatu susunan hirarki atau kepengurusan yang mendampingi dan melayani jemaat dalam usahanya mencapai kebahagiaan dan keselamatan. Para pengurus atau pimpinan jemaat dalam agama inilah yang kemudian disebut sebagai tokoh agama. Jadi tokoh agama adalah orang yang karena kualitas pribadinya dipercaya dan diberi tugas khusus untuk memimpin umat beragama.Para tokoh agama memiliki tugas dan peran yang khas yaitu: Menjadi panutan atau memberi teladan bagi umatnya, khususnya di tengah situasi daerah yang diperhadapkan dengan pilkada langsung, menyejahterahkan umat Tuhan, Mendampingi umat dalam persatuan dengan Tuhan, dan memimpin ibadat, mengajar, mempersatukan, serta mendampingi dalam perwujudan iman.Tokoh agama tampak antara lain dalam upaya pengarahan dalam sejumlah besar orang oleh golongan elite tertentu untuk mendengarkan pidato-pidato politik dalam suatu rapat umum atau kampanye.Dalam wawancara langsung dengan inisial D. N, tokoh agama bahwa:Menjelang pilkada bupati di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan, tokoh agama selalu memberikan ceramah/Khotbah kepada jemaat/masyarakat dengan tujuan bahwah masyarakat harus turut aktif untuk berpartisipasi dalam pilkada bupati.Adapun pendapat dari insial T. H, tokoh agama bahwa : Ya, pada prisnsipnya telah menjadi tugas dari pada tokoh agama dalam memberikan ceramah/dakwah terhadap masyarakat dalam menyambut pilkada, mengingat sebagian besar masyarakat kurang terlalu memahami tentang pentingnya pilkada yang mengakibatkan masyarakat tidak memberikan dukungannya terhadap kandidat yang ada atau yang kita kenal dengan namanya golput.9Pendapat lain yang dikemukakan oleh inisial R. S, tokoh agama, yaitu : Masalah pilkada sebenarnya bukanlah menjadi urusan tokoh agama, karena sesungguhnya ketika berbicara tentang pilkada secara tidak langsung kita berbicara tentang politik. Berbicara politik tentunya tidak terlepas dari unsure masyarakat. Nah, masyarakat inilah yang kemudian merupakan urusan dari tokoh agama. Merupakan tanggung jawab iman terhadap masyarakat dalam rangkah mengarahkan dan perlu juga diberikan gambaran tentang pilkada dengan tujuan masyarakat tidak asal memilih setiap calon yang ada dan terlebih lagi dapat menggunakan hak pilihnya sebagai warga negara yang baik.Dari berbagai pernyataan yang dikemukakan di atas, menggambarkan bahwa ceramah, dakwah, khotbah atau peasan politik yang dilakukan oleh tokoh agama terhadap masyarakat didasarkan pada tanggung jawab iman. Tanggung jawab inilah yang kemudian mendorong tokoh agama untuk memberikan ceramah, dakwa atau khotbah kepada masyarakat untuk turut aktif dalam pilkada bupati yang dilaksanakan di Kabupaten Halamahera Selatan.Peranan dari tokoh agama tersebut di atas secara tidak langsung telah melakukan sosialiasi politik. Karena sesungguhnya sosialisasi politik merupakan suatu proses yang memungkinkan seorang individu bisa mengenali sistem politik, yang kemudian menentukan sifat persepsi-persepsinya mengenai politik serta reaksi-reaksinya terhadap gejalah politik.B. Tanggapan Responden Terhadap Peran Tokoh Agama Dalam Meningkatkan Partisipasi PolitikAda pun tanggapan respoden terhadap peran (ceramah, dakwah, khotbah, pesan politik) tokoh agama dalam meningkatkan prtisipasi politik yang dikemukakan oleh inisial L. A, mahasiswa, bahwa:Ya, selalu ada ceramah, khotbah atau pesan politik yang disampaikan kepada masyarakat menjelang pilkada. Dan menurut saya, apa yang disampaikan oleh tokoh agama itu baik karena untuk kepentingan masyarakat kabupaten Halmahera Selatan pada umumnya. Dengan adanya himbauan, ceramah atau khotbah politik kepada masyarakat, saya yakin masyarakat akan lebih aktif lagi dalam berpartisipasi pada pilkada.Pernyataan ini pulah dijawab oleh inisial H. B, warga, yang mengatakan: Sudah menjadi tugas dan tanggung jawab tokoh agama dalam membina dan mengararahkan masyarakat ke hal-hal yang baik dalam hal ini adalah turut aktif dalam pilkada bupati. Oleh karena tugasnya dalam membina dan mengarahkan masyarakat maka selalu ada nasihat, ceramah atau khotbah politik kepada masyarakat ketika menjelang pilkada dilaksanakan. Namun dalam penyampaian10pesan politik atau ceramah kepada masyarakat, tokoh agama tidak pernah menyuruh untuk berpartisipasi pada salah satu calon tertentu. Dalam penyampain ceramah, khotbah atau pesan politik kepada masyarakat selalu netral. Hal yang sama disampaikan oleh inisial T. N, warga bahwa :Ya, tokoh agama selalu memberikan ceramah, khotbah atau pesan politik kepada masyarakat ketika menjelang pilkada Bupati di kabupaten Halmehera Selatan. Dan menurut saya apa yg disampaikan tokoh agama itu patut dituruti karena itu merupakan kepentingan masyarakat pada umumnya. Tetapi dalam penyampaian tersebut, tokoh agama selalu netral dan tidak menentukan calon mana yang harus dipilih. Tokoh agama memberikan kehendak bebas kepada masyarakat untuk memilih. Kemudian inisial T. A, warga, juga mengemukakan pendapatnya bahwa :Ya, benar tokoh agama berperan aktif dalam memberikan ceramah, dakwa pesan politik kepada masyarakat menjelang pilkada. Sejauh ini yang saya tahu tokoh agama dalam menjelangkan tugasnya sebagai pemuka agama, selalu netral dalam mengarahkan masyarakat untuk menyambut pilkada dan tidak memihak kepada salah satu calon tertentu. Walaupun dalam kenyataannya ada salah satu calon Bupati yang membantu kami lewat bantuan dana untuk pembangunan fisik gedung Gereja, tetapi tokoh agama tidak menuntut kepada kami selaku jemaat/masyarakat untuk memilih calon Bupati yang telah membantu kami. Tokoh agama memberikan kehendak bebas untuk memilih calon bupati sesuai dengan pilihan kami.Dari jawaban responden di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa menjelang pilkada Bupati di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan tokoh agama berperan aktif dalam mengarahkan masyarakat untuk berpartipasi aktif pada pilkada. Adapun dalam mengarahkan masyarakat untuk berpartispasi aktif pada pilkada, tokoh agama selalu bersifat netral dan tidak menentukan calon mana yang harus dipilih. Tokoh agama memberikan kehendak bebas kepada masyarakat untuk memilih. Mengingat hak untuk memlih merupakan hak asasi manusia.Adapun dalam pemberian ceremah, nasihat, khotbah atau pesan politik merupakan hal yang penting untuk dilakukan oleh para tokoh agama. Hal ini disebabkan karena sebagian kecil masyarakat tidak terlalu perduli dengan adanya pilkada bupati yang menurut mereka hanya membuang waktu dan tidak menghasilkan sesuatu apapun, demikian kata inisial D. B, warga. Tetapi ada juga yang mengatakan bahwa dalam menjelang pilkada masyarkat perlu diberi ceramah, khotbah, atau pesan politik untuk menghindari hal-hal yang tidak diinginkan seperti golput dan money politic. Oleh bebrapa responden berikut11mengatakan sangat penting pemberian ceramah, khotbah atau pesan politik kepada masyarakat ketika menjelang pilkada, diantaranya adalah inisial N. K, mahasiswa yang mengatakan bahwa :Merupakan hal yang sangat penting ketika tokoh agama memberikan cermah, dakwa, khotbah, atau pesan politik kepada masyarakat menjelang pilkada. Pada umumnya masyarakat yang ada di kabupaten Halmahera Selatan merupaka masayakat awam yang masih kurang pemahaman tentang politik maupun partisiapasi. Oleh karena itu sangat penting memberikan ceramah, dakwah, khotbah atau pesan politik kepada masyarakat dengan tujuan agar masyarakat mengerti dan mau berpartisipasi dalam pilkada. Mengingat di mata masyarakat tokoh agama merupakan seorang individu yang patut diteladani dan dicontohi. Jadi apapun yang dikatakana para tokoh agama, pasti akan dituruti.Pernyataan ini pulah dijawab oleh inisial Y. A, tokoh masyarakat, bahwa :Ya, penting sekali bagi masyarakat untuk diberi ceramah, dakwa, khotbah atau pesan politik kepada masyarakat menjelang pilkada. Dengan adanya ceramah, dakwah khotbah atau pesan politik dari tokoh agama, masyarakat dapat mengerti pentingnya pilkada bagi kehidupan masyarakat. dan ketika masyarakat mengerti pentingnya pilkada, maka dengan sendirinya masyarakat akan turut aktif untuk berpartisipasi dalam pilkada. Dalam waktu bersamaan inisial H. D, warga mengatakan bahwa : Menurut saya, selagi ceramah, khotbah atau pesan politik yang disampaikan oleh para tokoh agama selagi masih bersifat netral itu penting untuk dilakukan atau diikuti. Dan selama ini tokoh agama dalam pemberian ceramah tersebut masih bersifat netral, dan itu merupakan hal yang penting bagi masyarakat dalam memasuki pemilihan kepala daerah yang dalam hal ini adalah pemilahan bupati.Berdasarkan jawaban dari responden di atas dapat menggambarkan bahwa betapa pentingnya peranan tokoh agama dalam mengarahkan masyarakat untuk berpartisipasi aktif pada pemilihan kepala daerah yang dalam hal ini adalah pemilihan bupati dan wakil bupati. Karena dengan adanya ceramah, khotbah politik atau bahkan pesan politik dari tokoh agama dapat menimbulkan kesadaran dari tiap jemaat/masyarakat untuk berpartisipasi dalam pilkada bupati.C. Partisipasi Politik Masyarakat Dalam Pemilihan Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan12Pemilihan kepala daerah menjadi consesnsus politik nasional, yang merupakan salah satu instrument penting penyelenggaraan pemerintah setelah digulirkan Otonomi Daerah di Indonesia yang kemudian dituangkan dalam Undang-Undang (UU) No. 32 Tahun 2004, tentang pemerintah daerah. Hal ini jika dilihat dari perspektif desentralisasi, pilkada tersebut merupakan terobosan baru yang bermakna bagi proses konsolidasi demokrasi di tingkat lokal. Pilkada akan membuka ruang partisipasi yang lebih luas bagi masyarakat dalam proses demokrasi untuk menentukan kepemimpinan di tingkat lokal.Pada dasarnya pilkada merupakan pememilihaan kepala daerah yang profesional, legitimate dan demokratis, yang mampu mengemban amanat otonomi daerah dalam wadah Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (NKRI). Salah satu tujuan terpenting dalam pilkada adalah memilih pemimpin yang berkualitas. Kualitas pemimpin dapat diukur oleh berbagai intrumen seperti tingkat pendidikan dan kompetensi.Masyarakat di Halmahera Selatan telah melakukan pemilihan kepala daerah dan wakilnya dalam hal ini adalah daerah kabupaten yaitu Bupati dan wakil Bupati, pada tanggal 10 Oktober 2010 yang diikuti enam pasangan calon Bupati dan wakilnya, yang kemudian dimenangkan oleh pasangan Dr. H. Muhammad Kasuba, MA dan Drs. Rusdan I. Haruna, M.Si.Bertolak dari hasil observasi menunjukkan bahwa dalam pemilihan kepala daerah yang dalam hal ini adalah pemilihan Bupati dan Wakilnya cenderung di warnai dengan beberapa alasan masyarakat untuk memilih calon tersebut, diantaranya adalah alasan karena kesamaan etnis, karena kedekatan keluarga, karena kemampuannya, karena kesamaan agama, karena partai politik, karena nasihat dari para tokoh agama dan karena ada jaminan masa depan yang diberikan. Dari hasil observasi ini kemudian penulis melakukan penelitian di lapangan dan melakukan wawancara langsung dengan beberapa orang masyarakat untuk dijadikan responden, diantaranya adalah inisial R. B, warga bahwa:Kalau saya memilih seorang calon bupati, hal yang paling utama ialah karena calon tersebut sama suku dengan saya, kemudian calon tersebut seiman juga dengan saya. Lebih dari itu calon tersebut memiliki visi dan misi yang jelas. Kemudian menurut inisial H. Y, warga bahwa :Kalaupun saya memilih seorang calon Bupati itu karena visi misi yang jelas, kemudian suku dan agama. Menurut saya ini penting karena ketika calon tersebut berhasil, maka hal yang utama dia akan memperjuangkan suku dan agama terlebih dahulu. Kemudian persoalan tokoh agama yang memberikan dorongan13kepada masyarakat untuk terlibat dalam pemilihan itu benar, tetapi tokoh agama pada umumnya memberikan kehendak bebas kepada masyarakat untuk memilih calon bupati. Dan saya pikir, apa yang disampaikan oleh para tokoh agama itu benar, persoalan pilihan itu hak masyakat yang tidak