The development within the area of information and communications technology (ICT) has been rapid during the last couple of decades. Advancements in mobile technology, such as smartphones and other portable devices with embedded sensors, rapid expansion of communications infrastructure, and increased spectrum utilization, has had a major impact on civilian society, but increasingly also on professional organizations such as the Swedish Armed Forces. While this technology allows for enhanced capabilities in the areas of command and control, situational awareness, and information management, it also leads to new challenges in such areas as cyber security and privacy. For armed forces in many parts of the world, being able to deploy in new types of missions, such as humanitarian assistance and response operations due to natural or man-made disasters, is an increasingly sought-after capability. Such operations commonly require collaboration amongst several heterogeneous organizations, which in turn requires technical as well as organizational interoperability. While the actors must be able to share certain information efficiently, with regards to integrity and availability, sensitive or classified information must be safeguarded in terms of confidentiality. This thesis is concerned with studying emerging ICT for use on the battlefield of tomorrow, investigating how it can lead to more effective operations, and what preconditions that must be met in order for the technology to be of utility for inter-organizational collaboration. In particular, the thesis studies how an acceptable level of information security can be upheld in interconnected tactical communications networks. It is found that Mobile Ad-hoc Networks, Software-Defined Radio and Cognitive Radio are emerging technologies that, while still immature, can contribute to improved capabilities for communications, command and control, and information collection. Furthermore, Hastily Formed Networks is found to be an effective framework for collaboration between heterogeneous actors. However, in order for emerging ICTs to provide military utility, several non-technical requirements must be met. These include usability, trust, legality, cost, and verifying that the technology is in accordance with current military doctrine. Antagonistic as well as unintentional threats must also be mitigated, including information leaks caused by cyberattacks or insiders, and possible consequences of reduced user privacy. Besides to the Swedish Armed Forces, this thesis should be of interest to armed forces of comparable countries, and for professional organizations faced with similar challenges. Among the drawn conclusions, the thesis recommends continuously evaluating emerging ICT in support of new capabilities, through academic research as well as internal concept development. Adopting an incremental and modular process is also recommended when developing or procuring new ICT systems, instead of making long-term investments in proprietary technology. Furthermore, a focus should be put on promoting military requirements in future civilian ICT standards. In this way development costs can be reduced, while facilitating tactical use of commercial off-the-shelf products. Regarding information security in tactical networks for inter-organizational collaboration the thesis concludes that employing best-effort methods could allow for efficient information exchange between actors, while upholding acceptable risk levels regarding data leakage. ; Informations- och kommunikationsteknik (IKT) har under de senaste årtiondena varit under stark utveckling. Ökad tillgänglighet av mobil teknik, såsom smarta mobiltelefoner och andra bärbara enheter med inbyggda sensorer, kraftig utbyggnad av kommunikationsinfrastruktur samt framsteg inom spektrumeffektivitet, har haft en stor betydelse för civilsamhället samt i ökande grad även för insatsorganisationer såsom Försvarsmakten. Tekniken bidrar till ökad förmåga till ledning, situationsuppfattning och informationshantering, men medför samtidigt flera utmaningar inom områden som cybersäkerhet och personlig integritet. Nya uppgifter som parallellt kommit i fokus för försvarsmakter i många länder inkluderar förmågan att kunna delta i stödjande insatser i samband med naturkatastrofer, terrorattacker, eller att kunna erbjuda humanitärt bistånd i internationella miljöer. Sådana insatser kräver vanligtvis samverkan mellan många olika heterogena organisationer, vilket medför ett behov av såväl teknisk som organisatorisk interoperabilitet. Viss information måste kunna delas effektivt mellan de ingående aktörerna med avseende på riktighet och tillgänglighet, samtidigt som känsliga uppgifter måste skyddas avseende sekretess. I denna avhandling studeras taktiskt användande av framväxande IKT på morgondagens slagfält, hur tekniken kan bidra till mer effektiva operationer, samt vilka förutsättningar och krav som måste uppfyllas för att tekniken ska kunna vara till nytta vid interorganisatorisk samverkan. Särskilt undersöks möjligheten att upprätthålla en acceptabel nivå av informationssäkerhet i gemensamma taktiska sambandssystem, samtidigt som dessa kan användas effektivt under påfrestande förhållanden. Avhandlingen finner att tekniker som mobila ad hoc-nätverk, mjukvarudefinierad radio och kognitiv radio, trots att de ännu är omogna, kan komma att bidra till förbättrade eller helt nya förmågor inom bland annat samband, ledning och informationsinhämtning. Vidare dras slutsatsen att ramverket Hastily Formed Networks är effektivt för samverkan mellan heterogena aktörer. För att framväxande IKT ska kunna vara av militär nytta krävs dock att flera icke-tekniska krav kan mötas. Dessa inkluderar användbarhet, tillit, legalitet, kostnad, samt att tekniken ligger i linje med rådande militär doktrin. Såväl antagonistiska som oavsiktliga hot måste samtidigt hanteras, såsom informationsläckor orsakade av cyberattacker eller insiders, samt konsekvensen av en minskad personlig integritet för användarna. Avhandlingen förväntas vara av intresse för såväl Försvarsmakten som organisationer med liknande förutsättningar i Sverige och jämförbara länder. Som slutsats rekommenderas i avhandlingen att framväxande IKT till stöd för nya förmågor kontinuerligt utvärderas genom såväl akademisk forskning som intern konceptutveckling, samt att en inkrementell och modulär modell bör väljas vid utveckling och anskaffning, snarare än att göra omfattande investeringar i proprietär teknik. Fokus bör även vara på att tidigt få med militära krav i civila IKT-standarder. På så vis kan utvecklingskostnader reduceras, samtidigt som militär användning av kommersiellt tillgängliga produkter förenklas. En slutsats gällande informationssäkerhet är att man med metoder som baseras på så kallad "best-effort" kan effektivisera utbytet i ett gemensamt informationssystem, samtidigt som risken för dataläckage kan behållas på en acceptabel nivå.
The article deals with transformation processes and historical way of the family forming; it is found the main aspects of the formation and development of matrimonial relations; it is analyzed current trends in the development of Ukrainian family. Much attention is given to the consideration of family types, structure and matrimonial relations. The family is the most ancient social institution that passed through a difficult historical and socio-cultural ways of formation and development. From ancient times, philosophers, sociologists, culturologists and demographers studied analysis of various aspects of its functioning, social potential and ways of its implementation, depending on a system of social factors,. Scientific works on the history of marriage and family appeared recently in comparison. By the mid-19th century dominated religious and dogmatic views on marriage and family, which was seen as something immutable, founded an expression in identifying the patriarchal and bourgeois family. That fact that along with a monogamous family existed eastern polygamy (polygyny) or Indo-tibetan polyandry, historians studying family simply ignored.The beginning of a systematic, actually scientific study of the family put Engels' work "Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" (1884), which traced the changing of family and marriage in the past, it is shown that in the historical process three forms of marriage changed one another: in the age of savagery – group (tribal) marriage, during the period of barbarism – the pair marriage, at the time of civilization forming – monogamy. Above mentioned work of Engels has a scientific and historical value up till now.In science for a long time, in fact till the 60ies of the 19th century, the family was considered as the most original and the oldest form of ancient society, from which subsequently arose kin, tribe, nation. Engels proved that this formula does not reflect the true state of affairs, having studied the results of research and scientific work "Ancient Society" (1877) by L. Morhan, using the writings of a number of other scholars on the history of ancient society, he gave a new explanation of the historical forms of family and marriage. Engels paid a special attention to the evolution of family forms, its development from group forms to monogamy.Family is a socially sanctioned, a relatively stable group of people united by blood relationship, marriage or adoption of children, whose members live together and economically linked with each other. The family is both a small social group and a social institution. Family has always been and left a major element of society, that's why, type, structure and its shape depend on the national peculiarities of the people. In any society, there are times when it breaks down, it is broken all ties, and only family remains a place where is preserved the "social genotype", which conveys the social memory to the future. The family came into being much earlier than the appearance of such social institutions as religion, government, education.Ukrainian people for centuries created a unique culture that reflects its manifold life, values that were produced by the nation: honoring of the family, worship of the memory of ancestors, careful treatment of the child and the people in years. All of this is impossible without a deep knowledge of the folk traditions, moral norms and customary law of its people. Studying scientific sources on the formation of matrimonial relations, we can assert that in prehistoric times dominated the relationship of so-called promiscuity (disordered sexual relations). Later there emerged endogamy, at this time sexual relations joined the representatives of the same genus. Gradually, endogamy develops into exogamy what constitutes systematic sexual relations between people of different kins. Initial form of exogamous marriage was group marriage. Over time, group family and marriage became transformed into the pair family that combines the two persons – a man and a woman. Pair marriage had three varieties: dislocal, matrilocal and patrylocal marriage. From the pair marriage, society moves towards monogamy and polygamy.In Ukraine a monogamous family exists from the time of settlement of its territory, evidenced by historical and archaeological materials . This is the most common form of family up till now. Type of monogamous family is defined by the number of married couples and blood related members in the family. On this basis the Ukrainian families can be divided into simple (complete, incomplete), complex and extended family.Among the socio-cultural characteristics of families, from which depends the effectiveness of its educational activity, scholars have identified: the presence of the family as the only whole collective of adherents which is distinguished by high emotionality, psychological unity, love, sincerity, trust, sensitivity; positively mild family atmosphere that helps to make a pedagogical influence of parents; a clear system of educational influence, culture and spirituality, purposeful and concrete application of specific methods of education. Family fulfils very important social and ethnocultural functions connecting it with all spheres of human activity.Summing up the study of the historical aspects of family formation and matrimonial relations in the socio-cultural space, we can affirm that the family as the basis of society has gone through not easy way of its functioning anddevelopment, from promiscuity to a monogamous relationship. The current state of Ukrainian society demonstrates the changes of types, forms, conditions and ways of lifestyle of the family. The process of evolution of family forms are directly related to social processes and political system that impose their imprints on the formation, settling, development of family and matrimonial relations. ; В статье рассмотрены трансформационные процессы и исторический путь формирования семьи; определено основные аспекты становления и развития брачно-семейных отношений; проанализировано современные тенденции развития украинской семьи. Особенное внимание уделяется рассмотрению типов, структуре семьи и брачно-семейным отношениям. ; У статті розглянуто трансформаційні процеси та історичний шлях формування сім'ї; з'ясовано основні аспекти становлення та розвитку шлюбно-сімейних відносин; проаналізовано сучасні тенденції розвитку української сім'ї. Особлива увага відводиться розгляду типів, структурі сім'ї та шлюбно-сімейним відносинам.
We spend most of our lives in buildings. These were built mostly before the oil shocks of 1974 and 1979 and offer both poor energy performances and improvable comfort conditions (thermal, acoustic, natural lighting). In France, with 32 million units and an annual turnover of less than 1% of the existing building stock, the energy renovation of housing becomes a necessity. This, as much for political ends (energy dependence), economic reasons (revival of construction jobs, real-estate valorisation), social reasons (wellbeing of occupants), as environmental reasons (reduction of greenhouse gas emissions). This thesis aims to provide knowledge and a methodology to contribute to the decision support for prescribing efficient energy renovation scenarios of houses built during the 1945-1974 period. Three issues are highlighted in this research work: 1) the integration of an holistic approach of renovation process (systemic and multi-criteria) to avoid not foreseen collateral effects due to bad choices; 2) help formalize the preferences of decision-takers (homeowners) in a format interpretable by multi-criteria analysis tools; 3) integration of uncertainties related to the characterization of existing buildings in the process of scenarios generation and decision support. Through a systemic description of buildings and a multi-criteria performance assessment of formerly identified renovation actions, we propose an innovative methodology, consisted of 6 modular and interchangeable technical sub-models, which aims to automate the generation, assessment, optimization and performance-based ranking of renovation scenarios. The heart of the methodology is based on the formalization of renovation knowledge from construction specialists in two of our six sub-models. The first one is an influence matrix that we use to translate most common renovation goals (equivalent to the wishes expressed by homeowners) into a profile of relative weights and a profile of targeted-levels of performance on indicators modelled. The second one is a probabilistic inference tool (using the technology of bayesian networks) to both optimize assemblies of renovation actions (programming by successive constraints) and achieve multi-criteria evaluation of these assemblies (by the use of aggregation functions of local performances). A sixth and final sub-model uses the ELECTRE outranking methods to sort and classify, by preference order, renovation scenarios previously generated. At last, our methodology provides the ability to let users test their own energy renovation scenarios in order to analyze their multi-criteria performances and compatibility with the characteristics of the existing capitalized during the technical diagnosis of their building. The methodology proposed is intended to be educational and transposable into a functional computer system prototype. A first version was developed and used to apply our decision process to a real case of individual house to renovate. First results obtained are consistent and allow validating the approach. However, keep in mind that like any model using expert knowledge, robustness and validity limit of its scope of application depend on the quality of knowledge work capitalized. ; Nous passons la majeure partie de notre vie dans des bâtiments. Ces derniers ont été construits, pour la plupart, avant les chocs pétroliers de 1974 et 1979, et offrent une performance énergétique médiocre ainsi que des conditions de confort (thermique, acoustique, éclairement naturel) largement améliorables. En France, avec 32 millions de logements et un taux de renouvellement annuel du parc existant inférieur à 1 %, la rénovation énergétique des logements devient une nécessité. Cela, autant pour des raisons politiques (indépendances énergétiques), économiques (relance des emplois de la construction, valorisation du patrimoine), sociales (bien-être des occupants, lutte contre la précarité), qu'environnementales (diminutions des émissions des gaz à effet de serre). Ce travail de thèse vise à proposer des connaissances ainsi qu'une méthodologie afin de contribuer à l'aide à la décision pour la prescription de scénarios d'amélioration énergétique efficaces des maisons individuelles construites durant la période 1945-1974. Trois problématiques sont mises en avant dans cette recherche. 1) l'intégration de l'approche globale (systémique et multicritère) de la rénovation afin d'éviter des contre-performances collatérales dues à des mauvais choix ; 2) l'aide à la formalisation des préférences des propriétaires-occupants (notre maîtrise d'ouvrage) dans un format interprétable par des outils d'analyses multicritères ; 3) l'intégration des incertitudes liées à la caractérisation des bâtiments existants dans le processus d'élaboration des scénarios et d'aide à la décision. À travers une description systémique des bâtiments et une évaluation multicritères des performances des actions d'amélioration retenues, nous proposons une méthodologie innovante, constituée de 6 sous-modèles techniques modulables et interchangeables, qui vise à automatiser le processus de construction, d'évaluation et de hiérarchisation performantielle de scénarios de rénovation. Le cœur de notre méthodologie est basé sur la formalisation de l'expertise métier des spécialistes du bâtiment dans deux de nos 6 sous-modèles. Le premier est une matrice d'influence permettant de passer des enjeux de rénovation les plus courants (équivalent aux préférences exprimées par la maîtrise d'ouvrage) en profil de poids relatifs et profil de niveaux-cibles de performance sur les indicateurs modélisés. Le second, est un outil d'inférence probabiliste (utilisant la technologie des réseaux bayésiens) permettant à la fois d'optimiser les assemblages d'actions d'amélioration (programmation par contraintes successives) et de réaliser une évaluation multicritère de ces assemblages (par l'usage de fonctions d'agrégation de performances locales). Un sixième et dernier sous-modèle utilise les méthodes de surclassement ELECTRE pour trier et classer les alternatives de rénovation préalablement générées par ordre de préférence. Notre méthodologie offre enfin la possibilité de laisser l'utilisateur tester ses propres scénarios d'amélioration énergétique afin d'analyser leurs performances multicritères et leur compatibilité avec les caractéristiques de l'existant capitalisées lors du diagnostic technique d'une opération. La méthodologie développée se veut pédagogique et transposable dans un prototype d'outil informatique fonctionnel. Une première version a été développée et utilisée pour appliquer notre processus d'aide à la décision à un cas réel de maison individuelle à rénover. Les premiers résultats obtenus sont cohérents et permettent de valider la démarche. Néanmoins, il faut garder à l'esprit que comme tout modèle utilisant des connaissances expertes, sa robustesse et la limite de validité de son périmètre d'application dépendent de la qualité du savoir métier capitalisé.
