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From 1990 to 2004 I held various posts of responsibility within the National Education sector in Cameroon. Firstly, as principal of a College and, subsequently, as principal of a High School. Consequently, I understand the difficulties inherent then in meeting the current education requirements, in a context not only characterized by the utter confusion of a population torn between modernization and tradition but also the technical progress and unification of the world. With the help of the experience of ancient philosophers, and with regard to these issues, I undertook in this work to question what, in Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau and Kant, enables us to maintain or even improve human values laid down during the Greek miracle. Plato teaches pedagogy geared towards political transformation, or policy aimed at new pedagogy: he wants to build a new man, a complete man. With him begins the great political and pedagogical utopias, utopias no doubt, but which show that man exists insofar as he strives towards an ideal self, even if the Republic thinks of the cyclical construction and destruction of the political system (and of pedagogy), it unveils to mankind the unpredictable nature of history. Aristotle refrains from dreaming; he observes the societies of his time, describes them, criticizes them, and appreciates them. Unable to build an ideal society, he defends the less bad: a mix of oligarchy and democracy, marked by the domination of the middle class. But for Aristotle as for Plato, access to full citizenship and education is reserved only for "free" men; excluded from citizenship are not only slaves but labourers as well. We are in the Greek city: the citizen runs his home and the Republic; he defends it at war, but does not defile himself with dirty work. Rousseau reflects in the context of a declining monarchy, marked by an awakening strong need for freedom and equality. Pessimistic with respect to human progress, though, he believes that cultural progress has no turning back; it is necessary therefore to find a political system that allows humanity, drawn into history by the adventure thereof, with an unpredictable destiny, to fulfill itself in the best way possible. The Social Contract is the basis for a legitimate political system. Emile outlines the pedagogical reform that will establish it, based on the original goodness of human nature. Kant is convinced that history is leading humanity, which has attained adulthood, towards its unification. The ages of war and oppression will come to an end. But Kant does not share the optimism of Rousseau regarding human nature: what is good in man is his duty consciousness, but one can say no to duty. It is from duty that education can train people capable of managing a new humanity in peace. This new humanity was been created by the phenomenal development of technology since the mid-nineteenth century, but not exactly as dreamed of: two terrible world wars have caused the belief in progress to decline. It is in this confused, hesitant context that this work was designed and carried out. Technical progress and the attendant new ways of life raise many more questions and worries than certainties. The reflections of the great thinkers of the past must help us to tackle the problems of today. Beyond their differences, Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau and Kant do agree on the mutual involvement of politics, government of men, and education, training of tomorrow's citizens; as Aristotle states explicitly, each type of political system has its specific pedagogy. ; De 1990 à 2004, j'ai exercé divers postes de responsabilité dans l'éducation nationale au Cameroun. D'abord comme directeur de Collège puis comme proviseur. J'ai pu mesurer les difficultés qu'il y avait à réaliser les exigences actuelles de scolarisation, dans un contexte marqué non seulement par un profond désarroi d'une population partagée entre la modernisation et la tradition mais aussi le progrès technique et l'unification du monde. L'expérience des anciens philosophes aidant, et au regard de ces enjeux, j'ai entrepris dans ce travail d'interroger ce qui, chez Platon, Aristote, Rousseau, Kant, nous permet de maintenir voire de perfectionner les valeurs humanistes énoncées lors du miracle grec. Platon enseigne une pédagogie visant à une transformation politique, ou tout aussi bien une politique visant à une nouvelle pédagogie : il veut construire un homme nouveau, pleinement homme. Avec lui, débutent les grandes utopies politiques et pédagogiques ; utopies sans doute, mais qui témoignent que l'homme est dans la mesure où il vise un idéal de soi ; même si la République pense la construction et la destruction cycliques du régime politique (et de la pédagogie), elle ouvre à l'humanité l'imprévisibilité de l'Histoire. Aristote se défend de rêver ; il observe les sociétés de son temps, les décrit, les critique, les apprécie. Faute de pouvoir construire une société idéale, il défend la moins mauvaise : un mixe d'oligarchie et de démocratie, marqué par la domination de la classe moyenne. Mais, chez Aristote comme chez Platon, seuls accèdent à la pleine citoyenneté et à l'éducation plénière, seuls sont citoyens, les hommes « libres », non seulement les esclaves mais les travailleurs manuels sont exclus de la citoyenneté. Nous sommes dans la cité grecque : le citoyen gère sa maison et la République, il la défend à la guerre, mais il ne se souille pas de basses besognes. Rousseau pense dans le contexte d'une monarchie déclinante, où s'éveillent fortement les besoins de liberté et d'égalité. S'il est pessimiste relativement au progrès humain, il estime que ce progrès culturel est sans retour en arrière possible ; il s'agit donc de fonder le régime politique permettant à l'humanité, lancée dans l'Histoire, par l'aventure de l'Histoire, dans un destin imprévisible, de s'accomplir de la meilleure façon. Le Contrat social fonde le régime politique légitime, l'Emile esquisse la réforme pédagogique qui permettra de l'instaurer, en se fondant sur la bonté originelle de la nature humaine. Kant est convaincu que l'Histoire mène une humanité devenue adulte vers son unification. Les âges de guerre et d'oppression vont se terminer. Mais Kant ne partage pas l'optimisme de Rousseau quant à la nature humaine ; ce qu'il y a de bon dans l'homme, c'est la conscience du devoir- mais on peut dire non au devoir. C'est à partir du devoir que l'éducation pourra former les humains capables de gérer en paix une humanité nouvelle. Cette humanité nouvelle, le prodigieux développement des techniques depuis le milieu du XIXè siècle l'a créée, mais pas exactement comme elle était rêvée : deux terribles guerres mondiales ont bien fait décliner la croyance au progrès. C'est dans cette situation confuse, hésitante, que ce travail a été conçu et mené. Le progrès technique et les nouveaux modes de vie qu'il a suscités amènent bien plus d'interrogations et d'inquiétudes que de certitudes. La méditation des grands penseurs d'autrefois devait nous aider à nous attaquer aux problèmes d'aujourd'hui. Par-delà leurs divergences, Platon, Aristote, Rousseau, Kant, se rejoignent en constatant l'implication mutuelle de la politique, gouvernement des hommes, et de l'éducation, formation des citoyens de demain ; comme le dit explicitement Aristote, chaque type de régime politique a sa pédagogie spécifique.

Trabajo de Fin de Máster del Máster en Estudios Latinoamericanos, curso 2010-2011. ; [ES] En los últimos cinco años muchos de los países de América Latina y el Caribe han mejorado sus índices económicos y de desarrollo. Sin embargo, los cambios no se vienen dando al ritmo que se necesita para alcanzar, antes del 2015, las metas de desarrollo definidas en los Objetivos del Milenio, pues en la mayoría de los países de la región existe todavía un gran número de ciudadanos que viven en una deplorable situación de pobreza y desigualdad, lo cual dificulta mucho más el logro de estos objetivos comunes. Así las cosas, urge que en Latinoamérica se establezcan y se implementen políticas públicas más justas, así como estrategias que generen procesos de participación ciudadana mucho más sólidos y democráticos, verdaderamente al alcance de todos. Es evidente que la región tiene que dar un gran salto en el acceso a la igualdad de oportunidades, en la calidad de la oferta educativa, en el sistema de salud y en la puesta en marcha de planes y programas que propicien las condiciones necesarias para el desarrollo y el cambio social. El presente trabajo es un estudio relacionado con la implementación de estrategias de comunicación específicas que hacen posible la transformación ciudadana y el desarrollo sostenible dentro de sociedades emergentes. Para ello, se tendrá como punto de referencia el estudio de dos casos específicos liderados en Colombia que a través de sus procesos propenden por el bienestar de la comunidad, el cuidado del entorno y la generación de una cultura ciudadana para una mejor convivencia. Es así como el Colectivo Línea 21 de los Montes de María (Costa Caribe colombiana) y la Escuela de Comunicación Minga del Sol (sur colombiano) serán las dos experiencias que se analizarán en este trabajo. El objetivo principal de esta investigación es estudiar la comunicación desde la cultura. Observar cómo las comunidades que desarrollan procesos comunicativos democráticos y participativos, pueden llegar a tener una mejor calidad de vida y establecer un vínculo más próximo con su entorno y sus vecinos. El estudio mostrará cómo una buena estrategia de comunicación dentro de una comunidad, construye paz y genera un mayor sentido de pertenencia, así como un desarrollo más justo y visible para todos. Con la investigación también se pretende demostrar que los individuos no son simples ciudadanos, sino personas con historia, identidad, arraigo, vidas y experiencias concretas que los hacen únicos y los sitúa en un espacio concreto y una realidad en la que no solo existen necesidades y expectativas, sino también imaginarios con los que pueden interactuar y construir algo nuevo para sus vidas en el presente y así tener un mejor futuro. También se analiza por qué pese a los avances alcanzados durante las últimas tres décadas, América Latina aún no logra resultados contundentes en el proceso de desarrollo y progreso social, como bien lo afirma el investigador social Alfonso Gumucio Dagrón en su ponencia "Tres retos de la comunicación para el cambio social" (Lima, agosto de 2006):"Somos como deportistas que entrenan sin descanso pero que no logran superar significativamente sus marcas. Ni siquiera logramos jugar en la cancha de los equipos de la liga de campeones". ; [EN] In the last five great years of the countries of Latin America and the Carib have improved his economic indexes and of development. Nevertheless, they do not come the changes giving to the pace that it is necessary to reach, before 2015, the goals of development defined in the Aims of the Millenium, since in the majority of the countries of the region there exists still a great number of citizens who live in a deplorable situation of poverty and inequality, which impedes much more the achievement of these common aims. This way the things, it urges that in Latin America are established and there are implemented more just public policies, as well as strategies that generate much more solid and democratic processes of civil participation, really within reach of all. It is evident that the region has to give a great jump in the access to the equality of opportunities, in the quality of the educational offer, in the system of health and in the putting in march of plans and programs that propitiate the conditions necessary for the development and the social change. The present work is a study related to the implementation of specific strategies of communication that make possible the civil transformation and the sustainable development inside emergent companies. For it, there will be had as point of reference the study of two specific cases led in Colombia that across his processes they tend for the well-being of the community, the care of the environment and the generation of a civil culture for a better conviviality. It is as well as the group of communication 'Línea 21' of Maria's Mounts' (Caribbean Colombian Coast) and the School of Communication 'Minga del Sol' (Colombian south) they will be both experiences that will be analyzed in this work. The principal aim of this investigation is to study the communication from the culture. To observe how the communities that develop communicative democratic and participative processes, can manage to have a better quality of life and establish a more near link with his environment and his neighbors. The study will show how a good strategy of communication inside a community, he constructs peace and generates a major sense of belonging, as well as a more just and visible development for all. With the investigation also one tries to demonstrate that the individuals are not simple civil, but you present with history, identity, rooting, lives and concrete experiences that do only ones and them it places in a concrete space and a reality in which not only needs and expectations exist, but also imaginary with that they can interact and construct something new for his lives in the present and like that to have a better future. Also it is analyzed why in spite of the advances reached during the last three decades, Latin America still does not achieve forceful results in the process of development and social progress, as well it affirms the investigator social Alfonso Gumucio Dagrón in his presentation "Three challenges of the communication for the social change " (Lima, august, 2006): " We Are like sportsmen who train without rest but who do not manage to overcome significantly his brands. We do not even manage to play in the field of the equipments of the league of champions".