bisa dipaksakan oleh siapa pun. Tokoh agama hanya mengarahkan dan memberikan pandangan kepada masyarakat dan selanjutnya merupakan hak dari masyarakat calon mana yang menurutnya patut untuk dipilih. Di tempat berbeda juga dikemukakan oleh inisial L. A, Mahasiswa, bahwa :Dalam menentukan pilihan kepada salah satu calon tertentu saya melihat dari sudut pandang kemampuan untuk memimpin yang dimiliki oleh setiap calon tertentu dan kemudian jaminan masa depan yang diberikan. Era sekarang ini, menurut saya ketika memilih seorang bupati janganlah kita melihat karena dia memiliki kekuatan financial yang memadai tetapi tidak mempunyai kemampuan untuk memimpin dan terlebih lagi tidak mampu membawa daerah ini ke tujuan yang sesungguhnya yakni kesejahteraan masyarakat pada umumnya.Pernyataan ini juga dikemukakan oleh inisial N. T, warga yang mengatakan bahwa : Alasan untuk saya memilih seorang bupati itu karena dilihat dari kemampuan untuk memimpin dan punya visi misi yang jelas untuk membawa daerah ini mampu bersaing dengan daerah lain. Disamping itu juga saya melihat latar belakang kehidupan calon tertentu apakah mempunyai gaya hidup yang terpuji atau tidak. Karena latar belakang kehidupan yang terpuji dapat menunjang untuk melakukan hal-hal terpuji juga dalam membangun daerah ini dan mampu memperjuangkan apa yang menjadi hak dari masyarakat pada umumnya.Kemudian inisial A. G, tokoh masyarakat juga mengatakan bahwa: Alasan utama ketika saya memilih seorang bupati itu yaitu karena latar belakang suku dan agama yang sama dengan saya. Setelah itu mempunyai visi dan misi yang jelas untuk mampu membawa daerah ini sesuai dengan harapan masyarakat pada umumnya dan terlebih lagi amanat UUD 1945 itu dapat terealisasi dengan baik, yakni mensejahterahkan kehidupan yang berbangsa dan bernegara.Dari pernyataan responden tersebut di atas, menunjukkan bahwa partisipasi politik berbeda-beda dari masyarakat yang satu ke masyarakat yang lain. Kadar partisipasi politik pun bervariasi. Hal itu dapat dilihat dari alasan respoden dalam memilih calon bupati, yang pada umumnya unsur SARA (suku, agama dan ras) yang menjadi prioritas utama untuk memilih calon bupati. Ini disebabkan karena daerah kabupaten Halmahera Selatan pada umumnya berpenduduk yang menjungjung tinggi nilai-nilai sukuisme. Adapaun suku Togale (Tobelo-Galela) merupakan suku terbesar yang menduduki kabupaten Halmahera14Selatan, kemudian disusul suku-suku kecil lainnya yakni suku Makian, suku Bajo dan Buton. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan dengan terpilihnya Dr. H. Muhammad Kasuba, S.Ag, MA sebagai bupati kabupaten Halmahera Selatan dalam dua periode berturut-turut yang notabene adalah suku Togale. Kemudian agama dan ras yang selalu mendominasi untuk dijadikan alasan dalam memilih seorang bupati. Hal ini diyakini bahwa siapan pun dia ketika disinggung soal agama, semua pasti akan membelah agamanya.Setelah unsur SARA, kemampuan serta visi dan misi merupakan alasan untuk memilih seorang bupati. Ini disebabkan karena cara berpikir masyarakat yang mulai berkembang dan pendidikan yang sudah meningkat. Kemudian jaminan masa depan yang diberikan oleh para kandidat. Ini berarti ada janji-janji politik dari kandidat dalam berkampanye.Kesimpulan yang ditarik dari uraian tersebut di atas adalah bahwah pemilihan kepala daerah di kabupaten Halmahera Selatan unsure SARA yang mendominasi partisipasi masyarakat untuk memilih serta tidak terlepas dari peran tokoh agama dalam memberikan ceramah, khotbah politik atau bahkan pesan politik kepada masyarakat. Sehingga realita yang terjadi suku terbesarlah yang memipin daerah kabupaten Halmahera Selatan, yakni suku Togale (Tobelo-Galela) yang dalam hal ini adalah Dr. H. Muhammad Kasuba, S.Ag, MA yang notabena adalah suku Togale telah memenangkan pilkada dua kali secara berturut-turut.Dengan adanya pelaksanaan pilkada Bupati di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan akan membawa harapan baru bagi segenap elemen masyarakat untuk kiranya dapat tercipta suatu kehidupan sosial politik dan ekonomi yang lebih baik. Menurut inisial H. B, warga : Ya, ketika pilkada Bupati terlaksana menurut saya akan terciptanya suasana kehidupan sosial politik dan ekonomi yang lebih baik. Begitu pun dengan inisial T. N, LSM, yang mengatakan bahwa :Dalam pelaksanaan pilkada Bupati tentunya akan berdampak pada perubahan yang nantinya akan tercipta kehidupan sosial politik dan ekonomi yang lebih baik, mengingat perkembangan pengawasan pemerintah pusat terhadap pemerintah daerah selalu ketat dalam menjalani roda pemerintahan.Hal ini juga disampaikan oleh inisial L. A, mahasiswa yang mengatakan bahwa : Terlaksananya pilkada di Kabupten Halmahera Selatan akan tercipta suasana kehidupan sosial politik dan ekonomi. Dimana dapat memudahkan hubungan kinerja pemerinta pusat dan pemerintah daerah, dan pemerintah daerah terhadap masyarakat khusunya di kabupaten Halmahera Selatan.15Hal ini karenakan masyarakat yakin bahwa calon yang jadi nanti mampu membawa masyarakat ke dalam suasana yang demikian. Pelaksanaan Pilkada Bupati merupakan hal yang penting untuk dilaksanakan di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan. Menurut berinisial L. A, warga, bahwa :Penting sekali bagi masyarakat untuk dilakukannya pilkada Bupati, karena secara tidak langsung dapat memudahkan akses masyarakat terhadap pemerintah danBertolak dari jawaban responden di atas hasil penelitian menunjukan masyarakat menyatakan penting untuk dilakukannya pilkada langsung di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan. Hal ini sisebabkan oleh berbagai alasan yang dikemukakan, antara lain :- Merupakan upaya mewujudkan demokrasi local dimana masyarakat diberikan hak untuk memilih pemimpin menurut keinginannya- Pengambilan atau wujud dari pada kedaulatan rakyat pada tingkat local- Mendidik masyarakat menentukan pimpinannya, sesuai dengan hati nuraninya- Untuk memilih pemimpin yang mampu merubah daerah yang lebih baik- Karena menurut UU masa jabatan Bupati hanya 5 tahun, jadi setelah itu haarus dipilih kembali- Karena tidak mungkin terus hidup dalam kekosongan (tanpa pemimpin) dan oleh karena itu harus secepatnya mengisi kekosongan itu untuk mengatur dan menentukan Halmahera Selatan ke depan- Agar terciptanya kesejahteraan, kemakmuran, dan kedamaian masyarakat Halmahera Selatan- Karena daerah pemekaran harus ada kepala daerah oleh karena itu pilkada harus ada- Secara umum adalaha menjalankan amanat UU- Secara khusus adalah menjadi jaminan terciptanya kehidupan sosial politik dan ekonomi yang lebih baik- Pilkada merupakan sarana dalam pelaksanaan prinsip-prinsip demokrasi dalam menghargai hak-hak dari pada rakyat tanpa adanya intervensi apapun dengan kepentingan terselubung.Dalam pencalonan kepala daerah selalu saja dilakukan kampanye oleh para kandidat untuk mensosialisasikan setiap visi dan misi mereka guna menarik perhatian dan simpatisan dari pada masyarakat. Di dalam masa kampanye para kandidat calon kepala daerah dan masyarakat berkesempatan bertemu langsung dan saling berdialog tentang visi dan misi yang ditawarkan oleh calon kandidat dan harapan dari masyarakat.16Sebagian besar masyarakat Halmahera Selatan senang mengikuti rapat umum, dialog atau kampanye karena mereka ingin mendengar langsung setiap visi dan misi yang disampaikan oleh calon tertentu, namun ada juga yang mengaku tidak senang mengikuti rapat umum, dialog atau kampanye karena kesibukan mereka yang sebagian besar adalah petani. Jadi mereka berpikir dari pada mereka harus duduk-duduk diam mendengarkan para calon bupati tanpa mendapat sepeserpun uang, lebih baik mereka bekerja di kebun yang bisa menghasilkan sesuatu yang bermanfaat bagi kelanjutan hidup mereka. Kata inisial E. N, warga Desa Sayoang, Kecamatan Bacan Timur, Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan. Dan kemudian pernyataan ini dibenarkan oleh inisial A. S, kepala Desa Sayoang, Kecamatan Bacan Timur, Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan.V. PENUTUPA. Kesimpulan1. Para tokoh agama mempunyai peran dalam pilkada langsung di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan, itu kita bisa lihat dari ceramah, dakwah, khotba yang diberikan oleh tokoh agama dalam sebulan menjelang pilkada. Adapun peran dari Para tokoh agama ini dilakukan atas dasar tanggung jawab iman terhadap masyarkat sehingga merasa penting untuk memberikan nasihat politik kepada masyarakat agar tidak tepengaruh pada money politic dan golput.2. Tidak ada nasihat yang diberikan tokoh agama kepada masyarakat cenderung pada calon tertentu.3. Partisipasi masyarakat kabupaten Halmahera Selatan dalam pemilihan kepala daerah, unsur SARA menjadi prioritas utama untukk dijadikan alasan memilih seorang bupati, sehingga mengakibatkan suku terbesarlah yang menjadi pemimpin di daerah tersebut yang dalam hal ini adalah suku Togale (Tobelo-Galela). Akan tetapi disamping unsure SARA, tokoh agama juga turut berperan dalam mempngaruhi masyarakat untuk menggunakan hak suaranya dalam pemilihan melauli ceramah, dakwah, khotbah politik atau nasihat politik.B. Saran1. Perlu adanya pemberdayaan politik masyarakat, misalnya dengan melakukan penyuluhan dan pendidikan politik, melaluli event-event politik dalam lingkup yang lebih kecil.172. KPUD dan pemerintah harus berupaya agar kesadran dan pengetahuan masyarakat pemilih akan hak-haknya berdemokrasi dapat ditingkatkan kualitasnya sehingga masyarakat turut aktif dalam berpartisipasi dalam pemilihan eksekutif maupun legislatif.3. Kepala daerah yang terpilih pada pemilihan dalam bekerja jauhkanlah korupsi dan bangun Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan dengan penuh tanggung jawab4. Melalui pemelihan langsung Bupati dan wakil Bupati, aktivitas-aktivitas politik mengalami perubahan, dari elemen masyarakat dari tingkat bawah samapai tingkat atas kini semakin giat dalam aktivitas politik, dengan berbagai macam perilaku politik yang terkadang bisa membawa dampak bagi proses politik atau bagi kehidupan masyarakat. Disarankan agar melalui pemilihan langsung Bupati dan wakil Bupati , kemampuan dan kualitas para calon terus ditingkatkan pemahaman tentang peraturan pilkada langsung dan sistem politik yang dibangun dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat, berbangsa, bernegara serta dapat memberikan pendidikan politik dalam pemilihan langsung.DAFTAR PUSTAKABudiarjo, Miriam, 2008, Dasar-Dasar Ilmu Politik, PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.Huntington, P. Samuel dan Nelson Joan, 1986, Partisipasi Politik di Negara Berkembang, Rineka Cipta, Jakarta.Kantaprawira, Rusadi, 2004, Sistem Politik Indonesia, suatu Model Pengantar, Sinar Baru, Bandung.Merdalis, drs. 2006. Metode Penelitian. Bumi Aksara, JakartaMerson H.E 1976. Adminitrasi Pemerintahan dalam Pembangunan Nasional. Jakarta : Gramedia Pustaka.Naptilu, Paimin.DR, M.Si. 2007. Menakar Urgensi Otonomi Daerah. Alumni, BandungPoerwadarminta 1996. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Balai Pustaka Utama. Jakarta18Prof. DR. Toha, Mifta, MPA. 2006. Birokrasi dan Politik di Indonesia. Jakarta : PT. Pustaka Indonesia PressSarudajang, S. Harry, Dr. 2012. Pilkada Langsung. Kata Hasta Pustaka, Jakarta.Simangunsong, Bonar. Ir. Drs, MSc. SE dan Sinuraya, Daulat. Ir, MM. 2004. Negara, Demokrasi dan Berpolitik Yang Profesional. Kharisma Virgo Print, Jakarta.Soekanto, Soerjono. 2003. Sosiologi Suatu Pengantar. Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.Sugiyono, 2007. Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.Sumber-Sumber Lain :Skripsi : Kinerja DPRD di Bidang Pengawasan Pembangunan, Oleh Jeklin Gorab, Fisip Unsrat 2008Peraturan Pemerintah RI No. 6 Tahun 2005, Tentang Pemelihan, Pengesahan, Pengangkatan dan Pemberhentian Kepala Daerah dan Wakil Kepala DaerahUndang-Undang No. 32 Tahun 2004, Tentang Pemerintah DaerahInternet, google@www.maluku utara.