Our project name is Sustainable Pub: Water, the ultimate goal of this project is how can the water usage of the Koerner Pub be reduced. The stakeholder, Tim Yu, has placed three constraints on the final outcome and conclusion of this project. These constraints are: low capital expenditures, no restructuring of the building and to follow government's health and safety regulations. Due to these constraints, the team has decided to design new water usage practices for the Koerner Pub, by doing so the water usage can be reduced without the need of any new investments other than the necessary training required for the pub employees. The team also agreed that instead of deciding which practices are most suited for the Koerner's Pub, we will present a list of possible practices with their pros and cons to the stakeholder and let him decide whether or not to implement them. All of the team members agreed that the best method to design new water conservation practices was to survey other restaurants and learn if they had any practices that can be implemented at Koerner's Pub. The team believed that in order to get the most accurate results it would be necessary to survey workers in different positions, to ensure that they are familiar with their stations. Therefore, the survey was constructed for three different positions within a pub style restaurant: bartender, kitchen staff and manager. Out of the twelve copies of survey that were sent out, only five restaurants responded. After combining and analyzing the results, the team found that none of the restaurants have water conservation policies and neither do they have sustainability in mind. Albeit these restaurants said that they do not deliberately implement water conservation practices, the restaurant's kitchen staff and bartenders still gave us interesting practices that can contribute to water conservation. There are four practices that our team believes could be implemented by the Koerner's Pub. The first practice is to scrape clean dishes instead of rinsing them before putting them into the dish water. This is a rather simple procedure that has significant impact on water conservation. The positive aspect of this practice is that it is environmentally friendly, while the negative aspect is the requirement of more labour hours The second water conservation practice that our team designed is to serve customers water only when asked. As we learned from the survey, not all customers drink the water that was served. By serving water only when asked there is a higher likelihood that the water will be consumed and not wasted. This will also reduce the number of cups that need to be cleaned. This practice conserves water to two stages, however, one downside is that customers may dislike that fact that they are not immediately served water. A simple solution to this problem is to ensure that waiters ask the customers for their drink orders in a timely manner. The final two water conservation practices are related to the disposal of ice. According to the surveyed restaurants, they all clean up and melt any left over ice cubes in the ice wells before closing every day, this is to prevent any bacteria growth. Simply throwing ice out at the end of the night is clearly a wasteful practice. Therefore, we propose that the ice not be thrown out but put to use in other ways. The first way to use the ice cubes is to water plants. This practice eliminates the need to use fresh water on plants and reduces the amount of ice that is thrown out. The practice has no downside and conserves a noticeable amount of water if performed on a daily basis. If there is still left over ice, then it can be dumped outside beside the plants. In our survey, we found that restaurants tend to dump left over ice into a sink and then turn on hot water to melt the ice faster. Our team finds this practice unnecessary because it creates water consumption that can be avoided. Koerner's Pub can train its employees to clean the ice well only when it is close to the closing time. By dumping the leftover ice outside, nature's energy is used to melt the ice, and the process does not affect the operation of the restaurants at all. The downside of the practice is that it takes more labour hours to transport the unused ice outside, and that the dumped ice creates a potential hazard as the melted ice water might cause people to slip. Therefore, the team recommends that Koerner's Pub to place a "slippery floor" sign next to the dumped ice or to dump the ice in a responsible location. It should be noted that according to the stakeholder, the Koerner's Pub does not have access to the water usage bill. Therefore, it is difficult to do a quantitative analysis of these practices to see exactly what impact they would have on water consumption. However, the team strongly believes that if implemented, these practices will reduce water consumption in the long run. Disclaimer: "UBC SEEDS provides students with the opportunity to share the findings of their studies, as well as their opinions, conclusions and recommendations with the UBC community. The reader should bear in mind that this is a student project/report and is not an official document of UBC. Furthermore readers should bear in mind that these reports may not reflect the current status of activities at UBC. We urge you to contact the research persons mentioned in a report or the SEEDS Coordinator about the current status of the subject matter of a project/report." ; Applied Science, Faculty of ; Unreviewed ; Undergraduate
We spend most of our lives in buildings. These were built mostly before the oil shocks of 1974 and 1979 and offer both poor energy performances and improvable comfort conditions (thermal, acoustic, natural lighting). In France, with 32 million units and an annual turnover of less than 1% of the existing building stock, the energy renovation of housing becomes a necessity. This, as much for political ends (energy dependence), economic reasons (revival of construction jobs, real-estate valorisation), social reasons (wellbeing of occupants), as environmental reasons (reduction of greenhouse gas emissions). This thesis aims to provide knowledge and a methodology to contribute to the decision support for prescribing efficient energy renovation scenarios of houses built during the 1945-1974 period. Three issues are highlighted in this research work: 1) the integration of an holistic approach of renovation process (systemic and multi-criteria) to avoid not foreseen collateral effects due to bad choices; 2) help formalize the preferences of decision-takers (homeowners) in a format interpretable by multi-criteria analysis tools; 3) integration of uncertainties related to the characterization of existing buildings in the process of scenarios generation and decision support. Through a systemic description of buildings and a multi-criteria performance assessment of formerly identified renovation actions, we propose an innovative methodology, consisted of 6 modular and interchangeable technical sub-models, which aims to automate the generation, assessment, optimization and performance-based ranking of renovation scenarios. The heart of the methodology is based on the formalization of renovation knowledge from construction specialists in two of our six sub-models. The first one is an influence matrix that we use to translate most common renovation goals (equivalent to the wishes expressed by homeowners) into a profile of relative weights and a profile of targeted-levels of performance on indicators modelled. The second one is a probabilistic inference tool (using the technology of bayesian networks) to both optimize assemblies of renovation actions (programming by successive constraints) and achieve multi-criteria evaluation of these assemblies (by the use of aggregation functions of local performances). A sixth and final sub-model uses the ELECTRE outranking methods to sort and classify, by preference order, renovation scenarios previously generated. At last, our methodology provides the ability to let users test their own energy renovation scenarios in order to analyze their multi-criteria performances and compatibility with the characteristics of the existing capitalized during the technical diagnosis of their building. The methodology proposed is intended to be educational and transposable into a functional computer system prototype. A first version was developed and used to apply our decision process to a real case of individual house to renovate. First results obtained are consistent and allow validating the approach. However, keep in mind that like any model using expert knowledge, robustness and validity limit of its scope of application depend on the quality of knowledge work capitalized. ; Nous passons la majeure partie de notre vie dans des bâtiments. Ces derniers ont été construits, pour la plupart, avant les chocs pétroliers de 1974 et 1979, et offrent une performance énergétique médiocre ainsi que des conditions de confort (thermique, acoustique, éclairement naturel) largement améliorables. En France, avec 32 millions de logements et un taux de renouvellement annuel du parc existant inférieur à 1 %, la rénovation énergétique des logements devient une nécessité. Cela, autant pour des raisons politiques (indépendances énergétiques), économiques (relance des emplois de la construction, valorisation du patrimoine), sociales (bien-être des occupants, lutte contre la précarité), qu'environnementales (diminutions des émissions des gaz à effet de serre). Ce travail de thèse vise à proposer des connaissances ainsi qu'une méthodologie afin de contribuer à l'aide à la décision pour la prescription de scénarios d'amélioration énergétique efficaces des maisons individuelles construites durant la période 1945-1974. Trois problématiques sont mises en avant dans cette recherche. 1) l'intégration de l'approche globale (systémique et multicritère) de la rénovation afin d'éviter des contre-performances collatérales dues à des mauvais choix ; 2) l'aide à la formalisation des préférences des propriétaires-occupants (notre maîtrise d'ouvrage) dans un format interprétable par des outils d'analyses multicritères ; 3) l'intégration des incertitudes liées à la caractérisation des bâtiments existants dans le processus d'élaboration des scénarios et d'aide à la décision. À travers une description systémique des bâtiments et une évaluation multicritères des performances des actions d'amélioration retenues, nous proposons une méthodologie innovante, constituée de 6 sous-modèles techniques modulables et interchangeables, qui vise à automatiser le processus de construction, d'évaluation et de hiérarchisation performantielle de scénarios de rénovation. Le cœur de notre méthodologie est basé sur la formalisation de l'expertise métier des spécialistes du bâtiment dans deux de nos 6 sous-modèles. Le premier est une matrice d'influence permettant de passer des enjeux de rénovation les plus courants (équivalent aux préférences exprimées par la maîtrise d'ouvrage) en profil de poids relatifs et profil de niveaux-cibles de performance sur les indicateurs modélisés. Le second, est un outil d'inférence probabiliste (utilisant la technologie des réseaux bayésiens) permettant à la fois d'optimiser les assemblages d'actions d'amélioration (programmation par contraintes successives) et de réaliser une évaluation multicritère de ces assemblages (par l'usage de fonctions d'agrégation de performances locales). Un sixième et dernier sous-modèle utilise les méthodes de surclassement ELECTRE pour trier et classer les alternatives de rénovation préalablement générées par ordre de préférence. Notre méthodologie offre enfin la possibilité de laisser l'utilisateur tester ses propres scénarios d'amélioration énergétique afin d'analyser leurs performances multicritères et leur compatibilité avec les caractéristiques de l'existant capitalisées lors du diagnostic technique d'une opération. La méthodologie développée se veut pédagogique et transposable dans un prototype d'outil informatique fonctionnel. Une première version a été développée et utilisée pour appliquer notre processus d'aide à la décision à un cas réel de maison individuelle à rénover. Les premiers résultats obtenus sont cohérents et permettent de valider la démarche. Néanmoins, il faut garder à l'esprit que comme tout modèle utilisant des connaissances expertes, sa robustesse et la limite de validité de son périmètre d'application dépendent de la qualité du savoir métier capitalisé.
We spend most of our lives in buildings. These were built mostly before the oil shocks of 1974 and 1979 and offer both poor energy performances and improvable comfort conditions (thermal, acoustic, natural lighting). In France, with 32 million units and an annual turnover of less than 1% of the existing building stock, the energy renovation of housing becomes a necessity. This, as much for political ends (energy dependence), economic reasons (revival of construction jobs, real-estate valorisation), social reasons (wellbeing of occupants), as environmental reasons (reduction of greenhouse gas emissions). This thesis aims to provide knowledge and a methodology to contribute to the decision support for prescribing efficient energy renovation scenarios of houses built during the 1945-1974 period. Three issues are highlighted in this research work: 1) the integration of an holistic approach of renovation process (systemic and multi-criteria) to avoid not foreseen collateral effects due to bad choices; 2) help formalize the preferences of decision-takers (homeowners) in a format interpretable by multi-criteria analysis tools; 3) integration of uncertainties related to the characterization of existing buildings in the process of scenarios generation and decision support. Through a systemic description of buildings and a multi-criteria performance assessment of formerly identified renovation actions, we propose an innovative methodology, consisted of 6 modular and interchangeable technical sub-models, which aims to automate the generation, assessment, optimization and performance-based ranking of renovation scenarios. The heart of the methodology is based on the formalization of renovation knowledge from construction specialists in two of our six sub-models. The first one is an influence matrix that we use to translate most common renovation goals (equivalent to the wishes expressed by homeowners) into a profile of relative weights and a profile of targeted-levels of performance on indicators modelled. The second one is a probabilistic inference tool (using the technology of bayesian networks) to both optimize assemblies of renovation actions (programming by successive constraints) and achieve multi-criteria evaluation of these assemblies (by the use of aggregation functions of local performances). A sixth and final sub-model uses the ELECTRE outranking methods to sort and classify, by preference order, renovation scenarios previously generated. At last, our methodology provides the ability to let users test their own energy renovation scenarios in order to analyze their multi-criteria performances and compatibility with the characteristics of the existing capitalized during the technical diagnosis of their building. The methodology proposed is intended to be educational and transposable into a functional computer system prototype. A first version was developed and used to apply our decision process to a real case of individual house to renovate. First results obtained are consistent and allow validating the approach. However, keep in mind that like any model using expert knowledge, robustness and validity limit of its scope of application depend on the quality of knowledge work capitalized. ; Nous passons la majeure partie de notre vie dans des bâtiments. Ces derniers ont été construits, pour la plupart, avant les chocs pétroliers de 1974 et 1979, et offrent une performance énergétique médiocre ainsi que des conditions de confort (thermique, acoustique, éclairement naturel) largement améliorables. En France, avec 32 millions de logements et un taux de renouvellement annuel du parc existant inférieur à 1 %, la rénovation énergétique des logements devient une nécessité. Cela, autant pour des raisons politiques (indépendances énergétiques), économiques (relance des emplois de la construction, valorisation du patrimoine), sociales (bien-être des occupants, lutte contre la précarité), qu'environnementales (diminutions des émissions des gaz à effet de serre). Ce travail de thèse vise à proposer des connaissances ainsi qu'une méthodologie afin de contribuer à l'aide à la décision pour la prescription de scénarios d'amélioration énergétique efficaces des maisons individuelles construites durant la période 1945-1974. Trois problématiques sont mises en avant dans cette recherche. 1) l'intégration de l'approche globale (systémique et multicritère) de la rénovation afin d'éviter des contre-performances collatérales dues à des mauvais choix ; 2) l'aide à la formalisation des préférences des propriétaires-occupants (notre maîtrise d'ouvrage) dans un format interprétable par des outils d'analyses multicritères ; 3) l'intégration des incertitudes liées à la caractérisation des bâtiments existants dans le processus d'élaboration des scénarios et d'aide à la décision. À travers une description systémique des bâtiments et une évaluation multicritères des performances des actions d'amélioration retenues, nous proposons une méthodologie innovante, constituée de 6 sous-modèles techniques modulables et interchangeables, qui vise à automatiser le processus de construction, d'évaluation et de hiérarchisation performantielle de scénarios de rénovation. Le cœur de notre méthodologie est basé sur la formalisation de l'expertise métier des spécialistes du bâtiment dans deux de nos 6 sous-modèles. Le premier est une matrice d'influence permettant de passer des enjeux de rénovation les plus courants (équivalent aux préférences exprimées par la maîtrise d'ouvrage) en profil de poids relatifs et profil de niveaux-cibles de performance sur les indicateurs modélisés. Le second, est un outil d'inférence probabiliste (utilisant la technologie des réseaux bayésiens) permettant à la fois d'optimiser les assemblages d'actions d'amélioration (programmation par contraintes successives) et de réaliser une évaluation multicritère de ces assemblages (par l'usage de fonctions d'agrégation de performances locales). Un sixième et dernier sous-modèle utilise les méthodes de surclassement ELECTRE pour trier et classer les alternatives de rénovation préalablement générées par ordre de préférence. Notre méthodologie offre enfin la possibilité de laisser l'utilisateur tester ses propres scénarios d'amélioration énergétique afin d'analyser leurs performances multicritères et leur compatibilité avec les caractéristiques de l'existant capitalisées lors du diagnostic technique d'une opération. La méthodologie développée se veut pédagogique et transposable dans un prototype d'outil informatique fonctionnel. Une première version a été développée et utilisée pour appliquer notre processus d'aide à la décision à un cas réel de maison individuelle à rénover. Les premiers résultats obtenus sont cohérents et permettent de valider la démarche. Néanmoins, il faut garder à l'esprit que comme tout modèle utilisant des connaissances expertes, sa robustesse et la limite de validité de son périmètre d'application dépendent de la qualité du savoir métier capitalisé.