No es de sorprender que dada la extensa penetración actual de Internet en prácticamente todas las esferas de la actividad humana y su significativo valor comercial, se genere un importante debate sobre el gobierno de la red para intentar orientar la evolución de la misma. Esta es una tarea ardua ya que los propios stakeholders no logran llegar a un consenso a la hora de describir el concepto de gobernanza de Internet. La complejidad del mismo reside en su naturaleza multidisciplinaria, es decir que cruza y abarca problemáticas muy variadas que van desde la piratería informática, la privacidad y la pornografía infantil hasta la libertad de expresión, la democratización del acceso a la información y la distribución equitativa de los recursos de Internet. Todo lo anterior explica el hecho que las discusiones internacionales que apuntan a entender y enmarcar el concepto de gobernanza de Internet se encuentren aún en etapas preliminares. Algunos actores han intentando definir la gobernanza de Internet en analogía con el modelo tradicional de las telecomunicaciones. Sin embargo, las numerosas diferencias entre este modelo y el modelo de Internet impiden establecer un marco base y reglas de regulación comunes para ambos.No es preciso extendernos sobre todas las diferencias enumeradas en esta tabla pero creemos importante resaltar la diferencia en el modelo de gestión de ambos sectores. Mientras que en el modelo tradicional de las telecomunicaciones todas las funciones de gestión son asumidas internacionalmente por una única organización (la Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones- UIT), en el modelo de Internet los recursos son gestionados por un conjunto de entidades: por un lado las que se encargan de los protocolos y estándares técnicos y por otro las que son responsables del sistema de nombres de dominio y las direcciones IP (estas son IAB, IETF, W3C, ISOC e ICANN). (2)El modelo de gestión de Internet estuvo por muchos años fuertemente ligado a las decisiones e intereses del gobierno de los Estados Unidos sencillamente porque allí fue dónde se concibió el proyecto. Cuando se hizo evidente el alto poder e impacto comercial de la herramienta no se hizo esperar el reproche de varios actores que estimaban que la gestión de los nombres de dominios y direcciones IP debía estar en manos de una entidad privada sin fines de lucro. Así nace en 1998 de la mano del Presidente Clinton la Corporación de Internet para la Asignación de Nombres y Números o ICANN por su sigla en inglés (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers). La sede de ICANN ha estado desde sus inicios en California debido a que Jon Postel (3) fue uno de sus fundadores. Creemos importante destacar rápidamente que el funcionamiento del ICANN se basa en diferentes comités consultivos entre los cuales se encuentra el Comité Asesor Gubernamental o GAC por su sigla en inglés (Governmental Advisory Committee) cuyo rol es aconsejar al ICANN en cuestiones de política pública. El GAC está representado por numerosos gobiernos nacionales de todo el mundo. Durante muchos años, la crítica fundamental al ICANN ha sido el control que seguía ejerciendo el gobierno de los Estados Unidos a través de contratos entre la misma, el gobierno federal y la empresa americana VeriSign (que detenta el monopolio casi absoluto del comercio mundial de nombres de dominio globales en .com y .net). Algunos países han ido hasta proponer que la gobernanza de la infraestructura lógica sea entregada a un organismo de las Naciones Unidas como la UIT (Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones) dónde se ven representados cerca de 200 gobiernos "pero que no se caracteriza (…) por la democracia, transparencia y pluralismo" (4). Ya hemos brevemente enumerado las diferencias de ambos modelos (telecomunicaciones e Internet) que a nuestro entender impedirían el establecimiento de un mismo marco base de regulación. En ese sentido, adherimos a la perspectiva descentralizada según la cual "la estructura de gobernanza debe reflejar la naturaleza misma de Internet: una red de redes cuya compleja configuración no puede ser colocada bajo un solo paraguas de gobernanza, como sería una organización internacional". (5)Por otra parte, los esfuerzos de ICANN por mostrar su transparencia y democracia han sido coronados en el 2009 por el fin del proyecto de acuerdo de unión entre ICANN y el gobierno americano y un nuevo acuerdo firmado por Rod Beckstrom (CEO y Presidente de ICANN) quien afirmó que esto garantiza la independencia total de la organización que ya no estará controlada por ninguna entidad y que a partir de ahora funcionará como una verdadera organización internacional. (6) Dada la importancia de todos estos asuntos, se han creado diferentes espacios para permitir las negociaciones internacionales sobre los mismos. La Cumbre Mundial de la Sociedad de la Información (CMSI) del año 2003 (Ginebra) convocada por las Naciones Unidas fue el primero de estos espacios en darle una importancia central al tema de la gobernanza de Internet y en la CMSI del año 2005 (Túnez) se decidió lanzar el Foro de Gobernanza de Internet o IGF, por su sigla en inglés, como un espacio de diálogo multisectorial. Desde entonces, se han ido desarrollando anualmente un IGF en diferentes países del mundo (Atenas 2006; Rio 2007; Hyderabad 2008; Sharm El Sheikh 2009 (7); Vilinus 2010). El IGF de este año se desarrollará en Nairobi en el mes de setiembre y tendrá como tema central: "Internet como catalizador para el cambio: acceso, desarrollo, libertades e innovación". Esos foros sirven como plataforma para el diálogo, como incubadoras de ideas e iniciativas de políticas. Resta evaluar si estas instancias que no tienen carácter decisorio podrán tener la influencia deseada en las tomas de decisión de las entidades que sentarán el futuro de Internet.(1) Coordinador Jorge Pérez, La Gobernanza de Internet, Contribución al debate mundial sobre la gestión y el control de la red, Editorial Ariel, 2008, página 23.(2) IAB (Internet Architecture Board), IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), W3C (World Wide Web Consortium), ISOC (Internet Society) e ICANN.(3) Jon Postel (1943-1998) es considerado como uno de los padres de Internet.(4) Carlos Afonso, "La gobernanza de Internet", Palabras en Juego: Enfoques Multiculturales sobre las Sociedades de la Información, 2005. (5) Jovan Kurbalija y Eduardo Gelbstein, Gobernanza de Internet, Asuntos, Actores y Brechas, DiploFoundation, 2005, Página 18.(6) ICANN Breaks Free From US Control: http://www.thewhir.com/web-hosting-news/093009_ICANN_Breaks_Free_From_US_Control(7) Para tener una idea sobre la dinámica de estos foros, se puede consultar un documento completo sobre esta edición del Foro de Gobernanza de Internet en la dirección siguiente: http://www.intgovforum.org/cms/images/2010/book/igf.sharm.book.final.pdf.*Master en comunicación internacional de la Universidad de Québec en Montreal, se desempeña como coordinadora de cooperación internacional en el Registro regional de direcciones de Internet para América Latina y Caribe -LACNIC

In the tradition of von Thünen, Alonso, Muth, and Mills have improved upon the land rent theory by including the aspect of the relationship between property prices and access to jobs, which are to be found in a central location according to the model assumptions. With increasing computer performance, the development of geographical information systems (GIS) and the improved quality and availability of real estate data and other geo-coded data, the influence of numerous other location and site characteristics have been studied on the basis of hedonic models in the past decades. When hedonic pricing models are employed to examine the amenities or disamenities of an urban or a suburban location analyses are typically based on the price structures of adjacent residential properties. This research project supplements the existing hedonic literature on the effects of externalities in various ways. Analyzing the impact of road noise and access to public transit the articles "Road noise exposure and residential property prices: Evidence from Hamburg" and "The impact of rail access on condominium prices in Hamburg", respectively, focus on two determinants of urban house prices, that already have been investigated multiple times. This research project, however, adds new aspects to the existing literature. Brandt and Maennig, thus, examine the influence of road noise in relation to the emission levels of other sources of noise, and have observed increasing price discounts for each additional dB(A) of road noise. The study results are based on a dataset on road noise pollution with around 6.9 million receptor points. As far as housing studies are concerned, this may well be unique when it comes to small scale and scope. Brandt and Maennig analyze the sensitivity of the coefficients calculated for access to rail stations. It is shown that the results of hedonic analyses can be biased if determinants are neglected that are correlated with access to rail stations. The empirical findings of the first two articles of this research give evidence that public expenditure on public transit and/or noise abatement measures – at least partially – can be offset by increased property tax gains due to higher real estate prices. In the two articles "Perceived externalities of cell phone base stations – The case of property prices in Hamburg, Germany" and "Do places of worship affect housing prices? Evidence from Germany" the external effects of cell phone towers and houses of worship, respectively, are examined. So far, however, both aspects have been largely ignored in hedonic housing studies. Since research has thus far failed to provide unambiguous results on the health risks posed by the electromagnetic fields from cell phone base stations, possible health implications of mobile phone radiation continues to be a controversial topic among citizens, politicians, researchers, and cell phone service providers. Brandt and Maennig, to the authors knowledge, are the first to examine the external effects of cell phone base stations for an entire metropolis. It is shown that in Hamburg only proximity to certain base stations is priced by the housing market. From this, conclusions can be drawn about the spatial arrangement of future cell phone base stations. The fourth article of this research project is the first to examine the effects that houses of worship of all five world religions have on surrounding property prices. On the one hand, the findings provide new input on the public debate on the construction of minarets and/or the public muezzin's call. On the other hand, the results may supply input on the debate on the future use of former places of worship. All four articles of this research have in common that they contribute to expanding the limited empirical evidence on the influence of externalities for German sites. One reason for the scant empirical literature in Germany may be the difficult access to disaggregated property transaction data. In the past few years a growing number of service providers have set up new businesses that readout real estate supply data from Internet platforms to process and geo-code them. Brandt and Maennig have addressed potential methodological concerns in connection with the use of supply data in hedonic studies. The authors conclude that systematic biases of coefficients are not to be expected. Accordingly, supply data are used as an empirical basis in all articles of this research project. That the use of supply data in scientific studies has been accepted by international peer-reviewed journals should encourage other researchers to rely on such data as well if transaction data are not available or only accessible at disproportionately high costs. ; Von Thünen folgend, haben Alonso, Muth and Mills die "land rent theory" weiterentwickelt um den Aspekt des Zusammenhangs zwischen Immobilienpreisen und dem Zugang zu Arbeitsplätzen, die sich gemäß der Modellannahmen an einem zentral gelegenen Ort befinden. Mit zunehmender Computerleistungsfähigkeit, der Weiterentwicklung der Geografischen Informationssysteme (GIS) und der verbesserten Qualität und Verfügbarkeit von Immobiliendaten sowie anderer geo-referenzierter Daten wurde in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten der räumliche Einfluss zahlreicher weiterer Lage- und Standortmerkmale mithilfe von hedonischen Immobilienpreismodellen untersucht. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit ergänzt die bisherige hedonische Literatur zur räumlichen Wirkung von externen Effekten auf verschiedene Weise. Die Aufsätze "Road noise exposure and residential property prices: Evidence from Hamburg" und "The impact of rail access on condominium prices in Hamburg" analysieren mit der Wirkung von Straßenlärm bzw. dem Zugang zum öffentlichen Nahverkehr zwar zwei bereits vielfach untersuchte Determinanten urbaner Wohnimmobilienpreise, jedoch wird die bereits existierende Literatur jeweils um neue Aspekte erweitert. So beleuchten Brandt und Maennig den Einfluss von Straßenlärm in Abhängigkeit von den Immissionsniveaus anderer Lärmquellen und stellen außerdem zunehmende Preisabschläge je zusätzlichen dB(A) Straßenlärmbelastung fest. Dabei basieren die Untersuchungsergebnisse auf einem Datensatz zur Straßenlärmbelastung, der mit ca. 6,9 Mio. Aufpunkten hinsichtlich Umfang und Kleinräumigkeit wohl noch keiner anderen Arbeit zum Einfluss von Verkehrslärm auf Immobilienpreise zu Grunde lag. Brandt und Maennig untersuchen die Sensitivität der für den Zugang zu Bahnstationen ermittelten Koeffizienten. Dabei zeigen sie, dass die Ergebnisse von hedonischen Querschnittsanalysen verzerrt sein können, wenn nicht für potenziell mit der Nähe zu Bahnstationen korrelierte Variablen kontrolliert wird. Die Ergebnisse der ersten beiden Artikel dieser Forschungsarbeit sind ein Beleg dafür, dass die öffentlichen Aufwendungen für den ÖPNV bzw. für Lärmschutzmaßnahmen – zumindest teilweise – durch ein erhöhtes Steueraufkommen in Folge höherer Immobilienpreise ausgeglichen werden können. In den beiden Artikeln "Perceived externalities of cell phone base stations – The case of property prices in Hamburg, Germany" und "Do places of worship affect housing prices? Evidence from Germany" werden mit den externen Effekten von Mobilfunkmasten bzw. Gotteshäusern zwei Aspekte untersucht, die bisher weitestgehend unerforscht sind. Da die Forschung ein abschließendes Ergebnis zu den gesundheitlichen Risiken von den von Mobilfunkanlagen ausgehenden elektromagnetischen Feldern bisher schuldig geblieben ist, werden mögliche medizinische Folgen der Mobilfunk-Strahlung weiterhin kontrovers diskutiert. Brandt und Maennig haben die externen Effekte von Mobilfunkmasten erstmals für eine gesamte Metropole beleuchtet. Es wird gezeigt, dass in Hamburg lediglich die Nähe zu bestimmten Funkanlagen in die umliegenden Wohnimmobilienpreise eingepreist ist. Hieraus können Rückschlüsse für die räumliche Anordnung zukünftiger Mobilfunkanlagen geschlossen werden. In dem vierten Artikel dieses Projektes wird erstmals die Wirkung von Gotteshäusern aller fünf Weltreligionen auf Immobilienpreise untersucht. Die Ergebnisse liefern zum einen neuen Input für die gesellschaftliche Debatte über die Errichtung von Minaretten bzw. den öffentlichen Ruf des Muezzins, zum anderen können sie eine Hilfestellung bei der Entscheidung über den Erhalt oder Abriss ehemaliger Kirchengebäude geben. Allen vier Artikeln dieser Forschungsarbeit ist gemein, dass sie einen Beitrag dazu leisten, die geringe empirische Basis zum Einfluss von externen Effekten für deutsche Standorte zu erweitern. Ein Grund für die spärliche empirische Literatur in Deutschland dürfte an dem schwierigen Zugang zu Transaktionsdaten von Wohnimmobilien liegen. In den vergangenen Jahren haben sich zunehmend Dienstleister etabliert, die Immobilienangebotsdaten aus Internetplattformen auslesen, aufbereiten und geo-codieren. Brandt und Maennig haben sich mit möglichen methodischen Bedenken im Zusammenhang mit der Nutzung von Angebots-daten in hedonischen Arbeiten auseinandergesetzt. Die Autoren kommen zu dem Ergebnis, dass systematische Verzerrungen der Koeffizienten nicht zu erwarten sind. Dementsprechend werden in allen Artikeln dieses Forschungsprojektes Angebotsdaten als empirische Basis verwendet. Dass die Nutzung von Angebotsdaten in wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten von internationalen referierten Fachzeitschriften akzeptiert wurde, sollte andere Forscher ermutigen, ebenfalls auf Angebotsdaten zurückzugreifen, falls Transaktionsdaten nicht oder nur mit unverhältnismäßig hohem finanziellen Aufwand zugänglich sind.