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No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA, Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H, S, BONER, Supt, THE GETTYSBURG JIEKCDHY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College i Voi,. XI. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCT., 1902 No. 5 CONTENTS THE RELATION OF ABILITY TO OPPORTUNITY IN THE ATTAINMENT OF SUCCESS 146 EDWARD C. RUBY, '02. PROGRESS OF DISCOVERIES DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 149 BARRIERS TO SCIENCE 152 WM. H. W. REIMER, '02. AS TOLD BY HENRI D'ARCY, 157 HERBERT L. STIEEI,, '03. THE IDEAL AND THE REAL, 161 THE PICTURE-MONTH 165 SHAKESPEARE AS A PORTRAYER OF CHARACTER, . 168 THE NATURALIST, 173 RESOLUTIONS ON THE DEATH OF MAURICE M. MUS-SELMAN 177 EDITORIAL, 178 The Power of Concentration. EXCHANGES, . • 181 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE RELATION OF ABILITY TO OPPORTUNITY IN THE ATTAINMENT OF SUCCESS. EDWARD C. RUBY, '02. /V FAMOUS sculptor once showed a visitor the treasures ■•■■■ of his studio. In it were many mythical gods. One particularly attracted the visitor's attention. The face was con-cealed by being covered with locks of hair, and there were wings to each foot. "What is his name?" said the spectator. "Opportunity," was the reply. "Why is his face hidden?" "Because men seldom know him when he comes to them." "Why has he wings upon his feet ?" "Because he is soon gone, and once gone he cannot be overtaken." This is but an allegory, yet it is the concrete expression of a very important element in the attainment of success. The sculptor has indeed given form to the experience of many an individual. How often have we come face to face with con ditions in life when we asked ourselves the question, "What is this?" And when the reply comes that it is an opportunity for us to attain success, we wonder why it is so obscure and hard to recognize. Then we begin to doubt its reality, and while we are waiting for it to disclose its features more fully, it spreads its wings and soars far beyond our reach. This suggests to us the fact that something more than the mere presence of an opportunity is necessary to the attainment of success. There must be the readiness or ability to seize the opportunity when it comes. In fact, ability stands first, while opportunity is a secondary element. Our physical growth, our intellectual development, and our advancement in civilization are due to these two factors in exactly the order above men-tioned. The ability for such growth, development, and ad-vancement is the natural endowment of every human being to a certain degree. The ability is given first, the opportunity second. By seizing the opportunity, the ability is strengthened. As long as this ability has not had an opportunity for asserting itself we speak of it as a possibility. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 Then, again, what would be the state of such beings if they did not have opportunities for exercising their ability? Could we conceive of such beings? I am afraid it would be a very difficult matter. The ability for activity and the opportunity for manifesting this activity must be co-existent in order that growth, development and advancement may be possible. The primary importance of ability is further seen in the fact that we must be prepared for the opportunity when it comes. Opportunity is latent in the very foundation of human society. Opportunity is everywhere about us. But the preparation to seize upon the opportunity, and to make the most of it, is to be made by everyone for himself. President Garfield said that occasion may be the bugle call which summons an army to battle, but the blasts of the bugle call can never make soldiers nor win battles. It is a common saying to-day among employers that the young men who come to them for work are not prepared for the opportunities which arise in connection with the business in which they wish to be engaged; and if they are not prepared, then when the opportunity arises they fail to secure what might easily fall to them. To be ready for the opportunity when it comes has well been called the secret of success. There need be no question that personal success is, in kind and degree, in accordance with ability, and will always be so to a large extent. Ability, by adaptation and application, makes success of some sort possible; the will, by concentration and persistence, makes it actual, How much of success is entirely man's own will and ability, or personal to and of himself, and how much is impersonal or dependant on favoring circumstances or opportunity, it may not be possible precisely to determine. One thing is quite certain, that an individual desiring to succeed in any of life's undertakings cannot depend upon or wait for op-portunity. He must strive to succeed by the best means his ability can contrive, and then watch for opportunity, which is, indeed, the outcome, in the majority of cases, of his effort to win success. Any other way of hoping to succeed than by the 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. putting forth of personal energy and will-power is but waiting upon chance. There are persons who have prepared themselves for oppor-tunities which seem very slow in coming. What is to be done in such cases ? It may be that the opportunities are at hand, but they cannot be easily recognized because of the "locks of hair" which may be concealing their "faces." The Greeks used to say that one should seize "time by the forelock." We say, when opportunities do not seem to be coming as they ought, "make them." Make them, as Lincoln made his in the log cabin in the wilderness. Make them, as Henry Wilson made his during his evenings on a farm, when he read a thousand volumes while other boys of the neighborhood wasted their evenings. Make them, as George Stephenson made his, when he mastered the rules of mathematics with a bit of chalk on the sides of the coal wagons in the mines. Make them, as Douglas made his, when he learned to read from scraps of paper and posters. Make them, as Napoleon made his in a hundred important situations. Make them, as every man must who would accomplish anything worth the effort. Golden oppor-tunities are nothing to laziness, and the greatest advantage will make you ridiculous if you are not prepared for it. When a man "drops" into a good position, it is because he had climbed into such a position from which it was possible to "drop" by years of work, and not merely because he had the opportunity. Fortune always attends those who are fitted. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 PROGRESS OF DISCOVERIES DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. CIVILIZATION is a progressive movement. The worlp progresses because of the eternal competition involved in existence. There is a law of the "Survival of the Fittest," evidences of which we discover throughout the history of the world's progress. Our histories record the principal events of nations as well as their most prominent individuals. This competition has brought out the advanced thought, the greatest inventions, the best deeds and the lasting institutions) a history of which is simply a history of the world's progress. Wars have existed, have been carried on since time began. They have proved the "Survival of the Fittest," for God is his wisdom decrees all that happens; and he gives his decision on the side of the one he deems fittest for his purposes. War has caused the inventions of the cannon and the other instruments used in great struggles. The creative faculty, developed by this competition, designed the great engines of war that are used to-day—the monster cannon, the torpedo boat, the gun boat, the warship greater than was ever dreamed of in the days when Galileo supposed that the earth was round. The mariner's compass was an invention which revolutionized the commerce of the world and brought forth a great number of navigators and adventurers; and these, with their wild dreams of discovery, showed to the world that fabled Atlantis never seen save by Plato in the hallowed visions of Plato's in-spired poesy, and added this beautiful land of ours to the list of the great discoveries at the close of mediaeval times. Intellectual progress during the middle ages compared to the Augustan age of Rome and the suceeding age in European advancement, was very small. Learning was confined to the monastic orders. The church and the priestcraft had a mo-nopoly upon book making between the seventh and fifteenth cen-turies, and they held, through the dictation of the pope at Rome, a monopoly upon the learning as well. The progress of discoveries in the intellectual world during the era mentioned, 150 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. must necessarily therefore be a halting forward movement. It was crippled from being bound in such narrow limits. How-ever, about the commencement of the fifteenth century the liter-ary movement started again first, in Italy, then spread to Germany, to England and elsewhere. It was opened up through the discoveries made in the far East, of the civilization of the Orient, by the movement known as the crusades. The fanaticism and the chivalric spirit known as knight-errantry gave the world a turn unlooked for and unsought for at the inception of those movements, by opening up intercourse between the East and the West, and by the discovery of the old literary works of the Latins and Greeks. Another great discovery of the middle ages which had a vast influence in bringing on the Reformation and which aided in producing the Revival of Learning, was the finding out that the Church of Rome had physical arm to enforce her edicts of temporal control; and that her goverment was rotten to the core. The sale of indulgences by the Church brought on re-volt and was severely attacked and finally stopped by the efforts of Luther, the hero of the Reformation. The Church throughout the centuries from the fall of the Western Empire had undertaken to control both the spiritual and the temporal welfare of man. The natural result of the widespread supremacy of the Roman Church was that its spirit-ual aspects became more and more merged into its mere ma-chinery of external goverment. Everything that could give power and efficiency to it as an institution was carefully watched and nourished. Warfare in the Church existed between the different monastic orders. Different creeds, sects and "isms" sprung up within the Church, yet it confined itself to its troubles, and to the world became stronger and stronger as a controlling power. By the monopoly of learning and literature, it was looked upon by ruling potentates with more than reverence—. with absolute fear—and a pope's bull of excommunication was a stronger instrument against the weak and superstitious of med-iaeval times, than the thunderbolts of Jove to the ancients. But it was discovered at the beginning of the fifteenth century THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY.' I 5 I that, by reason of the temporal life assumed by the Church, the spiritual life began to die out at the center of this vast, system of ecclesiastical government. The baneful effects of such spirit-ual decay speedily began to tell throughout its borders. The perversion of ecclesiastical offices and especially the materialistic abuses of spiritual privileges, awakened Europe to its thralldom. The ignorance of those times, depicted in strong colors in the satires of Erasmus, seems almost incredible. The impetus which the friars had given the papal powers back in the thirteenth century had died out and the religious decline opened up new avenues of thought, and awakened powers before forbidden by the Church to the people. The contest between struggling humanity and prevailing and overshadowing powers brought forth all the new discoveries of the times. The printing press, the Revival of Learning, and the industrial age of English literature were its products. The industrial, political and intellectual liberty which we enjoy to-day is the fruit ot the seed sown during the latter portion of the middle ages ; and the French Revolution was the result of the tares sown during the same period. The great abuses of medi-aeval times brought their reaction in the fanatical puritanism of Cromwell and the beheading of King Charles. All these contests have been in the interests of humanity. Results have been logical and according to cosmic law. Discov-eries of all times have been the product of necessity, and a de-mand in the interests of the world's progress. Things have happened that must necessarily happen for the good of man. Discoveries are the works of genius, but the individuals that made them were endowed with this faculty, as a part of the divine plan and the divine system. 152 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, BARRIERS TO SCIENCE. WM, H. W. REIMER, '02. C^OENCE is the foundation stone of human progress, It ^**' is a natural outgrowth of civilization. Education with-out it is null and void. Viewing it in this aspect, we must conclude that science is very old; that it is not a product of one century, but of many. The achievements of the past century are only the consum-mation of the achievements of many former centuries. Astronomy was pretty completely solved over four centuries ago, but it is being revised every year. Electricity was discovered by Franklin, but it remained for the men of our century to use it in propelling cars and in flash-ing messages across continents and oceans. All the scientists of former years who in some way aided its progress, we to-day honor and revere. But we are often forget-ful of the struggle they encountered. When some new scien-tific discovery is made, we look upon it with skeptical eyes. We are prone to criticise it harshly. We only forget that the boisterous ridicule of Columbus and Newton was turned into praise. The idea that telegraphy could be successfully oper-ated without the use of wire connection was believed impos-sible by the most skillful of our day; but now it is successfully established. It shows that mankind is reluctant to believe or accept a theory that is new. We cling to the old like parasites, and any deviation from that seems impossible. Taking a glance over the history of the past, progress ap-pears to have necessitated the surrender of the old for the new life as we pass from the old year into the new. The nations of antiquity seem to us peculiarly situated. In the childhood of intellectual development, they have only the surrounding world of obscurity out of which to carve their future. True, the children of Israel did have a supernatural revelation to guide them, but how imperfectly did it serve them. Together THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 153 with the other nations they seek after other gods to worship— gods erected by their own hands and created by their imagina-tions as representing the power that controlled the universe. It is this tendency of the growing mind that filled ancient Greece and Rome with altars and shrines. And in this manner for many years we see the nations of the earth bound down to superstition and ignorance. The early Grecian philosophers shrunk from the prevailing ignorance and sought an interpreta-tion of God from His natural revelation. The complexity of the universe puzzled them. They saw changes continually oc-curring. They think there must be a power in. the universe which pushes forth the blade of grass in the Spring. They at-tempt to resolve all things into their constituent elements. They search for the "beginning" of all things. One says water is the originative principle in the universe, because it seems common to all things. Another calls this principle of existence fire, because of its motive power. Others argue that all things in existence are only the separation and combination of infinitely small atoms. Life was only the combination of atoms, while death was the separation of the same into their original state. This beginning of all existence they recognized as God. Socrates with no supernatural revelation, but through his conscience interpreted a conception of God and heaven and the immortality of the soul. What the Greecian philosophers attempted to accomplish, the scientist of to-day is accomplishing. He lays aside all supernatural revelation. He peers under the surface of the earth to discover its history. He examines and compares the inorganic and organic creation in order to determine the pro-cesses through which they have been evolved. He proves his investigations, and submits them for our consideration. His facts are generally accepted, except when they seem to conflict with (our) supernatural revelation. At this point we hear the cry of "Halt!" Ecclesiasts say it is atheistic. They say it is contrary to the account given in