Tutkimus tarkastelee kansainvälistä sotilasyhteisöä nimeltä Multinational Experimentation (MNE). MNEn tarkoituksena on kehittää uusia suorituskykyjä läntisessä kriisinhallinta-arkkitehtuurissa. Samalla kun MNE luo uusia suorituskykyjä, MNE fasilitoi läntisen kriisinhallinta-arkkitehtuurin muutosta ja evoluutiota. MNE fasilitoi muutosta luomalla uutta kriisinhallinta-tietoa metodologialla nimeltä Concept Development and Experimentation (CD&E) joka mahdollistaa tulevaisuuden uusien suorituskykyjen intellektuallisen perustan. Vuodesta 2001 jokainen MNE-kokoontuminen on luonut osallistuville valtioille ja organisaatioille foorumin jossa etsiä ratkaisuja yhteisesti koettuihin kriisinhallinta-ongelmiin. Sen sijaan, että uusia suorituskykyjä jouduttaisiin testaamaan oikeissa operaatioissa, MNE tarjoaa kontrolloidun ja simuloidun ympäristön jossa osallistujat voivat iteratiivisesti tutkia uusia kriisinhallinta-hypoteeseja. Siten, MNEn tarkoituksena on tarjota kustannustehokas ja turvallinen ympäristö uusien kriisinhallinta-ratkaisujen luomiseen yhteisesti koetuilla ongelma-alueilla. Tutkimus argumentoi, että samalla kun MNE kehittää uusia kriisinhallinta-ratkaisuja, MNE konstituoi kiriisinhallinta-aktiviteettien normatiiviset ja episteemiset perustat ja siten osaltan vaikuttaa myös kriisinhallinnan poliittisiin, taloudellisiin ja sosiaalisin elementteihin. Tämä tapahtuu erityisesti silloin kun kriisinhallinnan uudet dispositiot ja odotukset naturalisoituvat ja institutionalisoituvat. Käytännön yhteisönä MNE siten neuvottelee ja tekee käsin kosketeltaviksi kriisinhallinan eri merkityksiä MNEn sisäisesti, mutta myös ulkoisesti laajemmassa kriisinhallinta-ympäristössä. Täten MNE-yhteisö voidaan nähdä etuoikeutettuna tapahtumapaikkana kriisinhallinta-tiedon tuottamiselle ja hankkimiselle. Tutkimus tarkastelee erityisesti MNEn aktiviteettien organisoivia logiikkoja ja niiden kehityskaaria. Lisäksi tutkimus valottaa MNE-yhteisöön osallistumisen rationaliteetteja, kuinka MNE kontribuoi kriisinhallinan evoluutioon (sen merkityksiin ja tulkintoihin), ja kuinka MNE konstituoi kriisinhallinta-toimintojen normatiiviset ja episteemiset perustat. Tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään etnografista lähestymistapaa jonka avulla mahdollistetaan ainutlaatuinen pääsy MNE-yhteisöön ja jonka avulla kerätään materiaaleja MNEn kuudennesta syklistä (MNE6). Siten, tämä tutkimus valottaa MNEn sisältä miten kriisinhallintaa kansainvälisti kehitetään käytännössä. Tämä tutkimus täyttää MNE-tyhjiön kansainvälisen politiikan tieteenalalla, kuvaa CD&En eri puolet ja demonstroi MNEn ja CD&En välisen yhteyden. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa esimerkillistään miten valtiot, kompleksisuuden, epävarmuuden ja ajallisten haasteiden edessä hakevat tukea kriisinhallinta-politiikkoihin ja sitä mahdollistavaan lainsäädäntöön tekemällä epävirallista(kin) kansainvälistä yhteistyötä poikkivaltiollisissa ympäristöissä. Lisäksi tutkimuksen relevanssi nousee esiin siitä havainnosta, että vaikutusvallastaan huolimatta MNE on lähes tuntematon entiteetti kansainvälisen politiikan tieteenalalla. Käytäntö-teorian viitekehyksestä tarkasteltuna tutkimus kontribuoi strategia- ja turvallisuustutkimuksen kentään kenttään jonka pitää (1) kartoittaa ja paljastaa käytäntöjä jotka konstituoivat strategisia vuorovaikutuksia; (2) selittää mistä nämä käytännöt tulevat; ja (3) kuvata miten käytännöt generoivat muutoksia kansainvälisessä politiikassa. Lisäksi, tutkimus kontribuoi kansainvälisten suhteiden ja turvallisuustutkimuksen tieteenaloille täyttämällä niille toisissa tutkimuksissa identifioituja vaatimuksia: Ensin, tämä tutkimus tarjoaa refleksiivisen auto-etnografian sotilaallisesta kontekstista. Toiseksi, tutkimus tarjoaa etnografisen tutkimuksen turvallisuus-käytännön yhteisöstä. Kolmanneksi, tutkimus laajentaa käytäntöjen tutkimukseen tarjottua metodologiaa. Neljänneksi vastoin nojatuolitutkimusta , tutkimus tarjoaa kontekstuaalista dataa kentältä. Viidenneksi, tutkimus identifioi kansainvälisen kriisinhallinnan suorituskykyjen kehityskäytännön, sen järjestäytymisen ja vaikutusvallan muihin käytäntöihin. ; This thesis examines Multinational Experimentation (MNE). MNE is an international military community which develops new capabilities in the Western crisis management architecture. By developing new capabilities, MNE facilitates the transformation and evolution of the international crisis management architecture. The way to transform is to create new crisis management knowledge. MNE produces knowledge with the Concept Development and Experimentation methodology (CD&E) which provides the intellectual association for future capabilities. Since 2001, each cycle of MNE has provided a forum for the participating states and organizations to attempt to provide solutions to a perceived crisis management challenge. Instead of investigating these solutions in live operations, MNE provides a controlled, simulated scenario in which the participants may explore new crisis management hypotheses iteratively. Therefore, MNE is seen as a cost-effective and safe method to create crisis management capabilities in problem areas where the participants share a common interest. This thesis argues that when MNE develops new solutions for the crisis management architecture, it constitutes normative and epistemic grounds for crisis management actions and affects political, economic and social events relating to crisis management. This is especially so when these new crisis management dispositions and expectations are successfully naturalized and institutionalized. Thus the MNE community of practice not only negotiates and reifies crisis management meanings internally, but also externally for the surrounding environment. Seen this way, the MNE-community is a privileged setting of acquiring and creating crisis management knowledge. Specifically, this study examines the organizing logics of the arrays of MNE activities and their trajectories. Moreover, this thesis illuminates rationalities of participation in MNE activities, how MNE contributes to the evolution of crisis management (its meaning and understandings of), and how MNE constitutes the normative and epistemic grounds for crisis management actions. This thesis utilizes an ethnographic approach to gain unique access and gather materials from within MNE s sixth cycle (MNE6). As such, this thesis illuminates, from within, how international development of crisis management is experienced as lived practice. Thus this thesis fills the MNE gap in International Relations; it describes both sides of CD&E, demonstrates the MNE-CD&E connection, and exemplifies how states, when facing complexity, uncertainty and temporal challenges, find guidance for crisis management policy and enabling legislation by cooperating informally in trans-governmental settings. The relevance of this study arises initially from the realization that MNE is currently a virtually unknown object within the field of International Relations. Examined from a practice theory perspective, this thesis contributes to the study of strategy and international security which (1) needs to map and uncover the practices that constitute strategic interaction; (2) needs to explain where these practices come from; and (3) illustrates how practices generate transformation in international politics. Further, this study contributes to the field of International Relations and Security Studies by meeting the various requirements that have been identified in previous research: First, it provides a reflexive auto-ethnography of the military context. Second, it provides an ethnographic study of a security community of practice. Third, it augments a methodology for the study of practices. Fourth, contra armchair analysis , it provides contextual data from the field. Fifth, it identifies an international practice of crisis management capability development, its formation process and the influence it wields on other practices.
Among the numerous contemporary socio-political changes, globalization appears as the most important with regard to its theoretical and institutional consequences. Generalized interdependence due to the global challenges and the expectations linked to contextual problems have shifted philosophical and political debates toward questions concerning the role and the place of actors in the process of collective decisions. It is this observation that leads to the central question of this research: what are the conditions required such that, in a context determined by interdependence, cosmopolitanism may be a system where actors may participate in a socio-political way through their own self-transformation. Our basic hypothesis aims at answering this question. We want to show, on one hand, that methodological cosmopolitanism, that of which Beck is the greatest contemporary theoretician, can be reconstructed as a theory of transformation of actors, and on the other hand, we think we shall be able to prove, that it is on the condition of such an interpretation of cosmopolitanism that it is possible to reread, in a new manner, the pan-africanist theories of the 1960, while discovering in them, an avant-gardist form of political thought which could guide some aspects of contemporary reflections on globalization. The rereading of cosmopolitanism to which we proceed, works out a symbolic shift: the passage from a substantial cosmopolitanism having republicanism as its central sign, to a cosmopolitanism whose essential characteristic is to be founded on the interdependence of life contexts, and on the collaborative initiative of the actors. We proceed by the elaboration of a cosmopolitan methodology which may be ready in itself, to take into account, the spatial transformation of democratic procedures in view of satisfying the new expectations of the citizens. This methodology qualifies at the same time as a theory of social transformation, by the way of the transformation of the actors. To do this, we call on two actors: Antonio Gramsci and Ulrich Beck. The application of the cathartic scheme, drawn from the works of the former, to the cosmopolitanism of the latter, permits its reconstruction as a theory of the transformation of actors opening out on three levels: the psychological level, the "gnoseological" level and strategic level. What confers on this cosmopolitical scheme its validity, is not its substantial content, but the method it harbors permitting to proceed to an applied philosophy in the third part. We attempt at writing a contextualized version of methodological cosmopolitanism that we call methodological pan-africanism. On the basis of the three characteristic levels of methodological cosmopolitanism, we elaborate a theory of the transformation of actors proper to the pan-african context. In this sense, methodological pan-africanism, in surpassing the strategies of cooperative type for the strategies of interdependence, gives a historical response consistent with the global context of the policies of integration. At the hour of great togetherness, the methodological pan-africanism allows the African continent to combine pragmatism and democracy, while being attentive to the particularities that national ideology strived to deny but in vain, and while situating people at the foundation of the process and the norms of integration. ; L'interdépendance généralisée par le biais des défis globaux et les attentes liées aux problèmes de contextes ont infléchi le débat philosophique et politique vers des questions concernant le rôle et la place des acteurs dans les processus de décisions collectives. C'est de ce constat que se dégage la question centrale qui oriente cette recherche : quelles sont les conditions requises pour que, dans un contexte déterminé par l'interdépendance, le cosmopolitisme soit un système de participation sociopolitique des acteurs se réalisant à même l'auto-transformation de ces derniers. C'est à cette question que veut répondre notre hypothèse de base. Nous voulons montrer, d'une part, que le cosmopolitisme méthodologique, celui dont Beck se montre le plus grand théoricien contemporain, peut être reconstruit comme une théorie de la transformation des acteurs, et d'autre part, nous pensons pouvoir démontrer que c'est à la condition d'une telle interprétation du cosmopolitisme qu'il est possible de relire d'une manière neuve les théories panafricanistes des années 1960 en y découvrant une forme avant-gardiste de pensée politique qui pourrait guider certains aspects des réflexions contemporaines sur la mondialisation. La relecture du cosmopolitisme à laquelle nous procédons, opère un déplacement symbolique : le passage d'un cosmopolitisme substantiel ayant le républicanisme comme marqueur central à un cosmopolitisme dont la caractéristique essentielle est d'être fondée sur l'interdépendance des contextes de vie, et partant, sur l'initiative collaborative des acteurs. Nous procédons à l'élaboration d'une méthodologie cosmopolitique qui soit à même de prendre en compte la transformation spatiale des procédures démocratiques en vue de la satisfaction des nouvelles attentes citoyennes. Cette méthodologie se veut être en même temps une théorie de la transformation sociale, voire de la transformation des acteurs. Pour ce faire, nous convoquons deux acteurs : Antonio Gramsci et Ulrich Beck. L'application du schéma cathartique, tiré des travaux du premier, au cosmopolitisme du second, permet de le reconstruire comme une théorie de la transformation des acteurs se déployant en trois temps : le niveau psychologique, gnoséologique et stratégique. Ce qui confère à ce schéma cosmopolitique sa validité n'est pas son contenu substantiel mais la méthode qu'elle recèle autorisant à procéder à une philosophie appliquée dans la troisième partie. Aussi, tentons-nous d'écrire une version contextualisée du cosmopolitisme méthodologique que nous appelons le panafricanisme méthodologique. Sur la base des trois niveaux caractéristiques du cosmopolitisme méthodologique, nous élaborons une théorie de la transformation des acteurs propre au contexte panafricain. A l'heure des grands ensembles, le panafricanisme méthodologique permet au continent africain d'allier pragmatisme et démocratie, en étant attentif aux particularités que l'idéologie nationale s'est évertuée à nier, mais en vain, et en situant les peuples à la base des processus et des normes d'intégration. L'efficience du panafricanisme méthodologique tient au fait qu'il est celui des peuples qui décident de son agenda, le modifient et en contrôlent la mise en œuvre. ; (ISP 3) -- UCL, 2010
Among the numerous contemporary socio-political changes, globalization appears as the most important with regard to its theoretical and institutional consequences. Generalized interdependence due to the global challenges and the expectations linked to contextual problems have shifted philosophical and political debates toward questions concerning the role and the place of actors in the process of collective decisions. It is this observation that leads to the central question of this research: what are the conditions required such that, in a context determined by interdependence, cosmopolitanism may be a system where actors may participate in a socio-political way through their own self-transformation. Our basic hypothesis aims at answering this question. We want to show, on one hand, that methodological cosmopolitanism, that of which Beck is the greatest contemporary theoretician, can be reconstructed as a theory of transformation of actors, and on the other hand, we think we shall be able to prove, that it is on the condition of such an interpretation of cosmopolitanism that it is possible to reread, in a new manner, the pan-africanist theories of the 1960, while discovering in them, an avant-gardist form of political thought which could guide some aspects of contemporary reflections on globalization. The rereading of cosmopolitanism to which we proceed, works out a symbolic shift: the passage from a substantial cosmopolitanism having republicanism as its central sign, to a cosmopolitanism whose essential characteristic is to be founded on the interdependence of life contexts, and on the collaborative initiative of the actors. We proceed by the elaboration of a cosmopolitan methodology which may be ready in itself, to take into account, the spatial transformation of democratic procedures in view of satisfying the new expectations of the citizens. This methodology qualifies at the same time as a theory of social transformation, by the way of the transformation of the actors. To do this, we call on two actors: Antonio Gramsci and Ulrich Beck. The application of the cathartic scheme, drawn from the works of the former, to the cosmopolitanism of the latter, permits its reconstruction as a theory of the transformation of actors opening out on three levels: the psychological level, the "gnoseological" level and strategic level. What confers on this cosmopolitical scheme its validity, is not its substantial content, but the method it harbors permitting to proceed to an applied philosophy in the third part. We attempt at writing a contextualized version of methodological cosmopolitanism that we call methodological pan-africanism. On the basis of the three characteristic levels of methodological cosmopolitanism, we elaborate a theory of the transformation of actors proper to the pan-african context. In this sense, methodological pan-africanism, in surpassing the strategies of cooperative type for the strategies of interdependence, gives a historical response consistent with the global context of the policies of integration. At the hour of great togetherness, the methodological pan-africanism allows the African continent to combine pragmatism and democracy, while being attentive to the particularities that national ideology strived to deny but in vain, and while situating people at the foundation of the process and the norms of integration. ; L'interdépendance généralisée par le biais des défis globaux et les attentes liées aux problèmes de contextes ont infléchi le débat philosophique et politique vers des questions concernant le