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This article analyses the influence of individual working preferences on women's labour market behaviour in the Netherlands, Germany and the United Kingdom, addressing the question: to what extent do individual preferences have a causal effect on women's average weekly working hours? Using longitudinal panel data from all three countries, a fixed-effects model is applied to measure the effect of individual preferences in year t-1 on women's average weekly working hours in year t. The data is pooled from 1992 to 2002. After controlling for a number of individual, household and job characteristics we see that individual preferences are most influential in the Netherlands. However, the data do not support the idea that choice is more important than constraint because individual, household and job characteristics remain significant. In addition, the results demonstrate that it is important to understand individual preferences within the institutional context. Therefore, within the theoretical and policy debates about women's labour market participation we must consider possible barriers that hinder women when making labour market "choices". ; Este artigo analisa a influência das preferências individuais de trabalho no comportamento das mulheres no mercado de trabalho na Holanda, Alemanha e Reino Unido, abordando a questão: até que ponto as preferências individuais têm um efeito causal na média das horas de trabalho semanais das mulheres? Usando dados de painéis longitudinais dos três países, é aplicado um modelo de efeitos fixos para medir o efeito das preferências individuais no ano t-1, na média das horas de trabalho semanais das mulheres no ano t. Os dados são explorados de 1992 a 2002. Depois de controlar para cada indivíduo as características habitacionais e profissionais, vemos que as preferências individuais são mais influentes na Holanda. No entanto, os dados não sustentam a ideia de que a escolha é mais importante do que o constrangimento, porque as características individuais, familiares e profissionais continuam a ser significativas. Além disso, os resultados demonstram que é importante compreender as preferências individuais dentro do contexto institucional. Portanto, nos debates teóricos e políticos sobre a participação das mulheres no mercado de trabalho, devemos ter em conta as possíveis barreiras que limitam as suas "escolhas" no mercado de trabalho. ; Cet article analyse l'influence des préférences individuelles de travail dans le comportement des femmes sur le marché du travail en Hollande, en Allemagne et au Royaume-Uni, en posant une question : à quel point les préférences individuelles influencent-elles la moyenne d'heures de travail hebdomadaire des femmes ? En utilisant les données de panels longitudinaux des trois pays, un modèle d'effets fixes est appliqué pour mesurer l'effet des préférences individuelles au cours de l'année t-1 sur la moyenne des heures de travail hebdomadaires des femmes au cours de l'année t. Les données sont exploirées de 1992 à 2002. Après avoir contrôlé pour chaque individu les conditions d'habitation et professionnelles, nous pouvons voir que les préférences individuelles ont plus d'influence en Hollande. Cependant, les données ne permettent pas d'affirmer que le choix est plus important que la contrainte, car les caractéristiques individuelles, familiales et professionnelles demeurent importantes. En outre, les résultats démontrent qu'il est important de comprendre les préférences individuelles dans le contexte institutionnel. Par conséquent, dans les débats théoriques et politiques autour de la présence des femmes sur le marché du travail, nous devons tenir compte des éventuelles barrières qui limitent leurs " choix " sur le marché du travail. ; Este artículo analiza la influencia de las preferencias individuales de trabajo en el comportamiento de las mujeres en el mercado de trabajo en Holanda, Alemania y Reino Unido, abordando la cuestión, ¿Hasta qué punto las preferencias individuales tienen un efecto causal en el promedio de las horas de trabajo semanales de las mujeres? Usando datos de muestras longitudinales de los tres países, se ha aplicado un modelo de efectos fijos para medir el efecto de las preferencias individuales en el año t-1, en el promedio de las horas de trabajo semanales de las mujeres en el año t. Los datos son analizados de 1992 a 2002. Después de controlar para cada individuo las características habitacionales y profesionales, vemos que las preferencias individuales son más influyentes en Holanda. Sin embargo, los datos no sustentan la idea de que la elección sea más importante de que la limitante porque las características individuales, familiares y profesionales continúan a ser significativas. Además de eso, los resultados demuestran que es importante comprender las preferencias individuales dentro del contexto institucional. Por lo tanto, en los debates teóricos y políticos sobre la participación de las mujeres en el mercado de trabajo, debemos tener en cuenta las posibles barreras que limitan sus "elecciones" en el mercado de trabajo.

Sport und Tourismus konstituieren heute bedeutsame Bereiche des gesellschaftlichen Lebens. Sie tragen Sorge für Gesundheit, Erholung und Wohlbefinden des Menschen und stellen damit das Funktionieren alltäglicher Abläufe sicher (Bette, 1999, S. 26). Sportarten, die sowohl kompetitiv als auch touristisch betrieben werden, sind daher für Individuum und Gesellschaft von besonderer Relevanz. Die vielfältigen Verflechtungen von Spiel, Sport und Bewegung mit ihrer soziokulturellen Umwelt werden am Beispiel "Skilauf" deutlich: Ohne bestimmte gesellschaftliche Rahmenbedingungen und technische Errungenschaften wäre die Skilaufentwicklung anders verlaufen, als sie sich heute darstellt. Die Geschichte des Skilaufs und anderer Sportarten ist damit immer auch eine Geschichte politischer, kultureller und sozialer Veränderungen sowie technischen Fortschritts. Aus dieser besonderen Positionierung der Bewegungsformen in der Gesellschaft ergibt sich die Zielsetzung der vorgelegten, interdisziplinär ausgerichteten Arbeit: Diese besteht in einer Rekonstruktion der Skigeschichte Deutschlands und Österreichs von 1880 bis 1933 auf Basis einer umfassenden Literaturanalyse zeitgenössischer Darstellungen. Wenn historische Sachverhalte, Prozesse und Zusammenhänge zu untersuchen sind, muss der Forschende sich "mit den Einträgen aus den 'Notizbüchern' begnügen, welche die vergangenen Aufzeichnungssysteme hervorgebracht haben und welche die Zeit überlebt haben." (Isaac, 1992, S. 173). Solche "Einträge" im "Notizbuch" der Skigeschichte konstituieren die zahlreich vorhandenen und wissenschaftlich bisher kaum beachteten literarischen Erzeugnisse der Protagonisten von Skisport und Skitourismus. Diese werden einer detaillierten Untersuchung unterzogen; angesichts der Themenstellung hat sich die qualitative Inhaltsanalyse in Tradition der Hermeneutik adäquat erwiesen. Theoretisch wird der ganzheitlichen, d. h. mehrperspektivischen und multidisziplinären Ausrichtung der Arbeit Rechnung getragen durch Orientierung am erkenntnistheoretischen Paradigma des Konstruktivismus. Allerdings dienen konstruktivistische Ansätze nicht nur der Legitimation des Untersuchungsdesigns. Vielmehr erlangt insbesondere Luhmanns Theorie sozialer Systeme als strukturierendes Element der Inhaltsanalyse Bedeutung: Sie erlaubt, die Komplexität eines Forschungsgegenstandes zu reduzieren, indem sie ermöglicht, mediale Darstellungsinhalte in theoretische Kategorien zu fassen und somit zu ordnen. Insgesamt wird anhand zeitgenössischer Medienbilder dokumentiert, wie die Entwicklung des Skilaufs von soziokulturellen Gegebenheiten und zeitgenössischen Funktionszuschreibungen beeinflusst ist, aber auch viele andere Lebensbereiche mitgeprägt hat. Wird der Skitourismus um die Jahrhundertwende noch als "volkswirthschaftlich segensbringendes Element" (Paulcke, 1901, S. 19) gefeiert, verdammen viele Skipioniere bereits in den 1920er Jahren gerade seine neue massenhafte Ausprägung als Invasion einer "entartete[n], überzivilisierte[n] Welt" (Lammer, 1923, S. 3) in die Bergnatur. Im Skisport zeigt sich nicht nur das Phänomen der Vermassung – etwa als Heraufkunft einer neuen Art sportiver Zuschauerspektakel – sondern auch der Versportlichungsprozess im Sinne einer Optimierung von Abläufen, wie sie in der modernen Arbeitswelt zu finden ist. Erscheinen Wettkämpfe noch zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts oftmals als "so eine Art Komödie", wie Skipionier Zdarsky (1906/07, S. 60) zusammenfasst, dominieren in der Zwischenkriegszeit das Leistungsprimat, Rationalisierung, Spezialistentum und "zielbewußtes Training" (Hoferer, 1927/28, S. 25) den skisportlichen Alltag. Diese und weitere Ergebnisse der Inhaltsanalyse illustrieren, wie sich Veränderungen der Lebenswelt sowie die jeweils aktuelle staatspolitische Situation in der Entwicklung einer Sportart spiegeln und diese in hohem Maße beeinflussen. ; In todays world, sport and tourism contribute significantly to public life. Together, they benefit society's health, recreation and general well-being and facilitate the functioning of common social interaction (Bette, 1999, p. 26). This useful social quality applies especially to the world of skiing. Skiing – as we know it – engages people with athletic as well as touristic interests. As such, skiing-evolution was – and still is – closely interwined with human social changes. The intent of this interdisciplinary study derives its goals from exactly that special place that skiing has attained in everyday life: By means of a comprehensive analysis of contemporary literature this study attempts to reconstruct the history of skiing in Austria and Germany for the period of 1880 to 1933. When one has to analyze historic facts, processes and related events, a researcher has to "rely on the 'notebooks of the past' that come out of historical record-keeping methods and passed the test of time." (Isaac, 1992, p. 173). The rather voluminous literary work of the main protagonists of competitive skiing and skiing tourism constitutes exactly these writings and commentaries contained in the 'notebooks' of skiing history. Scientific research has so far largely ignored this body of literature. This study examines these literary contributions in detail. The qualitative content-analysis in tradition of the Hermeneutic method proved to be reasonably adequate. The encompassing orientation of this research – its aim for multiple perspectives and interpretations – is, in theory, accounted for by referring to the paradigm of constructivism. Not only do constructionist applications serve to legitimize the research design but, in particular, Luhmann's theory of social systems – that provides content-analysis with inherent structure – gains in importance. It makes it possible to reduce the complexity of any research matter by allowing classification and thus organization of information content into theoretical categories. On one hand, contemporary information images document how the historical growth of skiing was influenced by social-cultural circumstance and attitudes of given periods. On the other hand, how skiing itself affected many social aspects and social conventions it permeated over time. Initially, at the turn of the century, skiing tourism was hailed as "great economic salvation" (Paulcke,1901, p.19) only later – in the 1920's – to be condemned by a plethora of skiing pioneers for its massive expansion and growth. It grew to be regarded as an invasion of wholesome mountain terrain by a "decadent and overcivilized world" (Lammer, 1923, p. 3). The phenomenon of massive occurrences – the rise of a new sort of sports spectacle – is manifested in competitive skiing. Skiing mutates into athletic excesses and mechanical optimization just as one could find in the processes of modern economics. Skiing competitions in the early 20th century often appeared to be still "some kind of comedy" (Zdarsky,1906/07, p. 60). Nonetheless, athletic success, rationalization, specialization and task-specific training dominated the skiing activities between World War I and II. These and further results of the content-analysis illustrate, how changes of the living environment as well as of the contemporary political situation reflect on the development of sports and influence it to a great extend.