Genesis. "Shall we be-lieve that man is descended from the monkey, which belief is I 54 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. not only contrary to Genesis but degrading to man?" "Shall we believe that many years passed in the creation of the earth and its creatures, when the Bible says six days transpired ?" This is the conflict of science and religion. And well is it that we see a conflict; it will strengthen both parties concerned. It will make religion reflect upon its own doctrine, and it will all the more strengthen science, for "Strength is born of struggle." Skepticism will make the scientist test thoroughly his own work, it will necessitate a tightening of all burrs on the me-chanism of science. Columbus might have failed in his attempt to prove his hy-pothesis, if resistance had not compelled him to perfect his proof and go ahead with full determination and confidence. The theory of evolution has evoked harsh criticism. But, notwithstanding, it is meeting acceptance everywhere. Our most wide-awake professors are introducing it into their schools. Preachers have tested it and proclaim it good, and are to-day reconciling their Christian doctrine with evolution as rapidly as conditions permit. Dr. Hillis is among them, and from his pen we quote the theory of evolution as he understands it: "Looking backward we find the earth in a condition that an-swers to our Sun. Slowly it cooled; slowly the granite was changed into soil, which by ice and water was made rich for the coming plants ; the plants at first very simple, became more and more complex, the small ferns giving way to the hardy forest. That daily God is causing the dry crust of the earth to move up into the herb and schrub; the schrub to ascend into the life of the animal; the animal to be lifted up into the life of man ; and man to be lifted up into the mind and life of Christ." Emerson, a preacher, poet, and philosopher, utters about the same meaning: "The gasses gather to the solid firmament; the chemic lump arrives at the plant and grows ; arrives at the quad-ruped and walks; arrives at man and thinks." This in principle is about what evolution teaches concerning THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I 55 the origin of existing things and the processes through which they have been evolved. It is a scientific interpretation of God's natural revelation made through the material creation. While their domain is only in the material universe—in deal-ing with facts that may be brought before their immediate vision—they do not attempt a doctrine of theism. However, the nature of their reasoning often explains their idea of God. There is not one who does not recognize in the process of nature a power which is God. Emerson had the most sacred reverence for God. He saw God in all creation from the soul of man down to the blade of grass, Charles Darwin, the greatest advocate of evolution, distinctly assumed the "World Genius standing back of His wondrous earthly mechanism." If the earliest advocate of the theory did seem to eliminate God, perhaps a reason can be assigned for it, The world of new ideas which dawned upon them, so completly occupies their attention that they could not see the Maker back of them. Their conditions might have been analogous to that of the man who first sees a loom at work. "They become so entranced at the beautiful texture produced that their thought never goes back to the mind that first constructed in its imagination the result which he now sees." We can be as thorough students of evolution as was Darwin or Huxley or Tyndall or Fiske, yet we need not eliminate the Bible or God from our Christian belief. It does not debase or exalt man more to conceive him to have been created instantaneously from a clod of earth by divine fiat, than progressively through animals, so long as we conceive of him as endowed with (body and) soul, as the newest product of creation, and capable of attaining a position in life only next to the angels. No other department of science or philosophy has so greatly affected the world of thought. It has driven away superstition. It has made ignorance to be ashamed. Both man and God have been given a more exalted nature. It has purified out moral nature, and the "Survival of the Fittest" has taught man 10 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. that if he would win in the race of life, he must put under the body and elevate the mind and soul. John Fiske thinks that "Science is to help bring about a greater revival of Christianity than that which built the Cathe-drals of Europe in the fifteenth century." Romanes, the Agnostic, was led through evolution to say; "Science is moving with all the force of a tidal wave towards faith in Jesus Christ as the world's Saviour." Dr. Hillis further says: "There is no conflict between the educated ecclesiast and the educated scientist, but there is and ever will be a conflict between the ignorant ecclesiast and igno-rant scientist." Many years passed before the world received this theory of evolution. Shall we then reject its teaching as false ? Shall we denounce its advocates as atheists and agnostics and pan-theists? Does the theory debase man and elimininate God? We must let each one answer these questions for himself. But before you are able to make a decision, you must study the subject and know whereof you speak. It is pure ignor-ance to condemn a theory like evolution, and ridicule its advocates, before being fully acquainted with the subject. Ig-norance may flourish for awhile, but civilization is moving to-wards truth, and truth must in the end prevail. Then will truth look back upon the past as we look upon those who ridiculed the hypothesis of Columbus and of Newton. The barriers between science and religion are fast being re-moved, and the time is not far off when they will link hands and march onward at the sound of divine music towards the mark and prize of the high calling in Christ Jesus, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 157 AS TOLD BY HENRI D'ARCY. HERBERT L. STIEEI, '03. ""^^ES, M'sieur, those were truly glorious days; I am an old "^ man now; my hair is white and soon I shall trouble this earth no more. I would not have had it thus. Had I my heart's desire I would have died a soldier's death long ere now. Yet truly it was no fault of mine, M'sieur, for I can show you no less than seven places on this old body of mine where some good sword has tried to reach my heart, and I carry in my left shoulder a ball, which I received while still a private in the Guard of His Eminence, the glorious Richelieu. "They are all gone now—Rochefort, De Wardes and the rest —but well do I remember them. And D'Artagnan; he was a brave man, was D'Artagnan. Ah ! he should have served the Cardinal instead of mixing with those pigs of musketeers, he should indeed, M'sieur. I remember the day his Eminence summoned him to his presence after that affair at Milady. He expected nothing less than the Bastile, and the Bastile—parbleu! give me a thousand deaths before the Bastile, I was on guard at the door of the chamber and I heard the whole interview. But D'Artagnan, he was as cool and self-possessed as if he were chatting with some of his comrades. And how he did fight during the siege of Rochelle; Mon Dieu! how he did fight. "Ah! that siege of Rochelle ! I think I was as near death that year as ever I have been, I and de Busigny. Your glass is empty, permit me, M'sieur. Yet I am rather glad that I did not die then. To die for France is glorious in any circumstance, but we gentlemen of the sword have a dread of being hanged as spies. It was in this manner—His Eminence desired infor-mation concerning the fortifications of Rochelle, and Busigny and I undertook to supply it. All went well for a time. We gained an entrance to the city, no matter how. Those Rochellais are extremely stupid, M'sieur, though they do fight hard. Now that we were in the city, how were we to find out what we wished to know ? It was easy to learn as much as i58 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. most of the citizens and soldiers knew, but the cardinal knew even more than that already. It was necessary to get some-thing from a higher source. Busigny was the man for that. I can handle a sword, but I am not much of a schemer; while Busigny—well it has been said that he was the most clever man in the whole Guard. Ah! he did scheme, and to some pur-pose, too. 1 know not to this day how he did it, but this I do know that he obtained the whole plan of defense—and such a joke, M'sieur—from the son of the governor himsell. However, it was of no avail. The entrance to the city had been easy, but the exit, that was different. "So different, in fact, that we were captured. We had no opportunity of doing away with the plans and maps on our person, and we stood revealed as spies. They took us before the governor and with little ceremony clapped us into a dun-gton. And the governor's son, he was furious, I can assure you, having been tricked as he was. Furthermore, he took pleasure in coming to taunt us and flaunt our coming execution in our faces. This angered me, though I would have died be-fore allowing him to see it, and one morning I confided my vexation to Busigny. 'DArcy, said he, T, too, have been thinking of this villain's visits, and I believe that, disagreeable as they are, we may turn them to our profit.' Imagine what joyous feelings sprung up in my breast at these words, for I knew that Busigny had a plan, and Busigny's plans, M'sieur— well, I never knew them to be other than good. 'My comrade,' continued he, 'would you prefer to die here in a hand-to-hand struggle or out there on that scaffold they are building for us ?' QX i>KAM/i£» w\j wv® vw>ux>o£>fo ooXoA/6* a/no/ us&a/v' w\> dlill fll. Selicjman, Taiio*. S Chambefsbupg St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. GO TO^ Eckenrode's Restaurant, 8 Baltimore St., Gettysburg. Everything in Season. Oysters in all Styles- Open from 7 A. M. to 2 A. M. JOHN S. ECKENRODE, Prop. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. Allen K. Walton, Prea. and Treas. Root. J. Walton, Superintendent. Hinwlstown Brown Stone Company Q-cr_£ui*.:Ev^:Lv

Plekhanov/Labriola As a bit of an experiment, coupling my interest in André Tosel and my work on translation, I have decided to try my hand at a few translations of the former when I get the time. These are totally unauthorized, and rough drafts posted for edification and entertainment purposes only. I started on this piece because it is short, and because it works on an area that I need to learn more about, the history of Marxist-Spinozism before Matheron or Althusser. However, the more I worked on this piece, the more I thought that this split between Plekhanov and Labriola, still exists, in the divide between neo-enlightenment Spinozists and what some might call post-modern, but I prefer to call Marxist Spinozists. The Marxist Uses of Spinoza: Lessons of Method The history of the role of Spinoza's thought in the formation and the development of the work of Marx remains to be written, as is that of the history of the diverse Marxist usage (from different Marxisms) of Spinozist philosophical elements. This double history would reveal the work of Marx, and its contradictions, as much it would open up the work of Spinoza himself. Marxisms have reflected their aporias and their hopes onto Spinoza without necessarily truly thinking them through. In other words this is a domain of misunderstandings and equivocations. In order to undertake this history it would be useful to draw some lessons from the encounter of Marx and Marxist thought with Spinoza. First remark. The encounters of Spinoza by Marxists are discontinuous and contradictory. This discontinuity is initially characterized by the lack of a definitive encounter between Marx himself and Spinoza. Marx is formed through the reading of Spinoza, of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, and the correspondence. Not to learn the lessons of materialism, but an ethico-political lesson. Spinoza is considered as philosopher of freedom and autonomy, modern incarnation of Prometheus and continuation of Epicurus, all at once. Marx, in is progression from Kantian-Fichtean idealism to the speculative communism of the 1844 Manuscripts, develops three theses which are the practical theses of philosophical materialism, without the epistemological and ontological theses of this materialist tradition.  Thesis One: Philosophy has a fundamental interest in the liberty of humanity, understood as autonomy and as the end of all heteronomies. Thesis Two: Philosophy is critical of all transcendental authorities of all principle of domination which justify and represent their domination through this principle.  Thesis Three: Philosophy is eminently a science, knowledge, but knowledge of life, of the simple life of spirit of bodies rendered by their power. All particular sciences and knowledge must be thought from the point of view of science of life and its forms, as forms of life.  When Marx elaborates the materialist conception of history he revolutionizes materialism but he does this without ever connecting it to the spinozist theory of nature, of the relations of extension and thought, of bodies and mind. He integrates and modifies the strong ontological and epistemological thesis of materialism, but these theses are taken more from Hobbes and other materialists of the eighteenth century than from Spinoza.
Let us state these theses which are capable of a Spinozist formulation, without however assuming such a formulation.  Thesis Four: Nature is the original reality and it is organized as matter at different objective levels. Thought cannot be separated from matter. Thesis Five: Nature in its diverse senses is intelligible. It emerges only from itself, excluding all creation. The human order is not a kingdom within a kingdom and susceptible of being understood.  Thesis Six: All knowledge presupposes the reality of its object outside of thought. The appropriation by the knowledge of its own object of knowledge presupposes the reference to a real object. It is necessary to pay attention to the debates in Marxism of the Second International in order to see how the question of "Spinoza precursor of Marxist materialism appears." Emerging in the years of the crisis of revisionism the debate engages above all the German and Russian theorists of social democracy: Bernstein, Kautsky, and Plekhanov. It is in part based on the Anti-Dühring of Friedrich Engels and puts into play the complex questions of the relationship between the materialist theory of history with the sciences of nature with the political problem of the alliance of the intellectual groups in the perspective of socialist transition. This debate between 1896-1900 is inscribed in a theoretical problematic, such of Marxist orthodoxy that will find a new actualization with the problems proper to Soviet philosophy between 1917 and 1931, when it is a matter of specifying what would be called "Marxism-Leninism." If the question of materialism assumes the continuity between the Spinoza of the Second International and that of the Third, nothing would be more erroneous than to let oneself be taken in by the apparent continuity of an imaginary history of philosophy. These occurrences are in effect specific, they constitute theoretical and political conjunctures which must be grasped in a way that takes into account the strategic dimensions of the class struggle whether or not it is led by Marxist parties, the problem of alliances, that of the intellectual division of labor. Marxist philosophy, as it is officially constituted, is part of the practice of parties, and the reference to Spinoza is overdetermined by the political and theoretical stakes that have to be elucidated in each specific situation. Here we touch on the second lesson of method: it is necessary to historically specify the conjunctures where Spinoza intervenes and where and how there is a specific usage of this prestigious and troubling reference. This method makes it possible to determine what falls under ideological legitimation, and what is inserted at the level of the practical politics of the party, of the state, of the level of specialized intellectuals. Spinoza does not only appear only in the emergence of Marxist orthodoxy. He intervenes, in a subterranean manner, in the elaboration of theorists where the considerable theoretical importance has never been associated with an actual political importance. This can be found in the crisis over revisionism in the last century, such that Antonio Labriola in his Essays on the Materialist Conception of History (1895-1898) attests to the presence of a different Spinoza than that of his contemporary Plekhanov and a fortiori than that which was celebrated in Soviet Philosophy in 1927 and 1932.