rôle et la place des acteurs dans les processus de décisions collectives. C'est de ce constat que se dégage la question centrale qui oriente cette recherche : quelles sont les conditions requises pour que, dans un contexte déterminé par l'interdépendance, le cosmopolitisme soit un système de participation sociopolitique des acteurs se réalisant à même l'auto-transformation de ces derniers. C'est à cette question que veut répondre notre hypothèse de base. Nous voulons montrer, d'une part, que le cosmopolitisme méthodologique, celui dont Beck se montre le plus grand théoricien contemporain, peut être reconstruit comme une théorie de la transformation des acteurs, et d'autre part, nous pensons pouvoir démontrer que c'est à la condition d'une telle interprétation du cosmopolitisme qu'il est possible de relire d'une manière neuve les théories panafricanistes des années 1960 en y découvrant une forme avant-gardiste de pensée politique qui pourrait guider certains aspects des réflexions contemporaines sur la mondialisation. La relecture du cosmopolitisme à laquelle nous procédons, opère un déplacement symbolique : le passage d'un cosmopolitisme substantiel ayant le républicanisme comme marqueur central à un cosmopolitisme dont la caractéristique essentielle est d'être fondée sur l'interdépendance des contextes de vie, et partant, sur l'initiative collaborative des acteurs. Nous procédons à l'élaboration d'une méthodologie cosmopolitique qui soit à même de prendre en compte la transformation spatiale des procédures démocratiques en vue de la satisfaction des nouvelles attentes citoyennes. Cette méthodologie se veut être en même temps une théorie de la transformation sociale, voire de la transformation des acteurs. Pour ce faire, nous convoquons deux acteurs : Antonio Gramsci et Ulrich Beck. L'application du schéma cathartique, tiré des travaux du premier, au cosmopolitisme du second, permet de le reconstruire comme une théorie de la transformation des acteurs se déployant en trois temps : le niveau psychologique, gnoséologique et stratégique. Ce qui confère à ce schéma cosmopolitique sa validité n'est pas son contenu substantiel mais la méthode qu'elle recèle autorisant à procéder à une philosophie appliquée dans la troisième partie. Aussi, tentons-nous d'écrire une version contextualisée du cosmopolitisme méthodologique que nous appelons le panafricanisme méthodologique. Sur la base des trois niveaux caractéristiques du cosmopolitisme méthodologique, nous élaborons une théorie de la transformation des acteurs propre au contexte panafricain. A l'heure des grands ensembles, le panafricanisme méthodologique permet au continent africain d'allier pragmatisme et démocratie, en étant attentif aux particularités que l'idéologie nationale s'est évertuée à nier, mais en vain, et en situant les peuples à la base des processus et des normes d'intégration. L'efficience du panafricanisme méthodologique tient au fait qu'il est celui des peuples qui décident de son agenda, le modifient et en contrôlent la mise en œuvre. ; (ISP 3) -- UCL, 2010
Modern indoor environments contain a vast array of contaminating sources. Emissions from these sources produce contaminant concentrations that are substantially higher indoors than outside. Because we spend most of our time indoors, exposure to indoor pollutants may be orders-of-magnitude greater than that experienced outdoors. Phthalate esters have been recognized as major indoor pollutants. They are mainly used as plasticizers to enhance the flexibility of polyvinylchloride (PVC) products, as well as in humectants, emollients, and antifoaming agents. Phthalates are found in a wide range of consumer products including floor and wall coverings, car interior trim, floor tiles, gloves, footwear, insulation on wiring, and artificial leather. Because these phthalate additives are not chemically bound to the polymer matrix, slow emission from the products to the surrounding air or other media usually occurs. Biomonitoring data suggest that over 75% of the U.S. population is exposed to phthalates. The ubiquitous exposure to phthalates is of concern because toxicological investigations have demonstrated considerable adverse health effects of phthalates and their metabolites. Studies have shown that exposure to phthalates results in profound and irreversible changes in the development of the reproductive tract, especially in males, raising the possibility that phthalate exposures could be the leading cause of reproductive disorders in humans. In addition, effects such as increases in prenatal mortality, reduced growth and birth weight, skeletal, visceral, and external malformations are possibly associated with phthalate exposure. Epidemiologic studies in children also show associations between phthalate exposure in the home and the risk of asthma and allergies. Given the ubiquitous nature of phthalates in the environment and the potential for adverse human health impacts, there is a critical need to understand indoor emissions of phthalates and to identify the most important sources and pathways of exposure. In this study, a model that integrates the fundamental mechanisms governing emissions of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from polymeric materials and their subsequent interaction with indoor surfaces and airborne particles was developed. The emissions model is consistent with analogous mechanistic models that predict emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from building materials. Reasonable agreement between model predictions and gas-phase di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) concentrations was achieved for data collected in a previously published experimental study that measured emissions of DEHP from vinyl flooring in two very different chambers. The analysis showed that while emissions of highly volatile VOCs are subject to internal control (through the material-phase diffusion coefficient), emissions of the very low volatility SVOCs are subject to external control (through partitioning into the gas phase, the convective mass transfer coefficient, and adsorption onto interior surfaces). Because of the difficulties associated with sampling and analysis of SVOCs, only a few chamber studies quantifying their emissions from building materials and consumer products are available. To more rigorously validate the SVOCs emission model and more completely understand the mechanisms governing the release of phthalate from polymeric building materials, the emission of DEHP from vinyl flooring was studied for up to 140 days in a specially-designed stainless steel chamber. In the duplicate chamber study, the gas-phase concentration in the chamber increased slowly and reached a steady state level of 0.9 µg/m3 after 30 days. By increasing the area of vinyl flooring and decreasing that of the stainless steel surface in the chamber, the time to reach steady state was significantly reduced, compared to the previous study (1 month vs. 5 months). The adsorption isotherm of DEHP on the interior stainless steel chamber surface was explicitly measured using two different methods (solvent extraction and thermal desorption). Strong adsorption of DEHP onto the stainless steel surface was observed and found to follow a simple linear relationship. In addition, parameters measured in the experiments were then applied in the fundamental SVOCs emission model. Good agreement was obtained between the predictions of the model and the gas-phase DEHP chamber concentrations, without resorting to fitting of model parameters. These chamber studies have shown that the tendency of SVOCs to adsorb strongly to interior surfaces has a very strong influence on the emission rate. Compared to the experimental chamber systems, however, the real indoor environment has many other types of surface that will adsorb phthalates to different extents. The emission rate measured in a test chamber may therefore be quite different to the emission rate from the same material in the indoor environment. For this reason, both a two-room model and a more representative three-compartment model were developed successively to estimate the emission rate of DEHP from vinyl flooring, the evolving gas-phase and adsorbed surface concentrations, and human exposures (via inhalation, dermal absorption and oral ingestion of dust) in a realistic indoor environment. Adsorption isotherms for phthalates and plasticizers on interior surfaces, such as carpet, wood, dust and human skin, were derived from previous field and laboratory studies. A subsequent sensitivity analysis revealed that the vinyl flooring source characteristics, as well as mass-transfer coefficients and ventilation rates, are important variables influencing the steady-state DEHP concentration and resulting exposures. A simple uncertainty analysis suggested that residential exposure to DEHP originating from vinyl flooring may fall somewhere between about 5 µg/kg/d and 180 µg/kg/d. The roughly 40-fold range in exposure reveals the inherent difficulty in using biomonitoring results to identify specific sources of exposure in the general population. This research represents the first attempt to explicitly elucidate the fundamental mechanisms governing the release of phthalates from polymeric building materials as well as their subsequent interaction with interior surfaces. The mechanistic models developed can most likely be extended to predict concentration and exposure arising from other sources of phthalates, other sources of other semi-volatile organic compounds (such as biocides and flame retardants), as well as emissions into other environmental media (food, water, saliva, and even blood). The results will be of value to architects, governments, manufacturers, and engineers who wish to specify low-emitting green materials for healthy buildings. It will permit health professionals to identify and control health risks associated with many of the SVOCs used in indoor materials and consumer products in a relatively inexpensive way. ; Ph. D.
Mit der fortschreitenden Verschärfung der Abgasgrenzwerte für PKW mit Dieselmotor gewinnen die Verfahren zur nachmotorischen Abgasreinigung immer weiter an Bedeutung. Diesel-Partikelfilter erlauben zusammen mit innermotorischen Maßnahmen eine nahezu vollständige Reduktion von Partikeln in dieselmotorischen Abgasen. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es daher, Abgasreinigungssysteme mit Diesel-Oxidationskatalysator (DOC) und nachgeschaltetem monolithischem Wall-flow Diesel-Partikelfilter eingehend zu untersuchen und modellmäßig zu beschreiben. Der Schwerpunkt lag dabei auf der Regeneration von katalytisch beschichteten (CDPF) sowie unbeschichteten (DPF) Partikelfiltern. Als Oxidationskomponenten wurden O2 und NO2 betrachtet. Auch auf das Potenzial eines Systems, in dem ein katalytisch beschichtetes Partikelfilter die Funktionen eines DOC vollständig übernimmt, wurde eingegangen. Um die physikalischen und chemischen Vorgänge im Oxidationskatalysator und in den Partikelfiltern bestmöglich verstehen und beschreiben zu können, wurden sowohl experimentelle Untersuchungen als auch dynamische Simulationsrechnungen durchgeführt. Es wurden hierzu u. a. Filterproben mit Modellruß beladen und anschließend unter isothermen und definierten synthetischen Abgasbedingungen in einem speziell dafür entwickelten Kinetikprüfstand regeneriert. Ausgehend von diesen Reaktionsanalysen und Reaktionsanalysen zu weiteren ausgewählten Stoffkomponenten, die das dieselmotorische Abgas repräsentieren, wurden Bruttoreaktionskinetiken für die Stoffumsetzungen im DOC und im Diesel-Partikelfilter abgeleitet. Zur qualitativen und quantitativen Beschreibung der Schadstoff- und Rußumwandlung wurde für den Katalysator und das Partikelfilter jeweils ein eindimensionales Simulationsmodell entwickelt. Die Modelle erlauben dynamische Vorhersagen zur Schadstoffumsetzung und Temperaturentwicklung längs der axialen Katalysator- sowie der axialen Filterkoordinate und ermöglichen somit Systemanalysen zu unterschiedlichen Abgasreinigungsanlagen. Das Filtermodell unterscheidet dabei die Modellphasen Einlass- und Auslasskanal sowie Rußschicht und Filterwand. Auch das komplexe Zusammenspiel zwischen Rußoxidation und heterogen katalysierten Reaktionen in katalytisch beschichteten Partikelfiltern konnte so in die Untersuchungen und in das Simulationsmodell mit einbezogen werden. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit machen deutlich, dass für ein gesamtes Abgasreinigungssystem, bestehend aus einem Oxidationskatalysator und einem Partikelfilter, die Temperatur die wesentliche Steuergröße darstellt. Es ist somit auf möglichst geringe Wärmeverluste zu achten. Bei Verwendung eines beschichteten Partikelfilters kann je nach Systemauslegung auch ein verkleinerter DOC zum Einsatz kommen. Neben den Wärmeverlusten kommt auch der Wärmekapazität der einzelnen Abgasnachbehandlungskomponenten eine entscheidende Rolle zu. Abschließend lässt sich festhalten, dass mit den hier entwickelten Modellen und den Reaktionsgeschwindigkeitsansätzen nicht nur die Rußabbrandraten und die lokalen Temperaturentwicklungen im DOC und im Partikelfilter, sondern auch erstmals die Produktselektivitäten sowie die Abbrandinitiierung vorhergesagt werden können. Es stehen somit Berechnungsmethoden zur Verfügung, die sowohl eine grundlagenorientierte Betrachtung der einzelnen physikalischen und chemischen Vorgänge im Partikelfilter als auch Systemanalysen zu Gesamtabgasreinigungssystemen mit Diesel-Oxidationskatalysator und Diesel-Partikelfilter erlauben. ; As the legislation concerning the emission limits for passenger cars with diesel engines is getting more and more restrictive, systems for exhaust gas aftertreatment will become increasingly important. Diesel particulate filters combined with special measures for the internal combustion process are able to reduce soot particulates in diesel exhaust gas almost completely. Therefore, the intention of this work is to investigate exhaust gas aftertreatment systems consisting of a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and a particulate filter (DPF) or a catalytically coated particulate filter (CDPF) and to build up one-dimensional models to describe the most dominant processes. The main focus regards the regeneration processes within the particulate filters. According to recent exhaust purification concepts, the oxidation catalyst is not only reducing the raw emissions of the engine, but it will be supporting soot oxidation by post injected diesel fuel in order to provide the required high filter regeneration temperatures. The catalyst also generates NO2 from exhaust NO. NO2 acts as an oxidant for soot at lower temperatures. A catalytically coated filter comprises the function of a catalyst within the filter itself and promotes the oxidation of soot. In order to regenerate particulate filters, the loaded soot can be oxidized by the exhaust gas components O2 and NO2. The filter regeneration with O2 requires high temperatures well above 600°C to oxidize the soot within acceptable times. Due to the high O2 concentration the resulting reaction rates can be much higher than those obtained by NO2, which, on the other hand, can be used for soot oxidation at lower temperatures above 280°C. In order to analyse and understand the coupled physical and chemical processes within a catalyst and a particulate filter, both experimental investigations and dynamic simulations were performed and examined. Therefore a special test bench for reaction kinetics was developed and built up where the reactions could be investigated under defined, isothermal, synthetical and stationary conditions in a flat bed reactor. The catalyst samples as well as the filter samples were cut from real monoliths for passenger cars. Thus the results derived from the test bench can be easily transfered to real exhaust gas aftertreatment systems. On the basis of the experimental results obtained by the reaction analysis the reaction kinetics and parameters were determined. Furthermore, two one-dimensional mathematical models were developed to predict the conversion of the exhaust gas components and the soot oxidation within the catalyst and the filter both qualitatively and quantitatively. With these models dynamic calculations of the conversion of the gas pollutants as well as the developments of the temperature at every axial position of the catalyst and the filter can be performed. The model for the oxidation catalyst was set up as a two-phase model in order to exactly describe the mass and heat transfer between the gas phase and the catalytical solid phase. The model for the particulate filter is divided into four model phases: inlet and outlet channel as well as soot layer and filter wall. So, the complex interactions between soot burning and the catalytical reactions within catalytically coated particulate filters could be included in the investigations and simulations. The results of this work reveal that temperature is the key parameter to control the regeneration processes in an exhaust aftertreatment system consisting of an oxidation catalyst and a particulate filter. So, the heat losses should be reduced as much as possible. By using a catalytically coated filter it is also possible to employ a DOC of smaller size depending on the overall system design. However, not only the heat losses, but also the heat capacity of the single components of the aftertreatment system plays an important role with regard to the overall temperature management. Concluding, the models developed in this work and the reaction kinetics not only allow to predict the rates of soot burning and the development of the local temperature within oxidation catalysts and particulate filters but also to predict the selectivity of the reaction products and the initiation of the soot oxidation process. Thus, methods and simulation tools were provided which allow deeper insight into the single physical and chemical processes within a particulate filter for research topics and which allow the analysis of complete exhaust aftertreatment systems consisting of an oxidation catalyst and a particulate filter.