Hintergrund International findet die Bedeutung psychischer Störungen seit vielen Jahren zunehmendpolitische und wissenschaftliche Aufmerksamkeit. Depressionen führen nicht nur zu einer Belastung des psychosozialen Befindens, sondern haben auch große Einschränkungen in der Lebensqualität und Arbeitsproduktivität zur Folge [7]. Eine Identifikation von Prädiktoren für die Remission depressiver Symptomatik erscheint aus diesem Grunde besonders wichtig. Material und Methoden Remittierte und Nicht-Remittierte Patienten wurden anhand des in der Literatur verwendeten Cut-off-Wertes 7 in der Hamilton-Depressionsskala in verschiedenen soziodemographischen, klinischen und weiteren Variablen gegenübergestellt. Insgesamt handelt es sich um eine Stichprobe mit 388 Patienten, von denen 205 an der Katamneseuntersuchung teilnahmen. Eingeschlossen wurden Patienten, die die Diagnose einer einzelnen oder rezidivierenden depressiven Episode (F32.x / F33.x / F38.x) oder einer Dysthymie (F34.1) nach ICD-10 erhalten haben. Ausgeschlossen wurden jene, die als komorbide Diagnosen eine Schizophrenie (F2x.x), eine organisch bedingte Störung (F0x.x) oder eine Intelligenzminderung (F7x.x) nach ICD-10 aufwiesen. Es wurden folgende Skalen verwendet: Beck-Depressions-Inventar (BDI), ein Fragebogen zur gesundheitlichen Lebensqualität(WHOQOL-BREF), die Hamilton-Depressionsskala (HAM-D), die globale Erfassung des Funktionsniveaus (GAF) sowie die Clinical Global Scale (CGI). Ein eigens kreierter Fragebogen fand zur Erfassung anamnestischer und weiterer Daten ebenfalls Anwendung. Ergebnisse und Diskussion Insgesamt remittierte die depressive Symptomatik bei 93 (= 45 %) Patienten. Die nicht-remittierte Gruppe war durchschnittlich 49.82 Jahre alt und damit jünger als die remittierten Patienten (55.17 Jahre alt). Fast doppelt so viel remittierte Patienten hatten einen Abschluss am Gymnasium. Dieses spiegelte sich auch in der derzeitigen beruflichen Situation wider: 75.5% der Arbeitslosen oder erwerbs- bzw. berufsunfähigen Patienten waren nicht-remittiert (p= .00, d= 2.578). Es erhielten signifikant (p≤ .0001) häufiger nicht-remittierte Patienten die Diagnose einer rezidivierenden Depression in Verbindung mit einer Komorbidität. Im Vergleich der Medikamentenverordnung wurden signifikant mehr trizyklische Antidepressiva in der nicht-remittierten Gruppe verschrieben. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass diese ältere Generation der Antidepressiva besonders bei einer therapieresistenten Depression als Mittel 2. Wahl zum Einsatz kommt. Hinsichtlich der Psychotherapie kam es zu einem überraschenden Ergebnis, da signifikant (p≤ .0001) häufiger die nicht-remittierten Patienten diese abgeschlossen hatten oder sich noch in einer laufenden Therapie befanden. Einerseits könnte es auf eine selektive Zuweisung in Psychotherapien hindeuten, wenn sich eine auf Medikamente nur unzulänglich ansprechende Symptomatik zeigt. Andererseits könnte man auch von einer Selbstselektion von Patienten ausgehen, welche sich subjektiv besser fühlten und deshalb eine Psychotherapie nicht beanspruchen wollten. Der hohe Stellenwert sozialer Beziehungen wurde anhand der Variablen Freizeitverhalten, sportliche Aktivitäten, Kontakt mit Freunden und Verwandten, Art der Kontakte sowie dem Vorhandensein eines Ansprechpartners bei Problemen deutlich. In der zusammenfassenden binären logistischen Regressionsanalyse wurden die bedeutsamsten Prädiktorvariablen extrahiert. Eine Nicht-Remission demzufolge erhöht die Chance auf die Zuführung in eine Psychotherapie um den Faktor 2.72, was vermuten lässt, dass gerade schwer behandelbare Patienten, wie es auch die Leitlinie [10] empfiehlt, neben der medikamentösen Therapie eine zusätzliche Psychotherapie benötigen. Des Weiteren erhöht eine Nicht-Remission die Chance auf eine höhere Anzahl an stationären Aufenthalten wegen einer Depression um den Faktor 1.34. Es konnten keine Studien gefunden werden, die die Anzahl an stationären Aufenthalten wegen einer Depression als negativen Prädiktor ansah. Es ist jedoch zu vermuten, dass Patienten zwar nicht schwerer erkrankt sind im Sinne der Symptomschwere, aber vielleicht spezifische Bewältigungsmuster zeigen, die immer wieder zu einer Dekompensation und anschließenden Rehospitalisierung führen. Eine stabile berufliche Situation geht mit einer erhöhten Chance auf eine Remission um 4.19 einher und beeinflusst die Remissionswahrscheinlichkeit positiv. Beides erbringt ein gesichertes Einkommen und damit wahrscheinlich auch eine bessere bzw. leichtere soziale Integration. Dass diese Integration eine wichtige Rolle spielt, zeichnete sich auch im Prädiktor "Vorhandensein eines Ansprechpartners bei Problemen" ab. Die Chance zu remittieren erhöhte sich um 3.58, wenn man bei Problemen einen Ansprechpartner hatte. ; Background For many years psychological diseases have increasingly gained economical as well as political relevance internationally. They do not merely affect the psychosocial state of health, nevertheless they also have an effect on the quality of life as well as the labor productivity [7]. The incidence rate of psychological diseases will increase during the next years according to the evaluation of the WHO. Regarding life expectancies, in 2020 the highest loss of potential life years will be caused by cardiovascular diseases, followed by diseases due to depression [22]. Therefore the identification of factors, which predict the remission of depressive symptoms, is of major importance. Methods and Material In the present analysis patients, who had received inpatient treatment in the Johanna-Odebrecht-Stiftung in 2007, were invited to a catamnesis interview. Remitted and non-remitted patients were defined by a cut-off value of ≤ 7 of the Hamilton Depression Scale. The sample included 388 patients in total, whereas N=205 patients actually participated in the catamnesis. Patients, who had been diagnosed a major depression (F32.x/ F33.x/ F38.x according to ICD-10) or dysthymia (F34.1) were involved. Whereas those that suffered from schizophrenia (F2x.x), mental retardation or an organic disease (F0x.x) were excluded. The following scales have been used for the assessment: The Beck Depression Inventar (BDI), a questionnaire for the state of health and the quality of life (WHOQOL-BREF), the Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-D), the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF), the Clinical Global Scale (CGI) as well as a questionnaire developed by the research team of the Johanna-Odebrecht-Stiftung. Discussion and Results As a result of the research a remission rate of 45% (n= 93) was detected. Highly significant results were found regarding the patients' age, which was 49.82 years on average in the non-remitted group compared to the remitted group with 55.17 years. Patients in the non-remitted group were also younger at the time of their initial manifestation of depressive symptoms (39.13 years vs. 46.48 years). Nearly twice as many remitted than non-remitted patients had a high school diploma. Further results concerned the patients' work life: 75% of the unemployed patients or those incapable of working were non-remitted (p=0.00, d= 2.578). Another highly significant result (p>0.0001) was the finding that non-remitted patients suffered more often from recurring depressive episodes combined with a comorbidity. It was also found that tricyclic antidepressants were significantly more often prescribed to non-remitted patients. The evidence shows that the older generation of antidepressants should be the second choice. Regarding psychotherapy there was a surprising result since significantly (p<0.0001) more patients of the non-remitted group completed therapy or continued consulting a psychotherapist. A possible reason for this might be selective referrals to psychotherapy, which especially those patients receive, whose symptoms respond very little to medical treatment. On the other hand there could be a possible self-selection by those patients, who subjectively feel better and hence see no need for psychotherapeutic treatment. The importance of social relationships was shown by the variables leisure behaviour, sports activities, social contact with family and friends, the type of contact as well as the availability of someone to discuss personal problems with. The most important predictor variables have been extracted in the summary report of the binary logistic regression. As a result of the regression non-remission increases the likelihood (OR= 2.72) to receive psychotherapy. Therefore it is assumed that therapy-resistant patients need medical as well as psychotherapeutic treatment. Additionally a non-remission increases the number of in-patient stays caused by a depression (OR= 1.34). No study found describes the number of in-patient stays due to depression to be a negative predictor. Whereas the number of previous depressive episodes seems to be a risk for non-remission. Supposedly those patients are not necessarily more severely ill regarding the severity of symptoms, but they might use particular coping strategies, that more likely lead to decompensation and rehospitalization. A stable work or pension situation increases the probability of a remission (OR= 4.19), meaning that a secure income comes along with a better or easier social integration. The chance of remission is about (OR= 3.85) higher when patients have got someone to discuss personal problems with. Conclusion: A stable and secure income, a reliable social network as well as a small number of in-patient stays will increase the likelihood of a remission. A non-remission will increase the chance of being referred to psychotherapeutic treatment on the other hand.