Spinoza intervenes as a critic of the same orthodoxy which returns as elements of an older materialism in another theoretical configuration that has solicited different aspects of his philosophy: no longer the parallelism between extension and thought, not a determinist ontology but the mode considered to be at once conceptual and experimental, the same geometrico-genetic method, in that it now excludes the guarantees of teleological philosophies of history. A contradictory intervention which is not without analogies to another occurrence, the most recent, that of Spinoza in the work of Louis Althusser which can be considered as a systematic deconstruction of the Marxist orthodoxy of the Second and Third International. Between Labriola (1898) and Althusser (1965), if we except the Soviet Spinoza, there is little except Ernst Bloch's remarks that no one has yet taken into account for a history of materialism oriented in the direction of a utopian ontology. This appearance of a Spinoza critical of stated and intended Marxist orthodoxies gives a third lesson of method: the diverse contradictory Marxist uses of Spinoza are situated between two poles, the first is that of an orthodoxy elaborated by the intellectuals of the social democratic and communist parties at the end of an a party/state conception of a finalist world and at the other is from thinkers situated in a problematic relation to the party, who look in Spinoza for other ways to make sense of the world and other practices then the becoming state of the worker parties. This opposition can appear to be schematic. It can be developed into provisional and schematic path of investigation. Such an investigation takes one central question: What is it in the philosophy of Spinoza that authorizes these discontinuous usages, determined by their conjunctures, and perhaps violently opposed?  Confronting therefore these different usages of Spinoza that can be considered historically significant in the course of history, that is to say in terms of their specific conjunctures. This can be seen with the orthodox use of Spinoza by Plekhanov and the critical usage of Spinoza by Labriola at the heart of the second international. Plekhanov gave himself the task of elaborating the originality of Marx's philosophy and defending it in the face of revisionists who, with Bernstein, contest the self-sufficiency of Marx's philosophy, dividing into an evolutionary sociology and a Kantian inspired ethics. For Plekhanov there is very much a Marxist philosophy. It is inscribed in the materialist current which it revitalizes by giving it a historical dialectical dimension. Spinoza is the direct ancestor of Marx in that it is through the monism of the former that one can unify the science of nature and the science of history of the latter. Marx has revitalized substance as historical-social matter, metabolism of humanity with nature, and has inherited his realist theory of knowledge, thought is nothing other than a moment or function of matter. There is a Spinozism of Marx that is the realization of historical Spinozism as a the affirmation of the materialist conception of the world, one predicated on the knowability of matter in terms of its organization at diverse levels. Only this conception of the world can give the workers' movement its organization and which would permit it to avoid the disorganization that revisionism introduces, neo-Kantian idealism cannot organize the class struggle without harmful compromises.  Spinoza is one part of orthodox Marxism returned to during this period. This Spinoza can authorize the theses of Friedrich Engels, in some sense simplifying the complexity of the Anti-Dühring. Concerned to think together the development of the sciences of nature, the materialist conception of history, and developing a philosophy capable of correct reflection and the movement of the specialization of sciences and the political struggle of classes (alliance with the intellectual stratum), Engles had proposed the idea of a materialist dialectic that oscillates between an ontological conception and a methodological conception of this dialectic. These two conceptions are apparently unified in the idea of "the science of the general laws of motion, both of the external world and of human thought — two sets of laws which are identical in substance, but differ in their expression in so far as the human mind can apply them consciously, while in nature and human history (at least up to now), these laws assert themselves unconsciously, in the form of external necessity, in the midst of an endless series of seeming accidents." This parallelism between (laws of) movement of the external world and (the laws of) thought has a Spinozist connotation which reinforces the idea of liberty as the comprehension of necessary laws. However, it remains above all intended to make possible a representation of the dialectic under materialism, without examining its own difficulties. Plekhanov is not interested in these difficulties in elaborating a general materialist conception that Marx completes and fulfills through the mediation of Hegel. Antonio Labriola, who wrote "Origin and Nature of the Passions According to Spinoza's Ethics" at a young age (1866), refuses this ontologization or methodolization of the dialectic in order to develop the idea of a philosophy of praxis as a philosophy immanent to a new conception of history, reflecting the constitution of history as a complex unifying ground and surface. In this sense, the Plekhanov project, apparently Spinozist, of thinking the continuity of nature and society at the heart of a substantial and homogenous causality loses its sense. The process of social life must be desubstantialized at with it the philosophy that is presented as a hyperphilosophy or super science organized as "theosophic or metaphysic of the totality of the world, as if by an act of a transcendent knowledge we can arrive at a vision of substance and all of the phenomena and processes under it." Antonino Labriola as much as he refuses to make man an 'kingdom in a kingdom' refuses the naturalization of history and the transformation of Marxism into a naturalist ontology where social practice becomes a species of being in general. Labriola denounces a matter found on things as a form of metaphysical superstition. Spinoza is evoked as a hero in the struggle against the imagination and ignorance that resurfaces in Marxist orthodoxy under the form of universal materialism. It is necessary above all to think of the diverse levels of the "animation" of matter, and therefore the specificity of the "artificial terrain" which constitutes practice. What Spinoza knew how to do for the theory of passions must be done for praxis: each one, the relations of affects and and those that constitute praxis, are not ruled by a subject and for this reason must be studied through a genetic method. Labriola speaks of a genetic method that also defines the method of Marx in Capital. The genetic method takes its distance from the dialectic and its teleological philosophy of history and established guarantees.  For Labriola the turn to Spinoza is less about the strengthening of a materialist monism than it is about the possibility of reinterpreting Marx's Capital as a geometry of capitalist social being. The geometrical method is an instrument of internal purification destined to eliminate the finalism of productive causes and biological predetermination from Marxist orthodoxy. The philosophy of praxis manifests the basic critical and formal tendency of monism: everything is conceivable as a the causal genesis of a complex totality. The materialist dialectic is neither a universal method nor a logic of being, but constitutes the critical movement internal to knowledge which acts on the practice of philosophy and makes it a "conceptual form of explication" parallel to contemporary science. The reference to Spinoza intervenes in the critique of a Marxist orthodoxy which is supposed to include in a dogmatic manner Spinoza's own materialism. Marx and Spinoza are considered as two practitioners of philosophy who refuse the closure of knowledge in favor of the immanent self-reflection of knowledge. The lesson of Spinoza is not to find the unity of knowledge under a principle but to demystify the fetishes which substitute imaginary principles for the movement of practice.  One could develop a similar analysis of the confrontation of the Soviet Spinoza of the Third International to the Spinoza of Louis Althusser.  The Soviet Spinoza is an impoverished and petrified version of the Spinoza of Plekhanov. With respect to Althusser, Spinoza's critique is referenced constantly and augmented, infinitely better elaborated than in Labriola, since it acts this time not as a critique of metaphysical fetishism, even materialist, but of the metaphysics of the juridical subject characteristic of occidental rationalism.  The contributions of R. Zapata and J.-P. Cottent have clarified these points, but it seems opportune to underly the paradox of this history: it is possible to tie together the diverse uses of Spinoza, one against the other. If Spinoza is enrolled in the constitution of a "conception of the world" which intends to complete a current of philosophy and which cannot at any time criticize its presuppositions, it is also possible, as with Althusser, to think the structure of ideological interpellation that constitutes the ideological subject and invalidates philosophy considered as a theory of knowledge. If Spinoza makes possible a conception of the world in which the State Party is supposed to be the subject of history accomplishing its ultimate ends, it also makes it possible for Althusser to try to reconstruct Marxist theory on the ruins of the triple myth of origin, subject, and the end. The Labriolian critique of imaginatio and ignorantia is radically interiorized in the destruction of Marxisms of the Second and Third International. The recourse to structural causality supposed to have been developed in the theory of modes and substance serves as an incomplete program to develop the theoretical revolution of Marx.  However, it goes further still: there are two Spinoza's in Althusser himself. The Spinoza critical of any theory of knowledge ultimately occludes the Spinoza of structural causality: the denunciation of the triple myth of origin, subject, and end is lead to the liquidation of the rational modernism present in Marx. However the pars destruens always prevails over the pars construens. The idea of structural causality (such that of substance as the absent cause over the modes and affects) is accompanied with the affirmation of an unknown radicality of Marxist science, but the critique of the metaphysics of subjectivity in the teleology of Marxism that accompanies it announces the crises of Marxist liberation in the last interventions of Althusser. Everything comes to pass as if Althusser deconstructs a dogmatic Spinoza in the name of another Spinoza, more secret and more enigmatic. Spinoza is always divided from Spinozism which claims to define himOriginally published in Bloch, Olivier, Editor,  Spinoza au XXe siècle, Paris, PUF, 1993. 

his doctoral thesis is focused on the increasing importance of mutual funds as saving vehicles for the finances of individuals in the economies of developed countries over the last half of the twentieth century. Among them, the equity funds that take the form of open-end funds like mutual funds are becoming one of the most relevant instruments. Mutual funds collect money from investors and invest it in stocks, bonds, other funds, and so on, and their performance depends on the mix of the allocated securities. Its main objectives were to contribute to the topic of the Active Share (AS) as applied to mutual funds in Eurozone countries. This investigation was mainly motivated by the need to analyse how both the level of concentration of the benchmarks and the level of concentration of the mutual fund industries in the Eurozone affect active management. Due to the scarce number of studies focused on this topic in Europe our results have relevant implications to investors, market supervisors, and policymakers. In Chapter 1, we analysed how article 52 in Directive 2009/65/EC (UCITS IV) on risk of portfolio diversification could distort the accuracy of AS due to the higher level of concentration in Eurozone domestic benchmarks. In this chapter, we were able to identify truly active management in Eurozone mutual funds. Thus, we developed an algorithm to capture the spurious AS (sAS), which is defined as the minimum AS, that is not a consequence of active decisions made by equity fund managers. The results provide evidence that the Directive negatively influences the accuracy of the AS shown for managers who work with very concentrated domestic Eurozone benchmarks such as the PSI 20 (Portugal), ATX 20 (Austria), and IBEX 35 (Spain). In contrast, the evidence from the sAS for the least concentrated domestic Eurozone benchmarks shows that AS reported by managers who work in France, Germany, and Finland are much more accurate. Hence, these results prove that direct AS comparisons in the Eurozone are not feasible and lead us to obtain three AS thresholds per domestic equity benchmark, which are the minimum values of AS needed to confirm that domestic equity funds are significantly active at 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence levels. We also analysed the level of active management in the domestic equity funds registered in each Eurozone country. Our findings also show that the high concentration level and the heterogeneity present in the domestic equity funds in the Eurozone prevent the direct comparability of the AS. Therefore, we had to consider the level of AS over the spurious level and the characteristics of each market that produces significant and different styles of active management. For that, we formulated an actual active share (aAS) that considered the level of concentration in the domestic equity funds of the Eurozone markets and the limits of the portfolio concentration on European regulation. We define aAS as the difference between the monthly AS obtained for each domestic equity fund minus its monthly AS threshold obtained previously at 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence levels. Focusing on the most relevant mutual fund industries in the Eurozone countries, we find that France is the most active domestic equity fund market. Spanish and Italian markets also show high levels of actual active management despite the large concentration in their domestic benchmarks. Conversely, domestic equity funds registered in Germany show lower levels of active management. Our research results support the hypothesis that aAS corrects the potential bias in the original AS caused by both the domestic benchmark concentration and the EU portfolio diversification rules. In summary, our study is the first to evaluate the consequences of both the assorted characteristics of domestic Eurozone benchmarks and the European regulation that prevents portfolio concentration (UCITS IV) in the appropriate estimation of AS. Furthermore, our study identifies truly active management in domestic equity funds in the Eurozone markets. This chapter has important implications for policymakers and practitioners of the domestic equity funds in the Eurozone. In the strongly regulated European markets, our unbiased approach allows both investors and market supervisors to identify the accurate levels of active management of each industry after considering both the regulation of portfolio diversification and the concentrated domestic equity benchmarks. Market supervisors will have a better picture of the active management map to develop appropriate regulations for the mutual fund industry. In addition, our approach should help practitioners and investors to effectively find out the level of active management of domestic equity funds and therefore provide information for fund management companies to replace actual performing managers. Further, our results should help to reduce the opacity in the management fees that funds charge by providing accurate measures of active management. In Chapter 2, we analysed how some market and fund characteristics play a crucial role in explaining the portfolio concentration default on Directive 2009/65/EC (UCITS IV). This chapter should help market supervisors to improve the