SummaryThe aim of this study has been to illuminate somewhat the factors that determine the extent of information the citizens can obtain via the press about communal and local political activity in their home communes. These factors have been assumed to be related partly to attibutes of the respective commune, news production and the newspaper situation within the commune, and partly to the choice of newspaper or access to a newspaper (the newspapers were classified in different types of newspapers with respect to publication frequency, the competitive situation at the place of publication and the size of the area of circulation).After an introductory discussion of these three factors in which the newspapers were primarily viewed as commercial enterprises as regards the present hard economic conditions, the three explanatory factors have been successively introduced into the exposition. The unit of investigation has consistently been composed of the contents in a given paper from a given commune, i. e., the contents the readers of one newspaper have access to from one commune. This unit of analysis has been described with a special term "control commune" in order to avoid an ambiguous use of language.When the control communes, distributed according to size classes, were studied, a high correlation with communal size appeared. However, upon a control of differences in news production by studying the col. cms. values per 100 inhabitants, large and small communes received similar values. Therefore, the correlation with communal size was interpreted as a result of dissimilarities in news production ‐the number of communal civil servants (upon use of the second operationalisation of news production) received instead a falling trend with rising communal size: a fact that was interpreted as a reflection by the number of civil servants of the qualitative dimension to an altogether too small extent.The contents from the larger control communes were to a greater extent placed in a leading place in the newspaper, consisted to a greater extent of news articles and were to a greater extent classified as negative. This indicated that the larger communes were devoted more interest on the part of the newspapers than the smaller ones. However, a large part of these differences proved upon a comparison between control communes from places of publication and other localities to be connected with the attribute of being a place of publication.The differences between places of publication, both qualitatively and quantitatively, were so extensive that the places of publication were from that point on left outside of the calculations (they composed only 4 % of all units of analysis.When several qualities of the newspapers were introduced into the analysis a strong correlation with the size of the areas of circulation was noticed. Control communes from newspapers with limited areas of circulation consistently obtained higher values than control communes from newspaper with large areas of circulation. On the other hand, no correlation could be stated between publication frequency and communal contents. During our three month period the non‐daily newspapers contained, by and large, as many col. cms. from the individual communes as did the six‐ and seven days per week newspaper. The non‐daily newspapers gave communal contents a more prominent placement at the same time as a smaller part of it was classified as routine surveillance.When the newspapers were classified in different types with consideration being taken also to the competitive situation at the places of publication, the assumed ties between the extent of competition and the extent of surveillance could not be pointed out with certitude. The value of the results on this point are, however, dubious since the places of publication themselves were not included in the calculations. However, the small number of observations made it impossible to perform an analysis of these. The existence of so‐called branch editions proved, on the other hand, to be accompanied by a more extensive material from the individual communes within the areas of circulation of these branch editions. The citizens in the suburban communes were nearly completely referred to other information channels during the period embraced by the investigation.Another way to study the importance of competition for the extent of local content is to compare control communes with different market situations. When the control communes were class‐distributed as regards the papers share of the market of them it could be stated that both high and low shares of the market appeared to lead to less extensive surveillance than the middle group where the competition is strongest. However, the possibilities for making these comparisons were limited by the fact that there were an insufficient number of observations for many newspaper type/size classes and market‐share classes.By way of summary, we can state that we have, by and large, found the correlation between 'the extent of the surveillance and the "explanatory factors" that we have assumed in the conceptual framework. The information about his own commune that a member of a commune can obtain via the press is dependent partly upon the production of news — surveillance of the commune shows a strong correlation with communal size — and partly upon the qualities of the paper read, primarily the size of the area of circulation ‐ newspapers with limited areas of circulation devote greater space to the individual communes than newspapers with extended areas of circulation. The surveillance of individual communes proved also to be dependent upon the competitive situation on the newspaper market. The newspaper devoted most space to the communes where the competition between different newspapers was strongest. However, it is impossible to declare with such simple methods anything certain about the reciprocal "importance" of the different factors for variations in the extent of the surveillance or about how large a part of the total variation in the dependent variable can be traced to the undependent variables studied.4 3An attempt to investigate more thoroughly with the help of regression analysis "the addition to the explanation" of the variance in the surveillance of these and other operationalizations is now being conducted. The result of this work will be reported on in the Communal Research Group's dissertation series.
RAPE AND SHAME IN J.M. COETZEE'S DISGRACE Salman Muhiddin English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University salmanlatieff@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University much_choiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Pemerkosaan adalah setiap tindakan yang tidak diinginkan , manipulasi atau pemaksaan dalam bentuk aktivitas seksual. Tindakan pemerkosaan berdampak bagi pemerkosa dan korbannya. Dampaknya terhubung ke masalah psikologis , seperti kecemasan , depresi , dan gangguan mental lainnya serta perilaku moral yang bermasalah. Skripsi ini difokuskan pada tindak perkosaan yang dialami oleh karakter dan bagaimana hal itu menyebabkan rasa malu dalam novel Disgrace karya JM Coetzee. Secara khusus, tujuan skripsi ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan bagaimana gambaran perkosaan yang dialami oleh karakter dan untuk mengungkapkan bagaimana perkosaan itu menyebabkan rasa malu dalam novel Disgrace karya J.M. Coetzee. Dalam analisisnya, skripsi ini menggunakan beberapa proses analisis , yaitu: (1) mengklasifikasikan kutipan-kutipan yang sejalan dengan masalah laporan, (2) menggambarkan tindakan perkosaan yang telah dialami oleh karakter, (3) mengungkapkan bagaimana pemerkosaan menyebabkan malu. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga macam pemerkosaan yang digambarkan dalam cerita. Pemerkosaan pertama terjadi antara David dan pekerja seks bernama Soraya. Pemerkosaan kedua terjadi antara David dan muridnya, Melanie. Yang ketiga dialami oleh putri David, Lucy. Setelah pemerkosaan itu, pelaku dan korban perkosaan merasa malu. David sebagai pemerkosa mendapatkan aib dan tekanan publik dari komite universitas dan mahasiswanya. Dia kemudian meminta maaf kepada keluarga Melanie. Sedangkan korban akan merasa malu untuk tampil di publik karena mereka takut aibnya terbongkar. Kata Kunci: Pemerkosaan, Malu, Aib Abstract Rape is any unwanted, manipulated or coerced forms of sexual activity. The act of rape has an impact to both the rapists and the rape survivors. The impact is connected to psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as problematic moral behaviour. This study focuses on the characters' experience in raping and being raped, and how it leads to shame in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace. In particular, the purpose of this study is to describe how rape is depicted by the characters and to reveal how the characters' rape leads to shame in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace. In the analysis, this study does some processes of analysis, they are: (1) classifying the quotations which are in line with the problem of statements, (2) describing the rape that has been experienced by the characters, (3) revealing how rape leads to shame. The result of the analysis shows that there are three kinds of rape which is depicted in the story. The first rape is happened between David and the prostitute named Soraya. The second rape is between David and his student, Melanie. The third one is experienced by David's daughter, Lucy. After the rape, the rapist and the rape survivors get shame. David is getting disgrace and gets public pressure from the university committees and the students. He then ask for apologize to Melanie's family. While the rape survivors are getting shame after being raped. They are shame to make a public appearance because they are afraid of being discovered or found out by another person. Keywords: Rape, Shame, Disgrace INTRODUCTION The definition of rape varies state-to-state and can include anything from touching to actual penetration, but, generally, rape is any "unwanted, non-consensual, manipulated or coerced forms of sexual activity" (http://www.umich.edu). The act may be carried out by physical force,coercion, abuse of authority or against a person who is incapable of valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, or below the legalage of consent.The termrapeis sometimes used interchangeably with the termsexual assault, and the term of violent change into rape survivor. The rape effects can include both physical trauma and psychological trauma. Rape will also lead to shame. The feeling is connected to psychological problems such as eating disorders, substance abuse, anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as problematic moral behavior. The shame is also reformed from some culture that sees the rape victims are dirt. For example, a rape victim especially one who was previously a virgin, may be viewed by society as being damaged. According to Alliance, victims in these cultures may suffer isolation, be disowned by friends and family, be prohibited from marrying, and be divorced if already married, or even killed. This phenomenon is known as secondary victimization. Secondary victimization is the re-traumatization of the sexual assault, abuse, or rape victim through the responses of individuals and institutions. Rape also affects the rapist. If someone known as a rapist he will be the public enemy. The rapist may lose their dignity, job, and friends. Punishment for rape in most countries today is imprisonment. Thus he will get ashamed but the right term for rapist is disgrace. On the previous study Feminine Shame Masculine Disgrace, Nurka put little bit different from shame, "people with disgrace will automatically being shame. Disgrace is brought from without ('put to shame'), or is directed outward from its source ('a person who or thing which is the cause or source of disgrace')." (Nurka, 2012: 311). J.M. Coetzee is a South African writer born under the apartheid government. Coetzee is unveiling many fragile topics in South Africa from many of his books. He elegantly put the theme rape over the race to depict the social condition of 'New South Africa'. Rape of women by men has occurred throughout recorded history and across cultures. As the novel background, South Africa is often labeled the rape capital of the world. The prevalence of rape, and particularly multiple perpetrator rape, is unusually high. Coetzee puts the concept of rape and shame in novel 'Disgrace'. The narrative follows a white South African professor's, David Lurie, escape to his daughter's farm, after he raped his student, Melanie. The farm is soon attacked and robbed by three black men, and the daughter raped. As father and daughter piece together their strained relationship and individual lives, they must reconcile their positions in the "New South Africa," to Lucy, is gang-raped by three men on her smallholding in the Eastern Cape, but she chose to say nothing about what happened to her. She decided to take the shame on her own. While on David, he rents a room in Grahmstown to help his daughter at the market once a week and to dedicate himself to the disposal of the dogs' bodies at the shelter. He cannot back to Cape Town because he has nothing left there for his disgrace. The university had replaced him with another professor. Once he went to Melanie house bring up all his disgrace to ask for forgiving to her parents for what he did through Melanie and family. In accordance of background study above, it can be simplify to discuss among two problems that emerge as significant concern toward this novel. How rape is depicted by the characters in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace? How the characters' rape leads to shame in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace? To answer the first problem, this study uses the concept of rape. Rape is a multidetermined behaviour that will ultimately be explained only by models incorporating a multitude of dimensions." (Prenkty and Knight, 1991: 657). The dimensions that are possibly to explain rape are through feminist theory, evolutionary theory, self-controlled theory, narcissistic theory, and crime theory. (Lowell, 2010: 159-161). Those theories can be used to help explain how rape occurs. Feminist theorists explain that the culture of male dominance is responsible for rape occurring. On his book Rethinking Rape, Cahill simply delivered that feminist theorists assert that rape is only one symptom of the larger problem of a male dominated society. Feminist theorists see rape as more of a violent act than a sexual act, and claim that rape is inspired by political motivations to dominate and degrade. Feminist theorists also deny that rape has an individualistic nature, but claim that rape is "nothing more or less than a conscious process of intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear" (Cahill, 2001:16). Self control theory can lead to a man committing rape against a female. It is based on the premise that the male sex drive is uncontrollable. Men with this belief say that their sexual urges cannot be controlled and they are not responsible for their actions. Proponents of this theory "[propose] both that men's sexual energy is difficult to control and that women have a key role in its loss of control," since women deny sex to men who have to relieve their sexual drive (Polaschek & Ward, 2002, p. 13). This theory can be tied to Gottfredson and Hirschi's low self-control theory. Low self-control theorists posit that, since criminal acts provide immediate gratification, criminals will engage in them because they are not able to defer gratification. A biological explanation of rape includes Thornhill and Palmer's evolutionary theory of rape .Proponents of this theory claim that those men who were able to force their sexual desires on women were able to reproduce more efficiently, and thus have more offspring with their traits. Thornhill and Palmer are "dismissive of rape theories that emphasize the role of culture and learning in the acquisition of rape-prone traits, arguing that culture is only possible because individuals have evolved capacities that enable them to learn" (Siegert & Ward, 2002:6). Another theory that can explain rape is the narcissistic reactance theory, which is also tied to Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) low self-control theory. In this theory, narcissists are defined as having a "lower proneness to shame and guilt," having "unrealistically positive self-evaluations," and being "especially likely to respond to bad evaluations by blaming other sources, including the evaluator and the technique of evaluation" (Baumeister et al., 2002: 3). These theorists claim that the, "tendency to respond to esteem threats by getting angry and blaming others may contribute to the elevated level of interpersonal difficulties that narcissists report" (Baumeister et al., 2002: 4). The second problem is using the concept of shame. Some victims of rape are feeling dirty, devalued, and humiliated as a result of a sexual assault. Feelings of shame are often related to the powerlessness and helplessness victims experience during a sexual assault. Shame may also be a reaction to being forced by the assailant to participate in the crime. Shame is the painful feeling of having done or experienced something dishonourable, improper and foolish. Shame is what prevents many survivors from speaking about what happened to them. Shame is an attack on the survivor as a person. It is the feeling you get when you are sure that someone will think poorly of you because you were assaulted. Shame is longer lasting, and ultimately more dangerous than guilt. The feeling of shame is so intense for rape victims that many of them never tell anyone what happened to them. Even in psychotherapeutic settings, victims of rape often avoid talking about what happened to them. (http://www.healthyplace.com/abuse/articles/guilt-and-shame-of-being-raped/, retrieve on: 15 April 2014). Shame