Texto en castellano, italiano y latín; Letra del S. XVIII ; Tít. tomado de Alonso-Cortés ; Texto con alguna apostilla; foliación coetánea a tinta y moderna, desde el fol. 269 y en algunos fols. intercalados a lápiz; en blanco los fols. 4, 6, 26, [63 y 65], 112, 166-168, [227], 252-253; errores de foliación: del fol. 41 pasa al fol. 48, los fols. 79 y 80 están corregidos por los fols. 80 y 81, hay repetidos en 81 bis, 200 bis, 214 bis, entre el fol. 214 y 214 bis hay uno sin foliar; doble foliación entre los fols. 52-55, 125-126, 131-165, 179-187; caja de escritura 28 x 19 cm; 14-51 lín. por p. ; En el fol. 131 consta: 'La letra es del P. Ravago, y asi parece q[ue] es tambien suia la obra'; y en los fols. 175 y 179: 'es letra del P. Elizalde' ; Impresos contenidos en este manuscrito: 1. Lettera circolare del P. Provincialle della Compagnia di Gesú di Napoli ai Padri, e fratelli [sobre la fundación del Colegio de Brindisi]. Brindisi, 27 de marzo de 1752. (fols. 27-28) / Luigi Maria Demarco (S.J.) -- 2. Razonamiento del Sr. Arzobispo de Brindisi al dar la posesión del Colegio de aquella ciudad a los Jesuitas. VII Kalendas apriles MDCCLII. (fols. 29-30) -- 3. [Carta del P. Geronimo de Florencia . sobre la muerte y virtudes del padre Gaspar Sánche. Madrid, 1628 (fols. 34-37) -- 4. Carta del Padre Francisco Aguado. sobre la vida y muerte del P. Juan Godino . Toledo, 1629 (fols 38-47) - Copia de la carta del Padre Pedro Zapata . en que da cuenta de la exemplar muerte yreligiosa vida de el Padre Juan de Zañartu . Sevilla, 1695 (fols. 48-51) -- 5. Copia de la carta que su Magestad Cesarea del Señor Emperador Leopoldo . escribió a . D. Carlos segundo en la ocasión de aver muerto en la expugnacion de la plaza de Buda del Duque de Béjar, Don Manuel. Viena, 25 de julio de 1686. (fol. 62-62 v.) -- 6. Copia de carta, escrita por el . Duque de Lorena, . a . Carlos Segundo [Rey de España] . [con] ocasion de aver muerto el Duque de Bejar Don Manuel . Del Campo . de Buda, 20 de julio de 1686. (fol. 64-64 v.) / Duque de Lorena -- 7. [Carta circular de Fr. Antoninus Bremond sobre el martirio de algunos Padres de su orden en China]. Roma, 20 de septiembre de 1748. (fols. 75-76 -- 8. [Carta del Cabildo de Sigüenza sobre las diferencias con su Obispo]. Sigüenza, 16 de agosto de 1755.] (fol. 77-79 v.) -- 9. Copia de carta de la santa Iglesia de Toledo . en respuesta a otra del Nuncio de su santidad [en defensa de un memorial, que al mismo Nuncio habia presentado sobre Beneficios]. Toledo, 13 de febrero de 1742. (fols. 80-81) -- 10. Respuesta que dio . Fr. Juan de Bonilla y Vargas . Obispo de Córdoba, a una carta que . escribió la Sagrada Congregación de Inmunidad [sobre el concurrir los eclesiásticos de España para gastos de guerra sin licencia del Papa]. Córdoba, 3 de mayo de 1708] (fols. 81 bis-82 v.) -- 11. Copia de carta que . D. Agustin de Spinola, Cardenal Arzobispo de Sevilla . escribió a su clero por el mes de julio del año pasado [para que contribuya a gastos de guerra], con notas manuscritas al final de Martín de Celayeta, canónigo lectoral de Granada. Sevilla, 20 de julio de 1647.] (fols. 83-84 v.) -- 12. [Carta de un sevillano a un toledano sobre un libro de Nicasio Sevillano, cuyo título es: "Defensa Christiana, Politica y verdadera de la Primacia de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo". Sevilla, 7 de septiembre de 1728.] (fols. 85-94 v.) -- 13 .Edicto del Doctor D. Joseph Zorrilla de San Martin, Obispo de Salamanca contra convites y festejos en las entradas y profesiones de monjas]. Salamanca, 25 de enero de 1756. (fols. 99-100 v.) -- 13. [Ordenanzas de Manuel Quintano Bonifaz para los párrocos del Arzobispado de Toledo] Madrid, 26 de enero de 1750.] (fols. 105-106 v.) ; 1.[Carta del P. Miguel de Rojas a la Compañía de Jesús sobre el estado de las misiones del Archipiélago] (fols. 1-3 v.) / Miguel de Rojas (S.J.). -- 5. [Comunicación al P. Jaime Antonio Fevre sobre la fundación del Colegio de aquella ciudad: / Francisco Perez De Prado, Obispo de Teruel-- 6.[Carta del Superior de la Provincia de Salamanca sobre la muerte y virtudes del P. Matias de Artasso] : -- 7.Copia de la Carta Pastoral fundada en derecho para consuelo de nuestro espiritu. : / Martin Barcia, Obispo de Ceuta -- ; 8.Carta escrita al Marq[ue]s de Mexorada . en resp[ues]ta de los manifiestos y cartas publicadas contra el Papa en nombre de su M[a]g[esta]d : -- ; 12.[Carta al Marqués de la Ensenada que impugna la redención de cautivos]: -- 13.[Impugnación de la carta precedente / Francisco de Ravago (S.J.): -- 14.[Carta de tres Obispos de Cataluña al P. Guillermo Clarke para que el Rey pida al Papa declaración sobre excepciones de la Bula que concede a los militares comer carne en Cuaresma] : Indice al en el fol. 165 de las cuestiones de estos diálogos -- 17.[Decreto del Senado de Venecia sobre el registro de Bulas, Breves, etc. Venecia, 7 de septiembre de 1754.]: -- 18.[Decreto Real contra la facilidad de dispensar las proclamas matrimoniales] : ; 21. Episcopos sub poena excummunicationis maioris valide prohibere posse nuditatem pectoralem verissima sententia est omninoque tenenda : ; c) [Resolución de D. Manuel Riorello Doctoral de Leon sobre lo mismo] : -- 23. [Varias resoluciones sobre si es nula la profesión religiosa de una hereje judaizante]: -- 24. Arreglamiento de lo que debe hacerse . en los conventos de Religiosas . de la costa quando sucede alguna invasion o desembarco de enemigos : -- 27.[Resolución del P. Rivaherrera de la Compañía de Jesús sobre si hubo simonía en el convenio sobre un beneficio] / Ignacio de la Riva Herrera (S.J.). -- 28. Si los censos y juros pueden pasar de su propia hypotheca a otra . que no avia al tiempo de la compra : -- 29. [Sobre la licencia tacita que tienen los confesores, sede episcopali vacante] : -- 30. Sobre reducción de Misas / Ignacio de la Riva Herrera (S.J.). : -- 31.[Resolución sobre si es o no lícito vender a los infieles enemigos los cautivos que se cogieron . solicitando sus padres el rescatarlos / Francisco de Ravago (S.J.). -- 32.[Resolución sobre el poder que tiene la Compañía de Jesús para despedir a sus Profesos] / Francisco de Ravago. -- 33.[Resolución del P. Colindres, capuchino, sobre la inobservancia del capitulo "Quoniam 1 ses. 21 de reformatione" del Concilio de Trento] / Pablo de Colindres (O.F.M.) :

Migration is a fundamental aspect of international political economy (IPE). It encompasses every aspect of the field of study but has been distanced from IPE mainstream. Nonetheless, it is an international phenomenon that requires joint participation and negotiation between the sending and receiving countries to determine their policies. Migration generates interdependence from below, where micro-structures are initiated by the people. States, politic, economic and social aspects are inherently touched by people's mobility. In this article we will highlight the impact that remittances have on the home country, and how dependent Guatemala is on fluctuations of the host country. It will explore how remittances shape Guatemala's economy.This article will follow three main questions: Why do people migrate from Guatemala to the United States? How does emigration impact Guatemala economically and socially? What are the challenges the Guatemalan government faces and needs to overcome to move forward from an ever growing dependency on emigration? It will be argued that remittances generate a greater dependency to the US. Remittances represent one of the main incomes in Guatemala. Not only are they bound to the receiving country's volatility (e.g. economic crisis and immigration law), they are not sustainable in the long term. But underdeveloped countries have yet to realise this in their policies, as remittances feature as a cushion to the balance of payment and emigration a relief to unemployment rates. Nevertheless, it is an issue that has to be targeted immediately. Furthermore, it is argued that social networks are the cornerstone of migration. The social impact on determinants of out-migration, diaspora and return are all intertwined within security issues, where American originated gangs return to their home countries, exporting criminal behaviour (known as the cost of social remittances). (1) Maras in conjunction with organised crime are new actors in determinants of emigration. This vicious circle revolves not only around IPE but becomes an international security issue. The state must act now for it to avoid its own erosion and cataclysm in the long term, taking down its credibility, economy and security.Heated debates come afloat between international migration and economic development. On one hand, there is the assumption that economic development will enhance emigration and others who argue the opposite. This article will favour the latter argument that development will improve conditions for potential migrants to stay home. Since Guatemala's emigration came basically from political instability and insecurity, an important variable is the current economic and security situation. Internal migration and refugee movements initiated during the civil war and terror repression, were it is estimated that over 200,000 people were killed or disappeared. A politically generated migration mobilised and displaced 1.5 million people between 1981 and 1983. (2) Most people fled to neighbouring countries as refugees and asylum seekers. This migration tendency was eased once democracy returned and peace accords signed in 1996. There are currently 1.4 million Guatemalan migrants in the US, of which more than half are undocumented. Violence in Guatemala has not ceased and therefore maras or gangs, corruption and insecurity are current out-migration push factors. Development should include not only economic development (higher GDP), but should be complemented with social development that pursues poverty alleviation, education, and security.Remittances have captured most of the attention concerning migration. Worker remittances are defined as 'the quantity of currency that migrants earn abroad and then send home to their families and communities'. (3) They are a source of foreign (hard) currency and can be used towards consumption, savings, investment, affecting both the household's and the country's economy. Globally, remittances to middle and low income countries in 1990 amounted to US$ 31 billion; in 2006 the amount increased to US$ 200 billion. (4) One fourth was sent to Latin America of which US$ 52 billion were sent back and can be compared to foreign direct investment (FDI) and official development assistance (ODA) flows.A growing concern in Latin America refers to remittances vis-à-vis GDP. Mexico is the first recipient of remittances in Latin America (net billion and in 2005 represented 45% of recipient of remittances). In Guatemala, remittances constitute one of the highest sources of household income and represent a large percentage of the country's GDP (11,3%) compared to the less than 5% in Mexico. Given the importance of economic migrants sending money home, any fluctuation or variation in the receiving country will make the sending countries even more vulnerable and dependant than what they already are. Latin American countries face a big challenge: create more employment possibilities at home and persuade potential migrants to stay, or ignore and continue, in their best interest, encouraging emigration to ease unemployment rates and gain from remittances. Until now, remittances have been a consistent income for developing countries. They constitute a positive aspect of emigration. However, in the long run, a country cannot rely on 'comfortable' income from emigrants dissatisfied by their government's instability and incapacity to create jobs, and wage differential. The free ride is bound to end, and attention has to be paid before it is too late. (5) Guatemala has become excessively reliant on remittances. The main setback is that they are not sustainable in a long term. If the trend continues, further emigration will stimulate depopulation of the home country. Consequently, economic development through GDP is not the long term answer to fight off dependence on remittances. On the other hand, social and human development needs to be fostered and invest in education, healthcare, poverty reduction and security.The latter issue has given migration a new twist. It represents another major issue to governments to tackle urgently, and a determinant of further emigration due to the growing violence in the territory, just as civil war times in Guatemala. International organised crime and migration has to seek state intervention and international cooperation. If migration and security are not managed wisely, Guatemala can expect a downward spiral and meltdown in the long term. (1) Alejandro Portes, Migration and Development: A Conceptual Review of the Evidence', Working Paper, Red Internacional Migracion y Desarrollo, 2006. http://meme.phpwebhosting.com/~migracion/rimd/bellagio/2.pdf Accessed on 17/08/2010.p. 19.(2) IOM, 'Guatemala, Country Profile', http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/guatemala Accessed on 01/08/2010.(3) Manuel Orozco, 'Globalization and Migration: the Impact of Family Remittances in Latin America', Latin American Politics and Society, 44:2 (Summer 2002), p. 43.(4) Acosta, Pablo, Fajnzylber, and Lopez, J. Humberto, 'How Important Are Remittances in Latin America?, in Pablo Fajnzylber and J. Humbert Lopez, eds., Remittances and Development: Lessons from Latin America. Washington DC: World Bank/The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2008, p.1. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLAC/Resources/Remittances_and_Development_Report.pdf Accessed on 30/08/2010.(5) Emigration has been sought as a 'necessary evil': 'supplying needed short-term economic and social benefits but also imposing immediate human and cultural host hindering long-term development'. Marc R. Rosenblum, 'Moving Beyond the Policy of No Policy: Emigration from Mexico and Central America', Latin American Politics and Society, volume 46, number 4, Winter 2004, p. 104.*Licenciada en Estudios Internacionales - Universidad ORT Uruguay.MA. International Political EconomyUniversity of Warwick Graduate