monitoring process of defaults by domestic equity funds in the Eurozone mutual fund industries. On the one hand, the origin of UCITS directives was considered the beginning towards market protection and increased transparency in the Eurozone. On the other hand, the structure of mutual funds allows retail investors to access sophisticated active strategies that comply with liquidity and transparency restrictions protected by regulatory oversight. Their rules are based on a certain degree of portfolio diversification with the goal of reducing their vulnerability to portfolio risks. This chapter is the first to analyse how concentrated strategies could lead to non-compliance with article 52 in UCITS IV. First, we analysed several market characteristics that may influence the probability of a fund manager failing to meet the portfolio concentration limits. Using a logic panel data model (fixed effects), we estimated the probability of incurring defaults. Our findings provide evidence that should lead market supervisors to pay attention to concentrated fund industries with concentrated domestic benchmarks to prevent defaults on Eurozone concentration limit. The level of concentration of the domestic equity benchmarks would make the defaults almost twice as likely to occur. The level of concentration of the domestic fund industry also has positive and significant effects on the likelihood of incurring defaults. That is, defaults are approximately 12% to 17% more likely to occur when the level of concentration in the domestic fund industry increases. This evidence is consistent with the findings in the literature that link competition with active management strategies such as concentrated portfolios (see Dyck et al., 2013). Second, in the same line of Chapter 1, we analysed several funds characteristics that may influence the probability of a fund manager failing to meet the portfolio concentration limits. In Eurozone markets, market supervisors should especially monitor the most experienced funds that are solo-managed to prevent portfolio weights over the 10% limit. This finding is in accordance with Goldman et al., (2016) who shows that individual managers have much more concentrated portfolios than management teams. The fund's age has a positive and significant influence on the likelihood of defaults. That is, the probability of incurring defaults is approximately 18% to 26% higher among older funds. Thus, this evidence is in accordance with the literature that links older funds with higher levels of idiosyncratic risk as a consequence of having more concentrated portfolios (see Amihud and Goyenko, 2013). Further, we analysed the characteristics of those stocks that were especially subject to more concentrated strategies and, therefore, more vulnerable to mutual funds' investment policies. For that, we applied a multinomial logic panel data model (fixed effects) and found that the weight of the stocks in their benchmarks had a positive and significant effect on default on the EU portfolio concentration limit. The results show how the probability of a stock being subject to default is approximately 8% to 25% higher when the stock weight in the domestic benchmark increases. Thus, market supervisors should monitor stocks with large weights in domestic equity benchmarks. In addition, we also find how the stocks of domestic benchmarks that have been held longer are likely to be subject to concentration defaults. That is, defaults are approximately 13% to 24% more likely to occur when choosing stocks that belong to the benchmarks during the last 24 months. Thus, this result is consistent with the literature that argues the local advantage of reducing information asymmetry problems. Thus, we find how stocks that present low volatility have a greater likelihood of being subject to non-compliance with EU portfolio concentration limits. In terms of percentages, the probability approximately lowers between 19% to 27% when stock volatility increases. This finding is in accordance with the commitment to controlled risk strategies (see Huang et al., 2011). Therefore, market supervisors should pay more attention to these stock characteristics to monitor stocks that are more frequently overweighted above EU concentration limits. In summary, this chapter is the first to both analyse and identify the determinants of domestic equity funds' failure to comply with the portfolio concentration limits of EU Directive 2009/65/EC. Furthermore, our study also determines the characteristics of the stocks subject to these non-compliant portfolios in domestic equity funds in the Eurozone. This chapter has important implications for market supervisors and policymakers in the mutual fund industries of the Eurozone. Our approach allows market supervisors with limited resources to identify and control non-compliant domestic equity funds by monitoring only some fund-specific characteristics. The improvement of this monitoring process should contribute to the financial stability of the EU asset management industry in terms of investor protection and market transparency. That is, mutual fund unitholders should be completely certain that their money is allocated to portfolios fulfilling the concentration limits required by the EU. Our findings also show a tool to assist EU market supervisors in identifying some explanatory mechanisms for stock weights that are over the EU concentration limits. Thus, our results may help supervisors identify what kind of domestic equity funds are more inclined to default and what kind of stocks are likely overweighted by these funds. Market supervisors could especially monitor these stocks to verify that domestic equity funds are meeting the concentration limits. Market supervisors should focus their limited resources on these types of stocks held by domestic equity funds to prevent defaults in portfolio concentration. Finally, our approach could also help retail investors control their risk profiles in terms of exceeding portfolio concentration limits. This application is in line with the reinforcement of investor protection of portfolio concentration. Investors could be sure that domestic equity funds fully follow the diversification requirements and market transparency provided by the UCITS directives. Chapter 3 presents a new perspective in the analysis of active management. We introduced dynamism by proposing a new version of AS that considers how the managers deviate their portfolios in two consecutive periods. We define dynamic Active Share (dAS) as a measure to capture over time the actual level of activity by comparing the differences against the benchmark in two consecutive periods. Our measure captures not only the long and short static positions in each stock included in the benchmark but also the previous long (short) positions that have been overweighted (underweighted) in the next period. Thus, dAS allows us to divide between investment decisions driven to spread portfolio weights closer to the benchmark (i.e., decisions that lead to a lower differentiation to the benchmark) and the other which is further from the benchmark (i.e., decisions that lead to a higher differentiation). Focusing on the most relevant fund industries in the Eurozone, we analysed the predictive power of AS first. The best results were found in the Spanish industry and, with less robustness, in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, and Belgium. France only shows this relationship in the long term when we consider the CAPM alpha; while Italy, Finland, Portugal, and Greece fail to offer significant results or even present negative relationships. These results indicate that the prediction ability of AS presents assorted results as this relation is less clear than that presented in the literature (Cremers and Petajisto, 2009) Second, we examined the influence on the prediction power for performance of AS by splitting stocks in the portfolios of our sample into benchmark and non-benchmark . The results allow us to identify how the high proportion of prediction ability for performance of AS is explained by the investment in non-benchmark stocks. Although the AS's share of overweight or underweight benchmark stocks is really related to stock picking ability, investing in overweighted stocks may mean distortions in their performance evaluations that can lead to spurious contributions to portfolio performance. Third, we applied and analysed the predictive power of dAS. The results provided evidence that the performance of non-benchmark stocks in high AS funds did not extend to mutual funds with high dAS. Thus, this measure is less sensitive to the weight of the portfolio that is invested in non-benchmark securities that is very relevant in Eurozone countries where domestic benchmarks are highly concentrated. The main advantage of the dAS compared to the AS is that our measure provides more information and can be split according to different investment decisions. For that reason, we proposed splitting up the dAS to examine which trading decisions add value to the portfolio. Our most interesting results showed that German funds presents a robust relationship between selling investment decisions and subsequently better performance. This relationship was also found for Dutch, Austrian, and Portuguese funds but with actual limited significance. This finding is in accordance with the level of activity showed by these industries in Chapter 1. Further, we analysed the contributions to dAS that was generated by those trading decisions that might be considered as managers' bets. These bets could be those decisions that increased holdings that were already overweighted (buy bets) or decrease those holdings that were already underweighted (sell bets). Our findings show as in Germany and in some cases in the Austrian and Portuguese industries that there is subsequent significantly better performance in buying decisions. Focusing on selling decisions, only Finnish funds show positive and strong beliefs and performance. The results for predicting performance show that those portfolios with a higher concentration of these bets offer subsequent abnormal returns as this prediction ability is even higher than the seminal AS in some of the markets in this study. Accordingly, the results shown in this chapter are an interesting addition to Cohen et al. (2010) who try to identify the trades in which the managers have more confidence. The empirical findings show that those mutual funds with trading decisions with a stronger belief from the manager (i.e., decisions that lead them to deviate even more from the benchmark) outperform the remaining funds, especially when buying decisions are considered. This evidence is consistent with Karoui and Patel (2020) who show that the benefit of AS lies in the selection decision rather than the weighting decision. In summary, Chapter 3 is the first to introduce a dynamic perspective on AS to capture managers' activity and skill. This chapter is relevant for investors who should be interested in knowing whether their fund manager is active and whether their decisions on new investment opportunities add value to the portfolio (i.e., undervalued assets) or on the contrary, the fund manager is passive. The common argument is related to the fees because the management fees charged by these two types of funds should be different. In addition, the chapter is also relevant to regulators in order to adjust the management fees charged by management companies to the actual level of activity carried out by mutual funds. Several fields for further investigation have been identified in this dissertation. Regarding the EU Directive, an extensive test of the level of enforcement that the UCITS IV has implemented in each Eurozone country (including emerging markets) could be useful for making decisions about possible changes in the regulation. Furthermore, a complementary analysis of chapter VII in UCITS IV in terms of its appropriateness with the characteristics of each Eurozone country could allow a more complete assessment of the limits of portfolio concentration and the implementation of the protection to investors. In addition, this dissertation makes an important advance in the topic of active management to help further an analysis in other areas or regions with similar characteristics that could be relevant to the financial literature.

Background The main instrument on EU level to control industrial releases is the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED), particularly through the publication of BAT reference documents (BREFs) and related BAT Conclusions, which is the reference for setting the permit conditions throughout EU for IED installations. However, the BREFs published so far do not contain adequate information on specific hazardous chemicals used and released from industry which makes the control difficult for the industry and the permitting and supervising authorities. One of the case sectors in the HAZBREF project is the surface treatment of metals and plastics (STM). This sector was chosen due to the use of chemicals, potential emissions, the wide range of products as well as technological processes and the upcoming STM BREF review. The other HAZBREF case sectors are textile industry and chemical industry which are addressed in separate reports. The lack of knowledge on the use and flow of specific hazardous chemicals in the industrial processes makes chemical control and reduction measures difficult. The problem is that often neither plant operators nor authorities know which substances are relevant to be treated and which handling measures are needed. Surface treatment of metals and plastics is covered by the STM BREF document, published in 2006. According to the last work programme of the EIPPCB the review of the EU STM BREF is planned to start in 2021. Purpose of the document This sectoral guidance contains information on uses of hazardous chemicals, the best practices in chemical management and recommendations on enhancing the permitting process in the STM sector. This document sums up the findings from HAZBREF project and is based on industrial case studies, interviews with authorities and expert judgment. The aim is to describe good practices in chemical management to be utilized by STM installations as well as environmental and chemical authorities. These include technical, organisational and management aspects and concrete tools supporting chemical management. The report addresses the STM sector as a whole in Europe, although the main part of the findings is generated from HAZBREF case installation and other experiences in the Baltic Sea Region. The document provides also general descriptions of BAT proposals related to management of hazardous chemicals and substances. These findings of the guidance will feed into in the forthcoming revision of the STM BREF. They are also to be used for HELCOM recommendations on how to reduce the discharge of hazardous substances into the Baltic Sea. Moreover, the document provides an overview of applicable legal requirements, procedures and other obligations of installation operators regarding use of chemicals and releases of hazardous substances. This includes guidance for tools to identify and assess relevant hazardous substances used and released from the STM installations. Main findings and proposals Improvement of chemical management system A Chemical Management System provides a systematic way of managing chemicals through the whole process on the site. Most of the companies have implemented quality management standards such as ISO 9000, ISO 14000, EMAS and integrated EHS programs which also address certain aspects of chemical management. The quality of chemical management systems in the companies differs depending on the scale of operation, ownership and awareness. Integration of good practices of chemical management within already implemented management systems strengthens the ability to reduce environmental risks. HAZBREF project strongly recommends the establishment and regular use of a chemical management system at IED installations. Development of a chemical inventory The establishment and maintenance of a chemical inventory is an importantprerequisite for effective and responsible chemicals management in the STMsector. All chemicals and raw materials along with information on their propertiesused in all processes and activities at the site should be listed in a database. Such