is already bears the germ of guilt. Shame becomes guilt when the social norms are internalized as one's own feelings of value and when self-condemnation anticipates public exposure. This presupposes the development of a personal centre, with the beginning capacity to regard oneself as the originator of one's actions, to evaluate and feel responsible for them. In contrast to shame, guilt is no more bound to the immediate presence of the other; its impact is more lasting. The event one is to be blamed for sin in the past. Thus the present rejection of shame becomes the already executed expulsion of elementary guilt. Instead of being exposed to, and paralyzed by, the others' gazes, the culprit feels, as it were, already abandoned. (Thomas Fuchs, 2003: 8). RESEARCH METHOD Research method that used in this analysis here must be qualified as an applying in literary appreciation. The thesis is regarded as a descriptive-qualitative study and uses a library research. This study uses novel of J.M. Coetzee, entitled Disgrace that published by Vintage, Random House, 20 Vauxhall Bridge Road, London, Great Britain, 1999 as the main data of the study. The data are in the form of direct and indirect speech of the characters, dialogues, epilogues and quotations which indicate and represent aspect of rape by the characters that lead to shame. This thesis is using the library method in collecting the data. It does not use the statistic method. That is why it is not served in numbering or tables. Library research used an approach in analyzing this study. The kind of library research which is used here is intensive or closely reading to search quotations or phrases. It also used to analyze the literary elements both intrinsic and extrinsic. The references are taken from library and contributing ideas about this study from internet that support the idea of analyzing. The analysis is done by the following steps: (1) Classification based on the statement of the problems. This classification is used to avoid the broad discussion. There are two classifications in this study. They are the depiction of rape and how it leads to shame. (2) Describing David Lurie's and Lucy's rape which is stated from the quotations or statements. (3) Describing how the shame and disgrace they got which is stated from the quotations or statements. (4) Revealing the relations between rape and shame. The quotations that showed how the characters' rape leads to shame are taken as data. (5) Drawing the conclusion based on the analysis which is in line with the problems. ANALYSIS The first analysis is the depiction of rape. In Disgrace the rape parted in three different background and motif. The first rape is from David to Soraya the prostitute woman. David uses his financial advantages to buy woman for sex. After the relationship with Soraya ended David engage to a scandal with his Student Melanie. David admits that he misused his authority as a lecturer to have sex with his student. This depicts the condition of male domination particularly in South Africa. The last rape happened to David's' daughter, Lucy. She raped by three black African intruders. The rape of Lucy remains mystery for her silence to not tell the policemen about the incident. In his age of fifty two, and divorced, David proclaim that he has solved problem of sex rather well even without a wife. However, the reason of his 'solved problem of sex' for over one year is Soraya, a high-class prostitute girl from an escort service. She is a coloured woman that David has a historical interest. She has a honey brown body. She is tall and slim, with long black hair and dark, liquid eyes. Simply said this beautiful girl becomes his sources of happiness. "It surprises him that ninety minutes a week of a woman's company are enough to make him happy, who used to think he needed a wife, a home, a marriage" (Coetzee, 1999:5). David's ideal marriage is with a wife that is a prostitute, but for him only and only at certain times. He met Soraya only on Thursday. On the other day he is back to his normal life. With Soraya he already find the happiness he belief. It makes him thought; there is no need to search for another life destination such as home and real wife. It made David rely on prostitution in his sexual life. Prostitution as the solution allows him to fantasize that a woman mirrors his wishes. He bought sex he wanted and she got extra money from him. For David money is no problem concerning that he lived alone with his salary as a professor and lecturer. As a consequence, he paid double for her. At least his money is worthy for finds her entirely satisfactory. As a customer, David is on dilemma seeing this prostitution. He knows that every woman in the prostitution is perforce. Women in prostitution would leave if they could. The term is an indicator of their hopelessness. "They tell stories, they laugh, but they shudder too, as one shudders at a cockroach in a washbasin in the middle of the night" (Coetzee, 1999:8). In their mind, they see that women in prostitutes are disgusted with their customer, so does the customers. Soraya just pretended to keep their customer satisfied. Prostitutes sometimes talk of the feeling of power they experience when they are with their customer. They are talking about a feeling of control when engaged in sexual acts. They soon feel the disadvantages of that particular way of life. It also exposes the fragility of the illusion of control over what another subject wants. If a man wants a woman to want what he wants, he can only force her to pretend to want his desire and then he has also to deny that pretence. David then met Melanie, his student. He treats her under the wine and romantic music, the Mozart clarinet quintet. He made his move to seduce Melanie in some conversation. He talked about poetry, music, food, and his past life. Then, after he offered some liqueur, the higher alcoholic drink, he said directly to Melanie, asking her to do something reckless. He touch her and said "You're very lovely . Stay. Spend the night with me." (Coetzee, 1999: 16). Melanie refused his liquor but accept a shot of whisky in her coffee. She should say no at that time instead wonder and ask why. She trapped to this conversation: 'Why?' 'Because you ought to.' 'Why ought I to?' 'Why? Because a woman's beauty does not belong to her alone. It is part of the bounty she brings into the world. She has a duty to share it.' (Coetzee, 1999: 16) As a professor of language and communication, David, could easily manipulate the words, he says. The way he talked to Melanie reflects his experience through many women. "Smooth words, as old as seduction itself." (Coetzee, 1999: 16). He says it indirectly to make Melanie believes what he belief. He makes the statement so convincing and become hard to decline. Melanie herself was mistaken to ask more to David, because she did not know how to deal with him. Instead saying 'why', she should say 'no' to David when he asked her to stay. So she would not get in this complicated situation. Maybe she should already say 'no' when David asked her to come to his house. David was in a grip of something and he would not let it go. However, what is done is done. The next day David asked Melanie to go lunch. Again, Melanie cannot reject David offer. There is still time for her to tell a lie but she is too confused, and the moment passes. In the restaurant, they got an awkward situation because Melanie lost her appetite and there was a long silent. Then David asked to Melanie about what is on her mind: `Is something the matter? Do you want to tell me?' She shakes her head. `Are you worried about the two of us?' `Maybe,' she says. `No need. I'll take care. I won't let it go too far.' Too far. What is far, what is too far, in a matter like this? Is her too far the same as his too far? (Coetzee, 1999: 19) After the harassment from David a day before, Melanie must wonder about his plan. The women should worry about her safety. Because feminist, Cahill, agree that one of the rape purpose is to take women into state of fear, and it is he responsibility of masculinity and the construction of patriarchy. Men are possible to keep women as a fragile creature and need protection. Knowing that Melanie may feel bad about this situation, David guarantees that the thing would not go too far, he put Melanie to feel safe at least. This is another tactical seduction that is done by David. He manipulates the situation and manages it like there is nothing happen like everything is fine. It is not hard for him to do it concerning that Melanie was an easy target for him. The rapist always seeks the powerless people to be his target. Finally, they have sex for the first time. Even though, it is not the first time for both of them. David took Melanie to his house after getting lunch in the restaurant. They did it on the living room with rain sound pattering. Melanie is passive on the first time they have sex. While David finds the act of her passivity is so enjoyable. Melanie is passive like Soraya. She does not crawling, bite, and aggressive. She is his typical woman he was searching for. He was having sex with another whore after Soraya left him. But he did not like it because she is aggressive. So he never does it again with her. His desire was only on Melanie this time. It is stated in the novel that "She struck up a fire in me" (Coetzee, 1999: 166). Fire is a symbolization of energy that can stimulate one's desire. This fire heat up his libido that pushes him doing something undesired to the core. In the rape theory, David can be considered as narcissistic because he tend to be willing to do whatever it takes to achieve the goal that they want from a relationship, including rape. In this theory, narcissists are defined as having a lower proneness to shame and guilt, having unrealistically positive self-evaluations, and being especially likely to respond to bad evaluations by blaming other sources, including the evaluator and the technique of evaluation. Narcissistic suits David as a rapist. He has lower sense of shame, as teacher and student he took Melanie to go out lunch just the two of them. Considering that he is the famous person in the city, people will wonder what is he up to. In the restaurant he seduced her and ask her to do something wild. He is implying that she has to have sex with him. But the relationship become a scandal that makes him lost his job. After realizing that there's nothing left for him in Cape Town, David wanted to change the atmosphere. He moved to the east across the country to the rural town of Salem in the Eastern Cape, where his daughter Lucy lives alone on a smallholding, growing vegetables to sell at the Saturday market and running a kennel for dogs. David begins a new life there, helping Lucy at the market, assisting Lucy's neighbour Petrus with odd jobs as "I am the gardener and the dog-man" (Coetzee, 1999: 64), and volunteering at the Animal Welfare Clinic with Bev Shaw. Lucy is leftish which make her the reversal of her father. She even did not want call herself a boss by Petrus. She is not individualist but socialist. She helps people no matter who they are. But this time she made big mistake by risk herself to strangers. Lucy tells David to stay outside while she takes the tall man indoors to use the phone. The second man runs in to the house behind them and locks David out. In a total panic, David let go of the bulldog's strap and commanded the dog to go after the boy. Then he kicks down the kitchen door. David tried to save Lucy but he felt someone whack him over the head. He falls down, barely conscious, and feels himself being dragged across the floor. When he realize, he's locked in the bathroom and wondering what's going on with Lucy. The second man comes in to get the car keys from David and then locks him back in. Meanwhile, he looks out and sees the tall man with a rifle. The tall man starts shooting the dogs one by one, splattering brains and guts all over the place. And if that isn't bad enough, the second man and the boy come back in the bathroom, douse David with alcohol, and set him on fire, luckily just his hair catches burning and he extinguishes himself in the toilet. They leave, stealing David's car. David and Lucy are left to deal with everything that just happened. During this whole nightmare, Petrus is nowhere to be found. After being raped, Lucy decided to not report the rape to the police. The silent of Lucy depict the subjugation or conquest. "No I am not blaming you, that is not the point. But it is something new you are talking about. Slavery. They want you for their slave." (Coetzee, 1999: 159). Lucy response him and disagree with "Not slavery. Subjection. Subjugation." (Coetzee, 1999: 159). This makes Lucy as the rape survivor depend on men to get protection. The second analysis is about how rape leads to shame. In Disgrace the rape that experienced by the rapist and the rape survivor transform and effect their life worst then before. From the previous study Nurka classified the effect of rape by gender: (1) Female as the object will get shame, (2) men as the subject will take disgrace. (Nurka, 2012: 310). The male character, David Lurie, got disgrace after doing sexual harassment to his student, Melanie. As the rapist, David will be haunted by his sin and losing his reputation and his job. While Lucy, the rape survivor got shame after being raped. The act of rape means to take away by force which the dignity is to be taken. Loosing dignity makes woman feel shameful. It turns out that the act of rape is not only giving shame feeling to the victims but also to the rapist. Soraya knows about the attachment of shame for being prostitute. Then when she met David in the midtown, she was afraid if the public know who she is. This is because David is the famous person in Cape town. "He has always been a man of the city, at home amid a flux of bodies where Eros stalks and glances flash like arrows" (Coetzee, 1999: 6). Concerning that shame is social affect associated with being discovered or found out by another person, she knew that he is the famous person in the city. It is too risky to stay in public with him. There is a high possibility that her secret will spread. Then to keep her pride for her children Soraya decided to quit the job. She did not want her children knows their real mother is. So she decided to resign from the escort and disappeared from that business. David ought to end but he pays a detective to tracking Soraya instead. When he got the number he makes a call. Soraya surprise and wondering abot how he gets the numbers. She did not talk for a moment. She wondered because the agency has a rule about keeping the former prostitutes identity. After the silent she said "I don't know who you are,' she says. 'You are harassing me in my own house. I demand you will never phone me here again, never." (Coetzee, 1999: 10). After this moment he did not contact Soraya anymore. For Melanie, after she gets the coercive sexual by David, she becomes a different person in class. She even absent when it was on midterm test. Then she told her boyfriend that her professor have sex with her. The boyfriend then angry to him and vandalize his car, deflated the tires and injected a glue on both door. "After this coup de main Melanie keeps her distance. He is not surprised: if he has been shamed, she is shamed too." (Coetzee, 1999: 31). The gossip may be starting to spread so she tries to not meet him. But on Monday she reappears in class and beside her, leaning back in his seat, hands in pockets, with an air of cocky ease, is the boy in black, the boyfriend. The student in the class knew about what is going on from the gossip. They are clearly waiting to see what the professor will do about the intruder. Professor let the boyfriend intrude to the class but then he asked Melanie to come to the office and tell her to not let the boyfriend do that again. After that moment Melanie never come to the class anymore. Furthermore, after being ashamed she decided to give up her study in the university. Thus her father asked David to tell Melanie to not give up. At this moment, Melanie's father , Mr. Isaacs did not know that David is the causes of his daughter wanted to quit the university. As David thought "I am the worm in the apple… how can I help you when I am the very source of your woe?" (Coetzee, 1999: 37). After knowing that David rape his Doughter Mr. Isaacs tell him that what e sad done is not right. He imply that he does not sending her daughter to the nest of viper that poisoned her daughter with the act of rape. He feels ashamed about what was happen. He disappointed that an educated person like Professor David do an embarrassing and stupid thing. After the university fired David, Melanie continued her study. From the university scandal Melanie is regarded as victims and the professor is the one who responsible. Thus the disgrace runs to David. Even though Mr. Isaacs' family got ashamed too from his rape they not reported this to the policemen. David is lucky this time. It is obvious that the rape survivor will blessed with so much shame. It is also happened on Lucy. The first thing she did is staying at home. She does not want to go outside. The trauma and the fear will grow upon her. In earlier days after the rape he stated that he was nothing, heist e dead person. She did not want to meet people too. She would rather hide her face, and he knows why. Because of the disgrace. Because of the shame…. Like a stain the story is spreading across the district. Not her story to spread but theirs: they are its owners. How they put her in her place, how they showed her what a woman was for. (Coetzee, 1999: 115) It is a related to shame that person who gets shame will hide itself from public. Lucy was avoiding he people talk and question. It takes a time to recover from this trauma. But she could not let it go to long because if she do not going outside she will lose her job and stall in the market. To replace her, David and Petrus doing her job in the