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze ambientali ; Sistemi agricoli ed ecologici sono intimamente connessi (l'agricoltura gioca un ruolo importante nei modelli ecosistemici) e l'attività agricola concreta in se concetti di gestione e cambiamento ambientale atti alla produzione di beni (in primis gli alimenti). Durante il secolo scorso, l'attività agricola si è intensificata caratterizzandosi sia nella crescente dipendenza da fattori esterni sia nella conversione delle coperture del suolo. Sebbene tale processo abbia incrementato la produttività, la sostenibilità di numerosi agroecosistemi è stata compromessa. Nei Paesi sviluppati la situazione è particolarmente critica e richiede una riorganizzazione del settore agricolo al fine di recuperare la sostenibilità venuta meno. Al fine di affrontare le questioni emergenti connesse con la crescita demografica mondiale e la veemenza tecnologica nella biosfera, assume una fondamentale importanza il quantificare la sostenibilità degli agroecosistemi. La sfida dei ricercatori è quindi quella di bilanciare le questioni bio-fisiche con quelle socio-economiche per promuovere lo sviluppo sostenibile dell'agricoltura. In Europa sono presenti modelli di sviluppo rurale sostenibile ed essi devono essere maggiormente compresi, esplorati e diffusi in quanto magnifici esempi di conoscenza acquisita tramite la tradizione e il sapiente uso del suolo. Il principale obiettivo della presente ricerca è quello di produrre un'indagine ambientale ed economica finalizzata alla progettazione e gestione di agroecosistemi sostenibili. Al fine di perseguire tale obiettivo, è necessario adottare un approccio multidimensionale capace di associare le caratteristiche agroecosistemiche alla gestione sostenibile. Questa ricerca vuole contribuire alla costruzione di una Scienza della Sostenibilità tramite la definizione di soluzioni pratiche capaci di incrementare la sostenibilità agricola, con minime ripercussioni sui livelli produttivi. La ricerca (articolata in vari studi) ha riguardato la valutazione della sostenibilità di alcuni agroecosistemi, a livello gerarchico di paesaggio (Lazio meridionale) e aziendale (Lazio meridionale, Provincia di Viterbo e Isola di Terceira), tramite indicatori di diversità (paesaggio e azienda) e di input/output (azienda). Gli studi condotti a livello di paesaggio hanno analizzato la sostenibilità ambientale in termini di metriche territoriali distinguendo l'ecoregione in base ad alcune caratteristiche (proprietà, altimetria e fitoclima). I risultati forniscono un profilo ecoregionale dell'Italia centrale dove i modelli storici di uso del suolo sono sopravvissuti a testimonianza della capacità umana di bilanciare il proprio sviluppo in base al contesto locale. Anche se i recenti cambiamenti sociali hanno portato a una maggior irruenza antropica e tecnologica sull'ambiente, la tradizione nei modelli d'uso del suolo (tramandata tra le generazioni mediante la cultura, l'educazione e le regolamentazioni locali) ha contribuito nel mitigare l'impatto umano ed ha agire da cuscinetto per la resilienza degli ecosistemi. Gli studi condotti a livello aziendale hanno analizzato la sostenibilità ambientale ed economica, in termini di circolazione dei flussi di materia ed energia, confrontando alcuni regimi gestionali contrastanti (biologico e convenzionale, misto e non misto). In generale, i risultati mostrano migliori prestazioni delle aziende biologiche rispetto alle convenzionali in ragione dell'organizzazione aziendale maggiormente portata al reimpiego della energia-materia prodotta e alla minor richiesta di energie ausiliari esterne provenienti da fonti non rinnovabili. Gli studi confermano il ruolo fondamentale degli allevamenti in quanto componente essenziale a migliorare l'efficienza e la sostenibilità aziendale (tale ruolo non viene sempre riconosciuto in termini sociali ed economici). In situazioni di bassa diversificazione strutturale e forte ascendente politico sul processo decisionale aziendale (come ad esempio sull'isola di Terceira) i costi ambientali dell'agricoltura possono aumentare significativamente. Al fine di informare in maniera appropriata i soggetti (pubblici e privati) coinvolti nel processo decisionale, sono necessarie maggiori risorse di conoscenza e di finanziamenti per misurare e monitorare le condizioni di sostenibilità dell'agricoltura. ; Agricultural and ecological systems are directly connected (agriculture plays an important role in ecosystem patterns) and the agroecosystems convey a high sense of stewardship care and historicity as food providers. During the last century, agriculture activity has intensified worldwide, characterized by an increasing dependence on external inputs and on land cover conversion. Although agriculture intensification has increased productivity, the sustainability of many agroecosystems has been compromised. In developed Countries the situation is particularly critical and requires a reorganization of the agricultural sector which would recover the sustainability failed. The measurement of agroecosystems sustainability has become of supreme importance, now essential to address the obvious problems related to the large population growth and technological vehemence in the biosphere. Defining socio-economical and bio-physical balance is a fundamental challenge for researchers in order to promote the sustainable development in agriculture. In Europe examples of sustainable rural development should be better acknowledged, explored and disseminated as meaningful case studies of traditional knowledge and wise land use. The main objective of the present research is to provide environmental-economic frameworks in order to design and evaluate agroecosystem sustainability. To achieve this objective, a multidimensional approach is needed that combines the feature of the agroecosystems with sustainable management. This research want to be a contribution in building a science of sustainability developing practical ways of improving sustainability in agriculture, with minimal impact to production. This research (containing various studies) has concerned the assessment of agroecosystem sustainability at landscape (Southern Lazio) and farming (Southern Lazio, Viterbo Province, Terceira Island) level based on the use of diversity (landscape and farming studies) and input/output (farming studies) indicators. Landscape level studies have analyzed the environmental sustainability in terms of landscape metrics distinguishing the landscape according to some characteristics (ownership, elevation and phytoclimate). Results provided a profile of an ecoregion in Central Italy, where historical land-use patterns are still alive on the territory and testify the capacity of human beings to develop a balanced relationship with their context of life at local level. Even if recent changes in society trends bring about more demographic pressure and more environmentally-aggressive technological fixes, tradition in land use patterns transferred from generation to generation through culture, education, regulations and action at local level, can help mitigate human impact and operate as a cultural buffer for ecosystem resilience. Farming level studies have analyzed the environmental and economical sustainability in terms of energy and material fluxes circulation comparing groups of farms in contrasting management regimes (organic vs. conventional; mixed vs. non-mixed). In general terms, results shows a diffuse better performance of organic farms respect to conventional ones because their organization was based on increased re-use of on-farm produced energy-matter flow and reduced demand of external inputs of non renewable energy-matter sources. The studies have confirmed the fundamental role of livestock as crucial agroecosystem component that improves the efficiency and sustainability of farms (this role is not yet acknowledged by society in economic terms). In situations of low structural diversification and strong policy ascendancy on farm decision making processes, the agricultural environmental costs may be enhanced significantly (eg.: Terceira Island). More intellectual and financial resources for measuring and monitoring sustainability conditions in agriculture are necessary, in order to appropriately inform decision making processes at both institutional and individual level.

In April 2010, a record 45.9 percent of the unemployed were counted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as long-term unemployed—defined as durations of six months or more. Those who were unemployed for more than a year, whom I shall call the very-long-term unemployed, numbered 23 percent of all the unemployed. We know that long-term unemployment and verylong-term unemployment generate serious and long-lasting harm to millions of individuals and to the economy. The scarring effects upon the economic, mental and physical health of longterm unemployed workers and their families are well-documented (von Wachter 2010). We also know that many of the very long-term unemployed eventually leave the labor force permanently, and some of those end up on the disability rolls. Very-long-term unemployment consequently generates adverse effects upon the Treasury and upon the capacity of the economy to grow in the long-run.In the past two years the proportion of the unemployed who have been out of work six months or longer has grown to levels not seen since the Great Depression (Chart 1). In the recession phase– from the fourth quarter of 2007 to the end of the second quarter of 2009, when GDP growth resumed—the unemployment rate rose very rapidly and to a level higher than had been forecast. Given the length of the recession phase—over 18 months—it is not too surprising the number of long-term unemployed grew at about the same rate as the number of all the unemployed (Chart 2).In the recovery phase that began in April or May of 2009, what went up quickly did not come down quickly. Thus far the overall unemployment rate has remained within a narrow range —hovering during the past year first a bit below 10 percent, then rising to a bit above 10 percent, and more recently, remaining a bit below 10 percent. But in the same period the long-term unemployment rate has continued to skyrocket as rapidly as during the recession phase. By April 2010, the proportion of the unemployed with jobless durations of six months or more hadreached 45.9 percent. By comparison, in the 1957-59 recession this proportion peaked at about 10 percent; in 1982-83, it peaked at about 26 percent.The surprising and continuing growth of long-term and very-long-term unemployment well into the economic recovery and in the face of repeated extensions of emergency benefits, up to 99 weeks in some states, poses important questions for employment policy. Have these unprecedented benefit extensions themselves kept very-long-term unemployed workers from searching for and accepting job offers? Will the economic recovery eventually reduce the number of very-long-term unemployed without further interventions?According to the best credible research studies, the answer to the first question is a very clear no. In previous recessions, when extensions of time limits on UI benefits were more modest, unemployed workers receiving UI benefits on average stayed out of work only one or two more weeks. Then, as now, well under half of the unemployed were receiving any UI benefits at all. In the current environment, with more than five job searchers for every job opening, the evidence suggests that such effects are even smaller (Valletta and Kuang 2010).The adverse effects of extending benefit limits beyond 99 weeks are also likely to be small. Employers generally choose to hire new labor force entrants or unemployed workers with short unemployment spells over those with longer spells. The very-long-term-unemployed are thus the least likely to receive job offers. Moreover, the remaining financial assets of this group are especially meager (Chetty 2010). Consequently, they are the least likely group among the unemployed to refuse job offers they do receive simply because they can continue to collect unemployment insurance benefits.The very-long-term unemployed will be the last group to benefit from an economic recovery. Will the economic recovery nonetheless be strong enough to eventually help the very long-term unemployed? The Council of Economic Advisors, the Congressional Budget Officeand many economists of all political stripes have forecast a very slow decline in the unemployment rate and argued that the continuing high level of unemployment is best combated by additional government-led increases in aggregate demand (Romer 2010; Zandi 2010). Programs such as relief for the states and relief for teachers facing layoffs are indeed called for, and on a large scale. Absent such policies, unemployment will decline only very slowly. Consequently, the argument for immediately renewing emergency unemployment benefits as well as extending recipient limits beyond 99 weeks in higher unemployment states is especially compelling. So, I would add, is the case for direct job creation programs, such as those proposed in Rep. George Miller's Jobs for America Act.In the remainder of this testimony, I will address why unemployment rates, short-term and long-term, have risen substantially higher than public and private forecasters predicted. I will also propose needed policy changes that would reduce the ranks of the unemployed and that would improve the workings of our labor market. Most of my proposals do not add big-ticket items to the Federal budget, so their merits can be considered independently of the question of how large the federal deficit should be at this time.Why did the overall unemployment rate increase so much more than was expected? I argue that employers' weakening attachment to their workers, a development that began in the 1980s, has heightened the labor market's response to economic downturns. Well-working labor markets must maintain a balance between flexibility and security. But the increase in labor market flexibility has undermined this balance, generating costs for employers and workers alike. Unfortunately, the UI system itself creates employer incentives that have reinforced the turn to greater flexibility. I suggest some reforms of the UI system that would reverse the incentives in the system and improve labor market behavior.My discussion of the rise of long-term unemployment begins with a usual suspect: the disappearance of many jobs that may never return, in industries such as manufacturing, construction, and the finance, insurance and real estate sector. A usual argument is that unemployed workers are locked in to these industries because they do not have the skills totransfer to industries that are or will be growing. My reading of the research literature suggests that the evidence for this argument is mixed. A more compelling explanation is based upon the long duration of the recession period and the weakness of the recovery, which keeps feeding the ranks of the very-long-term unemployed. The large numbers of workers who already have been unemployed for one year or more are going to be joined by many, many others. There are programs already in place to help workers weather difficult transitions. I suggest changes in some of the existing programs so that they can help the very-long-term unemployed more effectively.