In this thesis, so far insufficiently considered characteristics of long-run equilibriums in food markets are investigated. For this purpose, multivariate time series methodologies, which were developed for the estimation of long-run relationships by allowing for causality and convergence, are employed. In three essays, the proposed procedures are applied to food prices in Germany, the United States and Europe. The long-run equilibrium is defined as a state of an economic system (e.g. a market), to which the variables of the system revert as a consequence of economic mechanisms after being affected by shocks. For the analysis of a long-run equilibrium scholars usually resort to the framework of cointegration. However, the corresponding econometric tests are limited to detecting the existence of a fixed long-run equilibrium of endogenous variables. This thesis contributes to the literature by proposing alternative methodologies, which enable an estimation of long-run equilibriums and thereby allow to take further properties into account, such as causality and convergence. Exogenous shocks, like macroeconomic or policy changes, evidentially have an influence on food markets. Analyses of such relationships benefit from the procedures, which actually consider the causality structure. A well-known methodology, which measures the impact of a permanent change in the level of one variable on the level of another variable, is the long-run neutrality test of Fisher and Seater (1993). Their procedure is utilized here to investigate the influence of exogenous shocks on food prices. This empirical application is the first undertaking of this kind to be used in the literature. Furthermore, an extension of the basic framework is proposed, which considers a second exogenous variable in the relationship. However, in some markets the long-run equilibrium is not fixed. The alterations might be triggered by policy measures or changes in market characteristics (e.g. spatial modifications, transaction cost reductions or supply chain improvements). The econometric concept of convergence can be deployed in order to determine whether the market efficiency is improving or worsening. In this thesis, the test of Phillips and Sul (2007), which is by definition a quite general procedure, is utilized for this purpose. The concept of convergence, particularly the aforementioned test, has not yet been employed intensively to study the dynamics of food markets. Furthermore, this thesis makes important empirical and political contributions to the analysis of food markets. In the first case study, the impacts of money supply changes initiated by the European Central Bank and of agricultural policy modifications implemented by the European Commission on German food prices are investigated. Research into the influence of money supply on agricultural product prices has never been conducted on such a disaggregated level before. The results show that aggregated agricultural prices are neutral in the long run, whereas the effects differ for different disaggregated markets. Staple food prices in particular, are more sensitive to changes in money supply due to good storability and demand inelasticity. In contrast, animal product prices are less sensitive to money supply changes, perhaps due to larger demand elasticities and quick production adjustments. Furthermore, the policy component in the model reveals that the dynamics triggered by the EU's decoupling policies (Mid-Term Review) increase production efficiency for specific products. In a second case study, a theoretical model, which explains the influence of money supply on food markets, is derived in order to research the long-run impact of money supply on U.S. agricultural prices over the last five decades. The results reveal that agricultural prices as a whole and most individual product prices are neutral in response to money supply in the long run. However, the prices of products with large supply elasticities with respect to money supply remain significantly below a neutral equilibrium. Hence, the producers of these commodities are particularly vulnerable to monetary policy changes. In the third case study, the unsteadiness of the long-run equilibriums of important livestock prices within the EU is analyzed. The occasional changes in the market structure result from policy measures, which are intended to offset the remaining non-tariff trade barriers, and the enlargements of the EU. Moreover, the different currencies in the market might contribute to the heterogeneity in the adjustment to a long-run equilibrium. In order to investigate these hypotheses, the single market after the important expansion of the EU to Eastern Europe in 2004 is analyzed. Including all EU countries, the results confirm that market efficiency is increasing. In a separate analysis of the new member states, their catching-up process is confirmed. Additionally, a comparison of EMU and non-EMU countries shows that the common currency significantly contributes to a further integration.

Mehr als 90% aller deutschen Unternehmungen sind Familienbetriebe und in etwa einem Fünftel davon vollzieht sich derzeit ein Generationswechsel. Trotz vielfältiger beruflicher Möglichkeiten in einer Multioptionsgesellschaft übernimmt fast die Hälfte der Kinder den Betrieb. Auf der Basis von acht narrativen Interviews wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit eine biographietheoretische Analyseperspektive auf dieses soziale Phänomen gewählt: In welchen biographischen (Selektions-) Prozess ist die Entscheidung für oder gegen eine Übernahme des Familienbetriebes eingebettet? In fünf Fällen zeigt sich, dass die Position des Nachfolgers, die einem der Kinder von klein auf zugewiesen wurde, besonders strukturwirksam für die Betriebsnachfolge und die Beteiligten ist. Der Generationswechsel in diesen Familienbetrieben lässt sich als Übernahme einer Position charakterisieren. In drei weiteren Fällen zeigt sich, dass die jahrelange Konkurrenz um die Betriebsnachfolge für den Übernahmeprozess und die NachfolgerInnen eine wesentliche Rolle spielt. Der Generationswechsel in diesen Familienbetrieben lässt sich als gewonnener Wettkampf charakterisieren. Die vorgestellten Fallrekonstruktionen zeigen, dass das Thema Gerechtigkeit im Generationswechsel in kleinen Familienbetrieben ein strukturrelevanter Aspekt ist, der in einen lebenslangen Prozess eingeflochten ist und in Form eines Wettbewerbs oder durch das Einnehmen einer Position biographisch bearbeitet wird. Es wird auch deutlich, dass die lange Zeit in weiten Teilen Deutschlands vorherrschende, traditionelle Erbregelung Geschlecht und Altersrang in der Geschwisterfolge dienten als Gerechtigkeitskonzept in Auflösung begriffen ist. Ein Fazit der vorliegenden Untersuchung lautet aber, dass die beiden alternativen Gerechtigkeitskonzepte Interesse oder Leistung , die zunehmend zur Legitimation von Berufswahl und damit ebenso im Zuge der Betriebsübernahmeentscheidung herangezogen werden, auch Gefahren bergen. Daher wird abschließend die These vertreten, dass sowohl der positionale, als auch der wettbewerbsorientierte Generationswechsel in Familienbetrieben veränderte Anerkennungsverhältnisse benötigt, um die Wirksamkeit demokratischer Gerechtigkeitsprinzipien zu ermöglichen: Gegenseitige Wertschätzung der Generationen, Geschlechter und Geschwister für ihr So Sein , ebenso wie für ihre Leistungen und Interessen in jeder Lebensphase. Die Betriebsführung und die Ausrichtung des Betriebes nach der Übernahme sind Ausdruck der biographischen Arbeit der NachfolgerInnen. Durch ihre langjährige, alltägliche Erfahrung mit der Entgrenzung von Familienleben und Arbeitsleben, die nach der industriellen Moderne auch in anderen Arbeitsfelder wieder stärker Einzug hält, lassen sie sich als eine Art gesellschaftlicher Avantgarde beschreiben. Damit eng zusammenhängend können ihre Lebensgeschichten gleichzeitig als Seismographen für die Probleme in der Arbeitswelt gelten: Auf der einen Seite fördert die Erfahrung früher Konkurrenz in allen Lebensbereichen die Entwicklung psychischer Krisen, wie sie auch sonst im Arbeitsleben zu beobachten ist. Auf der anderen Seite fördert die frühe Erfahrung einer positionalen Zuweisung eine eher unflexible, wenig marktorientierte Haltung, die schlecht vorbereitet ist auf den Abbau des Anspruches auf Statuserhalt, wie er derzeit politisch forciert wird. Vor dem Hintergrund der vorgelegten Ergebnisse erscheinen vor allem solche systemisch orientierten, langfristigen Beratungs- und Begleitungsprozesse vorteilhaft, die vom bisher dominierenden Beratungsziel Erhaltung des Betriebes Abstand nehmen und stattdessen in einer dialogischen Zusammenarbeit mit den Akteuren eine neue Balancierung der Anerkennungsverhältnisse unterstützen. ; More than 90% of all German companies are family businesses and in one-fifth of them an alternation of generations is taking place at present. In spite of varied career possibilities in a