market. The damage that is given to Lucy, the rape survivor, may attached forever. She felt everything will never be the same. "One is never oneself again?" (Coetzee, 1999: 124). Is "Lucy" still "Lucy"? Lucy also emphasizes the existence of herself "I am not the person you know. I am a dead person and I do not know yet what will bring me back to life." (Coetzee, 1999: 161). With nothing to left she got nothing to lose. Then she decided to take consequences of human body in pain. Lucy takes the consequences of human body in pain. "I must learn to accept. To start at ground level. With nothing. Not with nothing but. With nothing. No cards, no weapons, no property, no rights, no dignity." (Coetzee, 1999: 205). From the sentence above it is shown that Lucy is starting to understand her condition after being raped. She decided to start her business in farm and her vendor. Although she realises that she has nothing left. The rapist also takes her dignity that is the biggest loose after the rape. A woman without a dignity will judge herself as a shameful person. She also feels that she has no right to her own land and properties. It is because Petrus take over it. As the rapist, David Lurie got public pressure from university committee and the students. At first he does not confess that he is guilty. But after her daughter being raped by three African intruders he contemplate and change his attitude. Then he ask for apologize to Melanie's family. After the scandal of lecture and his student were reported in university newspaper, the university made a committee. When answering the question, David giving no clue to the judges. David was making confusing issues to them. The committee not wanted to force David to make apologize. They wanted to help David to keep doing his career by making a statement to make it clear. But he resisted by saying "I am being asked to issue an apology about which I may not be sincere?" (Coetzee, 1999: 58) David's refusal to be "disgraced" can be read as a warlike strategy in the realm of sexual politics. For by renouncing the assault, David transfers the shame he feels upon Melanie in an attempt to strengthen his wavering masculinity and suppress her intimidating femininity. He plead guilty when he was in the committee. He remains silent and giving no story from his side. When David asked someone in the neutral position that is his former wife, Rosalind. She told him that he should have known that he is too old to be meddling with other people's children. He should have expected the worst from the scandal. She also blame the two for all that happened. `Don't blame her! Whose side are you on? Of course I blame her! I blame you and I blame her. The whole thing is disgraceful from beginning to end. Disgraceful and vulgar too. And I'm not sorry for saying so.' (Cortzee, 1999: 45) David feels disgrace on himself but he still cannot accept it. He said nothing to the committee and plead guilty. But from her former wife explanation he cannot resist it. Even though he must be so angry when he heard what she said. But he controlled his emotion and accept the disgrace given by the rape. For earlier, David is described as "mildly smitten with Melanie" and that "it was no great matter: barely a term passed when he did not fall for one or other of his charges" (Coetzee, 1999: 11-12,). Masquerading as the tragic subject of the ungovernable impulse of Eros, David publically justifies and renounces the stigmatization of Melanie's rape.David's lack of a sincere apology and his refusal to publically acknowledge the assault, along with his fanciful illustration of himself as a "servant of Eros" (Coetzee, 1999: 52) demonstrates the way in which disgrace (though masked as desire) is felt by men as a response to threatening femininity. Spurned and embarrassed by the loss of his womanizing charms, David's shame is directed into lust, later to be passed off as "Eros" when he encounters Melanie Isaacs, whom he refers to as "Melanie: the dark one" (Coetzee, 1999: 8). As with Soraya, David's seduction of Melanie is an attempt not only to reclaim sexual privilege, but to emphasize the traditional patriarchal procedures of the European culture, in which such privilege, like Lurie himself, is embedded. The worst thing from David's disgrace is how he, an intellectual person which had title a professor, becomes a person who can do nothing except working in bad place. To be a dog-man, that he already underestimate it on Petrus. By the time, David realized that he can't do nothing but accept what the destiny does. The situation that makes him to take any job turned David into a rational man. What David has and does in the university, which let him to become an intellectual people, disappear when he moved out. He then realized that what he writes about Byron and natural poets all this time is all about the death person. He never writes something in contemporary. CONCLUSION There will be two conclusions which are in line with the statement of problems. The first conclusion is about the depiction of rape in the novel Disgrace. The second conclusion is about how rape lead to shame through the rapist and the rape survivor. From the analysis that has been done about the depiction of rape. It can be concluded that that the author, J.M. Coetzee use the rape to describe the condition of race in post apartheid. All the rape in this novel is interracial rape. There are three kinds of rape experienced by three female characters. The first and the second rape was done by David, white male character that desiring ethnic women. He lived in promiscuity or womanizer that used to have sex with a lot of women. Then in the end he involved in scandal with his student, Melanie. Then the third rape was done to David's daughter, Lucy. She was being raped by three African intruders. The first rape is happened between David and the prostitute, Soraya. On his age of 50 he has no plan to married again. Thus, it made David rely on prostitution in his sexual life. His ideal marriage is with a wife that is a prostitute, but for him only and only at certain times. He met Soraya only on Thursday. On the other day he is back to his normal life. With Soraya he already find the happiness he belief. It makes him thought; there is no need to search for another life destination such as home and real wife. Prostitution gives the solution that allows him to fantasize a woman to mirrors his wishes. This can be classified as rape concerning that every women in prostitutes would leave if they can and she has to do it because there are no other choices. But in the end Soraya decided to quit the job as prostitutes so he has no other place to suit his lust. Then, accidently David met Melanie on the way home. She is his student from romantic class. Melanie is a colored girl, this make David interest to her concerning that he is desiring ethnic women. He forced her to have sex. He did not force her physically but seduced her with suggestive words. The relationship between them then became a scandal in the campus and also became the talk of the city. He left the town and visits his daughter in other town to run away from the situation. During his visits to his daughter, three black men attack Lurie and Lucy at home. The men lock Lurie in a bathroom and rape Lucy in the bedroom. The second half of the novel deals with the aftermath of that moment. Lucy did not want to tell the police and keep silent about what happened to her. She also rejected her father offer to move to Holland. She claimed that it is a private matter and not to be shared. With nothing to left she got nothing to lose. Then she decided to take consequences of human body in pain. Accepting the subordinates , she is willing to sacrifice herself, brings peace between the different racial groups in South Africa. The second conclusion is about how rape lead to shame. In Disgrace the rape that experienced by the rapist and the rape survivor transform their life worst then before. The act of rape means to take away by force which the dignity is to be taken. Loosing dignity makes woman feel shameful on herself. While the rapist that considered as a thief will judge as disgraceful person after the rape. The male character, David Lurie, got disgrace after doing sexual harassment to his student, Melanie. As the rapist, David will be haunted by his sin and losing his reputation and his job. While Lucy, the rape survivor got shame after being raped The first shame is from the prostitute, Soraya. She felt the shame for being prostitute because every prostitutes is attached to shame. Then to keep her pride for her children, Soraya decided to quit the job. She did not want her children knows their real mother is. So she decided to resign from the escort and disappeared from that business. The second shame is from Melanie that involved in scandal with her lecture, David. She was shame for being reported even as victims. She often not attended the class even it was a midterm test. But she still survives to continue his study to university. This is maybe because David was kicked out from the university and not to be someone near her. The third shame is from Lucy, she raped by three African intruders. She is a lesbian that live alone in the small town. She thought that the rape that she got is the payment for living in South Africa. She felt that the rapist wants her to back home to Europe because the westerner's does not belong to South Africa. Then she decided to stay and stay silent about the rape, and keeping her shame as a private matter. The last disgrace is from David, as rapist, David Lurie got public pressure from university committee and the students. At first he does not confess that he is guilty. He loses his job as a professor and turn to be an animal's clinic assistance for killing unwanted dog. After her daughter raped by three African intruders he then contemplates and changes his attitude. He ask for apologize to Melanie's family for his feeling guilty that he never confess before. The ending of the novel shows us that Lucy as the rape survivor could start her life again from the start. She continued to seeding a new plan even she is on pregnancy. He father, David, started to understand that he live in South Africa. Then, he stop complaining about the condition. Disgrace ends with Lurie staying on in Graham's town, continuing to help out at the animal clinic. The open ending of the novel shows Lurie playing excerpts from his opera in the making on a makeshift toy banjo to the three legged dog, Driepoot, who is awaiting his turn for mercy killing. REFERENCE Abegunde, Babalola. 2013. Re-Examination of Rape and Its Groing Jurisprudance under International La. Journal of Politics and Law. Vol. 6, No. 4. Abbey, A., Parkhill, M., Clinton-Sherrod, A. & Zawacki T. 2007. A comparison of men who committed different types of sexual assault in a community sample. Journal of interpersonal violence. Baumeister, R., Catanese, K. & Wallace, H. 2002. Conquest by force: a nacissistic reactance theory of rape and sexual coercion. Review of general psychology Bushman, B., Bonacci, A., Dijk, M. & Baumeister, R. (2003). Narcissism, sexual refusal, and aggression: testing a narcissistic reactance model of sexual coercion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Cahill, A. (2001). Rethinking rape. Ithaca: Cornell University Press Coetzee. J.M. 1999. Disgrace. London: Vintage, 2000 Fuchs, Thomas. 2003. The Phenomenology of Shame, Guilt and the Body in Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Depression. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology. vol. 33, no. 2. Gottfredson, M. & Hirschi, T. 1990. A general theory of crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press Lowell, Gary. 2010. A Review of Rape Statistics Theories and Policy. Undergraduate Review. Massachusetts: Bridgewater State University. Nurka, Camille. 2012. Feminine Shame/Masculine Disgrace. Journal of Cultural Study. University of Melbourne Prentky, R. & Knight, R.1991. Identifying Critical Dimensions for Discriminating Among Rapists. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Siegert, R. & Ward, T. 2002. Rape and evolutionary psychology: a critique of Thornhill and Palmer's theory. Journal of Aggression and violent behavior
Positionality statement As we begin to discuss this issue, its origins, and its importance in contemporary society, I wanted to acknowledge my positionality and the role that it may play in the formation of this issue. Jonathan O. Cain is an African-American male working in the LIS field. Before moving into administration, I taught data and digital literacy and worked on developing programs that focused on improving access to these critical skills at zero cost to learners. It is important to acknowledge my positionality and the lens through which I see the data science field. Trevor Watkins is an African American male working in the LIS field at an academic institution in an academic library. I teach critical data literacy workshops and engage in diversity and BIPOC-related digital projects with faculty, students, and the broader academic community across the country. I am also a researcher and practitioner in artificial intelligence (AI) and data science. The global pandemic, its impacts, and why it matters We first met in August 2020 to discuss the possibilities of this special issue about five months into the pandemic. We spent a good chunk of that meeting getting to know each other and, most importantly, discussed the toll the pandemic placed on our communities and us. It is probably safe to say that many of you, at some point, were uncertain of the future. Like most people worldwide, we lost family and friends or knew of people who succumbed to Covid-19 and other illnesses that weren't treated because the focus shifted to Covid-19. We get it. At one point, Covid-19 killed over three thousand people per day (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2022). According to data from the CDC, 90% of the 385,676 people who died between March and December 2020 had Covid-19 listed as the underlying cause of death on their death certificate. The murders of Ahmaud Arbery in February, Breonna Taylor in March, and George Floyd in May 2020 sparked civic unrest across the United States (US) and protests across the globe in solidarity against racial injustice. When we announced this special issue and initiated a call for papers, we didn't get much of a response initially. We expected and acknowledged that it would probably take some time before we received inquiries or proposals about the issue, the intent to submit, or any submissions. Like many of you, we are still picking up the pieces from 2020 and dealing with the aftermath of Covid-19. The pandemic may be over now, depending on whom you ask, but the emotional scars are still there and may remain so for quite some time. Patience was the one quality we all had throughout this process, which is why we can present this publication today. Data and liberatory technology Liberatory technology. This is a concept that invited contemplation as we sat down to record our reflections on this special issue. In drawing together scholars, educators, and practitioners to address the issue of data and its relationship to race, ethnicity, and representation, we, as coeditors, were making a statement about the importance of data, the material impact that this seemingly abstract and ethereal object can and does have on individual and community lives. And thinking about that impact brought liberatory technology to the front of our minds. The definition of liberator technology offered by the IDA B. Wells Just Data Lab intrigues us and invites us to grapple with that topic. They defined liberatory as something that "supports the increased freedom and wellbeing of marginalized people, especially black people outside of capitalism and settler colonial power structures" and technology as "a tool used to accomplish a task." And as we contemplate this set of definitions, we are left to question whether data can be a liberatory technology or not. (LIBERATORY TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MARRONAGE, n.d.) In Liberation Technology: Black Protest in the Age of Franklin, Richard S. Newman draws parallels with the asserting ownership and mastery of new communication technologies and black liberation activities. Reflecting on the transformative nature of print technology, he writes, "If the Marquis de Condorcet was right in 1793 that print had unshackled Europe from medieval modes of thought and action, then it is also true that print was perhaps the first technology to liberate blacks from the servile images that had long haunted their existence in Western culture." And draws a 19th-century example of how it expressly connects to black lives post-emancipation noting "W. E. B. Du Bois certainly thought that black history and print history worked in tandem. Wherever one found newspapers in the post-Civil War South, he observed, one found some form of black freedom" (Richard S. Newman, 2009, p. 175). He even notes how scholars note that black activists embraced other communication technologies like photography "to reshape the image of African Americans in nineteenth-century culture." (Richard S. Newman, 2009, p. 175) We have no shortage of examples of how data and data-driven technologies fail to support the "increased freedom and wellbeing of marginalized people outside of capitalism and settler colonial power structures." In 2016, ProPublica published Machine Bias, a report that looks at Risk assessment technologies used in arraignment and sentencing. They report that "The formula was particularly likely to falsely flag black defendants as future, wrongly labeling them this way at almost twice the rate as white defendants" and "white defendants were mislabeled as low risk more often than black defendants" (Julia Angwin, 2016). A 2021 article, Fairness in Criminal Justice Risk Assessments: The State of the Art, in their analysis, noted, "The false negative rate is much higher for whites so that violent white offenders are more likely than violent black offenders to be incorrectly classified as nonviolent. The false positive rate is much higher for blacks so that nonviolent black offenders are more likely than nonviolent white offenders to be incorrectly classified as violent. Both error rates mistakenly inflate the relative representation of blacks predicted to be violent. Such differences can support claims of racial injustice. In this application, the trade-off between two different kinds of fairness has real bite." (Berk et al., 2021, p. 33) These are just a few examples of how these technological developments, on their own merits, fail to meet the definition offered by the authors of the "Liberatory Technology and Digital Marronage" Zine from the Ida B. Wells Just Data Labs. Reflecting on the technological path illustrated by Newman, the work of ownership and mastery of the tool provides the potential for it to be liberatory. Through this lens, the work of the Just Data Lab is exemplary for this meditation; it draws a direct line from technology, education, mastery, and liberatory technology. Data in higher education Data literacy education is an area that has been a focus of our careers in librarianship. It's a space where we saw the libraries' ability to make a meaningful impact. Data has had a tremendous impact on college campuses, from how research is conducted to the pressures colleges feel from stakeholder groups: students, governments, funders, donors, and employers to prepare students with the data and technology skills to gain employment in the knowledge economy. As colleges and universities have turned (with varying degrees of success) to meet the needs of these communities, a myriad of explorations on the importance of the representation of these marginalized communities in these systems—to combat and dismantle the harmful practices that we see embedded in the systems that drive society and the potentially debilitating consequences they produce. That is partly why the works in this special issue are so important at this moment in time. These scholars and scholar-practitioners are engaging with these issues that drive the opaque structures surrounding us. And hopefully, their work can give us another perspective on how to engage with these structures and transform them to support liberatory practices. The entries in this issue We have some fantastic articles for you to read in this issue. We open with an article by Kevin Manuel, Rosa Orlandini, and Alexandra Cooper, who discuss how the collection process of racial, ethnic, and indigenous data has evolved in the Canadian Census since 1871, the erasure of minorities and indigenous citizens from those censuses, and the work to restore and accurately identify and categorize racialized groups. In the next article, Leigh Phan, Stephanie Labou, Erin Foster, and Ibraheem Ali present a model for data ethics instruction for non-experts by designing and implementing two data ethics workshops. They make important points about the failure of academia to incorporate the ethical use of data in course curriculums and digital literacy training and demonstrate how academic libraries have become an essential resource for the academic community. Their workshop structure can be modeled for any academic library that endeavors to provide a similar service to its community. In the third article, Natasha Johnson, Megan Sapp Nelson, and Katherine Yngve, interrogate the collective and local purposes of institutional data collection and its impact on student belongingness and propose a framework based on data feminism that centers the student as a person rather than a commodity. Finally, our closing article from Thema Monroe-White focuses on marginalized and underrepresented people in the data science field. The author proposes that racially relevant and responsive teaching is necessary to recruit more people from these groups and diversify the field. She discusses how the Ladson-Billings model of cultural relevant pedagogy has been applied and is beneficial to STEM curriculums, and how a liberatory data science curriculum could promote a student's voice and sense of belonging. Conclusion We want to thank all those involved in producing this special issue. We want to thank the authors first. Their patience, dedication, and perseverance throughout this process were much appreciated. The reviewers provided timely, very detailed, and thorough feedback. We would be remised if we didn't acknowledge their hard work and labor. We would like to thank the IQ Editorial Team, Michele Hayslett and Karsten Boye Rasmussen, for working with us over the last two years, and Ofira Schwartz-Soicher, for helping us get to the finish line. Trevor Watkins Jonathan O. Cain References Berk, R., Heidari, H., Jabbari, S., Kearns, M., & Roth, A. (2021). Fairness in Criminal Justice Risk Assessments: The State of the Art. Sociological Methods & Research, 50(1), 3–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118782533 Flipsnack. (n.d.). Liberatory Technology Zine. Flipsnack. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.flipsnack.com/EBC8CD77C6F/liberatory-technology-zine.html LIBERATORY TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MARRONAGE. (n.d.). IDA B. WELLS JUST DATA LAB. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.thejustdatalab.com/tools-1/liberatory-technology-and-digital-marronage Mattu, J. A., Jeff Larson,Lauren Kirchner,Surya. (n.d.). Machine Bias. ProPublica. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing Richard S. Newman. (2009). Liberation Technology: Black Printed Protest in the Age of Franklin. Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8(1), 173–198. https://doi.org/10.1353/eam.0.0033
En Colombia, el feminicidio es un tipo penal cerrado, en cuya estructura de delito autónomo, el legislador determinó, según el artículo 2° de la Ley Rosa Elvira Cely LREC, que el sujeto pasivo es la mujer cis, considerada así desde lo biológico, en razón de su sexo de nacimiento. En la jurisprudencia colombiana, cometer feminicidio es causar la muerte a una mujer, necesariamente motivada "por su condición de ser mujer o por motivos de su identidad de género, móvil que hace parte del tipo dolo calificado" (Sentencia C-297 de 2016). Según Ramos de Mello (2015), en el feminicidio "el Estado es incapaz de garantizar la vida de las mujeres, de respetar sus derechos humanos, de actuar con legalidad y de hacerse respetar, de buscar y administrar la justicia, de prevenir y erradicar la violencia que ocasiona"; mientras que, las teorías sociológicas consideran al feminicidio como un crimen de Estado (Legarde, 2008) o como violencia sexual sistemática, propia de las relaciones de poder: social, cultural (machismo, patriarcado), política y económica, dominantes (Monárrez, 2009). En la LREC, el legislador no definió con precisión que el sujeto pasivo en el delito de feminicidio allí consagrado, podría extenderse a personas transgénero, concepto general que para la CIDH de la OEA constituye una denominación básica para designar a "aquellas personas cuya identidad de género u orientación sexual es diferente de las expectativas basadas en características físicas sexuales o en el sexo que les fue asignado al momento del nacimiento" (CIDH-OEA, 2015); los modelos o estereotipos sociales establecen disimilitudes en la sociedad, aunque la perspectiva antropológica del rol de mujer trans (travesti, transexual y transgénero), no necesariamente está vinculada a procedimientos médico-quirúrgicos para la reasignación de sexo, sino a la construcción de la identidad de género (Cano-Caballero, 2010). En la sociedad contemporánea, existen grupos de personas LGBTI, considerados vulnerables por su diversidad sexual, quienes no tienen regulados sus derechos de identidad jurídica en la legislación nacional, a pesar que la comunidad jurídica internacional se los haya reconocido en razón o por su condición de género (CIDH, 2015); situación que los expone al prejuicio que a su vez los hace objeto de violencia y estigmatización (Ramos-Salcedo & González-Mauricio, 2015). De otra arista, el orden social en los Estados no está organizado estructuralmente para dar prioridad y adaptar procesos pertinentes con identidad de género o sexual, por lo cual deberían ser considerados como "construcción del cuerpo social como eje de transversalidad para la culturización y la difusión de información, para que la sociedad contemporánea, respete y asimile un proceso más inclusivo, que genere mayor atención hacia el cuerpo distinto, presente en la persona" (Cedeño & Cedeño, 2018). En Colombia, los derechos de las personas LGBTI no solo son irrespetados, sino que además no le son garantizados a plenitud, dado que, las autoridades de tipo judicial y administrativa, "anteponen el estereotipo o prejuicio al momento de aplicar la legislación o por una actitud omisiva desconocen las precarias e infravaloradas condiciones y estigmatización social" (Colombia Diversa, 2020); debido quizá a que el sistema está cimentado sobre la base del binarismo de género, invisibilizando a las mujeres trans y desconociendo la realidad de personas con género no binario. Aunque la Corte Constitucional colombiana ha sentado jurisprudencia a través de múltiples sentencias en materia de derechos de parejas del mismo sexo, en el país persiste la discriminación homofóbica por razones de orientación sexual e identidad de género, registrándose en forma continua, la vulneración a los derechos humanos y fundamentales como la integridad personal, la libertad, la intimidad, la libertad de expresión, a pesar de las normas y las Organizaciones No Gubernamentales que trabajan por su garantía. Transcurridos dos decenios del siglo XXI, estos derechos de las personas transgénero siguen siendo ignorados y como personas humanas, "marginados y discriminados por una sociedad que le niega la existencia de una identidad de género propia de las personas trans, el derecho de igualdad sin distinción de sexo o género, sin exclusión" (Cardona-Cuervo, 2016; Godoy, 2019). El no reconocer de forma incluyente a la persona trans, mediante política pública o legislación más precisa, desatiende la valoración social, la identidad de género no normativa y la identidad jurídica, siendo un condicionamiento que conlleva a la incorrecta imputación como homicidio agravado, al tipo penal de feminicidio cuyo sujeto pasivo es la mujer-adolescente trans. En esta tesis se desarrolla una investigación sociojurídica tipo analítica y comparada, dado su método de análisis interseccional de contenido, basado en fuentes de doctrina, jurisprudencia y política criminal, así como del derecho comparado con países de Latinoamérica en cuya legislación se incluya el tipo penal de feminicidio delimitando su unidad de análisis a adolescente transgénero y el sintagma gnoseológico se desarrolla mediante tratamiento multidimensional e interdisciplinar, con tres categorías analíticas abordadas desde la antropología social, psicología, derecho y ciencia forense; para determinar la construcción social e identidad jurídica como mujer-adolescente transgénero, necesaria para proponer su inclusión taxativa como sujeto pasivo en la LREC. Desde lo procesal-penal, se propone el protocolo de actuación médico forense y se incorporan los elementos socio-jurídicos incidentes que, como mecanismo judicial se requieren direccionar para una efectiva imputación en el proceso de investigación criminal del feminicidio transgénero. Desde lo académico, el problema jurídico y su solución, se abordan desde el conocimiento interdisciplinario y transdisciplinario en las áreas de Antropología, Derechos Humanos, Ciencia Forense, Derecho Procesal-Penal y Criminología; con lo cual se logra un aporte transversal, contemporáneo y de impacto sociojurídico, que genera una prospectiva como nueva línea de investigación y futuras investigaciones de alto impacto a nivel teórico e institucional en la USTA. ; In Colombia, Femicide is a closed criminal type, in whose structure of autonomous crime, the legislator determined, according to article 2 of the Rosa Elvira Cely LREC Law, that the taxable person is the woman considered thus from the biological point of view, in reason for your birth sex In Colombian jurisprudence, committing Femicide is causing the death of a woman, necessarily motivated "by her condition of being a woman or by reasons of her gender identity, motive that is part of the type of qualified fraud" (Sentence C-297 of 2016). According to Ramos de Mello (2015), in Femicide "the State is incapable of guaranteeing the lives of women, of respecting their human rights, of acting legally and enforcing respect, of seeking and administering justice, of preventing and eradicating the violence it causes "; While, sociological theories consider Femicide as a crime of the State (Legarde, 2008) or as systematic sexual violence, typical of power relations: social, cultural (machismo, patriarchy), political and economic, dominant (Monárrez, 2009 ). In the Rosa Elvira Cely Law, the legislator did not precisely define that the taxpayer in the crime of Femicide enshrined therein, could be extended to transgender people, a general concept that for the IACHR of the OAS constitutes a basic denomination to designate "those persons whose identity of gender or sexual orientation is different from the expectations based on sexual physical characteristics or on the sex assigned to them at the time of birth "(IACHR-OEA, 2015); social models or stereotypes establish dissimilarities in society, although the anthropological perspective of the role of trans women (transvestites, transsexuals and transgender), is not necessarily linked to medical-surgical procedures for the reassignment of sex, but to the construction of identity gender (Cano-Caballero, 2010). In contemporary society, there are groups of LGBTI people, considered vulnerable due to their sexual diversity, who do not have their legal identity rights regulated in national legislation, despite the fact that the international legal community has recognized them by reason or by their status as gender (IACHR, 2015); a situation that exposes them to prejudice that in turn makes them the object of violence and stigmatization (Ramos-Salcedo & González-Mauricio, 2015). On the other hand, the social order in the States is not structurally organized to prioritize and adapt pertinent processes with gender or sexual identity, for which they should be considered as "construction of the social body as an axis of transversally for culturalization and dissemination of information, so that contemporary society respects and assimilates a more inclusive process that generates greater attention to the different body present in the person" (Cedeño & Cedeño, 2018). In Colombia, the rights of LGBTI people are not only disrespected, but they are also not fully guaranteed, given that judicial and administrative authorities "put the stereotype or prejudice before applying the legislation or by a omisive attitude ignore the precarious and undervalued conditions and social stigmatization "(Colombia Diversa, 2020); perhaps due to the fact that the system is founded on the basis of gender binaries, making trans women invisible and ignoring the reality of people with non-binary gender. Although the Colombian Constitutional Court has established jurisprudence through multiple judgments on the rights of same-sex couples, homophobic discrimination persists in the country for reasons of sexual orientation and gender identity, with the violation of rights being continuously recorded. human and fundamental such as personal integrity, freedom, privacy, freedom of expression, despite the rules and Non-Governmental Organizations that work for their guarantee. After two decades of the 21st century, these rights of transgender people continue to be ignored and as human persons, "marginalized and discriminated against by a society that denies the existence of a gender identity typical of trans people, the right to equality without distinction. of sex or gender, without exclusion" (Cardona-Cuervo, 2016; Godoy, 2019). Not recognizing the trans person in an inclusive way, through public policy or more precise legislation, neglects social valuation, non-normative gender identity and legal identity, being a condition that leads to the incorrect imputation as aggravated homicide, to a criminal type of Femicide whose taxpayer is the transgender woman-adolescent. In this thesis, an analytical and comparative socio-legal research is developed, given its method of intersectional content analysis, based on sources of doctrine, jurisprudence and criminal policy, as well as comparative law with Latin American countries in whose legislation the criminal type is included from feminicide, delimiting its unit of analysis to a transgender adolescent and the epistemological phrase is developed through multidimensional and interdisciplinary treatment, with three analytical categories approached from social anthropology, psychology, law and forensic science; to determine the social construction and legal identity as a transgender woman-adolescent, necessary to propose her exhaustive inclusion as a taxpayer in the LREC. From the procedural-criminal point of view, the forensic medical action protocol is proposed and the incident socio-legal elements are incorporated that, as a judicial mechanism, are required to address for an effective imputation in the criminal investigation process of transgender Femicide. From the academic point of view, the legal problem and its solution are approached from interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary knowledge in the areas of Anthropology, Human Rights, Forensic Science, Procedural-Criminal Law and Criminology; with which a transversal, contemporary contribution with a socio-legal impact is achieved, which generates a prospective as a new line of research and future research of high impact at the theoretical and institutional level in the USTA. ; Magister en Derecho Penal y Procesal Penal