adatabase is a key part of chemical management allowing for systematic riskassessment, management of chemicals flows and their storage. The information in the chemical list/database must be searchable and should be updated regularly. Most of the information needed is available in the safety datasheets (SDS). If some information is missing from the SDS, the supplier should be asked to provide this. Good routines to handle new and updated SDSs are crucial to have an up to date and reliable chemical database. These routines should involve on-site handling and updates as well as communication with suppliers on how SDSs are delivered. Well-managed chemical inventories can significantly simplify the environmental permit application process both for the operators and the permitting authorities. Better use of Chemical Management Tools and training of staf Numerous references and tools are available to support STM companies and competent authorities in implementing the good chemical management required in the IED. HAZBREF recommends that operators use proper tools for risk assessment and evaluation of the efficiency of chemical management. Use and improvement of risk assessment tools such as extended SDS and material flow analysis should be promoted among installation operators in this respect. The HAZBREF project has developed a comprehensive tool that helps the operators to identify the site-specific hazardous substances that should be considered in strategic and operational decisions. Awareness raising and training of staff in the use of chemical management tools and systems is crucial for implementation of good chemical management practices at the installations. Substitution A regular check aiming at identifying potentially new available and safer alternatives to the hazardous chemicals used is an important measure to minimise chemical risks at the installation. A successful substitution work can be performed in four stages: - Identification of hazardous substances - Screening for possible alternatives - Evaluation and choice of alternatives and Development of new alternatives. Substitution can be aimed for any hazardous chemical used at installation level where it is needed in order to protect environment or human health. However, regrettable substitution (i.e. move to use new chemical that is equally or more hazardous than the substituted chemical or results in cross-media effects) must be avoided. Assessment and improvement of SDS Efficient chemicals management requires high quality of the Safety Data Sheets (SDS). The SDS should sufficiently describe the chemical properties and include information about exposure (including use and emissions), eco-toxicology and proper storage and handling. A SDS must also contain information on whether the chemical product contains substances on the SVHC list, priority substances under the Water Framework Directive WFD and the POPs convention. In case a chemical supplier fails to provide a SDS of sufficient quality, it is the duty of both the operator and the competent authority to demand the missing information. This is already required by law in some countries, e.g. Germany. It is also important that the operators know how to extract and consolidate the relevant information from the SDS to their permit applications and verify the quality of different information sources. The development of an extended SDS including exposure scenarios and improved data on environmental effects would facilitate better risk assessment of individual chemicals used in specific processes. This would lead to more efficient monitoring and help focusing on substances of concern. Improved SDSs for raw materials with information on impurities or additives would facilitate more complete chemical inventories. Continuous improvement of BAT implementation The implementation of BAT needs to be continuously monitored and improved at the installation considering site specific technological, economical and environmental aspects. The findings from Polish HAZBREF case studies is that fulfilment of BAT requirements can be challenging if all improvements need to be done in a short time period. For example, closed-loop systems are considered necessary additional process-integrated techniques that it is important to implementstep by step in the installations. Circular economy The STM sector is a significant user of non-renewable resources (metals), and recycling of recovered metal containing materials such as metal substrates orelectrolytes back to the process is good practice. Such recovery processes are widely used for basic metals, such as zinc, copper and nickel, which are used as valuable secondary raw materials SRM. High costs of recovery processes and high energy consumption as well as the variety of chemicals and metals used in STM processes often hinders recycling. In cases where recycling is not feasible, pretreatment of contaminated waste water on site and subsequent off-site treatment of generated metal containing sludges is standard practice. Permitting process Beside best practices in chemical management, the project also elaborated recommendations on enhancing the permitting process in the STM sector. It can be concluded that the existing general structure and content of the permit application procedures are as such sufficient to deal with hazardous substances and chemicals. Nevertheless, in practice the permit process could be improved with more communication between the applicant and the permitting authority during the application phase. More co-operation between chemical, environmental and occupational health authorities is suggested to achieve a smooth information flow and reduce double work regarding requirements under different legislations concerning chemicals and hazardous substances. In some countries, for example in Finland, the supervising practices in different parts of a given country need harmonising so that all installations are treated equally. This requires more and better communication between the respective environmental and chemical authorities within the country. The improved exchange of information and examples of good experiences between Member States would also, in the long run, contribute to more harmonised and better practices on European level. ; Bakgrund Det huvudsakliga instrumentet på EU-nivå för att kontrollera utsläpp från industrin är industriutsläppsdirektivet (IED), särskilt genom publicering av BATreferensdokument (BREF) och relaterade BAT-slutsatser, som är referensen för att fastställa tillståndsvillkoren i hela EU för IED-verksamheter. De hittills publicerade BREF-dokumenten innehåller emellertid inte tillräckligt med information om specifika farliga kemikalier som används och släpps ut från industrin vilket gör kontrollen svår för industrin och tillstånds- och tillsynsmyndigheterna. En av sektorerna som valts ut i HAZBREF-projektet är ytbehandling av metaller och plast (STM). Denna sektor valdes på grund av användningen av kemikalier, potentiella utsläpp, det breda utbudet av produkter samt tekniska processer och den kommande STM BREF-revideringen. De andra sektorerna HAZBREF har fokuserat på är textilindustri och kemisk industri, som behandlas i separata rapporter. Bristen på kunskap om användning och flöde av specifika farliga kemikalier i de industriella processerna gör det svårt att kontrollera och minska kemikalierna. Problemet är ofta att varken verksamhetsutövare eller myndigheter vet vilka ämnen som är relevanta att åtgärda och vilka skyddsåtgärder som behöver vidtas. Ytbehandling av metaller och plast omfattas av STM BREF-dokumentet, som publicerades 2006. Enligt EIPPCB: s senaste arbetsprogram planeras revideringen av STM BREF att börja 2021. Dokumentets syfte Denna vägledning innehåller information om användning av farliga kemikalier, bästa praxis inom kemikaliehantering och rekommendationer för att förbättra tillståndsprocessen inom STM-sektorn. Detta dokument sammanfattar resultaten från HAZBREF-projektet och baseras på fallstudier, intervjuer med myndigheter och expertbedömning. Syftet är att beskriva god praxis inom kemikaliehantering som ska användas av STM-verksamheter samt miljö- och kemikaliemyndigheter. Dessa inkluderar tekniska, organisatoriska och hanteringsaspekter och konkreta verktyg som stöder kemikaliehantering. Rapporten behandlar STM-sektorn som helhet i Europa, även om huvuddelen av resultaten härrör från verksamheter som har deltagit i fallstudierna och andra erfarenheter i Östersjöregionen. Dokumentet innehåller också allmänna beskrivningar av BAT-förslag relaterade till hantering av farliga kemikalier och ämnen. Dessa resultat i vägledningen kommer att ingå i den kommande revideringen av STM BREF. De kan vidare användas för HELCOMrekommendationer om hur man kan minska utsläppen av farliga ämnen i Östersjön Dessutom ger dokumentet en översikt över tillämpliga lagkrav, förfaranden och andra skyldigheter för verksamhetsutövare beträffande användning av kemikalier och utsläpp av farliga ämnen. Detta inkluderar vägledning för hur man kan identifiera och bedöma relevanta farliga ämnen som används och släpps ut från STM-anläggningarna. Huvudsakliga resultat och förslag Förbättring av kemikaliehanteringssystemet Ett kemikaliehanteringssystem ger ett systematiskt sätt att hantera kemikalier genom hela processen på anläggningen. De flesta av företagen har implementerat olika standarder som ISO 9000, ISO 14000, EMAS och integrerade EHS-program som också behandlar vissa aspekter av kemikaliehantering. Kvaliteten på kemikaliehanteringssystem i företagen varierar beroende på deras storlek, ägarförhållanden och medvetenhet. Integrering av god praxis för kemikaliehantering i redan implementerade ledningssystem stärker förmågan att minska miljörisker. HAZBREF-projektet rekommenderar upprättande och regelbunden användning av ett kemikaliehanteringssystem vid IED-verksamheter. Utveckling av en kemikalieinventering Att upprätta och underhålla en kemikalieinventering är en viktig förutsättning för en effektiv och ansvarsfull kemikaliehantering inom STM-sektorn. Alla kemikalier och råvaror som används i alla processer och aktiviteter på anläggningen bör, tillsammans med information om deras egenskaper, listas i en databas. En sådan databas är en viktig del av kemikaliehanteringen och möjliggör systematisk riskbedömning, hantering av kemikalieflöden och lagring. Informationen i kemikalielistan/databasen måste vara sökbar och bör uppdateras regelbundet. Merparten av den information som behövs finns i säkerhetsdatabladet (SDS). Om viss information saknas i säkerhetsdatabladet bör leverantören uppmanas att lämna denna. Bra rutiner för att hantera nya och uppdaterade säkerhetsdatablad är avgörande för att ha en uppdaterad och pålitlig kemikaliedatabas. Dessa rutiner bör omfatta hantering och uppdateringar på plats samt kommunikation med leverantörer om hur säkerhetsdatablad levereras. Välskötta kemikalielistor/databaser kan avsevärt förenkla ansökan om miljötillstånd för både verksamhetsutövare och tillståndsmyndigheter. Bättre användning av verktyg för kemikaliehantering och utbildning av personal Många referenser och verktyg finns tillgängliga för att stödja STM-företag och behöriga myndigheter i genomförandet av den goda kemikaliehanteringen som krävs i IED. HAZBREF rekommenderar verksamhetsutövare att använda lämpliga verktyg för riskbedömning och utvärdering av kemikaliehanteringens effektivitet. Användning och förbättring av riskbedömningsverktyg som utökade säkerhetsdatablad och analys av materialflöden bör främjas bland verksamhetsutövare i detta avseende. HAZBREF-projektet har utvecklat ett omfattande verktyg som hjälper verksamhetsutövarna att identifiera platsspecifika farliga ämnen som bör beaktas i strategiska och operativa beslut. Att öka medvetenheten och att utbilda personal i användningen av verktyg för kemikaliehantering och kemikaliehanteringssystem är avgörande för genomförandet av god kemikaliehanteringspraxis vid verksamheterna. Substitution En regelbunden kontroll som syftar till att identifiera potentiellt nya tillgängliga och säkrare alternativ till de farliga kemikalier som används är en viktig åtgärd för att minimera kemiska risker vid verksamheten. Ett framgångsrikt substitutionsarbete kan utföras i fyra steg: - Identifiering av farliga ämnen - Screening efter möjliga alternativ - Utvärdering och val av alternativ och Utveckling av nya alternativ. Substitution kan riktas mot alla farliga kemikalier som används på verksamheten där det behövs för att skydda miljön eller människors hälsa. Substitution som senare ångras (dvs. byta till att använda en ny kemikalie som är lika eller mer farlig än den substituerade kemikalien eller som resulterar i tvärmedieeffekter) måste undvikas. Bedömning och förbättring av säkerhetsdatablad Effektiv kemikaliehantering kräver hög kvalitet på säkerhetsdatablad (SDS). Säkerhetsdatabladet bör beskriva de kemiska egenskaperna tillräckligt och innehålla information om exponering (inklusive användning och utsläpp), ekotoxikologi och korrekt lagring och hantering. Ett SDS måste också innehålla information om huruvida den kemiska produkten innehåller SVHC-ämnen, prioriterade ämnen enligt vattendirektivet WFD och POPs-konventionen. Om en kemikalieleverantör inte tillhandahåller ett säkerhetsdatablad av tillräcklig kvalitet är det både verksamhetsutövaren och den behöriga myndighetens skyldighet att kräva informationen som saknas. Detta krävs redan enligt lag i vissa länder, t.ex. i Tyskland. Det är också viktigt att verksamhetsutövarna vet hur man tar fram och sammanfattar relevant information från säkerhetsdatabladet till sina tillståndsansökningar och verifierar kvaliteten på olika informationskällor. För att förbättra riskbedömning av enskilda kemikalier, som används i specifika processer, kan ett utökat säkerhetsdatablad inklusive exponeringsscenarier och förbättrade data om miljöeffekter underlätta. Detta skulle leda till effektivare övervakning och hjälp med att fokusera på ämnen som är farliga. För att få mer fullständiga kemikalieinventeringar kan förbättrade säkerhetsdatablad för råvaror med information om föroreningar eller tillsatser underlätta. Kontinuerlig förbättring av implementeringen av BAT Implementeringen av BAT måste kontinuerligt övervakas och förbättras vid verksamheten med beaktande av platsspecifika tekniska, ekonomiska och miljöaspekter. Resultaten från de polska HAZBREF-fallstudierna är att uppfyllandet av BAT-kraven kan vara utmanande om alla förbättringar behöver göras på kort tid. Till exempel anses slutna system vara nödvändiga ytterligare processintegrerade tekniker som det är viktigt att implementera steg för steg i verksamheten. Cirkulär ekonomi STM-sektorn är en betydande användare av icke förnybara resurser (metaller), och återvinning av återvunna metallinnehållande material såsom metallsubstrat eller elektrolyter tillbaka till processen är god praxis. Sådana återvinningsprocesser används ofta för basiska metaller, såsom zink, koppar och nickel, som används som värdefulla sekundära råvaror (SRM). Höga kostnader för återvinningsprocesser och hög energianvändning samt de många olika kemikalier och metaller som används i STM-processer hindrar ofta återvinning. I de fall återvinning inte är möjlig är förbehandling av förorenat avloppsvatten på plats och efterföljande behandling av genererat metallhaltigt slam praxis. Tillståndsprocessen Förutom bästa praxis inom kemikaliehantering utarbetades även rekommendationer för att förbättra tillståndsprocessen inom STM-sektorn. Man kan dra slutsatsen att den befintliga allmänna strukturen och innehållet i tillståndsansökningsförfarandena som sådana är tillräckliga för att hantera farliga ämnen och kemikalier. I praktiken kan tillståndsprocessen ändå förbättras med mer kommunikation mellan den sökande och tillståndsmyndigheten under ansökningsfasen. Mer samarbete mellan kemikalie-, miljö- och arbetsmiljömyndigheterna föreslås för att uppnå ett smidigt informationsflöde och minska dubbelarbete avseende krav enligt olika lagstiftning om kemikalier och farliga ämnen. I vissa länder, till exempel i Finland, måste praxis för tillsyn och övervakning i olika delar av landet harmoniseras så att alla verksamheter behandlas lika. Detta kräver mer och bättre kommunikation mellan miljö- och kemikaliemyndigheter i landet. Det förbättrade informationsutbytet och exempel på goda erfarenheter mellan medlemsstaterna skulle också på sikt bidra till mer harmoniserad och bättre praxis på europeisk nivå.