multi-option society, almost half the children take over the company. Based on eight narrative interviews, a biography-theoretical analysis perspective on this social phenomenon has been selected in this thesis: In which biographical (selection-) process is the decision for or against a takeover of the family business embedded? In five cases it turned out that the position of the successor, assigned to one of the children from an early age, is particularly structural effective for the business succession and the persons concerned. The alternation of generations in this family businesses can be characterized as takeover of a position . Three further cases show that years of competition in the business succession play an essential role for the takeover process and the successors. The alternation of generations in this family businesses can be characterized as won contest . The introduced case reconstructions demonstrate that the theme justice in alternation of generations in small family businesses is a structure-relevant aspect interlaced in a lifelong process and biographical treated in terms of competition or by taking a position. It also becomes apparent that the traditional rule of succession gender and rank by age in birth order served as justice concept prevailing in wide parts of Germany for a long time is in the process of dissolution. A result of this research says that the two alternative justice concepts interest or achievement increasingly pulled up for legitimation of career choice, and so as well in the course of the business succession decision, also hold risks. Therefore, the concluding thesis is held that both positional and competition-oriented alternations of generations in family businesses need changed relations of acceptance to enable the effectiveness of democratic principles of justice: Mutual esteem among generations, gender and siblings for there so being , just as for their efforts and interests in every stage of life. The management and the orientation of the business after the takeover are an expression of the successor s biographical work. By long everyday experience with the dissolution of boundaries between family life and working life, which are entering increasingly into other fields of work after the industrial modernity, they can be described as a kind of social avant-garde. Closely connected with this, their life stories can be classified as seismographs for the problems in the working world: On the one hand the experience of early competition in all areas of life promotes the development of mental crises; observable in the working life as well. On the other hand the early experience with an assignment of a position promotes a more inflexible, less market-oriented attitude which is badly prepared for the reduction of the claim to status maintaining; as it is politically forced at present. Against the background of the presented results, mainly such systemic oriented, long-term processes of advice and assistance appear to be advantageous which are refraining from the prevailing purpose of advice preservation of the business . Instead of that they support a new balancing in the relations of acceptance by a dialogic cooperation with the actors.

Політична стабільність, як об'єкт політологічного дослідження є багатоаспектною проблемою. Оскільки у науковій сфері не склалося однозначного трактування взаємозв'язку між конфліктами та стабільністю, однією із важливих сторін дослідження даної проблеми є визначення ролі конфліктів у сучасному суспільстві, а також дослідити їхній вплив на формування політичної стабільності. Важливість дослідження проблеми у такому ракурсі посилюється тим, що він вказує шлях подолання одностороннього, позитивно-негативного ставлення до конфлікту, і надає можливість більш широкого, багатовимірного розуміння його ролі в суспільних відносинах, оскільки парадигма конфліктології дозволяє нам дослідити проблему формування політичної стабільності у протилежній площині.В ході дослідження виявлено, що конфлікти знижують напругу, сприяючи при цьому стабілізації та інтеграції внутрішньогрупових відносин, надаючи учасникам конфлікту безпосередню можливість вираження суперечливих вимог; запобігають стагнації, стимулюють інтерес і цікавість, виступаючи в ролі медіатора, за допомогою якого артикулюються проблеми, знаходяться їхні вирішення; служать основою соціальних змін; чітко розділяє різні групи і цим сприяють встановленню групової та персональної ідентифікації. ; Political stability, political science as an object of study is a multidimensional problem. Since the area of science has not developed a clear interpretation of the relationship between conflict and stability, one of the important aspects of the study of this problem is to determine the role of conflict in modern society, and to investigate their influence on the formation of political stability. The importance of research problem sin this perspective is enhanced by the fact that it points the way to overcome the one-sided, positive- negative attitude towards the conflict, and provides a broader, multi-dimensional understanding of its role in public relations, as the paradigm of conflict resolution allows us to investigate the formation of political stability in the opposite plane.Today one of the most fruitful ways to develop such a theory of political stability, which is so necessary to society, is its consideration as a special case of a state political process, due to its other state in the first place - conflict. This path involves identifying their relationships, and identity matches their inherent features, analysis of the role that belongs to the political conflict and its impact on political stability.The study found that conflicts reduce stress, thus contributing to the stabilization and integration of intragroup relations , giving participants the opportunity of expressing direct conflict conflicting requirements, prevent stagnation , stimulate interest and curiosity , acting as a mediator by which articulate problems, their solutions are , are the basis for social change , clearly separates the different groups to allow for the establishment of group and personal identity; addition, decentralized groups and free society, conflict, aimed at resolving tensions between adversaries, often plays a stabilizing and integrative role. Allowing crisp and clear expression of contrary claims, these social systems are able to improve their structure by eliminating sources of conflict. Multiple conflicts that they (the system) feel help them get rid of the sources of antagonism and achieve internal cohesion. These systems provide for themselves through the institutionalization of conflict, an important stabilizing mechanism. In addition to this intragroup conflict often breathes new life into existing standards or new causes.It is important to note that political stability and political conflict is not definitely opposed to each other, nor are they in a dialectical «cross assignation» and «cross negation.» In essence, being a manifestation of social needs and interests , reflecting the changing balance of forces participants of public relations and political conflict and political stability perform another very important function - providing theoretical possibility of building a sort of « scales « of conflict and stability. But it should be emphasized again: they are two different, though interconnected dimensions rather than characteristics that exclude or include each other. Availability and defined in a way a variable dimension , size and intensity of one of them does not mean the absence or corresponding increase / decrease in the other. ; Политическая стабильность, как объект политологического исследования является многоаспектной проблемой. Поскольку в научной сфере не сложилось однозначной трактовки взаимосвязи между конфликтами и стабильностью, одной из важных сторон исследования данной проблемы является определение роли конфликтов в современном обществе, а также исследовать их влияние на формирование политической стабильности. Важность исследованияпроблемы в таком ракурсе усугубляется тем, что он указывает путь к преодолению одностороннего, позитивно- негативного отношения к конфликту и предоставляет возможность более широкого, многомерного понимания его роли в общественных отношениях, поскольку парадигма конфликтологии позволяет нам исследовать проблему формирования политической стабильности в противоположной плоскости .В ходе исследования выявлено, что конфликты снижают напряжение, способствуя при этом стабилизации и интеграции внутригрупповых отношений, предоставляя участникам конфликта непосредственную возможность выражения противоречивых требований; предотвращают стагнации, стимулируют интерес и любопытство, выступая в роли медиатора, с помощью которого артикулируются проблемы и находятся их решения; служат основой социальных изменений; четко разделяет различные группы и этим способствуют установлению групповой и персональной идентификации.

Das Verständis der Komplexität der gegenwärtigen Lage von Kleinbauern stellt eine große Herausforderung dar, nicht nur, weil sie mit mehrfachen Problemen konfrontiert sind, sondern eine klare öffentliche Politik fehlt, die Lösungsansätze für diese Probleme aufzeigt. Dies ist eine gemeinsame Charakteristik in vielen Entwicklungsländern. Andererseits würden präzisere Diagnosen der Lage von Kleinbauern zweifellos erheblich zur Verbesserung der Eingriffe der öffentlichen Hand hinsichtlich der Gestaltung neuer und der Anpassung existierender Politikinstrumente beitragen.Diese Froschungsarbeit konzentriert sich auf die Produktionskapazität von Kleinbauern, wobei sie Wichtigkeit weiterer Faktoren neben der Erzeugung landwirtschaftlicher Güter, wie z.B. Kultur, Werte, Armut oder soziale Netzwerke, anerkennt. Die Arbeit untersucht die mehrfachen Faktoren, die die Produktion von Kleinbauern beeinflussen können. Im Speziellen werden die Auswirkungen des formellen Kreditmarktes, des außer-landwirtschaftlichen Arbeitsmarkets und der Produktionsdiversifizierung auf die landwirtschaftliche Erzeugung. Für die Analyse wird eine landesweite Stichprobe von Kleinbauern herangezogen, die 2004 von INDAP, einer öffentlichen Institution in Chile, die Kredite und Beratung an Kleinbauern bereitstellt, gesammelt wurde. Die ökonometrische Untersuchung berücksichtigt verschiedene Gruppen von Erzeugern, die entweder spezialisiert und nichtspezialisiert sind. Die Methoden der Stochastic Frontier Analysis und der Switching Regressions Models werden zur Analyse der 835 Kleinbauern der Stichprobe basierend auf Haushaltsmodellen benutzt. Außerdem werden in den ökonometrischen Schätzungen die Heterogenität unter den Landwirten und Endogenitätsprobleme in Verbindung mit dem Auswahlprozeß berücksichtigt.Die Hauptergebnisse dieser Forschungsarbeit zeigen die Existenz verschiedener Produktionsstrukturen in den analysierten Produktionssektoren. Der formelle Kreditmarkt spielt eine Rolle hinsichtlich der Erklärung von Unterschieden in Produktionsniveaus von Kleinbauern sowohl relativ (Effizienzanalyse) als auch absolut (Regimeänderungsanalyse). Weiterhin konnten basierend auf einem theoretischen Rahmen keine Anhaltspunkte für die Hypothese eines Liquiditätseffektes in den berücksichtigen Gruppen von Kleinbauern gefunden werden. Andererseits kommt die Analyse zu dem Schluß, daß sowohl die Diversifizierung landwirtschaftlicher Produktion als auch die Teilnahme in außer-landwirtschaftlichen Tätigkeiten von nichtspezialisierten Landwirten die Produktionseffizienz aller Kleinbauern reduziert. Außerdem wird festgestellt, daß im Allgemeinen das Eingreifen der öffentlichen Hand nicht zu den erwarteten Ergebnissen hinsichtlich der Erzeugung geführt hat. Die Beratungspraktiken haben unabhängig von der Finanzierungsquelle (privat oder öffentlich) nicht in eine Erhöhung des Produktionsniveaus gemündet. Faktoren, die verbunden sind mit der Lage, der Bewässerung, demographischen Charakteristika und direkten Entscheidungen der Landwirte hinsichtlich der Betriebsverwaltung, der Teilnahme an außer-landwirtscahftlichen Tätigkeiten, des Spezialierungsgrades des Betriebes und der Abhängigkeit des landwirtschafltichen Einkommens vom Gesamteinkommen sind Schlüsselelemente für das Verständis der betrieblichen Effizienzniveaus.Diese Ergebisse zeigen, daß analytische Methoden existieren, die die Verbesserung der Diagnose der Lage von Kleinabuern ermöglichen. Die Herausforderung besteht in der Überzeugung von privaten und öffentlichen Institutionen, diese zu benutzen, um ihre Politiken und Handlungsrichtlinien zu verbessern. Schlußendlich erscheint es angemessen, den Einfluß von Politikmaßnahmen und landwirtscahftlicher Beratung auf die Produktivität basierend auf einer systematischeren und ausführlicheren Datengrundlage zu untersuchen, was in der gegenwärtigen chilenischen institutionellen Landschaft von INDAP federführend durchgeführt werden sollte in den kommenden Jahren. ; Understanding how complex the small farmers situation is today is a great challenge, because not only do they face multiple problems, but also there is not a clear public policy concerning how those problems can be solved in the near future, a common characteristic in most developing countries. On the other hand, there is no doubt that more precise diagnosis of the small farmers situation would significantly contribute to improve the public intervention in both the design of new instruments and the adjustment of existing ones.This research focuses on the small farmer s production capacity, recognizing that there are other factors as important as production such as culture, values, poverty, and social networks. We analyzed the multiple factors that can affect small farmers production. In particular, we studied the effects of the formal credit market, the off-farm labor market and production diversification on the agricultural production. To do that, we used a country-wide sample of small farmers collected in 2004 by INDAP, a public institution that provides credit and extension services to small farmers, and we studied different groups of producers, specialized and non-specialized, by conducting econometric analyses. The techniques of Stochastic Frontier Analysis and Switching Regressions Models were the methodological frameworks used to analyze a sample of 835 farmers, and the analyses were carried out based on household models. Additionally, the econometric results took into account the heterogeneity among farmers, and the endogeneity associated with selectivity processes.The main results of this research show that there are different production structures among the production sectors analyzed. The formal credit market plays a role in explaining differences in production levels among farmers both in relative (efficiency analysis) and absolute (regime change analysis) terms. In addition, based on a theoretical framework, we could not find evidence to support the hypothesis of Liquidity in the farmer groups analyzed. On the other hand, in the case of non-specialized farmers, we found that both on-farm production diversification and participation in off-farm activities decrease efficiency among small farmers. Moreover, the results would suggest that, in general, the intervention of public policy has not produced the expected outcomes in terms of production, and the practices of extension, independently of who finances them (publicly or privately), have not been successful in producing changes in production levels. Factors related to localization, irrigation, demographical characteristics and direct decisions of farmers with regard to management on-farm, participation in off-farm activities, specialization on farm, and dependence of on-farm income on total income are key elements to understanding what is going on at the efficiency level.From those results, it has been shown that analytical tools are available to advance towards better diagnosis in small farmers. The challenge is to encourage public and private institutions to use them in order to improve their policies. Finally, it would seem pertinent to investigate in more detail the impact of public policy and extension services on productivity, based on a more systematic and detailed database, a task that in the current institutional-political structure should be led by INDAP in the next few years.

У статті досліджуються роль і значення міжнародних зобов'язань держав у взаєминах національного права держави з міжнародним правом. Наголошується, що взаємозв'язок між національним і міжнародним правом обумовлюється, насамперед, великою організаційною роллю та значенням держави на міжнародній арені та у національному житті, що очолює, визначає, спрямовує, координує, ініціює та встановлює відповідні настанови як національного, так і міжнародного правопорядків. В основі такої поведінки держави об'єктивно лежить принцип державного суверенітету, як один із основних принципів сучасного міжнародного права. Під міжнародними зобов'язаннями держав варто розуміти обумовлені загальновизнаними нормами і принципами міжнародного права добровільно взяті ними на себе обов'язки з виконання положень норм, що містяться в міжнародних договорах, з метою становлення, розвитку та формування міжнародного та національного правопорядків, що відповідають вказаним загальновизнаним нормам і принципам та забезпечені формами міжнародно-правового примусу. Зазначається, що міжнародні зобов'язання держав мають важливе і визначальне значення у формуванні й функціонуванні міжнародного правового порядку і фактично складають його реалізаційну основу; у внутрішньому (національному) правопорядку міжнародні зобов'язання держав, що закріплені в нормах міжнародного права та які містяться в міжнародних договорах, завдяки національному механізму імплементації трансформуються в норми національного конституційного права та є частиною національного законодавства; неухильне виконання державами своїх зобов'язань є важливою передумовою підтримки міцного миру і міжнародної безпеки, забезпечення верховенства права в міждержавних відносинах. ; In studying actual problems of interaction with national law and international law objectified updated perspective to study the role and importance of international obligations that come last under international public law at the conclusion of international agreements and be enforceable by entering the relevant rules international law in an array of national legislation. Displayed issues are not only relevant but also very challenging both in theoretical and in a pragmatic aspects, because the state often encounter it not only in the conclusion of international agreements in the so -called international mechanism for implementation, but in the course of activity in the domestic transformation of international law into domestic law , that is, when the rule of international law through the use of appropriate internal mechanisms enshrined in national law of a State shall be a national law and gain the power of such a rule to be available to perform the subjects national law within the national implementation mechanism. Hence indicated problems are relevant in international law, and in the constitutional and legal aspects that objectifies it as one of the most difficult, not only internationally, but also nationally, especially constitutional law countries. This problem has recently become especially important because, firstly, the revitalization of international intergovernmental organizations (hereinafter – INGO) in the context of international law-making, and secondly, by expanding the list of international law, resulting in many objects with constitutional and legal regulations moving to a global level (human rights, local government, the organization of human settlements), and thirdly, the fact that the interaction between international and domestic law is not confined to the interaction of regulatory elements of these legal systems – since these are undeniable impact the legal system of Ukraine as a whole, including its regulatory, organizational, ideological components and processes that give it mobility: lawmaking, legal thinking and so on. That is, by and large, we are talking about major national and international processes that form and modify the modern state and the modern international community of states, encouraging the emergence of new relations between them and the significant increase in the role of national constitutional law in the operation and expansion of the role of international law in domestic law (the internationalization of constitutional law), as well as the growing influence of objective constitutional law states in very general international law (konstytutsionalization international law). A systematic analysis of the concepts used in modern international law regarding the international obligations of states, allows to detect and identify appropriate semantic relations that actually constitute and institutionalizing them. These bonds, which can be displayed in a coordinate system, are as follows: «an international treaty the State», «international obligations – State», «international law – State», «international obligation of the State arising»: a) of the UN Charter and b) the generally accepted norms and principles of international law, c) international agreements. Epistemological filling these relations are the relations between the state of international law and its regulatory element (base) rules (principles) of international law contained in its respective sources the UN Charter and international treaties. It is alleged that under the State's international obligations should be understood due to the generally recognized norms and principles of international law voluntarily undertaken the duties of the implementation of the standards contained in international treaties, in order of formation, development and the formation of international and national law, which matching the recognized norms and principles and secured forms of international law enforcement .

