Suchergebnisse

Abstract
Russia's invasion of Ukraine triggered energy and food crises, driven by demand for natural gas as fuel and fertilizer feedstock. By adopting a recent framework for analysing the diverse ways in which international law regulates energy transactions, I extend the category of end-use energy products to include food for human consumption, given the economic importance of dietary energy and the entangled agendas of energy and food security. To highlight the intermediate roles played by international law in securing resources for conversion into dietary energy, I show how rules allocating entitlements over fossil fuels were inherited from an earlier generation of international disputes over fertilizer resources, including the taxation of nitrate exports, alien entitlements to guano discoveries, and the well-known confiscation of a factory at Chorzów. Many of these disputes between States and commercial actors prefigured the reliance of the modern energy industry on investment arbitration and retain currency in case law. Yet, the fertilizer trade also informed the development of offshore resource entitlements, the local regulation of global externalities, and the belated recognition of the rights of peoples over natural resources. Despite this normative evolution, dispute settlement in the energy sector is still driven by States and commercial actors, although the underlying transactions may have profound implications for food security. By reframing food as energy and integrating fertilizer disputes into a long history of international energy law, the anticipated transition from fossil fuels towards green hydrogen as a dual-use fuel and fertilizer feedstock may generate familiar sites of distributive conflict over resources for the production of dietary energy, calling for closer attention to whether food security may be enhanced by the entitlements of collective subjects (food sovereignty), individuals (right to food), corporations (investment protection), and States (economic regulation).

Purpose: Focusing on the growing importance of Indian multinational corporations in the past decades, this paper aims to understand how establishment mode decisions in a foreign market can differ depending on a series of factors. Specifically, the authors examine how institutional distance, including cultural distance and political risk, could affect these decisions, and how international acquisition experience could moderate this relationship. Design/methodology/approach: The authors test their hypotheses using data from 114 outward foreign direct investments between 2000 and 2010. Findings: The findings suggest that experience in international acquisitions increases the likelihood of subsequent acquisitions in high-risk and culturally distant countries. Originality/value: By considering that the country of origin also matters, some differences among emerging-market multinational corporations (MNCs) may arise. Besides, since empirical research focusing on emerging-market MNCs is scarce, more empirical studies are needed to analyze the influence of cultural distance and political risk on some decisions. In the case of India, there are also additional motivations for analyzing those institutional factors. First, since this is a country with significant linkages to Western countries, it is interesting to know if the influence of cultural distance is similar or not. Second, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the relationship between political risk and establishment mode choice in the case of Indian MNCs. To fill this gap, the first aim of this paper is to analyze how cultural distance and political risk affect the establishment mode choice of Indian MNCs. Moreover, recognizing international experience to be an important factor in explaining international expansion, we focus on international experience interactions with sources of uncertainty inherent in the host market.