Tourism and activities it generates are combined with the territorial factor giving rise to the process of using the service in which, essentially, the delivery and consumption of tourism, an entity largely immaterial, are simultaneous in a geographical context chosen by the consumer and defined tourist destination. If clarification of the concept of tourism and tourism product was essential to explain to some extent the reasons for the offer (why tourism activities born and develop?), the opportunity to single out, among the various definitions that have been proposed in the literature, the characteristic features of the destination seems equally significant to get to the explanation of why management system offered (comprehensive and complex product). The basic questions are: What drives tourists to go from s place of habitual residence to a place in which the natural, environmental and cultural region are completely different from starting? What does turning a geographical place into a tourism destination? Because some tourists prefer certain destinations than the other? What is the impact of tourism in terms of territorial and urban mobility? The transport system can be considered a resource-generating competitive advantages? The framework of the article is represented by the Marshallian theory of industrial district which puts the land and its resources behind the development of the local system. It tries to overlay the framework VRIO (Value, Rarity, inimitably, Organization), derived from the Resource Based View, in determining whether a particular resource area can generate a sustainable competitive advantage and lasting. Stakeholder Theory is the framework that leads the analysis of the impact of tourism development policy on local businesses and the framework of Corporate Social Responsibility leads in environmental issues. Against this background, in this paper will be exhibited in the various contributions of the literature on tourism systems starting from the basic that tourist is a person who drives a process of spending a part of his income in a place other than in his habitual residence. The choice of the destination to enjoy the tourist facilities and carry out the complementary activities of consumption is the result of a complex decision-making process based on selection among alternative competitive solutions that are able to respond to a set of needs and aspirations to equal costs and level of services required. Then you will be taken into consideration of the manner in which a geographic location becomes a tourist destination and the way in wich the structural characteristics (accommodation services, catering, equipment) and infrastructure (accessibility geographical, social and economic) are able to express a point of "emotional" for tourists; the encounter between supply and demand is seen according to the post-Fordist framework of "Mutual Value" that drives the service process in tourism businesses and the way in which an assets (tangible and intangible) may be able to generate a competitive advantage in the market. Hereinafter the tourism phenomenon is related to the concept of territorial mobility to highlight the impact that it creates on environmental and urban planning, and the need to monitor and plan the phenomenon for structural and infrastructural adjustment of the territory in the way of sustainability. Finally will be exposed some cases of urban and extra-urban mobility in tourism according to a perspective that sees the urban and suburban transport a real resource (VRIO) generating competitive advantage for the local system. ; Il turismo e le attività da esso generate si combinano con il fattore territoriale dando luogo al processo di fruizione del servizio turistico caratterizzato essenzialmente dalla contestualità dell'erogazione e del consumo di un'entità in buona parte immateriale in un contesto geografico scelto dal consumatore e definito destinazione turistica. Se la chiarificazione del concetto di turismo e di prodotto turistico è risultata essenziale per spiegare in un certo senso le ragioni dell'offerta (perché nascono e si sviluppano le attività turistiche?), altrettanto significativa sembra l'opportunità di enucleare, tra le varie definizioni che sono state proposte nella letteratura specialistica, gli elementi caratteristici della destinazione turistica per arrivare alla spiegazione delle ragioni del management del sistema di offerta (prodotto complesso e globale). Le domande di fondo sono: Cosa spinge i turisti a partire dal luogo di abituale dimora per recarsi in una località che presenta caratteristiche naturali, ambientali e culturali completamente diverse dalla regione di partenza? Cosa fa trasformare un territorio in una destinazione? Perché alcuni flussi turistici prediligono determinate destinazioni rispetto alle altre? Quale è l'impatto sul piano della mobilità territoriale ed urbana? Il sistema dei trasporti può essere considerato una risorsa generatrice di vantaggi competitivi per una destinazione turistica? Il framework dell'articolo è rappresentato dalla teoria marshalliana del distretto industriale che pone il territorio e le sue risorse alla base dello sviluppo del sistema locale. Ad esso si tenta di sovrapporre il framework VRIO (Valore, Rarità, Inimitabilità, Organizzazione), derivato dalla Resource Based View, per stabilire se una determinata risorsa del territorio, nel caso di specie il sistemi di trasporto urbano ed extraurbano, può generare un vantaggio competitivo sostenibile e duraturo. Per l'analisi delle problematiche dell'impatto sul territorio delle politiche di sviluppo turistico e del Destination Management è utile il riferimento alla Stakeholder Theory ed un approccio Corporate Social Responsability (CSR). Date queste premesse, nel paper vengono esposti i vari contributi della letteratura specialistica sui sistemi turistici partendo dall'assunto di base che il turista è un soggetto che attiva un processo di spesa di parte del suo reddito in un luogo diverso dalla sua abituale dimora. La scelta della destinazione in cui fruire dei servizi turistici e svolgere le attività collaterali di consumo è il frutto di un processo decisionale complesso basato sulla selezione competitiva tra soluzioni alternative che siano in grado di rispondere ad un insieme di bisogni ed aspirazioni a parità di costi e di livello di servizi richiesti. Successivamente viene preso in esame il modo con cui una località geografica diviene destinazione turistica e come le caratteristiche strutturali (servizi di alloggio, ristorazione, accessori) ed infrastrutturali (accessibilità geografica, sociale ed economica) possano essere in grado di esprimere un richiamo "emozionale" per il turista; l'incontro tra domanda ed offerta viene visto in un'ottica postfordista secondo il framework "Mutual Value" che assegna un ruolo fondamentale alla componente dei servizi presente nell'offerta di vendita dei beni (materiali ed immateriali) per generare un vantaggio competitivo sul mercato. In prosieguo il fenomeno turistico viene messo in relazione al concetto di mobilità territoriale per evidenziare l'impatto che esso genera sul piano ambientale ed urbanistico e la necessità di monitorare il fenomeno e pianificare le azioni di adeguamento strutturale ed infrastrutturale del territorio nella direzione della sostenibilità. Infine verranno esposti dei casi di mobilità urbana ed extraurbana di tipo turistico secondo una prospettiva che vede il trasporto urbano ed extraurbano una vera e propria risorsa (VRIO) generatrice di vantaggio competitivo per il sistema locale.

Il turismo e le attività da esso generate si combinano con il fattore territoriale dando luogo al processo di fruizione del servizio turistico caratterizzato essenzialmente dalla contestualità dell'erogazione e del consumo di un'entità in buona parte immateriale in un contesto geografico scelto dal consumatore e definito destinazione turistica. Se la chiarificazione del concetto di turismo e di prodotto turistico è risultata essenziale per spiegare in un certo senso le ragioni dell'offerta (perché nascono e si sviluppano le attività turistiche?), altrettanto significativa sembra l'opportunità di enucleare, tra le varie definizioni che sono state proposte nella letteratura specialistica, gli elementi caratteristici della destinazione turistica per arrivare alla spiegazione delle ragioni del management del sistema di offerta (prodotto complesso e globale). Le domande di fondo sono: Cosa spinge i turisti a partire dal luogo di abituale dimora per recarsi in una località che presenta caratteristiche naturali, ambientali e culturali completamente diverse dalla regione di partenza? Cosa fa trasformare un territorio in una destinazione? Perché alcuni flussi turistici prediligono determinate destinazioni rispetto alle altre? Quale è l'impatto sul piano della mobilità territoriale ed urbana? Il sistema dei trasporti può essere considerato una risorsa generatrice di vantaggi competitivi per una destinazione turistica? Il framework dell'articolo è rappresentato dalla teoria marshalliana del distretto industriale che pone il territorio e le sue risorse alla base dello sviluppo del sistema locale. Ad esso si tenta di sovrapporre il framework VRIO (Valore, Rarità, Inimitabilità, Organizzazione), derivato dalla Resource Based View, per stabilire se una determinata risorsa del territorio, nel caso di specie il sistemi di trasporto urbano ed extraurbano, può generare un vantaggio competitivo sostenibile e duraturo. Per l'analisi delle problematiche dell'impatto sul territorio delle politiche di sviluppo turistico e del Destination Management è utile il riferimento alla Stakeholder Theory ed un approccio Corporate Social Responsability (CSR). Date queste premesse, nel paper vengono esposti i vari contributi della letteratura specialistica sui sistemi turistici partendo dall'assunto di base che il turista è un soggetto che attiva un processo di spesa di parte del suo reddito in un luogo diverso dalla sua abituale dimora. La scelta della destinazione in cui fruire dei servizi turistici e svolgere le attività collaterali di consumo è il frutto di un processo decisionale complesso basato sulla selezione competitiva tra soluzioni alternative che siano in grado di rispondere ad un insieme di bisogni ed aspirazioni a parità di costi e di livello di servizi richiesti. Successivamente viene preso in esame il modo con cui una località geografica diviene destinazione turistica e come le caratteristiche strutturali (servizi di alloggio, ristorazione, accessori) ed infrastrutturali (accessibilità geografica, sociale ed economica) possano essere in grado di esprimere un richiamo "emozionale" per il turista; l'incontro tra domanda ed offerta viene visto in un'ottica postfordista secondo il framework "Mutual Value" che assegna un ruolo fondamentale alla componente dei servizi presente nell'offerta di vendita dei beni (materiali ed immateriali) per generare un vantaggio competitivo sul mercato. In prosieguo il fenomeno turistico viene messo in relazione al concetto di mobilità territoriale per evidenziare l'impatto che esso genera sul piano ambientale ed urbanistico e la necessità di monitorare il fenomeno e pianificare le azioni di adeguamento strutturale ed infrastrutturale del territorio nella direzione della sostenibilità. Infine verranno esposti dei casi di mobilità urbana ed extraurbana di tipo turistico secondo una prospettiva che vede il trasporto urbano ed extraurbano una vera e propria risorsa (VRIO) generatrice di vantaggio competitivo per il sistema locale. ; Tourism and activities it generates are combined with the territorial factor giving rise to the process of using the service in which, essentially, the delivery and consumption of tourism, an entity largely immaterial, are simultaneous in a geographical context chosen by the consumer and defined tourist destination. If clarification of the concept of tourism and tourism product was essential to explain to some extent the reasons for the offer (why tourism activities born and develop?), the opportunity to single out, among the various definitions that have been proposed in the literature, the characteristic features of the destination seems equally significant to get to the explanation of why management system offered (comprehensive and complex product). The basic questions are: What drives tourists to go from s place of habitual residence to a place in which the natural, environmental and cultural region are completely different from starting? What does turning a geographical place into a tourism destination? Because some tourists prefer certain destinations than the other? What is the impact of tourism in terms of territorial and urban mobility? The transport system can be considered a resource-generating competitive advantages? The framework of the article is represented by the Marshallian theory of industrial district which puts the land and its resources behind the development of the local system. It tries to overlay the framework VRIO (Value, Rarity, inimitably, Organization), derived from the Resource Based View, in determining whether a particular resource area can generate a sustainable competitive advantage and lasting. Stakeholder Theory is the framework that leads the analysis of the impact of tourism development policy on local businesses and the framework of Corporate Social Responsibility leads in environmental issues. Against this background, in this paper will be exhibited in the various contributions of the literature on tourism systems starting from the basic that tourist is a person who drives a process of spending a part of his income in a place other than in his habitual residence. The choice of the destination to enjoy the tourist facilities and carry out the complementary activities of consumption is the result of a complex decision-making process based on selection among alternative competitive solutions that are able to respond to a set of needs and aspirations to equal costs and level of services required. Then you will be taken into consideration of the manner in which a geographic location becomes a tourist destination and the way in wich the structural characteristics (accommodation services, catering, equipment) and infrastructure (accessibility geographical, social and economic) are able to express a point of "emotional" for tourists; the encounter between supply and demand is seen according to the post-Fordist framework of "Mutual Value" that drives the service process in tourism businesses and the way in which an assets (tangible and intangible) may be able to generate a competitive advantage in the market. Hereinafter the tourism phenomenon is related to the concept of territorial mobility to highlight the impact that it creates on environmental and urban planning, and the need to monitor and plan the phenomenon for structural and infrastructural adjustment of the territory in the way of sustainability. Finally will be exposed some cases of urban and extra-urban mobility in tourism according to a perspective that sees the urban and suburban transport a real resource (VRIO) generating competitive advantage for the local system.

I believe sometimes it is useful to begin by stating the obvious: Unlike in the case of the international financial system which has belatedly engaged in an exercise to develop a global architecture of rules, a structure of global governance already exists for international trade. The WTO is regarded as a fairly muscular repository of the rules and regulations governing international trade. While the WTO has played a useful and deterrent role through the TPR mechanism in tracking protectionist trends during the crisis, the more effective deterrence has been through the corpus of binding commitments that members have entered into in successive Rounds of negotiations.2. Any discussion regarding the further development of the WTO system has to begin with a shared understanding of the reasons for its present stasis. In my view. the underlying issue is the remarkable changes that have taken place in global competitiveness as a result of which a number of developing countries have begun to enjoy rapid growth while the traditional leaders in developed countries are experiencing sluggishness. The present crisis has only served to highlight this dichotomy. Major economies like the U.S. are going through a protectionist phase, with the latest manifestation being the Border Security Bill approved last month which strangely, seeks to transfer, at least partly, the cost of restricting illegal immigration from across the border to skilled professionals through imposition of higher visa charges. On the other hand, the emerging economies are preoccupied with restructuring their economies to maintain their high growth trajectories. As a result, in Asia at least, domestic consumption is emerging as a key driver of growth. Regional integration has received greater impetus and autonomous liberalization has become a prerequisite to linking with international supply chains. Intra-Asian trade for instance, has become the most dynamic factor in increasing global trade.3. The short point is that the traditional leaders of the multilateral process are preoccupied with economic recovery, while the emerging economies are preoccupied with adjusting to rapid growth. We are therefore witnessing a leadership vacuum in the MTS. I would not like to speculate on how and when this problem will be fixed. But it certainly will be fixed as all stakeholders in the MTS recognize the implications of a WTO weakened by failure of the Doha Round.4. Given this situation, one cannot expect easy consensus on initiatives for further development of the MTS. It also has to be recognized that the WTO of today is a significantly different entity than it was a decade ago and a top down work plan, which is perceived to have been drawn up in some backrooms, will not sell with the membership. Such a work plan can only emerge through an inclusive and consensual exercise over a period. In my view, such an exercise needs to be taken up in 2 phases:5. In the short term, concurrent with the Doha Round negotiations, it is possible to obtain consensus on a number of initiatives to strengthen the deliberative processes in the WTO and enhance the usefulness of the WTO for all stakeholders, public and private. These initiatives can be taken without a fresh Ministerial mandate. Such initiatives could include:Changes in Committee procedures to make the deliberations more effective and relevant to current market situations;A facilitative mechanism to resolve low threshold disputes.A bolder programme on RTA's with the ultimate objective of devising principles for best practices;An integrated data base for NTM's with access to all stakeholders; At the same time, an informal process needs to be launched to explore ideas for a post- Doha work programme.6. As far as the medium term is concerned, the launch of a new work programme has to be linked to the conclusion of the Doha Round. For the reasons I have mentioned, it is essential that such a work programme evolves in a fully transparent and inclusive manner and reflects a balance of interests of all members. It is too early in the day to discuss what such a balanced programme should look like, but nevertheless, some considerations would be valid in drawing up such a programme. Some issues like further liberalization in the market access areas of Agriculture, NAMA and Services would continue to be the major anchor of future negotiations, along with work on the unfinished business in agricultural subsidies. However, in order to reflect the significant changes that have taken place in the global economy as well as the global trading system, the work programme would need to focus on some key issues:Firstly, the major impediments to market access are no longer tariffs but non tariff barriers. The work programme would therefore need to focus on regulatory issues which impinge on market access as distinct from tariff liberalization. This would include a more intensive horizontal engagement on improving the TBT-SPS disciplines to address the issue of Standards in particular and NTB's in general. Similarly, a comprehensive work programme on RTA's with the objective of mainstreaming them into the WTO disciplines, is essential.Thirdly, the remarkable growth being witnessed in several parts of the developing world is being accompanied by a spurt in innovation in these countries. The $2,500 car, the $25 mobile phone, the $10 water purifier, the low cost mobile X-Ray machine are only some examples of this. Much more is to come. These innovations have the potential for revolutionizing global manufacturing. The global IPR disciplines must facilitate, not hinder the process. The new work programme should reflect this new reality.Fourthly, the issue of equity in the global trading system has to be addressed. This would involve dealing with asymmetries in value creation across the world. Trade can only contribute to poverty reduction if it helps in spreading value creation all along the value chain. Africa cannot indefinitely remain only the commodities supplier to the world. Value creation in poor countries has to be a central preoccupation of the new engagement. 7. There would be demands for inclusion of other issues which may not command multilateral consensus but are important for some members. These would include the remaining Singapore issues as well as other issues such as an expanded agreement on global electronic commerce. On these issues, the onus is on the proponents to build consensus by demonstrating that the outcomes will be beneficial for the global trading system.8. The experience with the UR plurilaterals provides a good basis for designing the format for negotiations on those issues which require the participation of a subset of members. In my view, variable geometry means both, variable in terms of participation and/ or variable in terms of the nature of commitments.9. As far as climate change issues are concerned, it is important not to allow the tail to wag the dog. If political differences impede an international agreement in the Climate Change negotiations, they will do the same if the WTO takes up work on the issue. Once there is multilateral consensus in the Climate Change negotiations, the modifications in the WTO rules should involve a fairly straightforward negotiation. My impression is that our experience with the MEAs in force today has been pretty good and there has been little, if any, dispute on their trade implications.

Das Sozio-oekonomische Panel (SOEP) ist als multidisziplinäres Haushaltspanel, das Informationen zu allen Personen, die in einem Panel-Haushalt leben, erhebt und damit alle Altersjahrgänge abdeckt, nach 25 Jahren Laufzeit auch zu einer Kohorten- Studie geworden. Der zunehmende Erfolg der Forschungsinfrastruktur-Einrichtung SOEP speist sich in erster Linie daraus, dass die Analysekraft von Längsschnittstudien mit jedem weiteren Erhebungsjahr zunimmt. Hinzu kommen im Falle des SOEP seit Beginn an eine lange Reihe von Innovationen bei der Erhebung, Datenaufbereitung und Nutzer-Service. Deswegen gilt es zu überlegen, wie die wissenschaftliche Power des SOEP weiter gestärkt werden kann. Nicht zuletzt auch, da es für neue, spezialisierte Panel-Studien (wie das Nationale Bildungspanel oder das DFG-geförderte Familienpanel PAIRFAM) eine Referenz und ggf. Verankerung der Hochrechnung darstellt. Zudem kann das SOEP künftig eine größere Rolle als "Kontroll-Stichprobe" für Interventions-Studien spielen; etwa im Bereich der Kindheitsentwicklung. Auf diese neuen Rollen muss es vorbereitet sein. Die im SOEP in den letzten Jahren realisierten Erhebungsinnovationen wie z. B. die Inkorporation psychologischer Konzepte, physische Gesundheitsmessungen (Greifkraft), die Messung kognitiver Fähigkeiten und die Erprobung von Verhaltens- Experimenten werden in anderen Panel-Studien aufgegriffen und auf eine größere Stichprobenbasis gestellt. Im UK wird mit "Understanding Society" ein Haushaltspanel mit 40.000 Haushalten begonnen; in den Niederlanden wird mit MESS ein Haushaltspanel von über 5.000 Haushalten für innovative Messmethoden zur Verfügung gestellt. Die Erhebungsinhalte des SOEP werden von den Forschungs- und Politikberatungs-Communities unverändert stark nachgefragt. In UK hat ein für "Understanding Society" breit angelegter Konsultationsprozess keine grundsätzlich neuen Befragungsinhalte zu Tage gefördert, die das SOEP nicht bereits enthält oder die für das SOEP ohnehin im Gespräch sind. Wichtiger als die "Entdeckung" völlig neuer Erhebungsinhalte ist das thematische wie zeitliche "Zuschneiden" der Details von Befragungsinhalten auf (zugespitzte) neue (theoretische) Fragestellungen und dabei gleichzeitig bewährte sowie viel genutzte zentrale Befragungsinhalte und deren Befragungsrhythmen beizubehalten. Das "Maßschneidern" von Erhebungsinhalten wird in den nächsten Jahren die eigentliche Herausforderung für Infrastruktur- Erhebungen wie die PSID, "Understanding Society" und das SOEP sein. Bei den Erhebungsinhalten sollten die "Ränder" des Lebenslaufs eine größere Rolle spielen, da diese von Haushalts-Panels besonders gut erfasst werden können. Diese Verbesserungen der Erhebungen beziehen sich einerseits auf die fötale Phase von in das SOEP hineingeborenen Kindern und die (frühe) Kindheit, andererseits auf die letzte Lebensphase und das Sterben. In der Mitte des Lebenslaufs werden verbesserte Fragen zum Einkommen, Sparen und Vermögen sowie auch psychologische Konstrukte eine zentrale Rolle spielen, außerdem gezielte Fragen (event triggered questionnaires) in Verbindung mit zentralen Lebensereignissen wie z. B. Eheschließung, Scheidung, Eintritt in und Austritt aus Arbeitslosigkeit. Es wird die Etablierung einer SOEP-"Innovations-Stichprobe" vorbereitet, um theoriegeleitete Forschungsfragen gezielter unterstützen zu können. Dazu wird es auch notwendig sein, neue Messkonzepte zu erproben (z. B. die Erhebung von Biomarkern, qualitative Erhebungen, aber auch Experimente und gezielte Interventionsstudien). Um die Power von Längsschnittdaten von Anfang an für die Innovations-Stichprobe ausnutzen zu können, ist geplant, zwei kleinere Teilstichproben des SOEP, die seit 1998 bzw. 2006 laufen (Subsamples E und H), in die Innovationsstichprobe zu überführen. Um die statistische Power langlaufender Längsschnittdaten entscheidend zu verbessern, schätzen wir eine Mindestfallzahl von etwa 500 Personen pro Geburtsund Alterskohorte für ausreichend ein. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, muss die Fallzahl des SOEP-Standard-Samples erhöht werden. Als "Nebeneffekt" werden dadurch wesentlich bessere Analysen für relativ kleine Gruppen in der Bevölkerung möglich; etwa für allein Erziehende oder bestimme Immigrantengruppen. Außerdem verbessern sich als weiterer "Nebeneffekt" auch regionale Analysemöglichkeiten, z. B. für die meisten Bundesländer und in großen Bundesländern bis hin zu Regierungsbezirken (oder ähnlich abgegrenzten regionalen Einheiten). In letzter Zeit wird immer deutlicher, welche große Bedeutung das SOEP als "Referenz-Datensatz" für spezialisierte und vom SOEP völlig unabhängige Erhebungen hat (neben Beobachtungsstudien, wie etwa Zwillings-Studien, auch Labor- und Interventions-Studien). Zur Unterstützung dieser Funktion ist eine neue Art von Service, der in Deutschland bislang nicht vorgehalten wird, notwendig (Beratung von Spezial-Erhebungen; ggf. Datenaufbereitung von längsschnittlichen Spezial-Erhebungen), der auch in ein Datenservicezentrum eingebracht werden könnte. After 25 years as a multidisciplinary household panel containing information on all individuals residing in panel households and thus covering all age cohorts, the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) has become a true cohort study as well. The increasing success of the SOEP research infrastructure comes above all from the increasing analytical power that longitudinal studies attain with each successive survey year. In the case of SOEP, a long series of innovations in surveying, data preparation, and user service have also played a major role. For this reason, it is important to consider how the scientific capacity of SOEP can be further enhanced— not least of all since the SOEP can form a key point of reference (or "anchor") for new, specialized panel studies (such as the National Educational Panel and the family panel PAIRFAM, funded by the German Research Foundation). Furthermore SOEP can become a kind of "control sample" for intervention studies, for example, in the field of child development. The SOEP survey and its governance structures must be prepared for these new tasks. The numerous innovations introduced into SOEP in recent years—questions dealing with psychological concepts, physical health measures (grip strength), measures of cognitive capabilities, and behavioral experiments—have been incorporated into other panel studies as well, and thus provided with a larger sample base. In the UK, the "Understanding Society" household panel study was launched with 40,000 households; in the Netherlands, the MESS household panel study of over 5,000 households offered a new basis for testing innovative measurement methods. The results of the SOEP survey are in continuing high demand in the research and policy advisory community. From our point of view, the large-scale consultation process conducted to define the content of the UK survey "Understanding Society" failed to identify any fundamentally new survey content that the SOEP either did not already contain or that was not already being discussed for the SOEP. More important than "discovering" entirely new survey areas is "tailoring" the details of existing survey content to address new, more specific (theoretical) questions, and thus maintaining proven and widely used elements of survey content. The "tailoring" of survey content will be the real challenge facing infrastructure surveys like PSID, "Understanding Society," and the SOEP in the coming years. In the future, the "margins" of the life course should play a stronger role in survey content, since household panels are able to provide outstanding data of these life phases. The SOEP, and other household panel surveys, can be improved, on the one hand, by including the fetal phase of life and early childhood for children born into the panel, and on the other, by including late life and death. In the middle of the life course, improved questions on income, savings, and wealth as well as psychological constructs will play a central role, as will specific questions (in "eventtriggered" questionnaires) on central life occurrences such as marriage, divorce, and entry into and exit from unemployment. Current plans for SOEP foresee the addition of an "Innovation Sample" that will make it possible to better address theory-based research questions required for testing new measurement concepts (e.g., the surveying of biomarkers, qualitative surveys, but also experiments and targeted intervention studies). In order to exploit the power of longitudinal data from the outset, we plan to incorporate two smaller SOEP subsamples that have been running since 1998 and 2006 (Subsamples E and H, respectively) into the Innovation Sample. In order to decisively improve the statistical power of long-term longitudinal data, we believe that a minimum case number of about 500 persons per birth and age cohort is required. In order to reach this goal, the case number in the SOEP standard samples needs to be increased. A positive side-effect of this enlargement would be a significantly improved potential for analyses of relatively small groups within the population: for example, lone parents or specific immigrant groups. Another positive side-effect would be an improved potential for regional analyses: for example, for the majority of federal states. In recent times, the importance of SOEP as a "reference dataset" for specialized surveys which are independent from SOEP (observational studies such as twin studies, and laboratory and intervention studies) has become strikingly evident. To enhance this important function, new types of service are needed (advice on special surveys, possibly also data preparation for special surveys), which could become part of a Data Service Center.

Actualmente las empresas viven una continua división de sus formaciones sociales, pues la dinámica tiende a fraccionarlas en grupos humanos, pequeños y diversos, a consecuencia de las tendencias globalizantes. En este sentido, las instituciones pueden ser vistas como unidades productivas de grupos humanos, donde existen culturas heterogenias resultantes de micro-construcciones y procesos sociales con poca identidad. Desde el punto de vista teórico, es posible considerar esas organizaciones como tipologías sociales específicas o construcciones visibles que pueden ser planeadas, coordinadas y supervisadas de acuerdo con las características de los sistemas económico, social y político de la región y de la actividad que desarrollan, por lo que se hizo necesario indagar por la conformación de su cultura organizacional, especialmente en aquéllas que se catalogan como empresas productoras y comercializadoras de flores a nivel nacional e internacional En este contexto la cultura es un conjunto de acciones orientadoras de las interacciones entre los individuos que las conforman, la cual es susceptible de reproducirse superando conflictos, tensiones y contradicciones, de orden técnico, económico, legislativo y social constituyéndose en un conjunto de hábitos rutinas y costumbres inherentes a las formación, ejecución y proyección, para garantizar así su permanencia. Lo anterior significa que la cultura es un conjunto de prácticas, actitudes, roles, comportamiento concurrentes y recurrentes, que permiten reanudar las relaciones entre los individuos que conformen las empresas al interior y, en algunos casos en su exterior, a partir de la codificación, la difusión y la aceptación de políticas y normas compartidas por los individuos y los conglomerados humanos. Sin embargo, a través de la evolución de la empresa dedicada a esta actividad y de la sociedad se generan múltiples niveles de complejidad y diferenciación generando identidad y desarrollando estrategias de competitividad y comparación, tanto en lo social como en lo económico, lo cual permite contextualizar y conceptuar al respecto de la cultura y de las subculturas, mas aun ahora que las reformas laborales y la deslaboralizacion de las relaciones a impactado a este tipo de organizaciones. Aunque hay múltiples escritos sobre el tema de cultura organizacional es necesario elaborar uno que se centre en empresas dedicada a la producción de flores para mercados nacionales e internacionales las cuales adicionalmente están condicionadas a factores no solo económicos sino también climáticos o estacionales a consecuencia de que se constituyen en el punto de referencia para otras más pequeñas y de diferentes sectores al ser dominantes en la economía de la región por el número de personas que vinculan directa o indirectamente, la cantidad de productos generados y el aporte económico que hacen a la región y al país en general. Se puede recordar que el tema de cultura organizacional tiene el apoyo de algunos autores, pero de igual manera tiene opositores Sí se tiene muy en claro que se presenta una coincidencia de propósitos, intereses y saberes, lo que establece niveles de participación y apoyo. Dado que el ser humano en general es la base a partir de sus comportamientos, reacciones, actitudes y toma de posición a partir del cual se genera la cultura se propicia la estabilidad de las organizaciones. Se asume entonces que la cultura está compuesta por tres dimensiones: la intelectual, la afectiva y la social, al igual que la conducta de las persona permitiendo los proceso de conformación y transformación. Al investigar las empresas se hace necesario indagar y estudiar los espacios donde conviven y se desarrollan los seres humanos para satisfacer sus necesidades y, por lo tanto, también obliga a referirse al direccionamiento. Al aceptar que empresa, cultura, direccionamiento y necesidades humanas son elaboraciones sociales, sin olvidar que estas evolucionan a través del tiempo, tienen que estar vinculadas entre sí para generar bienes y servicios que satisfagan a las colectividades. ; Nowadays companies face a continuous division of its social formations, because the dynamic of globalisation tends to fracture them into small and diverse human groups. In this sense, institutions are seen as productive units of human groups, where heterogeneous cultures exist as a result of micro constructions and social processes with little identity. From a theoretical point of view, it is possible to consider those organisations as specific social typologies or visible constructions that can be planned, coordinated and monitored according to the characteristics of the economical, social and political systems of the region and the activity they develop, that's the reason why inquiring on the formation of its organisational culture became necessary, especially for those companies that are catalogued in flowers production and commercialisation internationally. In this context, culture is a set of guiding actions for the interactions among its members which is susceptible of reproducing itself over conflicts, tensions and contradictions from a technical, economical, legal and social order creating a set of manners, routines and customs related to form, execution and projection to guarantee its survival in time. This means that culture is a set of practices, attitudes, roles and concurrent and recurrent behaviours that allow rebuilding relations between individuals that integrate enterprises from its interior and, in some cases its exterior, starting from coding, diffusion and acceptation of norms and policies shared by individuals and human conglomerates. Nevertheless, during societies and companies evolution in the business of flower trading many levels of complexities and differentiation are generated which creates identity and develops strategies of competitiveness and benchmarking in the social and economical realm, allowing the contextualization and definition of culture and its subcultures, even more now that labour changes and the trend to eliminate labour from the relations with the employee has impacted this type of organisations. Although there are many articles on organisational culture, it is necessary to appoint one centred on flower trading companies for national and international markets because these are dependent on economical, social, stationary and climatic factors and build a reference point for smaller companies and for different sectors since they are dominant in the region according to their employment rates, generated products and economical impact in the country. The topic of organisational culture has the support of several authors, but is has also its critics if you have cleared that many coincidences of purposes, interests and specific knowledge is present, establishing levels of participation and support. The human being in general is the sum of its behaviours, reactions, attitudes, among others, which generate the culture that propitiates the stability of organisations. The human being is the sum of their behaviors, reactions, attitudes, among others, from which you build the culture that fosters stability of organizations It is then assumed that culture is compound by three dimensions: intellectual, affective and social, just like human conduct permitting the processes of conformation and transformation. When it comes to research on companies, it is necessary to inquiry and study the space where humans are developed and established to satisfy their needs and, forces to appoint the company's vision. When it is accepted that company, culture, vision and human needs are social constructions, that evolve in time, they have to be linked among them to generate goods and services that satisfy the people.

1.1 Global Agreements and Standards China joined the WTO in 20011. If we look at foodstuffs and medicines from a consumer viewpoint, the most important WTO agreements are the Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement (TBT Agreement) and the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). The TBT Agreement covers all mandatory and voluntary technical regulations and standards, including testing and certification procedures. The aim of the agreement is that these technical measures do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade.2 The SPS Agreement defines the rights and obligations of members with respect to application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures. This means laws and standards on food safety, animal health and plant health. Basically, the SPS agreement defines how food is to be regulated in order to maintain TBT agreement goals3. The TBT agreement also applies to medicines4. Disputes arise when trade restrictions are justified by somewhat ambiguous goals such as human health. The most famous food disputes resolved by the WTO Dispute Settlement Body are the 'hormones in beef case'5 of 1998 and the 'sardine case'6 of 2002. EC banning beef hormones was not justified according to the SPS agreement, because it was not based on Codex Alimentarius Standards. EC restricting the use of the term 'sardine' was not justified according to the TBT agreement, because the restrictions were not based on the Codex.7. Here we see the connection between Codex standards and WTO disputes: Codex rules are specifically referred to in the TBT Agreement8 and the SPS Agreement9, and are therefore used as a reference in trade disputes at the WTO.10 Codex Alimentarius is an international organization governing foodstuffs and operating under United Nations organizations FAO11 and WHO12. China is a member. Codex documents are global food law13: Codex Alimentarius pursues to protect the health of consumers and to promote fair international food trade.14 The Codex Alimentarius Commission is the highest decision-making body, where the representatives of the approximately 18015 member states meet every year. The Codex Alimentarius Commission is the most important global actor drafting food standards. Codex documents are in the forms of standards, codes of practice, guidelines, principles, recommendations, etc. Standards often relate to product features and can be very precise, setting for example MRLs (maximum residue levels) for pesticides or medicinal substances in foods. There is for example a standard for canned baby food and a standard for frozen spinach. Codes of practice guide procedure as regards production, preparation, transport and storage, including HACCP16 systems. Guidelines exist for example on nutrition and health claims17. Principles are more general and relate for example to import and export certificates. The division between different document types is not important as none of the Codex documents are directly binding on food industry operators. All of the above-mentioned document types are listed under 'standards' on the Codex web page18. It is important for China to defend their interests in Codex, particularly as a member of the WTO. The role of the Codex Commission is to provide a political forum to debate issues. The role of WTO Dispute Settlement Body is to ultimately resolve issues that cannot be agreed upon. As regards to China, the absence of WTO disputes against China is seen as a sign of China's reasonably effective implementation of the WTO rules19. The worst possible scenario is that China would disrupt the whole WTO process that is based on consensus20. Trade partners expect China to comply with the spirit of the WTO agreements and to develop into a "more responsible member of the international community"21. Foreign businesses expected to benefit from a more transparent and predictable business environment in China22. According to the US-China Business Council in 2008, China has gone a long way in fulfilling its WTO obligations, but there are still problems related to the principle of national treatment in particular. This means that foreign companies experience adverse treatment compared to Chinese companies. Discrimination comes in the form of stricter regulations and their enforcement. In addition, application procedures and license approval procedures are more stringent, time consuming or costly for foreign companies, foreigners are excluded from standards setting processes, and there is bias towards domestic goods in government procurement.23 According to Peerenboom, some of the areas listed by foreign investors are actually required of China by the WTO, while others are just wishful thinking seeking to further foreign interests24. Besides factors related to the Chinese legal culture, employment and income levels of the Chinese people will determine whether China will fulfil its WTO obligations25. The TBT Agreement recommends the recourse to international standards wherever possible while drafting technical regulations. Besides Codex standards, ISO/IEC26 standards are particularly referred to in the TBT Agreement27. ISO is the International Organisation for Standardisation, and has published several standards related to the food industry. ISO is a nongovernmental organization "forming a bridge between the public and private sectors". ISO is a network of the national standards institutes of its 157 member countries. Many of the member institutes are part of the governmental structure of their countries, while others have been set up by national partnerships of industry associations.28 Legal description of the ISO standards is difficult. They are not agreements between states as with Codex standards, and they are not selfregulation as governments are involved. They are followed voluntarily, although abiding by a standard might be required in practice. In any case, ISO standards can be defined as soft law. On medicines, the WHO is involved in developing international medicinal products law. They develop international norms, standards and guidelines, and provide guidance, technical assistance and training to support countries in adopting these standards on medicinal products.29 The WHO also organizes international conferences of drug regulatory authorities, where medicinal products law is discussed. The outcome of these meetings are "Recommendations", in which various areas of medicinal products law are discussed. They are in the form "member states should…"i.e. adoption is not mandatory. In 2006, it was agreed for example that member states should support clinical studies of herbal medicines30, and seek efficient sanctions for false drug advertising, particularly internet advertising31. China is involved in the WHO discussions and drafting the recommendations on medicinal products law. China also works bilaterally on issues of medicine law. For example between China and the EU, the agreement on a "Consultation and Cooperation Mechanism" was signed in 2008. In 2009, the Chinese SFDA32 met with the Director General Enterprise of the EC in the first annual high-level working conference under the "mechanism".33