В исследовании, сквозь призму творчества Н. Макиавелли, выявляются возможные варианты соотношения морали и политики, среди которых: самого Макиавелли ( только благая политическая цель оправдывает любые средства ), макиавеллистский ( цель оправдывает любые средства ) и гуманистический ( благая цель может быть достигнута только благими методами). Устанавливается принципиальная разница указанных вариантов понимания соотношения политики и морали. Показано, что решение современных глобальных как международных, так и внутренних проблем возможно лишь на основе гуманистической политики ненасилия (несопротивление злу насилием, что не исключает, а иногда нуждается в сопротивлении злу силой), принципы которой открыты еще в «осевое время» мировыми религиями и философией, развиты И. Кантом, Ф. Достоевским, Л. Толстым, Махатмой Ганди, М.Л. Кингом и др. В подробностях раскрывается полемика И. Ильина с доктриной «непротивления злу силой». В статье анализируется продолжающийся уже более века спор в русской философии относительно оправданности применения насилия. ; According to Kant, "two human inventions may be considered the most complicated ones: these are the art of governing and that of educating…"; "Parents take care of their family, whereas rulers take care of their states. The final goal both set is the common advantage and the perfection mankind is destined for…" (On Pedagogy). Violence seems to be the simplest and the most universal way of governing. However, it reduces the human world to the animal-like, barbaric level. In Kant's opinion, it is only morality that makes a man a person, homo sapiens. Yet politics is commonly considered to be outside morality nowadays. Many notable politicians, lawyers, and even philosophers try to convince us that this is true. Still, this persuasion has failed to justify itself in both theoretical and practical aspects. Politics is inconceivable without morality, as it transforms into something else when outside it. I. Berlin has understood it perfectly, as he considers that political theory is a branch of moral philosophy which starts from applying moral categories to political relations ( Berlin Isaiah. In the search of the ideal). Niccolo Machiavelli (1469—1527) is a key figure in the context of analyzing the issue of the interrelation between politics and morality, as his works represent a sort of division line between the classical (Plato and Aristotle) and medieval political thought, on the one hand, and new European and modern ones, on the other hand. Through the prism of his ideas, the issue of the correlation between politics and morality within the history of political philosophy may be considered. Machiavelli is regarded as the first political thinker of the new epoch, as he "has broken off from all the preceding tradition of political philosophy. He has compared his achievements with the acts of such people as Columbus, claiming that he has opened a new continent of morality… The only question is whether this continent is suitable for humans to dwell in", modern political philosopher Leo Strauss asks (What Is Political Philosophy?). We shall therefore examine the four possible variants of the relation between morality and politics. So in the investigation, through a prism of N. Machiavelli's creativity, possible variants of a correlation between violence and non-violence in policy are revealed: especially Machiavelli's ( only the virtue political aim justifies any means ), Machiavellianism ( the aim justifies any means ), humanistic ( the virtue aim can be achieved only by virtue methods) and pacifists (nonresistance to evil by force, — L. Tolstoy). The basic difference of the specified variants of understanding of a correlation between morals and policy is established. It is marked, that Machiavellianism cannot be named a policy at all; as such activity is extremely criminal offence. Limited humanism of Machiavelli can be relatively justified only at a stage of formation the national states, but it is inadmissible in the world becoming global. Pacifist-nonresistance variant also considered as immoral. It is asserted that the decision of modern global both international, and internal problems can be reached only on the basis of a humanistic policy of non-violence, ( nonresistance to evil by violence, that doesn't except, but sometimes need resistance to evil by force) which principles are opened in «axial time» by world religions and philosophy, and which were advanced by I. Kant, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, M. Gandy, M.L. King, etc. In detail I. Il'in's polemic with L. Tolstoy's doctrine of «nonresistance to evil by force» is revealed in details. In the article is analyzed the dispute proceeding already more than century in Russian philosophy, which concerns correctness of using the violence. The polemic developed by I. Il'in concerning L. Tolstoy's doctrine about nonresistance to harm force, has found the ready response as from side N. Berdyaev, and other thinkers of the beginning of the last century. It was not finished even to our days, provoked still N. Makiavelli and I. Cant's creativity. The author, being based on scrupulous perusal of primary sources, aspires to place accents, being based on the concept of a humanistic policy.

Open Access: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.-- et al. ; A detailed description is reported of the analysis used by the CMS Collaboration in the search for the standard model Higgs boson in pp collisions at the LHC, which led to the observation of a new boson. The data sample corresponds to integrated luminosities up to 5.1 fb-1 at √=7 TeV, and up to 5.3 fb-1 at √ s=8 TeV. The results for five Higgs boson decay modes γγ, ZZ, WW, ττ, and bb, which show a combined local significance of 5 standard deviations near 125 GeV, are reviewed. A fit to the invariant mass of the two high resolution channels, γγ and ZZ → 4ℓ, gives a mass estimate of 125.3 ± 0.4 (stat.) ± 0.5 (syst.) GeV. The measurements are interpreted in the context of the standard model Lagrangian for the scalar Higgs field interacting with fermions and vector bosons. The measured values of the corresponding couplings are compared to the standard model predictions. The hypothesis of custodial symmetry is tested through the measurement of the ratio of the couplings to the W and Z bosons. All the results are consistent, within their uncertainties, with the expectations for a standard model Higgs boson. ; We acknowledge the enduring support for the construction and operation of the LHC and the CMS detector provided by the following funding agencies: the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research; the Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique, and Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek; the Brazilian Funding Agencies (CNPq, CAPES, FAPERJ, and FAPESP); the Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science; CERN; the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, and National Natural Science Foundation of China; the Colombian Funding Agency (COLCIENCIAS); the Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sport; the Research Promotion Foundation, Cyprus; the Ministry of Education and Research, Recurrent financing contract SF0690030s09 and European Regional Development Fund, Estonia; the Academy of Finland, Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, and Helsinki Institute of Physics; the Institut National de Physique Nucle´aire et de Physique des Particules/CNRS, and Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux E'nergies Alternatives/CEA, France; the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren, Germany; the General Secretariat for Research and Technology, Greece; the National Scientific Research Foundation, and National Office for Research and Technology, Hungary; the Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of Science and Technology, India; the Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, Iran; the Science Foundation, Ireland; the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Italy; the Korean Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and the World Class University program of NRF, Republic of Korea; the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences; the Mexican Funding Agencies (CINVESTAV, CONACYT, SEP, and UASLP-FAI); the Ministry of Science and Innovation, New Zealand; the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission; the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and the National Science Centre, Poland; the Fundaçao para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal; JINR (Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan); the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, the Federal Agency of Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation, Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research; the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia; the Secretaría de Estado de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación and Programa Consolider-Ingenio 2010, Spain; the Swiss Funding Agencies (ETH Board, ETH Zurich, PSI, SNF, UniZH, Canton Zurich, and SER); the National Science Council, Taipei; the Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics, the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology of Thailand and the National Science and Technology Development Agency of Thailand; the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, and Turkish Atomic Energy Authority; the Science and Technology Facilities Council, U.K.; the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S. National Science Foundation. Individuals have received support from the Marie-Curie program and the European Research Council (European Union); the Leventis Foundation; the A. P. Sloan Foundation; the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office; the Fonds pour la Formation à la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium); the Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium); the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of Czech Republic; the Council of Science and Industrial Research, India; the Compagnia di San Paolo (Torino); and the HOMING PLUS program of Foundation for Polish Science, cofinanced from European Union, Regional Development Fund. ; Peer Reviewed

Published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence.-- et al. ; The performance of all subsystems of the CMS muon detector has been studied by using a sample of proton-proton collision data at √s = 7 TeV collected at the LHC in 2010 that corresponds to an integrated luminosity of approximately 40 pb-1. The measured distributions of the major operational parameters of the drift tube (DT), cathode strip chamber (CSC), and resistive plate chamber (RPC) systems met the design specifications. The spatial resolution per chamber was 80–120 μm in the DTs, 40–150 μm in the CSCs, and 0.8–1.2 cm in the RPCs. The time resolution achievable was 3 ns or better per chamber for all 3 systems. The efficiency for reconstructing hits and track segments originating from muons traversing the muon chambers was in the range 95–98%. The CSC and DT systems provided muon track segments for the CMS trigger with over 96% efficiency, and identified the correct triggering bunch crossing in over 99.5% of such events. The measured performance is well reproduced by Monte Carlo simulation of the muon system down to the level of individual channel response. The results confirm the high efficiency of the muon system, the robustness of the design against hardware failures, and its effectiveness in the discrimination of backgrounds. ; We acknowledge the enduring support for the construction and operation of the LHC and the CMS detector provided by the following funding agencies: the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research; the Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique, and Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek; the Brazilian Funding Agencies (CNPq, CAPES, FAPERJ, and FAPESP); the Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science; CERN; the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, and National Natural Science Foundation of China; the Colombian Funding Agency (COLCIENCIAS); the Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sport; the Research Promotion Foundation, Cyprus; the Ministry of Education and Research, Recurrent financing contract SF0690030s09 and European Regional Development Fund, Estonia; the Academy of Finland, Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, and Helsinki Institute of Physics; the Institut National de Physique Nucle´aire et de Physique des Particules/CNRS, and Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux E'nergies Alternatives/CEA, France; the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren, Germany; the General Secretariat for Research and Technology, Greece; the National Scientific Research Foundation, and National Office for Research and Technology, Hungary; the Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of Science and Technology, India; the Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, Iran; the Science Foundation, Ireland; the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Italy; the Korean Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and the World Class University program of NRF, Republic of Korea; the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences; the Mexican Funding Agencies (CINVESTAV, CONACYT, SEP, and UASLP-FAI); the Ministry of Science and Innovation, New Zealand; the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission; the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and the National Science Centre, Poland; the Fundaçao para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal; JINR (Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan); the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, the Federal Agency of Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation, Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research; the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia; the Secretaría de Estado de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación and Programa Consolider-Ingenio 2010, Spain; the Swiss Funding Agencies (ETH Board, ETH Zurich, PSI, SNF, UniZH, Canton Zurich, and SER); the National Science Council, Taipei; the Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics, the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology of Thailand and the National Science and Technology Development Agency of Thailand; the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, and Turkish Atomic Energy Authority; the Science and Technology Facilities Council, U.K.; the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S. National Science Foundation. Individuals have received support from the Marie-Curie program and the European Research Council (European Union); the Leventis Foundation; the A. P. Sloan Foundation; the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office; the Fonds pour la Formation à la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium); the Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium); the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of Czech Republic; the Council of Science and Industrial Research, India; the Compagnia di San Paolo (Torino); and the HOMING PLUS program of Foundation for Polish Science, cofinanced from European Union, Regional Development Fund. ; Peer Reviewed

JEL Classification: G21, G34, M14, O16 ; As a natural consequence of the creation of the euro, the European Commission, the Eurosystem and the Banking Industry in Europe decided to build one single payments area (SEPA - Single Euro Payments Area) in 1999 (publication of Eurosystem objectives). This study intends to add to the literature on Stakeholder Theory and its application to the European Banking Industry, deploying an analysis on the impact of the creation and progress of the Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA), before and during the recent global economic and financial crises. SEPA involves more than 508 million consumers, 25 million companies, as well as 9,000 banks, public corporations, clearing houses and software suppliers, yielding more than 73,000 million transactions per year (European Payments Council, 2013). SEPA currently consists of the 28 European Union (EU) Member States plus Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Monaco. SEPA features the largest project ever carried out in the payments area and encompasses a wide range of active stakeholders in the governance process. That is why SEPA provides a fertile and momentous ground for analysis through the lens of stakeholder theory. This dissertation is rooted in the social sciences and uses a case study approach as its main method of analysis. Expert interviews and document analysis are used as data-gathering techniques. The first point is that the governance under the creation of the SEPA project can be best explained by the Stakeholder Theory, since SEPA governance is the direct result of the stakeholders call for more extensive involvement. Secondly, Stakeholder Theory is the only theory capable of explaining the driving forces hailing from the diversity of stakeholders involved in the project. Thirdly, the creation of various SEPA governance bodies is rooted in a community vision of a single payments area, and the embedded socio-political dimension is thus unavoidable. Unlike extant studies that do not go beyond the analysis of a corporation, the main contribution of this thesis is to analyse one on-going, major, supranational and topical project, through the lens of stakeholder theory, paving the way for a follow-up of forthcoming SEPA achievements and the development of the theoretical underpinnings. ; Como consequência natural da criação da moeda única, a Comissão Europeia, o Eurosistema e o Sector Bancário na Europa, decidiram construir um espaço único de pagamentos, em euros (SEPA - Single Euro Payments Area), em 1999 (publicação dos objectivos do Eurosistema). Este estudo visa contribuir para o conhecimento sobre a Teoria dos Stakeholders e a sua aplicação à Indústria Bancária Europeia, ao analisar o impacto da criação e desenvolvimento da Área Única de Pagamentos em Euros (SEPA), antes e durante as crises económicas e financeiras globais recentes. A SEPA envolve mais de 508 milhões de consumidores, 25 milhões de empresas, bem como 9.000 bancos, empresas públicas, câmaras de compensação e fornecedores de software, gerando mais de 73 mil milhões de transações por ano (European Payments Council, 2013). A SEPA é constituída actualmente por 28 Estados-Membros da União Europeia (UE) e ainda Islândia, Noruega, Liechtenstein, Suíça e Mónaco. A SEPA representa o maior projecto já realizado em termos de pagamentos e abrange uma ampla gama de stakeholders activamente interessados no processo de governance. É por isso que a SEPA constitui um terreno de análise tão fértil e importante, com base na Teoria dos Stakeholders. A presente dissertação radica nas ciências sociais e usa uma abordagem de estudo de caso, como seu principal método de análise. Entrevistas com especialistas e análise de documentos são técnicas que foram utilizadas para recolha de dados. Em primeiro lugar, importa referir que a governance, no âmbito da criação do projecto SEPA, é suportada pela Teoria dos Stakeholders, dado que a governance da SEPA é o resultado direto da intervenção dos próprios stakeholders no sentido de uma participação activa do projecto. Em segundo lugar, a Teoria dos Stakeholders é a única teoria capaz de explicar todos os factores e forças em jogo, que resultam da diversidade de stakeholders, envolvidos no projecto. Em terceiro lugar, a criação de vários órgãos de governance da SEPA, assenta numa visão comunitária da conceção de uma área única de pagamentos e outrossim na dimensão sociopolítica que lhe está adstrita e que é, portanto, um factor incontornável. Ao contrário dos estudos já realizados, fundamentados na Teoria dos Stakeholders, que tanto quanto conhecemos não vão para além da análise de uma empresa, o principal contributo desta tese é analisar um relevante e estimulante projecto supranacional, em curso e de grande actualidade e impacto, através da perspetiva da Teoria dos Stakeholders, dando o mote quer para outros estudos de acompanhamento dos próximos sucessos da SEPA, quer para o desenvolvimento dos fundamentos teóricos.

Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist die Beschreibung und Erklärung des Wandels sowie die Identifizierung von Agglomerationsvorteilen von Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in industriellen Clustern eines Schwellenlandes. CSR wird verstanden als freiwillige Integration von sozialen Themen in die Unternehmenstätigkeit und in die Interaktionen mit Stakeholdern. Im Fokus der Analyse sind Institutionen und Rahmenbedingungen sowie deren Einfluss auf Akteure, Aktionen, Governance und Ergebnisse von CSR. Die Arbeit basiert auf einer Verbindung der Theorien von CSR, Clustern, globalen Wertschöpfungsketten und Produktionsnetzwerken mit dem Analyserahmen des "Institutional Analysis and Development Framework" nach OSTROM. Dieser Rahmen ermöglicht in einem koherenten Modell die Deskription und Analyse von sozialen, politischen und wirtschaftlichen Institutionen und CSR in einem industriellen Cluster. Anhand einer empirischen Fallstudie zum Schuhproduktionscluster in Jinjiang, Provinz Fujian, VR China, werden die Determinanten und Bedingungen von CSR im Cluster untersucht. Das wirtschaftliche Wachstum in China basiert auf der regionalen Konzentration der Produktion mit einer Branchenspezialisierung in den Küstenprovinzen. Die sozialen Bedingungen der Produktionsprozesse in den klein- und mittelgroßen Unternehmen sind gekennzeichnet durch mangelhafte Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen sowie geringe Entlohnung. Die Analyse stützt sich auf die Auswertung von quantitativen und qualitativen Erhebungen. Ausgehend von einem niedrigen Niveau lassen sich empirisch in einigen Indikatoren Tendenzen einer voneinander unabhängigen wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Aufwertung sowie einer Stakeholderorientierung der klein- und mittelgroßen Unternehmen im Cluster nachweisen. Die Produzenten reagieren auf den lokalen Druck der Arbeiter und nicht auf globale Anforderungen. Durch Veränderungen des institutionellen Arrangements, der Rahmenbedingungen auf dem lokalen Arbeitsmarkt und der Kommunikationsökologie werden die Arbeiter zum Treiber des Wandels von CSR. Bisherige Macht- und Informationsasymmetrien verändern sich zugunsten der Arbeiter. Es bilden sich neue informelle institutionelle Arrangements und vielfältige Formen des Lernens von CSR endogen im Untersuchungsraum. Die KMU lassen sich in Reaktion und Verhalten in Typen klassifizieren. Dieser Heterogenität der KMU steht eine homogene Kodifizierung der Anforderungen zu CSR gegenüber. Im Ergebnis ergibt sich ein Prototyp des Wandels von CSR in einem industriellen Cluster Die Governance von CSR verlagert sich von der globalen auf die lokale sowie von der formellen auf die informelle Ebene. Die Institutionensets des chinesischen Staates und der globalen Wertschöpfungskette beschränken sich auf die Einhaltung eines Mindestniveaus sozialer Bedingungen und haben aufgrund unzureichender Sanktionen und Legitimität nur geringe Geltung. Unternehmerische und institutionelle Macht wird nur zur Erreichung ökonomischer Ziele eingesetzt. 4 Die Governance der Wertschöpfungskette wird von dem Prinzipal Führungsfirmen auf den Agenten lokale Händler übertragen. Diese fungieren als zentrale Schnittstelle zwischen Cluster und Absatzmärkten und werden in der Konzeption der gebundenen Wertschöpfungskette bisher kaum thematisiert. Insofern kann die Konzeption der Koordinationsform der gebundenen Wertschöpfungskette verfeinert werden. Die Vorteile der Clusterung für CSR liegen in der kollektiven Effizienz, in der Netzwerkbildung der Arbeitnehmer und dem Lernen von CSR im Beziehungsgeflecht des Clusters. Eine Förderung des CSR-Prozesses im lokalen Raum könnte in der Praxis in diesen Clustervorteilen ansetzen. Der Fokus würde auf der exekutive Governance und nicht auf der herkömmlichen judikativen Governance von CSR durch Kontrollsysteme aus der globalen Wertschoepfungskette liegen. Der "bottom-up"-Prozess im lokalen Raum würde dadurch gestärkt. ; The aim of this PhD is to describe and to explain of the change and the identification of clustering advantages of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in industrial clusters in emerging countries. CSR means a voluntary integration of social issues in business activities and the interactions with stakeholders. This research focuses on institutions and prevailling conditions and their impact on players, actions, governance and outcomes of CSR. This PhD is based on theoretical concepts of CSR, clustering, global value chains and production networks and the link with the Institutional Analysis and Development Framework. This framework enables to analyse the social, political and economic institutions in a coherent model in industrial cluster. On the basis of an empirical case study of the footwear cluster in Jinjiang, Fujian Province, PR China, the determinants and conditions of CSR in the cluster are scrutinized. The economic growth in China is based on a regional concentration of specialised production in the coastal provinces. The social conditions of the processes in small and medium sized enterprises in the cluster are dominated by poor working and living conditions and low wages. The research is based on the analysis of quantitative and qualitative surveys. Based on a low level in some indicators there is a trend of independent economic and social upgrading and a stakeholder-orientation of the small and medium-sized enterprises in the cluster. The manufacturers are reacting to local pressure of the workers and not to global 5 requirements. Through changes of institutional arrangements, in the environment of the local labor market and a new ecology of communication the workers are becoming the drivers of the change of CSR. Old asymmetric power and information constellations are changing in favor of the workers. New informal institutional arrangements and a diversity of learning of CSR are formed endogenous in the cluster. The manufacturers are classified according to their reaction and action in types. These heterogeneities are confronted with a homogeneous codification of CSR-requirements. As a result there is a prototype of the change of CSR in industrial clusters. The governance of CSR is shifting from a global to a local and from a formal to an informal level. The institutional sets of the state and of the value chain are limited to commitments of minimum standards of social conditions and have little validity because of insufficient sanctions and legitimacy. Business and institutional power is only used to achieve economic goals. The governance of the value chain is delegated from the principal leadfirm to the agent local trader. These traders are a chain intersections between clusters and markets and are not conceptualised in the conventional concept of captive value chains. The advantages of clustering for CSR are: collective efficiency, network building amongst the workers and knowledge transfer of CSR across networks of relationship in the cluster. A support of the CSR-process could start with these advantages. The focus will be on the executive governance and not the judicative governance. The bottom-up-process would be strengthened.

Real estate economists and practitioners have been cognizant of spatial autocorrelation in housing prices for more than three decades. In the early days, they relied to a huge extent on techniques developed in statistical science and focused exclusively on its identification and quantitative assessment in housing studies. It has been well-acknowledged that the presence of spatial autocorrelation in housing prices will compromise the applicability of conventional hedonic statistics, which may lead to biased and inconsistent estimates. In light of this, recent studies in the area have spawned an immense literature aimed at devising sophisticated econometric models such as hedonic spatial lag model and hedonic error model as correction methods. Interestingly, the underpinning factors attributing to its existence remain relatively theoretically unexplored due perhaps to a paucity of quality goereferenced housing data as well as the indifferent attitude espoused by the researchers. Although some general propositions regarding its causes have been proposed, they are accused of lacking inferential basis. Acknowledging the above research gap, this thesis attempts to investigate the underlying factors affecting the formation of, and change in, spatial autocorrelation in housing prices. Specifically, we conjecture that spatial autocorrelation is crucially determined by one of the economic workings of the housing market—price determination process. It is posited that the occurrence of the spatial phenomenon is a direct consequence of how market participants in search of past information in the market ascertain current housing prices. Specifically, spatial autocorrelation is deemed to be established, or increase, when property traders infer current housing prices from past sales of properties (i.e. comparables) located in the same neighborhood as the subject houses. Based on the above information search framework, we put forward three hypotheses to facilitate our examination. First, it is hypothesized that market volatility depresses spatial autocorrelation. As in any other commodity market, past sales transactions in real estate are important sources of price information, which become more obsolescent, and hence, fail to be a good price signal when the market is more volatile. Traders are compelled to rely less on past sales in establishing the current prices of the housing units. Accordingly, spatial autocorrelation will be diminished; following broadly the same line of logic, the second hypothesis is constructed, which states that market liquidity (defined as total market transaction volume) dampens spatial autocorrelation. Given that market liquidity reflects the amount of price information being circulated in the market, traders in accessing property values in a "thick" market do not have to necessarily infer from comparables that are located further away from the subject properties. Hence, a weaker spatial autocorrelation relationship between prices is resulted; third, building age is a critical factor in assessing a house's redevelopment potential, whose value is largely independent of the transaction prices of the surrounding housing units. Given that a house's total value can be perceived as an addition of its use value and redevelopment value (i.e. real option value of redevelopment), and that the former's role decreases whereas the latter's increases with building age in appraising its total value, it is therefore hypothesized that spatial autocorrelation decreases as building age increases. Several spatial autoregressive hedonic models are developed, with which the three hypotheses are tested using geo-coded open market transaction data in Hong Kong for the period of 1997 to 2008. The results indicate no contrary evidence rejecting any of the hypotheses at the 1% significance level. They soundly confirm the roles market volatility, market liquidity and building age played in the price determination process in real estate, as well as in the formation of spatial autocorrelation. The research findings of this thesis carry several straightforward but far-reaching implications beyond the theoretical literature, among which is the significance to, and impact on, property valuation and economic analysis of local housing systems. A better conceptual understanding on the causes of spatial autocorrelation in housing prices can greatly prompt the development of more parsimonious hedonic models, which are econometrically appealing. In this sense, statistical problems and complications (e.g. loss of degrees of freedom) associated with traditionally-used models, which generally routinely incorporate a long list of locational variables, can be circumvented. In addition, hedonic models derived based on our research findings, which give a simpler yet more realistic representation of the housing market, make real estate mass appraisals much less computationally-intensive. Real estate mass appraisals are used for a variety of purposes, including but not limited to taxation, mortgage assessment, government policy-making, and investment. They are of specific interest to accountants, bankers, real estate developers and investors, government authorities and economists. ; published_or_final_version ; Real Estate and Construction ; Doctoral ; Doctor of Philosophy

The effectiveness of reconstruction programs in post-conflict contexts Abstract The thesis aims at assessing the effectiveness of reconstruction programs intended to ensure for the economic recovery of countries emerging from civil war since the end of the Cold War. From the standpoint of the method used, this effectiveness is both evaluated through the relevance of the content and the organization of these programs with regard to the characteristics of the post-conflict economies, and through an assessment of their performances according to recovery indicators which are specific to this context. The economic causes of conflicts and the functioning of a wartime economy are analyzed because they influence the transition to an economy in the context of peace (chapters 1 to 4). An approach in terms of political economy (Stewart, Fitzgerald) comparing both horizontal and vertical inequalities and completed by Amartya Sen's approach contributes to the account of the specific characteristics of this type of context which the neoclassical theory is not enabled to grasp. The approach in terms of sustainable livelihoods (Chambers and Conways), of the vulnerability due to the context and of the institutional economy, provides a coherent theoretical framework in order to identify the economic features of post-conflict societies (chapters 5 to 7) and enables for the identification of the factors which block or slow down the process of economic recovery. The study of the configuration of reconstruction programs reveals the multiplication of actors which have different approaches, a lack of coordination in their work, and the formation of a substitute administration non-aligned to the fragile state (chapter 8). Closer ties between the programs and the observed characteristics enable for the evaluation of their effectiveness (chapter 9). The quantitative evaluation arrives at the conclusion that these programs are relative failures, especially due to their sluggishness. From the data available, the significance of some specific variables is observed (the return of populations, institutions, security). The qualitative analysis of the causes of this ineffectiveness reveals: Perverse effects due to the lack of coordination, analyzed through the transaction costs theory, the contingence theory, and the marginalist theory, more particularly in the labor markets, the administrative capacity, reveals a threshold of institutional capacities; Poor adaptation in the design and the implementation of the programs to the observed characteristics. Between the references towards the Marshall Plan and the absence of any exterior intervention, the analysis of this ineffectiveness concludes that some requirements should be adapted for each context. ; Le but de la thèse est d'apprécier l'efficacité des programmes de reconstruction destinés à assurer le redressement économique de pays sortant de guerre civile depuis la fin de la Guerre froide. Du point de vue de la méthode, cette efficacité est évaluée à la fois par la pertinence du contenu et de l'organisation de ces programmes aux caractéristiques des économies post-conflictuelles, et par une évaluation de leur performance au vu d'indicateurs de redressement spécifiques à ces contextes. Les causes économiques des conflits et le fonctionnement d'une économie de guerre sont analysés dans la mesure ils conditionnent le passage à une économie de paix (chapitres 1 à 4). Une approche en termes d'économie politique (Stewart, Fitzgerald) recoupant inégalités horizontales et verticales et complétée par celle d'Amartya Sen contribue à rendre compte des spécificités de ce type de contexte que la théorie néoclassique ne permet pas d'appréhender. L'approche en termes de moyens d'existence (Chambers et Conway), de vulnérabilité due au contexte (Collinson) et d'économie institutionnelle donnent un cadre théorique cohérent pour cerner les caractéristiques économiques des sociétés post-conflictuelles (chapitres 5 à 7) et permettent d'identifier des facteurs bloquant ou de ralentissement du processus de redressement économique. L'étude de la configuration des programmes de reconstruction fait apparaître une prolifération d'acteurs aux logiques différentes, peu coordonnés et formant une administration de substitution non alignée dans un État fragile (chapitre 8). Le rapprochement entre programme et caractéristiques observées permet alors de procéder à l'évaluation de l'efficacité des programmes (chapitre 9). L'évaluation quantitative converge vers le constat d'un échec relatif, notamment du fait de leur lenteur (d'où risque de résurgence du conflit). Une modélisation à partir des données disponibles appuie l'identification effectuée de l'importance de certaines variables spécifiques (retour des populations déplacées, institutions, sécurité). L'analyse qualitative des causes de cette inefficacité fait apparaître : - les effets pervers du manque de coordination, analysée ici à la lumière de la théorie des coûts de transaction, de la théorie contingente et de l'analyse marginaliste, notamment sur le marché du travail et les capacités administratives, ce qui permet de mettre à jour le concept de seuil de capacités institutionnelles ; - l'inadaptation dans la conception et la mise en œuvre des programmes aux spécificités observées. Entre la référence mythifiée au Plan Marshall et l'absence d'intervention extérieure qui mènerait à un état de suffocation économique, l'analyse de cette inefficacité relative débouche sur quelques préconisations adaptables selon les contextes.

ABSTRACT Objective: to investigate the practice of primary care nurses with regard to the assistance delivered to the population of lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transgender - LGBT, emphasizing the transvestites. Methodology: it is an exploratory research, with qualitative approach to be performed with graduate nursing professionals of the Basic Health Units of Caicó/RN. For the data collection it will be used a questionnaire with semi-structured questions based on the ethical principles of the resolution 196/96 of the National Health Council, including the signature of the Free and Informed Consent Terms. The data/speeches will be produced and fully transcribed, analyzed and discussed based on the theoretical reference built in this research. It was approved by the Committee of Ethics and Research of the University of Rio Grande do Norte, protocol n º 035/11. Expected results: it is expected that the knowledge and practices of the primary care nurses about public politic and attendance for the LGBT are updated and consider programs so that it is possible to ensure the full and equitable access for the health of transvestites and it is also expected that their practices are suitable with the SUS principles. Descriptors: public health; transvestite; equity. RESUMO Objetivo: investigar a prática de enfermeiros da atenção básica no tocante a assistência a população de lésbicas, gays, bissexuais e transgêneros – LGBT, com ênfase as travestis. Metodologia: é uma pesquisa exploratória com abordagem qualitativa a ser realizada com profissionais de enfermagem de nível superior das Unidades Básicas de Saúde de Caicó/RN. Para coleta de dados será utilizando um questionário com perguntas semi-estruturadas baseada nos princípios éticos da resolução 196/96 do Conselho Nacional de Saúde, incluindo a assinatura do Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido. Os dados/discursos serão obtidos e transcritos na íntegra, analisados e discutidos com base no referencial teórico construído na pesquisa. Pesquisa aprovada pelo Comitê de Ética e Pesquisa da Universidade do Estado do Rio Grande do Norte, sob o protocolo nº 035/11. Resultados Esperados: espera-se que o conhecimento e práticas dos enfermeiros da atenção básica sobre políticas públicas e atendimento para LGBT seja atualizado e que levem em consideração programas para que possam garantir o acesso integral e equânime à saúde das travestis e que suas práticas condigam com os princípios do SUS. Descritores: saúde pública; travetis; equidade. RESUMEN Objetivo: investigar la práctica de la enfermería en atención primaria con respecto a la población de lesbianas, gays, bisexuales y transexuales – LGBT, haciendo énfasis en los travestis. Metodología: es una investigación exploratoria cualitativa que se realiza con el nivel profesional de enfermería de Unidades Básicas de Salud de Caicó / RN. Para la recolección de datos se utilizó un cuestionario con preguntas semi-estructuradas sobre la base de los principios éticos de la resolución 196/96 del Consejo Nacional de Salud, incluyendo la firma del formulario de consentimiento. Los Datos y discursos se producen y transcriben totalmente, analizados y discutidos en base al marco teórico basado en la investigación. Investigación aprobada por el Comité de Ética e Investigación de la Universidad de Rio Grande do Norte, en virtud del Protocolo n º 035/11. Resultados esperados: se espera que los conocimientos y prácticas de los enfermeros de atención primaria en las políticas públicas y servicios para LGBT se actualice y que tengan en consideración programas que garanticen el acceso pleno y equitativo a la salud de los travestis y que sus prácticas estén acordes con los principios de SUS. Descriptores: salud pública; travestis; equidad. ; Objetivo: investigar a prática de enfermeiros da atenção básica no tocante a assistência a população de lésbicas, gays, bissexuais e transgêneros – LGBT, com ênfase as travestis. Metodologia: é uma pesquisa exploratória com abordagem qualitativa a ser realizada com profissionais de enfermagem de nível superior das Unidades Básicas de Saúde de Caicó/RN. Para coleta de dados será utilizando um questionário com perguntas semi-estruturadas baseada nos princípios éticos da resolução 196/96 do Conselho Nacional de Saúde, incluindo a assinatura do Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido. Os dados/discursos serão obtidos e transcritos na íntegra, analisados e discutidos com base no referencial teórico construído na pesquisa. Pesquisa aprovada pelo Comitê de Ética e Pesquisa da Universidade do Estado do Rio Grande do Norte, sob o protocolo nº 035/11. Resultados Esperados: espera-se que o conhecimento e práticas dos enfermeiros da atenção básica sobre políticas públicas e atendimento para LGBT seja atualizado e que levem em consideração programas para que possam garantir o acesso integral e equânime à saúde das travestis e que suas práticas condigam com os princípios do SUS.