Skowron, Jan/0000-0002-2335-1730; Sokolovsky, Kirill/0000-0001-5991-6863; Jovanovic, Miljana D/0000-0003-4298-3247; Harrison, Diana/0000-0001-8687-6588; Esenoglu, Hasan/0000-0003-3531-7510; Bonanos, Alceste Z/0000-0003-2851-1905; Liakos, Alexios/0000-0002-0490-1469; Reig, Pablo/0000-0002-6446-3050; D'Ago, Giuseppe/0000-0001-9697-7331; Martinez, Josep Manel Carrasco/0000-0002-3029-5853; Burgaz, Umut/0000-0003-0126-3999; Wyrzykowski, Lukasz/0000-0002-9658-6151; Lu, Jessica/0000-0001-9611-0009; Jensen, Eric/0000-0002-4625-7333; Chruslinska, Martyna/0000-0002-8901-6994; Mozdzierski, Dawid/0000-0002-3861-9031; Ranc, Clement/0000-0003-2388-4534; G. C., Anupama/0000-0003-3533-7183; Strobl, Jan/0000-0002-4147-2878; Russell, David/0000-0002-3500-631X; Pawlak, Michal/0000-0002-5632-9433; BAKIS, VOLKAN/0000-0002-3125-9010; Seabroke, George/0000-0003-4072-9536; Sitek, Monika/0000-0002-1568-4551; Kilic, Yucel/0000-0001-8641-0796; Netzel, Henryka/0000-0001-5608-0028; Nesci, Roberto/0000-0002-6645-6372; Iwanek, Patryk/0000-0002-6212-7221; Leto, Giuseppe/0000-0002-0040-5011; Awiphan, Supachai/0000-0003-3251-3583; Norton, Andrew/0000-0001-7619-8269; Kolb, Ulrich/0000-0001-8670-8365; Altavilla, Giuseppe/0000-0002-9934-1352; Itoh, Ryosuke/0000-0002-1183-8955; Gromadzki, Mariusz/0000-0002-1650-1518; Szegedi, Helene/0000-0002-9904-3582; Baker, Steven/0000-0002-6436-1257; Zielinski, Pawel/0000-0001-6434-9429; Kurowski, Sebastian/0000-0002-1557-0343 ; WOS:000508411900001 ; Gaia16aye was a binary microlensing event discovered in the direction towards the northern Galactic disc and was one of the first microlensing events detected and alerted to by the Gaia space mission. Its light curve exhibited five distinct brightening episodes, reaching up to I = 12 mag, and it was covered in great detail with almost 25 000 data points gathered by a network of telescopes. We present the photometric and spectroscopic follow-up covering 500 days of the event evolution. We employed a full Keplerian binary orbit microlensing model combined with the motion of Earth and Gaia around the Sun to reproduce the complex light curve. The photometric data allowed us to solve the microlensing event entirely and to derive the complete and unique set of orbital parameters of the binary lensing system. We also report on the detection of the first-ever microlensing space-parallax between the Earth and Gaia located at L2. The properties of the binary system were derived from microlensing parameters, and we found that the system is composed of two main-sequence stars with masses 0.57 +/- 0.05 M-circle dot and 0.36 +/- 0.03 M-circle dot at 780 pc, with an orbital period of 2.88 years and an eccentricity of 0.30. We also predict the astrometric microlensing signal for this binary lens as it will be seen by Gaia as well as the radial velocity curve for the binary system. Events such as Gaia16aye indicate the potential for the microlensing method of probing the mass function of dark objects, including black holes, in directions other than that of the Galactic bulge. This case also emphasises the importance of long-term time-domain coordinated observations that can be made with a network of heterogeneous telescopes. ; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): HARMONIA NCN grant [2015/18/M/ST9/00544]; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): OPUS NCN grant [2015/17/B/ST9/03167]; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): DAINA NCN grant [2017/27/L/ST9/03221]; European CommissionEuropean CommissionEuropean Commission Joint Research Centre [312430, 730890]; Polish Ministry of Higher EducationMinistry of Science and Higher Education, Poland [3040/7.PR/2014/2, DIR/WK/2018/12]; MAESTRO NCN grant [2014/14/A/ST9/00121]; DDT programmes [SW2016b12, A34DDT3]; UK Science and Technology Facilities CouncilUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); Foundation for Polish Science (Program START); National Science Center, PolandNational Science Centre, Poland [ETIUDA 2018/28/T/ST9/00096]; Slovenian Research AgencySlovenian Research Agency - Slovenia [P1-0031, J1-8136]; COST Action GWverseEuropean Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) [CA16104]; National Research Foundation of KoreaNational Research Foundation of Korea [2017R1A4A1015178]; STFCUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); European Space Agency under the NELIOTA program [4000112943]; GROWTH project - National Science Foundation [1545949]; MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) [ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R, ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R, RTI2018-095076B-C21]; ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia a Maria de Maeztu) [MDM-2014-0369]; Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) [ASI I/058/10/0, ASI 2014-025-R.1.2015]; Royal Society Research GrantRoyal Society of London [RG170230]; Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan)Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan [104-2112-M-008-012MY3, 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5]; European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant [320964]; Gordon and Betty Moore FoundationGordon and Betty Moore Foundation [GBMF5490]; NSFNational Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-1515927, AST-0908816, AST-1412587]; Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation; Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State UniversityOhio State University; Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy (CAS-SACA); Villum Foundation; MINECO under the Ramon y Cajal programme [RYC-2016-20254]; MINECO [AYA2017-86274-P]; AGAUR grantAgencia de Gestio D'Ajuts Universitaris de Recerca Agaur (AGAUR) [SGR-661/2017]; Science and Technology Facilities CouncilUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) [ST/P000541/1]; STFC consolidated grant [ST/M001296/1]; Research Council of LithuaniaResearch Council of Lithuania (LMTLT) [S-LL-19-2]; TUB.ITAKTurkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK); IKI; KFU; AST; National Science Fund (Bulgaria)National Science Fund of Bulgaria [DN 18/13-12.12.2017]; Institute of Astronomy via research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects"; NAO Rozhen, BAS, via research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects"; Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia [176011, 176004, 176021]; DFGGerman Research Foundation (DFG)European Commission [SPP 1992, WA 1074/11-1]; NCN [2016/21/B/ST9/01126]; MINECO Ramon y Cajal programme [AYA2017-86274-P, RYJ-2016-20254]; Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund; National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) [NNX08AR22G]; National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-1238877]; W. M. Keck FoundationW.M. Keck Foundation; ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia 'Maria de Maeztu') [MDM-2014-0369]; [3.6714.2017/8.9] ; This work relies on the results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multi-Lateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia.In particular we acknowledge Gaia Photomet-ric Science Alerts Team, website http://gsaweb.ast.cam.ac.uk/alerts.We thank the members of the OGLE team for discussions and support. We also would like to thank the Polish Children Fund (KFnRD) for support of an internship of their pupils in Ostrowik Observatory of the Warsaw Univ-ersity, during which some of the data were collected, in particular we thank: Robert Nowicki, Michal Por.ebski and Karol Niczyj. The work presented here has been supported by the following grants from the Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): HARMONIA NCN grant 2015/18/M/ST9/00544, OPUS NCN grant 2015/17/B/ST9/03167, DAINA NCN grant 2017/27/L/ST9/03221, as well as European Commission's FP7 and H2020 OPTICON grants (312430 and 730890), Polish Ministry of Higher Education support for OPTICON FP7, 3040/7.PR/2014/2, MNiSW grant DIR/WK/2018/12. PMr and JS acknowledge support from MAESTRO NCN grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to Andrzej Udal-ski. We would like to thank the following members of the AAVSO for their amazing work with collecting vast amounts of data: Teofilo Arranz, James Boardman, Stephen Brincat, Geoff Chaplin, Emery Erdelyi, Rafael Farfan, William Goff, Franklin Guenther, Kevin Hills, Jens Jacobsen, Raymond Kneip, David Lane, Fernando Limon Martinez, Gianpiero Locatelli, Andrea Mantero, Attila Madai, Peter Meadows, Otmar Nickel, Arto Oksanen, Luis Perez, Roger Pieri, Ulisse Quadri, Diego Rodriguez Perez, Frank Schorr, George Sjoberg, Andras Timar, Ray Tomlin, Tonny Vanmunster, Klaus Wenzel, Thomas Wikander. We also thank the amateur observers from around the world, in particular, Pietro Capuozzo, Leone Trascianelli, Igor Zharkov from Ardingly College and Angelo Tomassini, Karl-Ludwig Bath. We also thank Roger Pickard from the British Astronomical Association and Matthias Penselin from the German Haus der Astronomie association for their contributions. KS thanks Dr. Dmitry Chulkov and Dr. Panagiotis Gavras for the interesting discussion of stellar multiplicity. We acknowledge support of DDT programmes SW2016b12 (WHT) and A34DDT3 (TNG). The INT, TNG and WHT are operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. SJF would like to thank the UCL students who assisted with the collection and checking of UCLO data for the observing campaign: Martina Aghopian, Ashleigh Arendt, Artem Barinov, Luke Barrett, Jasper Berry-Gair, Arjun Bhogal, Charles Bowesman, William Boyd, Andrei Cuceu, Michael Davies, Max Freedman, Gabriel Fu, Abirami Govindaraju, Iandeep Hothi, Clara Matthews Torres, Darius Modirrousta-Galian, Petru Neague, George Pattinson, Xiaoxi Song, and Brian Yu. P.Mr. acknowledges support from the Foundation for Polish Science (Program START) and the National Science Center, Poland (grant ETIUDA 2018/28/T/ST9/00096).; r r AC, AG and NI acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P1-0031 and project grant No. J1-8136)and networking support by the COST Action GWverse CA16104. Skinakas Observatory is a collaborative project of the University of Crete and the Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas. Work by C.H. was supported by the grant (2017R1A4A1015178) of National Research Foundation of Korea. KW acknowledges funding from STFC, and thanks the University of Lei-cester for the investment in instrumentation. We gratefully acknowledge financial support by the European Space Agency under the NELIOTA program, contract No. 4000112943. This work has made use of data obtained with the Kryoneri Prime Focus Instrument, developed by the European Space Agency NELIOTA project on the 1.2 m Kryoneri telescope, which is operated by IAASARS, National Observatory of Athens, Greece. The Aristarchos tele-scope is operated on Helmos Observatory by the IAASARS of the National Observatory of Athens. This work was supported by the GROWTH project funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No 1545949. This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia a Maria de Maeztu). This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R and RTI2018-095076B-C21 (MINECO/FEDER, UE), and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia 'Maria de Maeztu'). The Joan Oro Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM) is owned by the Catalan Government and is operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). Support to this study has been provided by Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) through grants ASI I/058/10/0 and ASI 2014-025-R.1.2015. KW thanks Dipali Thanki and Ray McErlean for their technical support of the scientific programme of the University of Leicester observatory. This work was supported by Royal Society Research Grant RG170230. CCN thanks the funding from Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan) under the contracts 104-2112-M-008-012MY3 and 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer). We thank the Las Cumbres Observatory and its sta ff for its continuing support of the project. ASAS-SN is supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through grant GBMF5490 to the Ohio State University and NSF grant AST-1515927. Development of ASAS-SN has been supported by NSF grant AST-0908816, the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation, the Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy (CAS-SACA), the Villum Foundation, and George Skestos. ARM acknowledges support from the MINECO under the Ramon y Cajal programme (RYC-2016-20254) and the AYA2017-86274-P grant, and the AGAUR grant SGR-661/2017. We acknowledge support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (TB and RWW; ST/P000541/1). K.Horne acknowledges support from STFC consolidated grant ST/M001296/1. This work was partly supported by the Research Council of Lithuania, grant No. S-LL-19-2 Authors thank to TUB.ITAK, IKI, KFU, and AST for partial supports in using RTT150 (Russian-Turkish 1.5-m telescope in Antalya).; r r This work was partially funded by the subsidy 3.6714.2017/8.9 allocated to Kazan Federal University for the state assignment in the sphere of scientific activities. This research was partially supported by contract DN 18/13-12.12.2017 with the National Science Fund (Bulgaria). Work by YS was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, administered by Uni-versities Space Research Associ-ation through a contract with NASA. GD gratefully acknowledges the obser-ving grant support from the Institute of Astronomy and NAO Rozhen, BAS, via bilateral joint research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects" (PI:G.Damljanovic). This work is a part of the Projects no. 176011 "Dynamics and kinematics of celestial bodies and systems", no. 176004 "Stellar physics" and no. 176021 "Visible and invisible matter in nearby galaxies: theory and observations" supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. YT acknowledges the support of DFG priority program SPP 1992 "Exploring the diversity of Extrasolar Planets" (WA 1074/11-1). This work of PMi, DM and ZK was supported by the NCN grant no. 2016/21/B/ST9/01126. ARM acknowledges support from the MINECO Ramon y Cajal programme RYJ-2016-20254 and grant AYA2017-86274-P and from the AGAUR grant SGR-661/2017. The work by C. R. was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by USRA through a contract with NASA. The Faulkes Telescope Project is an education partner of Las Cumbres Observatory (LCO). The Faulkes Telescopes are maintained and operated by LCO. This research was made possible through the use of the AAVSO Photomet-ric All-Sky Survey (APASS), funded by the Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund and NSF AST-1412587. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project O ffice, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incor-porated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Sci-ence Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Ins-titute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation.