Suchergebnisse

Kaum ein Thema wird derzeit so kontrovers diskutiert wie das des Elektroautos. Für die einen
sind sie Technologieträger und zukunftsweisende Technik, für die anderen ein Schwindel und
eine unzureichende Alternative. Mit Elon Musk hat die Szene eine ideale Gallionsfigur. Der
Multimilliardär wird vergöttert und gehasst. Seine Firma Tesla brachte das Elektroauto, vor
allem aber auch den eigenen Aktienkurs, in den Fokus.Dabei ist die Kontroverse nicht überraschend. Die Klimakrise ist allgegenwärtig, Antworten finden sich nur schleichend. Die Folgen sind vielfältig, die Ursachen eindeutig. Aus dieser Problematik leitet sich die Leitfrage
dieser Arbeit ab: Können Elektroautos eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Bekämpfung der Klimakrise spielen?Um diese Frage beantworten zu können, wird zunächst grob umrissen,
welche Problematik bei der Klimakrise vorherrschend ist und welche Folgen diese mit sich
bringt. Anschließend werden kurz die Ursachen sowie die Rolle der fossilen Brennstoffe untersucht. Im Anschluss wird das Elektroauto selbst genauer betrachtet. Funktion sowie
verschiedene Arten mit Vor- und Nachteilen werden skizziert.Im dritten Abschnitt wird
der wohl größte Punkt von Kritikern aufgenommen, nämlich die Frage, wie es um die tatsächliche Klimabilanz von Elektroautos, vor allem im Vergleich zu Verbrennern, bestellt ist. Im
letzten Abschnitt werden die notwendigen Veränderungen für einen Wandel zur elektrischen
Mobilität beleuchtet. Zentral sind dabei die Energiewende und die notwendigen Maßnahmen
zur Schaffung einer entsprechenden Infrastruktur.1. Rolle der fossilen Brennstoffe in der KlimakriseIn diesem Abschnitt soll festgehalten werden, welchen Anteil und welche Rolle die fossilen Brennstoffe an der Klimakrise haben. Zu diesem Zweck wird in aller Kürze das Phänomen Klimakrise umrissen und anschließend auf die Einflüsse der fossilen
Brennstoffe eingegangen.1.1 Die Klimakrise Beim Begriff "Klimakrise" handelt es sich um eine Abwandlung des Begriffes "Klimawandel". Dabei ist das Wort "Krise" zutreffender, handelt es sich doch um ein Phänomen, das "hier und jetzt Menschen tötet" (Otto 2022. S. 69). Zentraler Aspekt der Klimakrise ist die zunehmende Erwärmung unseres Planeten. Problematisch sind hierbei vor
allem die in Gang gesetzten Kettenreaktionen.Als Beispiel wäre der Eisalbedo-Rückkopplungseffekt zu nennen. Die zunehmende Hitze lässt das arktische Meereis schmelzen.
Dieses wiederum dient als Reflektor der Sonnenstrahlen. Durch die Abnahme dieser Flächen wird auch weniger Sonnenlicht reflektiert, was wiederum zu einer Zunahme der
Hitze führt (Vgl. Francis 2022. S. 64).Gleichzeitig bilden sich durch die höheren Temperaturen sogenannte "Hitzeglocken". Innerhalb dieser Gebiete findet keine Bildung von
schützenden Wolken statt, welche die Einstrahlung der Sonne normalerweise eindämmen
würden (Vgl. Hayhoe 2022. S. 53). In der Folge strahlt Sonnenlicht ungehindert ein und
treibt die Erderwärmung weiter voran. Ähnliche Beispiele finden sich auch in anderen Bereichen. Zusammenfassend lässt sich also festhalten, dass es sich bei der Klimakrise um
die hitzebedingte Ingangsetzung verschiedener Mechanismen handelt, die diesen Effekt
weiter beschleunigen. 1.2 Folgen der Klimakrise Nachdem im vorangegangenen Abschnitt erläutert wurde, was unter dem Begriff
"Klimakrise" verstanden werden kann, werden hier die Folgen dieser Entwicklung genauer beleuchtet. Als erstes ist hierbei das Wetter zu nennen. Neben Effekten wie der Hitzeglocke führt die zunehmende Wärme dazu, dass mehr Wasser verdampft, was in manchen Teilen der Welt zu Dürren, in anderen jedoch zu Überschwemmungen führt (Vgl.
Marvel 2022. S. 77). Dies bedroht Mensch und Tier gleichermaßen.Zu den Folgen gehört
neben der höheren Luft- auch eine höhere Wassertemperatur. Dies setzt nicht nur einen beschleunigenden Rückkopplungseffekt in Gang (Vgl. Rahmstorf 2022. S. 84), sondern
führt auch zu einem Massensterben von Korallen, welche als "Kinderstube der Ozeane"
(Vgl. Hayhoe 2022. S. 53) betrachtet werden. Der wärmebedingte Anstieg der Meeresspiegel bedroht neben den Lebensräumen von Tieren - wie beispielsweise dem Eisbären (Vgl. Ebd.) - auch die von Millionen Menschen an den Küsten dieser Welt (Vgl. Winkelmann 2022. S. 81).Dies waren nur einige Beispiele, letztendlich lassen jedoch alle Folgen ähnliche Rückschlüsse zu. Die zunehmende Erwärmung bringt das komplexe Ökosystem des Planeten
aus der Balance. Dies bedroht die Lebensgrundlage aller Lebewesen. Somit ist davon auszugehen, dass bereits in weniger als 50 Jahren fast ein Fünftel des Planeten unbewohnbar
sein wird (Vgl. Lustgarten 2022. S. 180).Die Klimaaktivistin Greta Thunberg ist der
Überzeugung, dass aus der Klimakrise "unbeschreibliches Leid, umfangreiche humanitäre
Katastrophen und Gefahren für unsere gesamte Zivilisation, wie wir sie kennen, erwachsen werden" (Thunberg 2022. S. 196). Führt man sich vor Augen, dass wir bisher noch
nicht einmal alle Folgen genauer kennen, ist dies vermutlich mehr als zutreffend. 1.3 Ursachen der Klimakrise Ursächlich für diese Erwärmung sind primär die sogenannten Treibhausgase. Nach Ausstoß verbleiben sie in der Atmosphäre und bilden eine Art künstliche Decke über der Erde.
In der Folge kann weniger Wärme in den Weltraum abgestrahlt werden und die Temperaturen auf der Erde nehmen zu (Vgl. Hayhoe 2022. S. 52). Daher auch der Name "Treibhauseffekt".Zu nennen sind hierbei vor allem Kohlenstoffdioxid und Methan. Rund ein
Drittel der bisherigen Erderwärmung lässt sich auf Methan zurückführen (Vgl. Hausfather
2022. S. 55). Im Gegensatz zu Kohlenstoffdioxid handelt es sich bei Methan um ein kurzlebiges Gas. Durch die Reaktion mit Hydroxyl sind rund 80 Prozent des ausgestoßenen
Methans nach 20 Jahren verschwunden (Vgl. ebd.). Ein Drittel der menschengemachten
Methanemissionen geht auf die industrielle Tierhaltung zurück (Vgl. Shindell 2022. S.
152). Kohlenstoffdioxid, kurz "CO2" genannt, verbleibt jedoch wesentlich länger in der
Atmosphäre. 1.4 Rolle der fossilen Brennstoffe Der größte Teil des ausgestoßenen Kohlenstoffdioxids lässt sich auf fossile
Energieträger zurückführen (Vgl. Quaschning 2022. S. 22). Dazu zählen Erdöl, das vor
allem zum Heizen und als Treibstoff verwendet wird, Erdgas, welches vor allem für die
Stromerzeugung genutzt wird, sowie Stein- und Braunkohle, welche ebenfalls zur Stromerzeugung oder in industrieller Produktion eingesetzt wird. In Summe machen die fossilen
Energieträger rund zwei Drittel der menschengemachten Emissionen zum Klimawandel
aus (Vgl. ebd.).Betrachtet man nur Deutschland, so sind 80 Prozent der deutschen Treibhausgasemissionen auf fossile Energieträger zurückzuführen (Vgl. ebd.). Das Autorenpaar Volker und Cornelia Quaschning beschäftigt sich in seinem Buch "Energierevolution" mit genau dieser Problematik. Nicht umsonst nennen sie Kohlenstoffdioxid das "für
Deutschland mit Abstand wichtigste Treibhausgas" (Ebd. S. 40) und bezeichnen die Energieversorgung als "Achillesverse Deutschlands" (Ebd. S. 22). Um die im Pariser Klimaabkommen vereinbarten Ziele einzuhalten, müsste es Deutschland schaffen, "bereits in den 2030er-Jahren auf null" (Ebd. S. 41), gemeint sind Kohlenstoffdioxid
Emissionen, zu kommen. 1.5 Alternativlosigkeit der Reduktion der CO2-Emissionen Wie im vorangegangenen Abschnitt bereits beschrieben, sind Treibhausgase in der Atmosphäre ursächlich für die Klimakrise. Die logische Folge ist eine Reduktion des Ausstoßes
dieser Gase. Dies geht selbstverständlich mit vielen Veränderungen einher, weshalb Kritiker oftmals für andere Lösungen plädieren. Eine vielmals geforderte Lösung ist der Fokus
auf Entwicklung von Technologien, welche eine Art Rückholung des Kohlenstoffdioxids
aus der Luft ermöglichen, um möglichst wenig Veränderungen für die Menschen notwendig zu machen. Im Folgenden daher einige dieser Lösungsansätze.Durch die Photosynthese sind Bäume gewissermaßen grüne CO2-Wandler. Sie nehmen
CO2 auf, speichern es und geben Sauerstoff wieder frei. Es wäre also durchaus logisch,
durch das Pflanzen von Bäumen Kohlenstoffdioxid aus der Luft zu filtern. Dem entgegen
steht jedoch die Tatsache, dass seit den 1980er Jahren noch nie "so viel Wald geschädigt
oder gar vom Absterben betroffen" (Quaschning 2022. S. 45) war, wie heute. Die Ausgangslage der Wälder ist also denkbar schlecht. Hinzu kommt, dass das Anpflanzen von
Bäumen ein langwieriger Prozess ist. Erst wenn sie über viele Jahrzehnte gewachsen sind,
können Bäume eine signifikante Menge von Kohlenstoffdioxid binden (Vgl. ebd.). Des
Weiteren wären enorme Flächen von Nöten, um ausreichend Wälder pflanzen zu können. Zusammenfassend lässt sich also festhalten, dass das Pflanzen von
Bäumen (alleine) kein aussichtsreicher Weg zur Eindämmung der CO2-Emissionen sein wird.
Quaschning nennt die Lösung einen "reinen Wunschtraum" (Ebd. S. 46) und merkt an:"Bäume zu pflanzen, damit alle weiter Dieselautos fahren und mit einer Erdgasheizung
heizen können, wird definitiv nicht funktionieren" (Ebd.).Auch die Technologie "BECCS" hat mit Bäumen zu tun. Die Abkürzung steht für "Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage" (Ebd. S. 47). Hierbei wird Biomasse aus Holz
verbrannt, welches naturgemäß Kohlenstoffdioxid speichert. Das bei der Verbrennung
freigesetzte Kohlenstoffdioxid wird aufgefangen und anschließend in einer Art Endlager
unter der Erde gespeichert (Vgl. ebd.). Ähnlich wie bei dem Ansatz der massiven Aufforstung, benötigt auch diese Technologie einen enormen Flächenverbrauch. Gleichzeitig ist
sie mit enorm hohen Kosten und der Frage verbunden, wo man das aufgefangene CO2 am
Ende lagert. Letztendlich wäre die Folge wohl "eines der massivsten Naturzerstörungsprogramme, die die Erde je gesehen hat" (Quaschning 2022. S. 48).Der Ansatz des "Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage" (Ebd.), kurz DAC, baut ebenfalls
auf die Abscheidung von CO2 aus der Luft und ist damit ein enger Verwandter der oben
erläuterten BECCS-Methode. Das "direct" steht hierbei für die Idee der direkten Abscheidung von Kohlenstoffdioxid aus der Umgebungsluft. Doch auch die DAC-Methode liefert
keine präzise Antwort auf die Frage, wo das abgeschieden CO2 am Ende gelagert werden
soll. Hinzu kommen enorme Kosten. 2018 schätzte die SAPEA-Studie die Kosten einer
solchen Methode auf bis zu 1000 Euro pro Tonne CO2 (Vgl. ebd.).Neben enorm hohen Kosten oder Problematiken wie der Endlagerung - man denke an die
Probleme des Atommülls - machen die hier beschriebenen Beispiele deutlich, dass die
Menschheit bisher über keine Technologie verfügt, die ausreichend erforscht oder ausgereift genug ist, um die Krise der Kohlenstoffemissionen auf andere Art und
Weise zu lösen, als ihren Ausstoß zu reduzieren. 1.6 Rolle des VerkehrsIn Abschnitt 1.4 wurde bereits deutlich, wie hoch der Einfluss der fossilen Brennstoffe auf
die Klimakrise ist. Betrachtet man Deutschland, so macht der Verkehr
rund ein Fünftel der Emissionen des Landes aus (Vgl. ebd. S. 160). Während bei der Energieversorgung über die Jahre hinweg Fortschritte erzielt werden konnten, gab es im Verkehr "praktisch gar keinen Rückgang der Treibhausgasemissionen" (Ebd. S. 79). Somit "ist
das Verkehrswesen heute der einzige Sektor, in dem die CO2-Emissionen weiter steigen"
(Schwedes/Keichel 2021. S. 9).Trotz steigender Benzinpreise stieg die Anzahl der Autos
in Deutschland an. So zählte das Kraftfahrbundesamt in Flensburg im Jahr 2021 66,9 Millionen zugelassener Fahrzeuge (Vgl. Kraftfahrbundesamt. 2021). Es kommt im Durchschnitt also kaum ein deutscher Haushalt ohne Kraftfahrzeug aus. Die vorhandenen Alternativen durch Zugverkehr und Elektroautos werden bereits in Teilen mit Ökostrom betrieben, doch "spürbare Emissionsreduktionen" (Quaschning 2022. S. 80) sind dadurch nicht
zu erwarten.Im Hinblick auf die Leitfrage lassen sich die Erkenntnisse dieses Kapitels wie folgt zusammenfassen: Die Klimakrise bedroht längerfristig gesehen alles Leben auf dem Planeten. Hervorgerufen wird sie durch den flächendeckend zu hohen Ausstoß der Treibhausgase Kohlenstoffdioxid und Methan. Die akute Bedrohung durch die Klimakrise macht
ein Handeln unabdingbar. Da Kohlenstoffdioxid lange in der Atmosphäre verbleibt, muss
schnellstmöglich eine Lösung gefunden werden. Keine der uns bisher bekannten Innovationen lässt es möglich erscheinen, das Problem der Treibhausgase anders lösen zu können,
als ihren Ausstoß drastisch zu reduzieren. Hierbei spielen Autos insofern eine Rolle, als
dass sie mit ihren Verbrennungsmotoren maßgeblich zu den hohen Emissionen beitragen. 2. Definition und Funktionsweise von elektrischen Automobilen Um die Ausgansfrage beantworten zu können, wird in diesem Kapitel umrissen, welche Fahrzeuge wir zu Elektromobilen zählen können, und anschließend
in Ansätzen dargestellt, wie diese funktionieren. 2.1 DefinitionDas Elektromobilitätsgesetz der Bundesregierung kategorisiert die folgenden drei Gattungen als Elektrofahrzeug:"a) das reine Batterieelektrofahrzeug (Battery Electric Vehicle –
BEV), b) das von außen aufladbare Hybridfahrzeug (Plug-in-Hybrid Vehicle – PHEV)
und c) das Brennstoffzellenfahrzeug (Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle – FCEV)" (ADAC 2023).Beim reinen Batterieelektrofahrzeug handelt es sich um klassische Elektroautos, wie sie
beispielsweise Tesla produziert. Hybridfahrzeuge vereinen einen Elektro- mit einem Verbrennungsmotor. In den meisten Fällen lassen sich diese auch rein elektrisch betreiben, solange die Batterie ausreichend geladen ist. Es bleibt jedoch anzumerken, dass das Verhältnis dieser Fahrzeuge oftmals stark in Richtung des Verbrenners geht. Es handelt sich also
gewissermaßen um Verbrennerfahrzeuge mit einem elektronischen Unterstützungsmotor.
Obwohl das Brennstoffzellenfahrzeug oft in Abgrenzung zum Elektroauto genannt wird,
handelt es sich dabei jedoch um eine Art Elektroauto mit spezifischem Antrieb, was im
folgenden Abschnitt genauer erläutert wird. 2.2 Funktionsweisen von Elektromobilen Grundsätzlich lässt sich festhalten, dass alle bisher entwickelten Elektroautos auf der Basis von Magneten funktionieren (Vgl. Kauffmann 2021. S. 78). Zentrales Bauteil ist dabei
der "Stator". Dieser ist unbeweglich und erzeugt durch Gleichstrom ein konstantes Magnetfeld (Vgl. ebd.). Neben dem Stator verfügt jeder Motor über einen "Rotor". Dieser ist im Gegensatz zum Stator beweglich. Es handelt sich um
eine Art magnetische Welle.Wechselstrom wechselt bis zu 50 Mal in der Sekunde die
Richtung und sorgt damit für wechselnde Polung. Dies führt in Verbindung mit dem Stator
zu einer Abwechslung von Anziehen und Abstoßen, sodass eine Drehbewegung entsteht.
(Vgl. ebd. S. 79). Um für den Wechselstrom und damit die wechselnde Polung zu sorgen,
ist der "Kummutator" direkt am Rotor verbaut. Er wird aufgrund seiner Funktion oftmals
als "Polwechsler" bezeichnet. Grundsätzlich kann man dabei Innenläufer- und
Außenläufermotoren unterscheiden. Dies bezieht sich auf die Position der zentralen Bauteile. Umschließt der Rotor den Stator, spricht man von einem Außenläufer. Wird wiederum der Rotor umschlossen, spricht man von einem Innenläufer (Vgl. ebd.). 2.3 Asynchronmotor Der Asynchronmotor, kurz ASM, nutzt dreiphasigen Wechselstrom, auch Drehstrom genannt. Da die Akkus jedoch stets mit Gleichstrom geladen werden, muss
der Motor diesen erst umwandeln. Durch die Spulen des Stators fließt phasenverschobener
Strom und erzeugt ein rotierendes Magnetfeld. Dreht sich der Rotor langsamer als dieses
Magnetfeld, entsteht ein Drehmoment und damit Vortrieb. Dieses Prinzip verleiht dem
Asynchronmotor seinen Namen. Die Vorteile des Asynchronmotors liegen in seinem hohen Wirkungsgrad und seinen (verhältnismäßig) geringen Fertigungskosten (Vgl. ebd. S.
80f). Momentan sind die Modelle S und X von Tesla sowie der Audi e-tron mit einem solchen Motor bestückt. 2.4 SynchronmotorDer Synchronmotor basiert auf derselben Technik wie sein technologischer Bruder, der
Asynchronmotor. Allerdings entsteht das Drehmoment hier, wenn Rotor und Magnetfeld
des Stators synchron laufen. Daher auch der Name (Vgl. ebd. S. 81). Seine Vorteile im
Vergleich zum ASM liegen vor allem in der höheren Effizienz und damit dem geringeren Energieaufwand. 2.5 ReluktanzmotorBeim Reluktanzmotor handelt es sich um den komplexesten Motortyp. Die namensgebende Reluktanzkraft bezeichnet in der Physik den magnetischen Widerstand und entsteht
durch eine Änderung dieses Widerstands. Der Reluktanzmotor funktioniert ähnlich wie die Synchronmotoren, schöpft seine Kraft jedoch aus der Änderung des magnetischen Widerstands innerhalb des Motors. Reluktanzmotoren sind bisher die effizienteste Form
des elektrischen Motors, allerdings auch die komplexeste (Vgl. ebd. S. 84f).3. Klimabilanz elektrischer FahrzeugeUm tatsächlich bewerten zu können, inwiefern Elektroautos eine Alternative zu fossilen
Brennstoffen darstellen und unsere Emissionen senken könnten, wird in diesem Kapitel
die Klimabilanz solcher Fahrzeuge untersucht. 3.1 VerbrauchDer wohl entscheidende Aspekt des Elektroautos liegt im Verbrauch bzw. den Emissionen
während der Fahrt. Diese gehen nämlich gegen Null. Wird die Batterie des Elektroautos
mit ausschließlich grünem Strom geladen, fährt es sich "komplett klimaneutral"
(Quaschning 2022. S. 168). Gegenwärtig ist dies jedoch noch nicht möglich (mehr dazu
im nächsten Kapitel). Lädt man heute sein Elektroauto am regulären Netzstrom, so ist von
Emissionen von "50 bis 100 Gramm Kohlendioxid pro Kilometer" (Ebd.) auszugehen.Bei
Autos mit Verbrennungsmotor hängen die Emissionen vor allem mit der Art des Motors
sowie der Fahrweise zusammen. Hier ist von Emissionen von "80 bis 240 Gramm Kohlendioxid pro Kilometer" (Ebd.) auszugehen. Das Elektroauto ist dem Verbrenner in dieser
Hinsicht also voraus und könnte diesen Vorsprung ausbauen, je mehr grüner
Strom zur Verfügung steht.Besondere Erwähnung sollte an dieser Stelle noch das wasserstoffbetriebene Auto finden. Hierbei handelt es sich ebenfalls um ein Auto mit Elektroantrieb, es zieht jedoch seine Energie aus aufbereitetem Wasserstoff. Zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt wird dabei
jedoch die dreifache Menge Strom verbraucht, da die Wasserstoffproduktion eine große
Menge Energie frisst (Vgl. Kaufmann 2021. S. 39). Insofern ist das vermeintlich grüne
Wasserstoffauto im Moment keine echte Alternative und wird im Rahmen dieser Arbeit
auch nicht weiter berücksichtigt. 3.2 Herstellung Bevor ein Fahrzeug die ersten Kilometer auf den Straßen zurücklegt, muss es zuerst produziert werden. Dies geht sowohl beim Elektroauto als auch beim Verbrenner mit enormem Ressourcenaufwand einher. Fakt ist, dass das Elektroauto im Moment des Kaufs
noch eine schlechtere Klimabilanz aufweist als ein Verbrenner (Vgl. ebd.). Als problematisch für die Umweltbilanz werden vor allem "seltene Erden, Lithium und Kobalt" (Ebd.
S. 169) betrachtet. Es sei jedoch erwähnt, dass sich diese Stoffe auch "in der Elektronik,
im Navi-Bildschirm oder im Katalysator oder Dieselrußfilter" (Ebd. S. 170) von konventionellen Autos mit Verbrennungsmotor befinden.Ein weiterer oftmals aufgegriffener Kritikpunkt ist der scheinbar hohe Wasserverbrauch bei der Herstellung von Batterien.
Dies lässt sich insofern als Mythos klassifizieren, als dass für das Gewinnen von ausreichend Lithium für eine Autobatterie in etwa so viel Wasser verbraucht wird wie für die
Herstellung eines Kilo Rindfleischs oder einer Jeans (Vgl. ebd. S. 171). Vergleicht man
den Konsum von Rindfleisch oder den Kauf von Kleidung mit der zu erwartenden
Produktionsmenge von Batterien, so kann der Wasserverbrauch kein Argument gegen die
Nachhaltigkeit eines Elektroautos sein. 3.3 RecyclingSpätestens seit dem Siegeszug des Smartphones ist allen die Problematik von Batterien
bekannt. Sie verlieren mit der Zeit an Ladekapazität, sodass sie irgendwann zwangsläufig
getauscht werden müssen. Zweifelsohne sind auch die Batterien von Elektroautos nicht
von dieser Problematik befreit. Es wird also zurecht angemerkt, dass die Nachhaltigkeit
von Elektroautos auch damit einhergeht, in welchem Umfang Batterien recycelt werden
können.Da Elektroautos bisher einen sehr geringen Anteil am PKW-Bestand darstellen und die meisten davon noch am Anfang ihrer Lebenszeit stehen, gibt es bisher faktisch keine Recyclingmöglichkeiten (Vgl. ebd. S.172). Es gibt jedoch gute Gründe für Optimismus bei der Recyclingproblematik. Der Firma Duesendfeld aus Deutschland ist es
bereits gelungen, bei Batterien "eine Recyclingquote von 91 Prozent zu erreichen" (Ebd.).
Dies beweist, dass wir zumindest davon ausgehen können, dass Recycling für einen großen Teil der Batterien technologisch umsetzbar wäre. Es bleibt die Frage, zu welchem
Preis.Konkludierend lässt sich nach diesem Kapitel festhalten, dass auch Elektroautos selbstverständlich nicht vollständig grün betrieben werden können. Auch sie bringen Materialkosten und Emissionen bei der Produktion sowie die Frage nach flächendeckendem Recycling mit sich. Ein großer Teil der Klimabilanz hängt außerdem von der Energieerzeugung
ab, die im folgenden Kapitel thematisiert wird. Dennoch sind sie bereits zum jetzigen
Zeitpunkt Autos mit Verbrennungsmotoren überlegen. Hinzu kommt die Tatsache, dass die
Entwicklung dieser Fahrzeuge noch am Anfang steht. Es ist also davon auszugehen, dass
in vielerlei Hinsicht noch Fortschritte erzielt werden können, die diesen Vorsprung weiter
ausbauen. 4. Energiegewinnung und Infrastruktur Ausgehend von der Leitfrage drängt sich die Frage auf, wie eine Welt aussehen müsste, in
der nur noch Elektromobilität vorherrscht. In diesem Kapitel werden dabei vor allem die
Aspekte der Energiegewinnung und der nötigen Infrastruktur beleuchtet. 4.1 EnergiegewinnungWie oben bereits beschrieben, hängen die Emissionen von Elektroautos massiv mit der Art
der Energiegewinnung zusammen. Würden Batterien ausschließlich mit grünem Strom geladen, wären die Fahrzeuge im Verbrauch nahezu vollständig emissionsfrei (siehe 3.1).
Aus diesem Grund nun zunächst eine Bestandsaufnahme:"Im Jahr 2020 haben die erneuerbaren Energien Wasserkraft, Biomasse, Windkraft und Photovoltaik in Deutschland
mehr als die Hälfte der Stromerzeugung gedeckt" (Ebd. S. 76).Diese Zahl erscheint hoch,
führt man sich vor Augen, dass die amtierende Bundeskanzlerin Anfang der 1990er
Jahre noch versicherte, erneuerbare Energien könnten unmöglich mehr als vier Prozent
des Strombedarfs des Landes decken (Vgl. ebd. S. 77). Zum Erreichen der Klimaziele
wäre dennoch ein vollständiger Umstieg von Nöten. Dies betrifft jedoch nur indirekt die
Elektromobilität. Dennoch sind sich die Quaschnings sicher, wenn sie schreiben:"Wir
brauchen heute definitiv nicht mehr über die Frage zu diskutieren, ob wir 100 Prozent erneuerbare Energien erreichen können" (Ebd.).Dies ist insofern nicht überraschend, als
dass es nicht an Möglichkeiten zur vollständigen Energiewende fehlt, sondern momentan
vor allem an der Umsetzung. Da sich die erneuerbaren Energien vor allem auf Wind, Wasser
und Sonne stützen, werden oftmals Bedenken geäußert, ein nur auf diesen Quellen basierendes Stromnetz sei möglicherweise zu instabil. Doch auch hier sind die Autoren optimistisch:"Wir können mit Speichern und der Sektorkupplung auch eine Energieversorgung aufbauen, die sicherer ist als unsere heutige" (Ebd. S. 94).In Bezug auf Elektromobilität lässt sich festhalten, dass es grundsätzlich Möglichkeiten gäbe,
durch das Vorantreiben der Energiewende Elektroautos klimaneutral betreiben zu können. 4.2 Infrastruktur Selbst wenn die oben beschriebene Energiewende vollzogen wird, müsste für einen flächendeckenden Einsatz von Elektroautos auch die entsprechende Infrastruktur geschaffen
werden. Zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt können Elektroautos an speziellen Ladestationen, in etwa
wie an Tankstellen, oder an der heimischen Steckdose geladen werden. Dabei dauert das
Laden an der heimischen Steckdose um ein Vielfaches länger, außer das jeweilige Heim
verfügt über eine der sogenannten "Wallboxen". Diese machen das schnelle Laden wie an den speziellen Ladestationen auch zuhause möglich.Wer sich heute ein Elektroauto kauft,
muss jedenfalls nicht fürchten, ohne ausreichend Strom liegen zu bleiben (Vgl. ebd. S.
174). Dies liegt jedoch primär an dem noch geringen Verkehrsaufkommen von Elektroautos. Sollte die Elektromobilität den Verbrennungsmotor ablösen, müssten entsprechend
viele Ladestationen gebaut werden. Diese als "intelligente Steckdosen mit hohen Leistungen" (Ebd.) zu bezeichnen, ist physikalisch gesehen sehr vereinfacht, trifft jedoch insofern
zu, als dass der Ausbau dieser Infrastruktur kein Problem darstellen sollte. Die
Quaschnings nehmen diesen Aspekt in ihrem Buch humoristisch auf und halten fest:"Am
Bau von Steckdosen sollte die Energierevolution nun aber wirklich nicht scheitern"
(Ebd.).Eine im Zusammenhang mit Elektroautos oft geschilderte Befürchtung ist der Zusammenbruch der Stromnetze. Dabei befürchten Kritiker, dass das Stromnetz der Belastung nicht standhalten kann, wenn zu viele Autos gleichzeitig geladen werden, beispielsweise über Nacht. Eindeutige Zahlen gibt es hierzu nicht, es ist jedoch davon auszugehen,
dass bei vergleichbarer Fahrweise ca. 15 Prozent mehr Strom benötigt werden würde, um
die Flotte der Elektroautos zu laden (Vgl. ebd.). Schwachstelle bei dieser Rechnung ist die
Tatsache, dass das Beispiel auf der Vermutung fußt, nur 30 Millionen Elektroautos in
Deutschland zu betreiben. Das wären weniger als halb so viele Fahrzeuge, wie im Moment
auf den Straßen sind, und führt damit zu einem unterschätzten Aspekt. 4.3 Mentale InfrastrukturAlle bisherigen Erkenntnisse in Bezug auf die Leitfrage waren vor allem technischer Natur. Betrachtet man den Ist-Zustand in Deutschland, so lassen die vorherigen Kapitel vor allem Schlüsse über die technischen Möglichkeiten und Chancen zu. Dabei ist es
nicht die Technik allein, die über die Erfolgschancen der Elektromobilität entscheidet. Der
Begriff der "mentalen Infrastruktur" (Schwedes/Keichel 2021. S. 3) bezieht sich hierbei
auf die notwendige Bereitschaft innerhalb der Bevölkerung, sprich den Nutzern von Elektroautos, sich auf die Neuerungen im Vergleich zum Verbrenner einzustellen.Ahrend und
Stock nennen diese die "Träger einer potenziell neuen Mobilitätskultur" (Ahrend/Stock
2021. S. 111). Schwedes und Keichel sprechen von einem Wandel hin zur "postfossilen
Mobilitätskultur" (Schwedes/Keichel 2021. S. 3). Diese beinhaltet ein nachhaltiges Verkehrssystem, welches zum Ziel haben muss, "weniger Verkehr zu erzeugen, die Geschwindigkeit zu reduzieren und die zurückzulegenden Entfernungen zu minimieren" (Ebd. S. 4).Es muss also einen "kulturellen Paradigmenwechsel" (Ebd.) geben, um das Thema Elektromobilität bei Autos tatsächlich massentauglich zu machen. Dieser Umstieg gestaltet sich schwierig, denn das Auto ist in Deutschland "tiefverwurzelt in den Mobilitätsroutinen vieler Bürger" (Ahrend/Stock 2021. S. 110). Dabei reicht die reine Akzeptanz der neuen
Technologie nicht aus. Um den Umschwung zu schaffen, die mentale Infrastruktur in den
Köpfen zu bauen, muss eine "Anpassungsleistung an die alltäglichen Handlungsanforderungen" (Ebd. S. 113) erfolgen. 5. FazitAbschließend nun die Konklusion zur Ausgangsfrage: Können Elektroautos ein Teil des
Weges aus der Klimakrise sein, indem sie fossile Brennstoffe beim Thema Mobilität obsolet machen? Zu diesem Zweck werden nun nochmal die einzelnen Kapitel der Arbeit beleuchtet. Im ersten Kapitel wurde untersucht, was wir überhaupt unter dem Begriff Klimakrise verstehen können und welche Rolle der Verkehr dabei spielt. Hier kristallisierte sich
heraus, dass insbesondere in Deutschland das Verkehrsaufkommen einen großen Anteil an
den zu hohen Kohlenstoffdioxidemissionen hat. Da bisher keine Technologie vielversprechend genug ist, bleibt keine andere Möglichkeit als die CO2-Emissionen drastisch zu reduzieren.Im zweiten Kapitel wurde sich mit der Frage auseinandergesetzt, was wir überhaupt unter einem Elektroauto verstehen können und wie diese Fahrzeuge funktionieren.
Als Basis diente dabei das Mobilitätsgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, welches wasserstoffbetriebene Autos miteinschließt. Das dritte Kapitel behandelte die zentrale
Frage der tatsächlichen Klimabilanz von elektrischen Fahrzeugen. Hier wurde deutlich,
dass deren Umweltbilanz vor allem von der Herkunft des Batteriestroms abhängig ist.
Selbstverständlich entstehen bei der Produktion ebenfalls Emissionen, grundsätzlich
konnte jedoch festgehalten werden, dass die Klimabilanz elektrischer Fahrzeuge schon
heute besser ist als die der Verbrennungsmotoren.In Kapitel 4 konnte erläutert werden, dass zumindest in Deutschland alle Möglichkeiten vorhanden wären, eine
Energiewende zu schaffen und damit vollständig grünen Strom möglich zu machen. Neben grünem Strom wurde die nötige Infrastruktur untersucht. Hier galt es, neben den Ladestationen vor allem die mentale Infrastruktur hervorzuheben, ohne die ein Umstieg unmöglich wäre.Der Großteil dieser Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit der Frage, inwiefern es möglich wäre,
Elektromobilität in Form von Elektroautos in der Bundesrepublik zu verwirklichen. Dazu
müssten mehrere Bedingungen erfüllt werden. Um Elektroautos tatsächlich sinnvoll betreiben zu können, wäre eine vollständige Energiewende von Nöten. Die Fortschritte der
letzten Jahrzehnte machen deutlich, dass dies zweifelsohne möglich wäre, wenn das Ziel politisch verfolgt wird.Hinzu kommt der Ausbau der entsprechenden Infrastruktur. Bedenkt man die Zahl der Tankstellen die obsolet würden, kann Platzmangel kein Problem
beim Bau von Ladesäulen darstellen. Auch wenn ein solcher Ausbau mit Problemen verbunden wäre, kann dieser ähnlich wie die Energiewende vonstatten gehen, sofern der
Staat entsprechend handelt.Ob diese Bedingungen erfüllt werden, hängt jedoch auch von
der Stimmung innerhalb der Bevölkerung ab. Ein solcher Umschwung kann politisch nur
erfolgen, wenn er den Rückhalt in der Bevölkerung genießt. Dabei sind nicht nur Wählerstimmen, sondern auch die mentale Infrastruktur nötig. Dies könnte vor allem im Autoland Deutschland, in welchem das Auto als Heiligtum gilt, auf erheblichen Widerstand
stoßen.Den ersten Teil der Ausgansfrage können wir also wie folgt beantworten: Bezogen
auf die Bundesrepublik Deutschland lässt sich mit Sicherheit sagen, dass ein Umstieg auf
Elektromobilität aus technischer Sicht möglich und mit gesellschaftlichem Willen zum
Wandel umsetzbar ist. Dies führt zum zweiten Teil der Ausgangsfrage, nämlich inwiefern
dies die Problematik der Klimakrise lösen könnte. Auf die Bundesrepublik allein bezogen
macht der Verkehr ein Fünftel der Emissionen aus. Davon ausgehend, dass ein Wandel zur
Elektromobilität auch mit einer kompletten Energiewende vollzogen wird, lässt sich sagen dass dies einen bedeutenden Schritt bei der Bekämpfung des Klimawandels darstellen könnte.Dabei gilt es jedoch zwei entscheidende Aspekte festzuhalten. Erstens geht mit der erläuterten mentalen Infrastruktur einher, dass sich das Verhältnis zu Mobilität grundsätzlich ändert. Sprechen wir von einem Wandel zur Elektromobilität, so bedeutet dies nicht, dass die Veränderung darauf beschränkt ist, statt eines Verbrenners einen
Elektromotor zu starten und zu tanken. Zweitens wäre diese Veränderung dennoch völlig
unzureichend. Der Verkehrssektor mag einen großen und alltäglich präsenten Anteil an der
Klimakrise haben, doch um die ohnehin schon niedrig gesteckten Klimaziele zu erreichen,
würde auch dies nicht ausreichen. Das Elektroauto stellt bezogen auf die fossilen Brennstoffe eine Alternative dar, kann diesen Weg jedoch nicht allein bestreiten.
Führt man sich die Gefahr und das Ausmaß der Klimakrise vor Augen, so kann das Elektroauto maximal einen (bescheidenen) Beitrag zum benötigten Wandel leisten.LiteraturAhrend, Christine/Stock, Jessica: Der Benchmark ist noch immer das heutige Verhalten,
in: Oliver Schwedes/Marcus Keichel (Hrsg.), Das Elektroauto, Mobilität im Umbruch.
Wiesbaden 2021. Francis, Jennifer: Die rasche Erwärmung der Arktis und der Jetstream, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Hausfather, Zeke: Methan und kurzlebige Treiber des Klimawandels, in: Gretha Thunberg
(Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Hayhoe, Katharine: Wärme, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am
Main 2022. Kauffmann, Timo: E-Auto einfach erklärt, Von A wie Akku bis Z wie zu Hause laden.
Heidelberg. 2021. Lustgarten, Abrahm: Klimaflüchtlinge, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch.
Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Marvel, Kate: Dürren und Überschwemmungen, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Otto, Friederike: Gefährliches Wetter, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch.
Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Quaschning, Volker/Cornelia: Energierevolution Jetzt! Mobilität, Wohnen, grüner Strom
und Wasserstoff: Was führt uns aus der Klimakrise – und was nicht? München 2022. Rahmstorf, Stefan: Die Erwärmung der Meere und der Anstieg des Meeresspiegels, in:
Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Schwedes, Oliver/Keichel, Marcus: Zehn Jahre Elektroauto & (k)ein bisschen klüger? in:
Oliver Schwedes/Marcus Keichel (Hrsg.), Das Elektroauto, Mobilität im Umbruch. Wiesbaden. 2021. Shindell, Drew: Luftverschmutzung, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Thunberg, Greta: Die Welt hat Fieber, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.), Das Klimabuch.
Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Winkelmann, Ricarda: Eisschilde, Schelfeis und Gletscher, in: Gretha Thunberg (Hrsg.),
Das Klimabuch. Frankfurt am Main. 2022. Pressemitteilung Nr. 08/2021 des Kraftfahrbundesamts:
https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugbestand/fahrzeugbestand_node.html#:~:text=Flensburg%2C%202.,auf%20(%2B1%2C6%20%25 Website des Allgemeinen Deutschen Automobil Clubs: Glossar, Elektromobilität von A bis
Z: https://www.adac.de/rund-ums-fahrzeug/elektromobilitaet/info/glossar-elektromobilitaet/

In the past few years, International Relations scholars have reflected about change in global order in three main streams of thought. The realist stream has pointed out that the world is increasingly multipolar,[1] focusing on major powers: the US, China, the EU and Russia. Liberal/constructivist scholars have explored the crisis and challenges of and within the liberal international order.[2] In this vein, John Ikenberry has recently delineated a scenario of three worlds: that is, the "Global North" (led by the US and, to some degree, the EU), the "Global East" (led by China and Russia) and the "Global South".[3] The latter, Ikenberry argues, is without a big power leadership and appears somewhat more passive, whilst the other two "Globals" are engaged in a competition for the "Global South". In this competition, he argues, the liberal international order has a comparative advantage. Finally, the Global IR stream, and Amitav Acharya in particular, have proposed the concept of a multiplex world: a more plural and de-centred world where we, instead, observe an increase in the interaction capacity of middle and small powers as well. By interaction capacity, Acharya et al. mean "the relative ability of nations to organize cooperation".[4]
What all these streams agree upon is that the international order is in transformation. This transformation will be significantly shaped by how a variety of actors negotiate the basic principles, rules and institutions that govern their interactions and relations. Central in such negotiations are international crises. As Ikenberry has pointed out, the "Russian invasion of Ukraine has sparked a global debate on world order". This is clearly the case when looking at world order from the viewpoint of the US, EU and Russia. The Global South has also intervened in the debate over the Russia-Ukraine war, calling for food security and largely supporting international law in votes in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), whilst seeing it as a "war over the European security order".[5]
Looking at the global order from the postcolonial world, a much more important crisis for order negotiation and restructuring is the Israel-Palestine war.[6] Here, the global dynamic is completely different: the Global South has enacted its presence in the normative ordering of the international, whilst the West is divided, and Russia, as well as China, are rather passive. So, on the Israel-Palestine war, a central negotiation is taking place, mainly between the Global South and the West, that will have an impact on the global normative ordering as profound as the negotiations surrounding the Russia-Ukraine war.'Land for peace' and the retreat from international law
This negotiation is, of course, not entirely new. In the context of the decolonisation process, from the 1960s to the 1980s, the non-aligned movement was central in establishing in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) that, just like Israelis, also Palestinians have inalienable individual and collective rights, including an unconditional right to statehood. In 1988, UNGA Resolution 43/177 acknowledged the proclamation of the State of Palestine and affirmed the need to enable the Palestinian people to exercise their sovereignty over their territory occupied since 1967. UNGA so contested the US-led peace process which, instead, was guided by the 'land for peace' paradigm that had emerged in 1967. Unlike the Suez Crisis in 1956, when the US and the USSR had forced France, the UK and Israel to retreat from the Sinai in line with international law and the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by force, after 1967, the US conditioned such a retreat on peace, so sidelining international law.
Whilst this approach was contested by UNGA, the Arab League and, to some degree, also the European Community in the 1980s,[7] in the 1990s, in the so-called unipolar moment of the liberal international order, the idea of liberal peace-building as a precondition for Palestinian statehood became dominant. Due to the lack of accountability to international law within the peace process, however, as the years went by, the land-for-peace formula looked increasingly obsolete: the occupied Palestinian territory was fractured by Israeli settlements in the West Bank including East Jerusalem – where the settlement population now stands at more than 700,000 –,[8] as well as by the barrier/wall and the separation from Gaza, under full Israeli land, air and sea blockade from 2007 onwards. Amidst this context, the Palestinian leadership decided to take their struggle back to the UN and the mechanisms and institutions of international law.
Whilst the West could previously unite under the land-for-peace paradigm, it now had a hard time uniting under the principles and institutions of international law. The division thus set on in 2012, when Palestine applied for non-membership status at the UN (Figure 1).

Figure 1 | UNGA votes Palestine "non-member observer state", 2012



Source: United Nations, General Assembly Votes Overwhelmingly to Accord Palestine 'Non-Member Observer State' Status in United Nations, 29 November 2012, https://press.un.org/en/2012/ga11317.doc.htm.

Following this, the EU Foreign Affairs Council sought to dissuade Palestine from signing the Rome Statute.[9] Palestine, nonetheless, moved the case to the International Criminal Court (ICC), which in 2021 asserted its jurisdiction. In response, Germany publicly positioned itself against the ICC claiming it had no jurisdiction,[10] undermining not only the authority of the Court but effectively also seeking to deny Palestinians their right to have their case assessed through a major institution of international law. In 2022, again, the West voted divided (Figure 2) on the UNGA resolution requesting an advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the "Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem".[11]

Figure 2 | UNGA votes "Israeli practices affecting the human rights of the Palestinian people in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem", 2022



Source: United Nations, Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Palestinian People in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Including East Jerusalem, Voting Summary, 30 December 2022, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3999158.

This division that runs through the West effectively blocks a position more in line with international law. This became even more evident after the attack on 7 October where Hamas took 250 Israeli hostages and killed 766 civilians, as well as 373 security forces.[12] In response, Israel started an invasion, killing within October alone more than 9,000 Palestinians, of which more than 3,700 children, displacing hundreds of thousands.[13] Besides the large-scale destruction of housing, health and educational infrastructure, the Israeli government also announced the impeding of relief supplies, using starvation of civilians as collective punishment and method of warfare. In the only EU Council Conclusions on which the member states could so far agree upon, on 23 October 2023, the EU condemned Hamas "for its brutal and indiscriminate terrorist attacks across Israel" but did not condemn Israel for its brutal and indiscriminate bombing of Gaza, only stating generically that the response should be in line with international law.[14] It also failed to call unequivocally for a ceasefire despite the massive death toll and destruction.
Only in mid-February, with more than 30,000 Palestinians in Gaza killed, 12,300 of which children,[15] and most of the Israeli hostages, including two children, still being held by Hamas,[16] and amidst mounting fears of forcible displacement of 1.5 million Palestinians sheltering in Rafah into the Sinai,[17] did 26 EU member states (without Hungary) ask Israel to halt its military action in Rafah. They did, however, not outline what impact a military action would have on EU-Israel relations,[18] and similarly failed to pressure Israel into allowing humanitarian aid via land crossings into Gaza, where the World Health Organization has warned of catastrophic famine.[19]
The normative vacuum that has been created by the US and the EU has, it should be noted, not been used by Russia or China, which have remained rather passive. Instead, it has been the Global South that has moved into this normative vacuum.The Global South takes action
Whilst Global South countries had been rather cohesive in their votes in favour of supporting the application of mechanisms of international law to Israel/Palestine before 7 October (see Figures 1 and 2), these voting patterns became more robust afterwards (see Figures 3 and 4). Furthermore, rather than simply backing Palestinian initiatives in international institutions, various Global South countries now began to take initiatives within these institutions themselves.

Figure 3 | UNGA votes ceasefire resolutions, 26 October 2023



Source: United Nations, UN General Assembly Adopts Gaza Resolution Calling for Immediate and Sustained 'Humanitarian Truce', 26 October 2023, https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/10/1142847.

Figure 4 | UNGA votes ceasefire resolutions, 12 December 2023



Source: United Nations, UN General Assembly Votes by Large Majority for Immediate Humanitarian Ceasefire during Emergency Session, 12 December 2023, https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/12/1144717.

Algeria as an elected UNSC member became active in drafting resolutions, and filed a complaint at the ICC (together with Colombia). Qatar appeared as a key mediator at a time when the US and the EU had largely lost this status, and hence their interaction capacity or relative ability to exercise political leadership and organise cooperation. Saudi Arabia published a clear rebuttal of the US in a statement where it insisted on the recognition of a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital before proceeding with normalisation. Most importantly, however, South Africa instituted – with broad support from a large majority of states in the Global South (but notably from neither China nor Russia) – proceedings against Israel at the ICJ concerning alleged violations by Israel of its obligations under the Genocide Convention in relation to Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Whilst some EU member states were positive (Belgium, Ireland) or neutral (France, Spain), Germany announced its intention to intervene in the South Africa versus Israel case at the ICJ on Israel's behalf, issuing a statement which implicitly accused South Africa of an instrumentalisation of the Convention. This triggered a diplomatic incident where late Namibian President Hage Geingob strongly criticised "the shocking decision communicated by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany".[20] In its order on 24 January 2024, the Court concluded that "at least some of the acts and omissions alleged by South Africa to have been committed by Israel in Gaza appear to be capable of falling within the provisions of the Convention".[21] Shortly afterwards, Nicaragua instituted proceedings against Germany before the ICJ for alleged violations by Berlin of its obligations deriving from the Genocide Convention, the Geneva Conventions and other norms of international law.[22]The indefensible West
In light of this "crisis of humanity",[23] Western players must be aware of what their position means for a larger transforming global order. Two conclusions are pertinent in this respect. First, it is evident that a multiplex world is in the making where actors other than the big powers are enacting their normative presence in the international arena. South Africa has shown an impressive leadership in this respect, and might have paved the way for others to follow suit. It also holds normative power with its model of post-Apartheid co-existence (similar to the normative power which the EU once held with its model of co-existence in Europe). Second, the idea that the "Global North" has an advantage today in the international competition on visions of order must be strongly qualified. The normative power that the liberal international order as a vision can hold in a multiplex world depends on the West's consistent adherence to the postwar edifice of principles, rules and institutions of international law that does not only embody significant lessons learnt from European history, but without which the West loses its interaction capacity. Europe is – to quote Aimé Césaire –, once again, indefensible.[24]Daniela Huber is Assistant Professor in the Political Science Department of Roma Tre University. She is scientific advisor of the Mediterranean, Middle East and Africa Programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), which she led from 2019 to 2022, and co-editor of The International Spectator.[1] John J. Mearsheimer, "Bound to Fail: The Rise and Fall of the Liberal International Order", in International Security, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Spring 2019), p. 7-50, https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00342.[2] David A. Lake, Lisa L. Martin and Thomas Risse, "Challenges to the Liberal Order: Reflections on International Organization", in International Organization, Vol. 75, No. 2 (Spring 2021), p. 225-257, DOI 10.1017/S0020818320000636.[3] G. John Ikenberry, "Three Worlds: The West, East and South and the Competition to Shape Global Order", in International Affairs, Vol. 100, No. 1 (January 2024), p. 121-138, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad284. These terms are somewhat essentialising historically diverse and socially, economically and politically complex geographies. This commentary uses the term the "West" that includes countries located in areas of the world which are not in the North (such as Australia). It uses the term "Global South" to describe the postcolonial world, whilst it also discusses particular positions by postcolonial countries (China and South Africa). Stewart Patrick and Alexandra Huggins, "The Term 'Global South' Is Surging. It Should Be Retired", in Carnegie Commentaries, 15 August 2023, https://carnegieendowment.org/publications/90376.[4] Amitav Acharya, Antoni Estevadeordal and Louis W Goodman, "Multipolar or Multiplex? Interaction Capacity, Global Cooperation and World Order", in International Affairs, Vol. 99, No. 6 (November 2023), p. 2339-2365, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad242.[5] Lorenzo Kamel, "Has the Russo-Ukraine War Really Changed the Global Order?", in The Buzz, 14 April 2022, https://nationalinterest.org/node/201835.[6] It should be noted that this war is not confined to Gaza. In the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, Amnesty International has noted a "spike in use of unlawful lethal force by Israeli forces", and Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) reported a surge in detentions of Palestinians, and inherent practices of "forced disappearances, torture, and severe violations of human rights". Furthermore, the war also takes place in Israel and Southern Lebanon with rocket attacks and air strikes. Amnesty International, Shocking Spike in Use of Unlawful Lethal Force by Israeli Forces against Palestinians in Occupied West Bank, 5 February 2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/?p=206744; PHR, Systematic Violation of Human Rights: The Incarceration Conditions of Palestinians in Israel Since October 7, February 2024, https://www.phr.org.il/en/?p=17797.[7] See the Venice Declaration of 1980 that insists on de-occupation and international law. European Council, Venice Declaration, 13 June 1980, https://eeas.europa.eu/mepp/docs/venice_declaration_1980_en.pdf.[8] European Union Representative to West Bank and Gaza Strip, UNRWA, 2021 Report on Israeli Settlements in the Occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem. Reporting period -January-December 2021, 20 July 2022, https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/416884_en.[9] Council of the European Union, Council Conclusions on the Middle East Peace Process, 10 December 2012, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/foraff/134140.pdf.[10] Stefan Talmon, "Germany Publicly Objects to the International Criminal Court's Ruling on Jurisdiction in Palestine", in GPIL blog, 11 February 2021, https://gpil.jura.uni-bonn.de/?p=2824.[11] International Court of Justice, Case 186: Legal Consequences Arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (Request for Advisory Opinion), 19 January 2023, https://www.icj-cij.org/case/186.[12] "Israel Social Security Data Reveals True Picture of Oct 7 Deaths", in France 24, 15 December 2023, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20231215-israel-social-security-data-reveals-true-picture-of-oct-7-deaths.[13] Euro-Med Monitor [@EuroMedHR], "Statistics on the Israeli Attack on the Gaza Strip", in Twitter, 31 October 2023, https://twitter.com/EuroMedHR/status/1719406267620270215.[14] European Council, European Council Conclusions on Middle East, 26 October 2023, https://europa.eu/!jjTCT7.[15] Philippe Lazzarini [@UNLazzarini], "Staggering. The Number of Children Reported Killed in Just over 4 Months in #Gaza Is Higher than the Number of Children Killed in 4 Years of Wars around the World Combined", in Twitter, 12 March 2024, https://twitter.com/UNLazzarini/status/1767618985397272831.[16] Website of the Hostages and Missing Families Forum, https://stories.bringthemhomenow.net.[17] Jonathan Adler, "South into the Sinai: Will Israel Force Palestinians Out of Gaza?", in Sada, 31 October 2023, https://carnegie-mec.org/sada/90869.[18] European Union External Action Service, Israel/Palestine: Statement by the High Representative on a Planned Israeli Military Operation in Rafah, 16 February 2024, https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/438359_en.[19] World Health Organization, Famine in Gaza Is Imminent, with Immediate and Long-Term Health Consequences, 18 March 2024, https://www.who.int/news/item/18-03-2024-famine-in-gaza-is-imminent--with-immediate-and-long-term-health-consequences.[20] Stefan Talmon, "Germany Rushes to Declare Intention to Intervene in the Genocide Case Brought by South Africa against Israel before the International Court of Justice", in GPIL blog, 15 January 2024, https://gpil.jura.uni-bonn.de/?p=4062.[21] International Court of Justice, Case 192: Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel). Summary of the Order of 26 January 2024, https://www.icj-cij.org/node/203454.[22] International Court of Justice, Case 193: Proceedings Instituted by the Republic of Nicaragua against the Federal Republic of Germany. Application Instituting Proceedings and Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, 1 March 2024, https://www.icj-cij.org/index.php/node/203820.[23] United Nations, Press Conference by Secretary-General António Guterres at United Nations Headquarters, 6 November 2023, https://press.un.org/en/2023/sgsm22021.doc.htm.[24] Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, New York, Monthly Review Press, 2000, p. 32.

On 18 October, the US Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)[1] issued Licenses 43 and 44,[2] lifting the sanctions on the Venezuelan oil and mining sector that had been in place since January 2019. The OFAC measure is of a temporary nature, for a period of six months, subject to compliance by the Venezuelan government with the political agreements signed on 17 October with sectors of the opposition in Barbados.[3]
Although the state-owned oil and gas company PDVSA is no longer subject to any type of restriction, the increase in oil production will be limited in the short and medium term, given the dimension of the Venezuelan oil collapse in the last decade,[4] which was largely due to the massive deterioration of the country's political and economic situation, as well as to the mismanagement of the oil industry and the political persecution within PDVSA.Sanctions as a scapegoat
When the US sanctions to the oil industry and the major export sectors of the Venezuelan economy, including PDVSA, were imposed in 2019, Venezuela's oil production already stood at 1.15 million barrels per day (mbd),[5] a loss of 1.87 mbd, compared to the average production of 3.02 mbd in 2013.[6] The collapse of oil production had already begun in 2014, as a consequence of the political persecution and government intervention in PDVSA and its subsequent militarisation in 2017.[7]
From 2014, the country has experienced a period of tough political and economic destabilisation. The government acted violently against all opponents, both the traditional opposition and chavismo.[8] Between 2014–2019, the government conducted a massive political razzia in Venezuela, strengthening its control over public institutions and state companies to secure its power. This resulted in governmental intervention in PDVSA, imprisoning more than one hundred managers and workers and leading over 30,000 specialised workers to leave the company due to the deterioration of labour conditions. Meanwhile, the government sidelined the National Assembly[9] and took control of the Supreme Court of Justice and the judiciary, as well as the Attorney General's Office.[10]
In this period of violence, the Venezuelan GDP drastically diminished, and the country went through a phase of hyperinflation, which has continued until today. This economic deterioration was due to the collapse of PDVSA's production and the package of economic shock measures[11] – massive currency devaluation, dollarisation of the economy, removal of price controls, reduction of salaries, elimination of labour gains and rights, dramatic cuts to social spending, privatisation etc. – imposed by the government of Nicolás Maduro in 2018.
By 2018, oil production had already fallen by 62 per cent, the economy had shrunk by 61 per cent,[12] and the bolivar, the national currency, had devalued by 200,000 per cent.[13] Subsequently, the average minimum wage stood at 7 US dollars per month[14] and poverty rose to 75 per cent,[15] according to income level, causing the exodus of more than 3.4 million Venezuelans, reported by UNHCR data.[16]
As evidenced by the economic collapse in 2014–2019, the crisis of Venezuela's economy and oil industry is a direct consequence of the government's actions, rather than the impact of US sanctions, which simply aggravated the situation. Nonetheless, the government has depicted sanctions as the cause of Venezuela's crisis, using them as a powerful propaganda tool both domestically and internationally to justify and cover up its inabilities and policies.The state of Venezuela's oil sector
The lifting of sanctions will not bring about a change in Venezuela's oil situation in the short to medium term, since the deterioration of the infrastructure and the dismantling of PDVSA's resources – equipment, labour force and capital goods – will take several years to recover. Furthermore, Venezuela's serious economic and labour situation, as well as the lack of legal certainty and permanent political persecution[17] and instability, will prevent effective support from the service sector and the necessary level of investment to recover the national oil industry.Current oil production in Venezuela is 0.73 mbd,[18] of which 0.595 mbd are from PDVSA's and 0.135 mbd from Chevron's production. The latter signed an oil-for-debt swap deal with PDVSA and – in accordance with the terms established in the previous OFAC license[19] – is exempt from paying royalties and taxes to the government of Venezuela and dividends to PDVSA. Most of Chevron's production areas[20] are fields already active, where investment for maintenance continued to be made in spite of sanctions, which means that the necessary infrastructure has been preserved.
As far as the other leading international companies are concerned, TotalEnergies, Equinor and Inpex left the country and ceded their rights due to the unfavourable conditions in 2021;[21] Rosneft sold its operations to Roszarubezhneft,[22] a Russian entity that is however prevented from producing in Venezuela according to the terms of the OFAC; finally, China National Petroleum Corporation continues operating to recover Venezuela's debt to the Chinese Fund,[23] a government fund created in 2007 to finance projects in the country and paid for with oil.
In the case of PDVSA, the infrastructure and production equipment have been progressively abandoned and dismantled, even sold for scrap.[24] For this reason, the cost of repairing the damage and reactivating the dismantled systems and infrastructure is still unknown but constitutes an obstacle in the short term. Unlike other countries under sanctions, such as Iran, the Venezuelan government has not preserved the national oil company's facilities. Furthermore, since 2018, based on Decree 3,368, PDVSA's assets have been transferred to third parties,[25] in violation of the current legal framework[26] and under the protection of the questioned Anti-Blockade Law that imposes secrecy in public management.[27] Yet, no further information has been issued on the company's operational and financial situation.
As a result, there is no longer any form of control or accountability: PDVSA's administrative procedures and internal control norms have been systematically ignored under the shield of the Anti-Blockade Law; oil trade has been transferred to inexperienced and unknown entities that sell it at a 40 per cent discount; furthermore, on many occasions, the revenues have not reached the Venezuelan treasury; they remain abroad in a complicated network of corruption where the companies and individuals to whom oil shipments have been assigned for sale do not return it to the country, accumulating, between 2020–2022, an amount of 21.2 billion US dollars in accounts receivable.[28]The challenges of relaunching the sector
Oil production in Venezuela has its particularities and specific complexities, especially in the case of medium and extra-heavy crude. For example, in Lake Maracaibo, where oil production dates to more than a century ago, the operations are lake-based and require a large fleet of ships, transport boats, barges and tugboats which are currently not operational; also, the terminals, gas compression systems and flow stations have been dismantled too. The 45,000-kilometre-long complex network of pipelines, laid on the bottom of the lake, has not had the necessary maintenance and cathodic protection, so oil spills are frequent.[29]
The production areas in the north of Monagas, in the east of the country, need to install compression systems to re-inject gas into the reservoirs for oil production. Currently, approximately 2.2 billion cubic feet per day of gas are vented into the atmosphere.[30]
In the Orinoco Oil Belt area, significant volumes of naphtha or condensates, as well as reciprocating and electro-submersible pumps, are required for crude lifting and production. The crude oil upgrading sites in the Industrial Complex José Antonio Anzoátegui,[31] necessary to process the extra-heavy crude converting it into medium and light oil for export, are currently paralysed or operating at their minimum capacity.
Finally, while in 2013 there were more than 200 drilling rigs operating in oil production, today there are less than five still active.[32]A domestic political issue
Since the Ministry of Petroleum has been dismantled, there is currently no regulation or control of oil production and exports in Venezuela. The actual levels of production and export are difficult to verify, since there is no oversight or fiscalization by the Ministry of Petroleum; PDVSA controls all the information and handles it secretly, which is why secondary sources and agencies are used to estimate the volume of export of oil; the same applies to the technical condition of the oil and gas production fields. Furthermore, the exported oil has serious quality problems,[33] due to the absence of crude oil treatment facilities to remove impurities and subsequent excess levels of water and sulphur in exported oil.
To be sure, the lifting of sanctions will allow PDVSA to export crude oil, mainly through one-off shipments in the spot market,[34] and to obtain a better price to pay back its debt. PDVSA is heavily indebted to producers, service companies and suppliers, while the country faces debt litigation.[35] The OFAC license clearly indicates that exports will be used to serve the PDVSA and the country's debts where the company was placed as a guarantor.
Currently, 70 per cent of Venezuelan exports go to the Asian market,[36] with China as the final destination, and another 23 per cent to Chevron's refineries in the United States, in both cases to pay back debt. Therefore, beyond satisfying the needs of the Venezuelan government, resources available for PDVSA to leverage its production activities are reduced: the company has no cash flow to invest in its operations.
Given the temporary nature and the political conditions attached to the lifting of sanctions, it will be very difficult for international companies to assume the risk of investing in Venezuela in the short term as the Venezuelan government's failure to comply with the agreements could result in the reinstatement of sanctions. The country lacks the institutional framework and the necessary guarantees to establish long-term relations with the international oil sector, while the government has a serious legitimacy problem. This is a determining factor in an oversupplied oil market, where other producing countries offer better and lower-risk investment opportunities to North American oil companies. This is for example the case of Guyana, bordering Venezuela, which today produces 0.38 mbd, expected to increase to 1.3 mbd by 2028.
The trajectory of oil production in Venezuela is closely linked to the development of the country's political environment and its capacity to improve its economic, financial and technological conditions. In particular, the reinstatement of the rule of law with a view to the 2024 presidential election would be the real step forward that may pave the way for the recovery of the national oil industry.Rafael Ramírez is former Venezuelan Foreign Affairs Minister and UN Ambassador (2014–2017); Venezuelan Oil Minister and CEO of PDVSA (2002–2014).[1] Agency of the US Department of Treasury, that administers and enforces economic sanctions against countries and groups of individuals.[2] OFAC, Venezuela General License 43 (31 CFR part 591), Washington, 18 October 2023, https://ofac.treasury.gov/media/932226/download?inline; and Venezuela General License 44 (31 CFR part 591), Washington, 18 October 2023, https://ofac.treasury.gov/media/932231/download?inline.[3] Norwegian Government website: The Venezuelan Negotiation Process, https://www.regjeringen.no/en/topics/id2674295; Acuerdo parcial sobre la promoción de derechos políticos y garantías electorales para todos [Partial agreement on the promotion of political rights and electoral guarantees for all], Bridgetown, 17 October 2023, https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/ac03d5655a8448e0a9653cd95d5c7978/garantias-electorales.pdf.[4] Rafael Ramírez, "The Venezuelan Oil Industry Collapse: Economic, Social and Political Implications", in IAI Commentaries, No. 21|52 (November 2021), https://www.iai.it/en/node/14308.[5] OPEC, Monthly Oil Market Report February 2019, 12 February 2019, p. 57, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/5392.htm.[6] PDVSA, Informe de Gestión Anual 2013, Caracas, 2013, p. 53, http://www.pdvsa.com/images/pdf/informesdeGestionNuevos/IGA2013Definitivo.pdf.[7] Alexandra Ulmer and Deisy Buitrago, "Maduro Taps Major General to Lead Venezuela's Deteriorating Oil Industry", in Reuters, 26 November 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1DQ0R9.[8] During this period, former ministers of President Chávez's government were imprisoned and exiled, and street protests were violently repressed, causing hundreds of deaths and political detainees.[9] The National Assembly was elected in 2015 and is controlled by the opposition.[10] Ludmila Vinogradoff, "Maikel Moreno, el nuevo jefe del Tribunal Supremo nombrado por Maduro, estuvo preso por dos asesinatos", in ABC International, 25 February 2017, https://www.abc.es/internacional/abci-maikel-moreno-nuevo-jefe-tribunal-supremo-nombrado-maduro-estuvo-preso-asesinatos-201702252251_noticia.html; Daniel Pardo, "Quién es Tarek William Saab, el 'poeta de la revolución' que la Asamblea Constituyente de Venezuela nombró como nuevo fiscal general", in BBC News, 5 August 2017, https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-40839635.[11] Alexandra Ulmer and Corina Pons, "Maduro Orders 96 Percent Devaluation in Hyperinflation-stricken Venezuela", in Reuters, 18 August 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUKKBN1L22EZ.[12] Statista, Venezuela: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Current Prices from 1986 to 2024 (in billion U.S. dollars), https://www.statista.com/statistics/370937.[13] Alonso Moleiro, "El nuevo bolívar de Maduro se hunde en los primeros días", in El País, 24 August 2018, https://elpais.com/internacional/2018/08/23/actualidad/1535046940_404580.html.[14] UNHCR, Hoja Informativa: Venezuela, diciembre 2018, https://www.acnur.org/media/hoja-informativa-venezuela-diciembre-2018.[15] Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, Encovi 2018 | Encuesta nacional de condiciones de vida, https://www.proyectoencovi.com/encovi-2018-encuesta-nacional-de-condiciones-de-vida-copy.[16] UNHCR, Americas Monthly Report March 2019, April 2019, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/68917.[17] This year, six union leaders arrested during protests demanding better working conditions were sentenced to 16 years in prison under conspiracy charges. See: Alonso Moleiro, "Wave of Outrage in Venezuela after Six Trade Unionists Convicted of Conspiracy and Terrorism", in El País, 9 August 2023, https://english.elpais.com/international/2023-08-09/wave-of-outrage-in-venezuela-after-six-trade-unionists-convicted-of-conspiracy-and-terrorism.html.[18] OPEC, Monthly Oil Market Report October 2023, 12 October 2023, p. 50, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/7107.htm.[19] Chevron operates fields in the Maracaibo Lake basin and the Orinoco Oil Belt, under the OFAC License Conditions number 41 dated 26 November 2022.[20] Chevron's joint ventures with PDVSA in Venezuela are PetroBoscán, PetroIndependiente, PetroPiar and PetroIndependencia.[21] "Total, Equinor Exit Venezuela Oil Venture, Citing Carbon Intensity", in Reuters, 29 July 2021, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/equinor-total-exit-venezuela-onshore-oil-project-2021-07-29.[22] A company created in 2020, which acquired the shares of Rosneft after the latter left Venezuela.[23] According to unofficial sources, Venezuela's debt to China amounts to 60 billion US dollars.[24] Herminia Fernández, "Del petróleo a la chatarra: una alternativa para la crisis económica en Venezuela", in France 24, 29 November 2022, https://www.france24.com/es/programas/reporteros/20221129-del-petróleo-a-la-chatarra-una-alternativa-para-la-crisis-económica-en-venezuela.[25] Venezuela, "Decreto N° 3.368, mediante el cual se establece un régimen especial y transitorio para la gestión operativa y administrativa de la Industria Petrolera Nacional", in Gaceta oficial de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, No. 41,376 (12 April 2018), p. 440859-440861, http://spgoin.imprentanacional.gob.ve/cgi-win/be_alex.cgi?Documento=T028700024093/0&Nombrebd=spgoin&CodAsocDoc=1433&Sesion=519221609; Rafael Ramírez Carreño, "Decreto 3.368", in RR., 6 May 2018, https://www.rafaelramirez.net/articulos/decreto-3-368.[26] Specifically, Articles 202 and 203 of the Constitution and the Hydrocarbons Organic Law.[27] A law approved by the National Constituent Assembly on 12 October 2020 that gives the government the power to "disapply" the laws of the Republic without being accountable.[28] Marianna Parraga, "Exclusive: Middlemen Have Left Venezuela's PDVSA with $21.2 Billion in Unpaid Bills", in Reuters, 21 March 2023, http://reut.rs/3yZF03r.[29] Ariana Cubillos and Jorge Rueda, "Venezuela: derrames de petróleo y desechos tóxicos amenazan la vida del Lago de Maracaibo", in AP News, 16 August 2023, https://apnews.com/ced879e76cc576cb06f45529499d369a.[30] Pietro Pitts, "Venezuela Flares More Gas than Freeport LNG Exports", in Hart Energy, 27 July 2023, https://www.hartenergy.com/node/205923.[31] This is home to the heavy crude upgraders PetroPiar, PetroMonagas, PetroCedeño and PetroSanFélix, where coke, sulphur and naphtha are extracted from heavy oil to produce medium and light oil.[32] YCharts, Venezuela Oil Rig Count, October 2023, https://ycharts.com/indicators/venezuela_oil_rotary_rigs.[33] Marianna Parraga, "Quality Issues Add Delays to Venezuela's Crude Exports -Documents", in Reuters, 13 August 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/idAFL1N2FE1HE.[34] The spot market for crude oil and refined products refers to the trade of large physical cargoes or parcels in one-off transactions for near-term delivery.[35] Alejandra Arredondo, "CITGO corre el riesgo de quedarse en manos de acreedores", in Voz de América, 20 March 2019, https://www.vozdeamerica.com/a/4840100.html.[36] Marianna Parraga and Mircely Guanipa, "Venezuela's February Oil Exports Fall 8% amid Contract Revisions", in Reuters, 3 March 2023, https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/venezuelas-february-oil-exports-fall-8-amid-contract-revisions.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Godadahadagi-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 464 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 401 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 63 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and four land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 58 per cent soils in the microwatershed are very deep (>150 cm), 17 per cent is moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 11 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 17 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 11 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m).  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 1 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0) in soil reaction, 2 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 9 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 64 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) and about 11 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 - 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the entire soils in the microwatershed are non saline (0.75).  About 16 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 29 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 42 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha).  About 12 per cent area is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 75 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 56 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in only 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 80 per cent area and deficient in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 49 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 270(58) 131(28) Sapota - - Maize - 401(86) Guava - - Redgram - 350(75) Pomegranate - 350(75) Bajra - 401(86) Jackfruit - - Groundnut - 51(11) Jamun - 270(58) Sunflower 122(26) 223(49) Musambi 148(32) 202(44) Cotton 270(58) 131(28) Lime 148(32) 202(44) Bengal gram 270(58) 131(28) Cashew - - Chilli - 401(86) Custard apple 350(75) 51(11) Tomato - 190(41) Amla 131(28) 270(58) Drumstick - 350(75) Tamarind - 270(58) Mulberry - - Marigold - 401(86) Mango - - Chrysanthemum - 401(86)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The data indicated that there were 91 (65.47 %) men and 48 (34.53 %) were women in the micro watershed.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.6, marginal farmers' was 4.7, small farmers' was 3.6, semi medium farmers' was 4 and in medium farmers' it was 4.3.  The data indicated that 25 (17.99 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 57 (41.01 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (35.97 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 7 (5.04 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Godadahadagi-1 had 56.83 per cent illiterates, 16.55 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.88 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.39 per cent of them had high school education, 4.32 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.72 per cent them had Diploma education, 2.88 per cent of them had degree education and 0.72 per cent of them had other education.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were general labourers and 2.86 per cent of them were housewives.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 56.12 per cent of the household members, 2.16 per cent were agricultural labours, 7.19 per cent were general labours, 0.72 percent were in government service, 22.30 per cent of them were students and 10.79 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 55.56 per cent were general labour, 27.78 per cent were students and 16.67 per cent were housewives.  The results showed no participation of households in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 2.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 51.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 31.43 per cent of the households possess pucca house and 14.29 per cent of the households possess semi pucca house.  The results showed that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 22.86 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 8.57 per cent of the households possess car/four wheeler and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs. 9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.45100, car/four wheeler Rs.426666 and mobile phone was Rs.3326.  About 22.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 22.86 per cent of them possess bullock cart, 8.57 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 11.43 per cent of them possess tractor and 5.71 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The average value of plough was Rs.2962, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 22500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000, the average value of weeder was Rs. 66 and the average value of tractor was Rs.700000. 2  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess crossbred cows, 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep and 2.86 per cent of them possess poultry birds.  Landless and marginal farmers did not possess any livestock, small farmers possessed bullock, local cow, crossbred cow and poultry birds, semi medium farmers possessed bullock, local cow and sheep, medium farmers possessed bullock and local cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro-watershed was 1.70, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 17.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 17.23.  About 82.86 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers have opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.86 savings respectively.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of landless, 33.33 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 15.38 per cent semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, households of the Godadahadagi-1 micro-watershed possess 35.56 ha (59.60%) of dry land and 24.10 ha (40.40%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.31 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 10.04 ha (94.30%) of dry land and 0.61 ha (5.70%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 23.21 ha (77.37%) of dry land and 6.79 ha (22.63%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 16.71 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 314828.72 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 284074.88. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 736666.66 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 457775.98 for dry land Rs. 1317333.33 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 211037.49 for dry land and Rs. 324031 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 230310 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, canal was the major irrigation source for 17.14 per cent of the farmers in the micro watershed.  In case of semi medium farmers there were 5.13 ha of irrigated land and in case of medium farmers there was 5.67 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown cotton (17.73 ha), paddy (20.19 ha), redgram (8.1 ha), sorghum (8.96 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton and redgram. 3  Small farmers have grown cotton, paddy and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, paddy, redgram and sorghum. Medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy. The cropping intensity in Godadahadagi-1 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent in marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 32112.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52291.19. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 20178.90, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.63.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 38250.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 143796.34. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 105545.88. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.76.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25741.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33826.84. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8085.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.31.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 32067.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56986.43. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 24919.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.78.  The results indicate that, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate which includes 12.50 per cent of small farmers, 23.08 per cent of semi medium farmers and 16.67 per cent of medium farmers. Around 22.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that the average income from business Rs. 14285.71, wage Rs. 45428.57, agriculture Rs. 100342.86 and dairy farm Rs. 1714.29.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14601.02. For landless farmers it was Rs.4800, marginal farmers it was Rs 8666.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 9535.71, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 23.378.21 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 13472.22.  The results indicate that, households have planted 68 neem trees, 11 tamarind trees, 9 banyan trees and 1 acacia tree in their field. Households have also planted 2 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity for land development was Rs.3333 for marginal farmers, Rs.5000 for small farmers, Rs.1538.46 for semi medium farmers and Rs. 5000 for medium farmers. Around 27.78 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton and redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Paddy was sold to the extent of 94.74 per cent and sorghum 85 per cent. 4  Around 8.57 per cent of the households sold their produce to agent/traders, 74.29 per cent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.86 per cent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets.  Around 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 12.5 per cent small farmers and 16.67 per cent of medium farmers faced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  Around 85.71 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  Around 20 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 12.50 per cent of small, and 46.15 per cent of semi medium farmers. Summer ploughing was adopted by 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 91.43 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 8.57 percent of the households used LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 94.12 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small farmers, semi medium and medium farmers respectively.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the population.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 33.33 per cent of marginal, 75 per cent of small, 23.08 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium famers had sanitary toilet facility.  Around 8.57 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 91.43 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  About 88.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 80 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of the marginal, 62.50 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, vegetables, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 82.86 per cent of the households. Pulses were adequate for 77.14 per cent of the households; oilseeds were adequate for 65.71 per cent and fruits for 51.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (48.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (37.14%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (71.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (68.57%), inadequate extension services (28.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80%) and less rainfall (37.14%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hatti-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 387 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soil, two per cent by rock out crops and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 2 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 23 per cent is sandy at the surface, 33 per cent is loamy and 32 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 88 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m).  An area of about 11 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 26 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 62 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 7 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0 to 6.5), 53 per cent has neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3) soils, 11 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 5 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) ,7 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 4 per cent soils very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 38 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 34 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 69 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 19 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 11 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 75 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire the area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 54 (14) 55(14) Pomegranate 35(9) 151(39) Maize 36(9) 73(19) Guava - 114(29) Bajra 36(9) 150(39) Jackfruit 35(9) 79(20) Redgram 35(9) 50 (13) Jamun 35(9) 126(32) Bengal gram 18(5) 91 (24) Musambi 53 (14) 133 (34) Groundnut - 231(60) Lime 53 (14) 133 (34) Sunflower 53(14) 56 (15) Cashew 1(<1) 149(39) Cotton 53 (14) 56(15) Custard apple 54(14) 287(74) Chilli 36(9) 1(<1) Amla 36(9) 305 (79) Tomato 36(9) 1(<1) Tamarind 35(9) 49(13) Drumstick 35(9) 192 (50) Marigold 35(9) 74(19) Mulbery 35(9) 306(79) Chrysanthemum 35(9) 74(19) Mango 35(9) 31(8) Jasmine 35(9) 2(<1) Sapota 35(9) 79(20) Crossandra 35(9) 26(7) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 2 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change.SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 126 (55.75%) men and 100 (44.25%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 8, small farmers' was 6.75, semi medium farmers' was 5.9 and medium farmers' was 6.4.  The data indicated that, 46 (20.35%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 108 (47.79%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (23.89%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (7.96%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Hatti-1 had 40.27 per cent illiterates, 0.44 per cent functional literate and masters, 27.43 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.54 per cent of them had middle school education, 12.39 per cent of them had high school education, 4.42 per cent of them had PUC education and 4.87 per cent had diploma education.  The results indicate that, 58.33 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 33.33 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 31.86 per cent of the household members, 34.51 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.44 per cent were in government service, 2.21 per cent were in private service, 19.47 per cent were in students, 3.98 per cent were housewives and 4.42 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 2.78 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 19.44 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 16.67 per cent of them possess semi pacca house.  The results show that 86.11 per cent of the households possess TV, 75 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder player, 5.56 per cent of them possess bicycle, 41.67 per cent o f the households possess motor cycle, 8.33 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 86.11 per cent of them possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,193, mixer grinder was Rs. 2,100, bicycle was 1,750, motor cycle was Rs. 44,722, landline was 4,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,769.  About 16.67 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 11.11 per cent of them possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill ,transplanter/grinder and tractor, 5.56 per cent of them possess irrigation pump 2 and harvester, 22.22 per cent of them possess sprayer, 13.89 per cent of them possess sprinkler and 66.67 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,333, plough was Rs. 1,770, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,000, transplanter/grinder was Rs. 5,000, irrigation pump was Rs. 10,000, tractor was Rs. 600,000, sprayer was Rs. 1,800, sprinkler was Rs. 3,500, weeder was Rs.57, and the average value of harvester was Rs. 80.  The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 44.44 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent possess crossbreed cow and buffalo, 11.11 per cent possess sheep, 5.56 per cent possess goat and 8.33 per cent possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.59, average own labour (women) available was 1.30, average hired labour (men) available was 12.15 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.52. The results indicate that, 72.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Hatti-1 micro-watershed possess 26.24 ha (48.12%) of dry land and 28.29 ha (51.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.92 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 7.49 ha (11.78%) of dry land and 2.31 ha (23.55%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 11.78 ha (56.18%) of dry land and 9.19 ha (43.82%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (19.42%) of dry land and 16.79 ha (80.58%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 327,656.95 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 438,168.81. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 685,159.50 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 387,189.19 for dry land and Rs. 866,666.66 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 254,464.29 for dry land and Rs. 413,298.11 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 172,900 for dry land and Rs. 392,913.96 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 41.67 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 50.65 meters.  The results indicate that small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.31 ha, 9.19 ha and 16.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (10.95 ha), groundnut (7.53 ha), lemon (0.51ha), maize (34.26 ha), sunflower (9.72 ha), sorghum (10.16 ha), 3 green gram (4.53 ha), Bengal gram (3.03 ha) and sajje (6.17 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra and maize. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize and sajje. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, lemon, maize, sajje and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, sajje and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hatti-1 micro-watershed was found to be 79.37 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27094.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22929.65. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -4164.85. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53213.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67512.18. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14299.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.27.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 34426.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42187.75. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 7761.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The total cost of cultivation for lime was Rs. 56737.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 291732.29. The net income from lime cultivation was Rs. 234994.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.14.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 27,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61,250, for small farmers it was Rs. 91,062.50, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 106,825 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 228,857.14.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,642.66. For landless households it was Rs. 3,320, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 10,375, for small farmers it was Rs. 23,218.75, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,250 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 21,183.67.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 37 coconut, 261 lemon and 7 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 2 eucalyptus and acacia, 108 neem, 3 tamarind and banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 128.14 per cent, ground nut was sold to the extent of 98.59 per cent, lime was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and maize was sold to the extent of 102.25 per cent.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,500 for land development, Rs. 1,166.67 for irrigation facility, Rs. 944.44 for improved crop production, Rs.222.22 for improved livestock management and Rs.83.33 for orchard development/ maintenance. 4  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 11.11 per cent for land development and improved crop production, 8.33 per cent for irrigation facility and 5.56 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent of the households for land development, improved crop production and orchard development/ maintenance and 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that, about 44.44 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders. 58.33 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 16.67 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market.  The results indicated that, 2.78 per cent of the households used head load, 25 per cent of the households used cart and 91.67 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 25 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 77.78 per cent of the households used firewood and 22.22 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 58.33 per cent of the households; bore well was the source of drinking water for 36.11 per cent of the households and 2.78 per cent of the households used lake/tank in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 47.22 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.22 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 25 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 41.67 per cent, milk and egg was adequate for 75 per cent and meat was adequate for 61.11 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 27.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 58.33 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 55.56 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 63.89 per cent, milk and egg was inadequate for 25 per cent and meat were inadequate for 33.33 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 11.11 per cent of the households. 5  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 27.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (36.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (33.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (36.11%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (41.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.22%),inadequate extension services (5.56%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.67%), less rainfall (58.33%) and source of Agritechnology information (25%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Balachakra-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 575 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 555 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 21 ha by by others (Habitation water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 96 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 65 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100-150 cm), 16 per cent soils are moderately shallow to moderately deep (50-100), whereas 15 per cent soils are shallow to very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 1 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope) soils.  An area of about 82 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 15 percent soils are severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 71 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 25 per cent soil are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) and 90 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 17 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 31 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) and 65 percent is low (4.5ppm) in an area of 96 per cent and <1 per cent is deficient (<4.5ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(3) 355(62) Guava - 9(2) Maize 2(<1) 369(64) Sapota - 9(2) Bajra 9(2) 362(63) Pomegranate - 23(4) Groundnut 7(1) 27(5) Musambi 14(2) 9(2) Sunflower 14(2) 9(2) Lime 14(2) 9(2) Redgram - 345(60) Amla 9(2) 40(7) Bengal gram 14(2) 10(2) Cashew - 7(1) Cotton 14(2) 3(<1) Jackfruit - 9(2) Chilli 2(<1) 47(8) Jamun - 14(2) Tomato 2(<1) 33(6) Custard apple 21(4) 28(5) Brinjal 2(<1) 33(6) Tamarind - 14(2) Onion 2(<1) 7(1) Mulberry - 9(2) Bhendi 2(<1) 47(8) Marigold 2(<1) 47(8) Drumstick - 23(4) Chrysanthemum 2(<1) 47(8) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Balachakra-2 micro-watershed among them 2 (5.71%) were landless, 10 (28.57 %) were marginal farmers, 12 (34.29 %) were small farmers, 7 (20 %) semi medium farmers, 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 124 (60.49 %) men and 81 (39.51 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless was 6.5, marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 5.5, semi medium farmers' was 6.14, medium farmers' was 8 and large farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 39 (19.02 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 92 (44.88 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 61 (29.76 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.34 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Balachakra-2 had 59.02 per cent illiterates, 0.49 per cent of them had Functional Literate, 22.93 per cent of them had primary school, 1.46 per cent of them had middle school, 6.83 per cent of them had high school education, 2.93 per cent of them had PUC and 0.98 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 48.57 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 26.34 per cent of the household members, 39.02 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.49 per cent were private service and Trade & Business, 20 per cent were students, 11.22 per cent were housewives and 2.44 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.49 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Cooperative bank.  The results indicate that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 57.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 57.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 51.43 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 25.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess Auto and Landline Phone and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,000, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1583.33, motor cycle was Rs. 56,888, Landline Phone was Rs. 2,000, Auto was Rs. 120,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,970.  About 2.86 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 8.57 per cent of the households possess plough and 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder.  The result shows that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 35,000, plough was Rs. 1,500 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 51. 2  The results indicate that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks, per cent of the households possess 22.86 local cow and 2.86 per cent of the households possess Buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.26, average own labour (women) available was 1.56, average hired labour (men) available was 11.33 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.42.  The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Balachakra-2 micro-watershed possess 17 ha (38.71 %) of dry land, 21.90 ha (49.87 %) of irrigated land and 5.02 ha (11.43 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 4.27 ha (84.59 %) of dry land, 0.53 ha (10.59 %) of irrigated land and 0.24 ha (4.82 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Small farmers possess 8.69 ha (65.32 %) of dry land, 4.17 ha (31.34 %) of irrigated land and 0.45 ha (3.35 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (65.32 %) of dry land and 7.08 ha (62.06 %) of irrigated land and 1.50 ha (13.12 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Medium farmers possess 1.21 ha (13.64 %) of dry land and 4.86 ha (54.55 %) of irrigated land, 2.83 ha (31.82 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Large farmers possess 5.26 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 482,123.30, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 462,326.31 and the average value of Permanent Fallow land was Rs. 292,814.52. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 609,297.91 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 804,621.22 and the average value of Permanent Fallow land was Rs. 493,999.99. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 494,690.26 for dry land, Rs. 695,436.89 for irrigated land and Rs. 898,181.80 for Permanent Fallow land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 282,285.71 for dry land, Rs. 691,600 for irrigated land and Rs. 367,162.16 for Permanent Fallow land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 411,666.67 for dry land, Rs. 226,416.67 for irrigated land and Rs. 141,142.86 for Permanent Fallow land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 152,000 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 16 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.77 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had an irrigated area of 0.53 ha, 4.17 ha, 8.53 ha, 4.86 ha and 5.26 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (16.08 ha), groundnut (13.96 ha), Paddy (6.39 ha) and Sorghum (1.79 ha). Marginal farmers have grown sorghum, cotton, paddy and groundnut. Small farmers have grown cotton, groundnut and paddy. 3 Semi medium farmers have grown sorghum, cotton, paddy and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown groundnut and paddy. Large farmers have grown cotton.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Balachakra-2 micro-watershed was found to be 90.16 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 37926.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69904.76. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 31978.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.84.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 32863.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41451.87. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8588.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.26.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60722.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63445.98. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 2723.85. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.04.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 71170.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65539.52. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -5630.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.92.  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 25,000 for landless, Rs. 69,955 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 99,860, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 112,857.14, medium farmers it was Rs. 110,006.67 and large farmers it was Rs. 345,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 16,517.12. For landless it was Rs. 7,500, marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,769.44, for small farmers it was Rs. 5,583.33, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13,010.20, medium farmers it was Rs. 25,111.11 and large farmers it was Rs. 262,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 26 Mango in their field and 8 Mango and 2 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 4 Eucalyptus, 99 Neem and 2 Banyan trees in their field and 1 Neem tree in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,685.71 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7,457.14 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,371.43 for improved crop production and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 571.43 improved livestock management.  The results indicated that Government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 5.71 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 28.57 per cent for land development, 8.57 per cent for irrigation 4 facility, 20.0 per cent for improved crop production and 11.43 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 92.47per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 93.18 per cent and Sorghum was sold to the extent of 88.46 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 97.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 11.43 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, Pulses were adequate for 68.57 per cent of the households, Vegetables were adequate for 88.57 per cent, Fruits were adequate for 11.43 per cent, Milk and were adequate for 97.14 per cent and Meat and Egg were adequate for 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, Pulses were inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 100 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 11.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 85.71 per cent and milk was inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, Wild animal menace on farm field (20 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (42.86 %), High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80 %), High rate of interest on credit (74.29 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (14.29 %), Inadequate extension services (2.86 %) and Low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Haligeri-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatersheds. The present study covers an area of 410 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97per cent is covered by soils, 3 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) in soil depth.  Entire area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 47 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of all the soils is 337 kg/ha) in 53 per cent area.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 2 per cent area, 67 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and high (>1.0 ppm) in about 28 per cent.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 5 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 6 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 118 (29) 156 (38) Pomegranate - 189 (46) Maize - 71 (17) Guava - 71 (17) Bajra 71 (17) - Jackfruit - 71 (17) Red gram - 188 (46) Jamun - 189 (46) Bengalgram 117 (29) 157 (38) Musambi 93 (23) 95 (23) Groundnut 46 (11) 25 (6) Lime 93 (23) 95 (23) Sunflower 93 (23) 95 (23) Cashew - 25 (6) Cotton 117 (29) 157 (38) Custard apple 188 (46) 86 (21) Chilli 25 (6) 46 (11) Amla 71 (17) 203 (50) Tomato 25 (6) 46 (11) Tamarind - 164 (40) Drumstick - 189 (46) Marigold - 275 (67) Mulberry 46 (11) 102 (25) Chrysanthemum - 275 (67) Mango - 46 (11) Jasmine - 157 (38) Sapota - 71 (17) Crossandra - 188 (46) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 70 (50.36%) men and 69 (49.64%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 3.79, small farmers' was 4.2, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 4.25.  The data indicated that, 26 (18.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 58 (41.73%) were in 16-35 years of age, 37 (26.62%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (12.95%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Haligeri-1 had 33.09 per cent illiterates, 33.81 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.76 per cent of them had middle school education, 11.51 per cent of them had high school education, 9.35 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.72 per cent did ITI and 3.60 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 91.43 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.74 per cent of the household members, 53.24 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.14 per cent were students, 2.16 per cent were children and 0.72 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 91.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 45.71 per cent of the households possess TV, 37.14 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.86 per cent of them possess bicycle, 22.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of them possess car/four wheeler and 77.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,012, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,900, bicycle was Rs. 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 31,250, car/four wheeler was Rs.1,50,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,912.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess harvester, 8.57 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 54.29 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,012, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,900, bicycle was Rs. 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 31,250, car/four wheeler was Rs.1,50,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,912. 2  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess harvester, 8.57 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 54.29 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 16,000, plough was Rs. 2,033, tractor was Rs. 466,666, harvester was Rs. 32,000, chaff cutter was Rs. 2320 and the average value of weeder was Rs.30.  The results indicate that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 5.68 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.86.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Haligeri-1 micro-watershed possess 30.53 ha (78.47%) of dry land and 8.38 ha (21.53%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.77 ha (95.26%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (4.74%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.49 ha (87.15%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (12.85%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.56 ha (83.51%) of dry land and 1.30 ha (16.49%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.71 ha (60.09%) of dry land and 5.79 ha (39.91%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 271,716.37 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 334,106.28. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 532,062.97 for dry land and Rs. 1,234,999.95 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 218,422.99 for dry land and Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 182,850.09 for dry land and Rs. 463,124.99 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 80,306.55 for dry land and Rs. 207,272.73 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning and 8 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 7.66 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 0.81 ha, 1.30 ha and 2.43 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (37.51 ha), sunflower (5.79 ha), Bengal gram (3.01 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), bajra (0.81 ha) 3 and groundnut (0.49 ha). Marginal farmers have grown all the above crops except sunflower. Small farmers, semi medium farmer and medium farmers have grown maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Haligeri-1 micro-watershed was found to be 126.03 per cent.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households borrowed from commercial bank, 16.67 per cent of them borrowed from friends/relatives, 38.89 per cent of the households borrowed from grameena banks, 5.56 per cent of the households borrowed from money lender and 38.89 per cent of the households borrowed from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 109,488.89.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households availed credit for the purpose of agricultural production and 9.09 per cent of them availed credit for the purchase of agricultural implements/farm machinery.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the credit borrowed from private credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 38857.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42316.33. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 3458.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 35645.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48370.83. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 12725.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 47010.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57892.21. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 10881.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23. 4  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 39164.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56810. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 17645.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 27107.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56337.56. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 29229.85. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.08.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 55222.99. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42422.25. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -12800.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 58696.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -14236.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.14 per cent of the households opined that it was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 80,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 83,167.86, for small farmers it was Rs. 81,990, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 128,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 148,750.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,285.54. For landless households it was Rs. 8,859.38, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,125.20, for small farmers it was Rs. 7,510, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 14,562.50 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 15,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 14 coconut trees and 2 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 10 teak and 7 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, bengalgram was sold to the extent of 58.33 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 60 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 99.86 per cent, sorghum was sold to the extent of 33.33 per cent and sunflower was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 62.86 per cent of them sold their produce in regulated market.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test. 5  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 54.29 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 45.71 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.43 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 17.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 11.43 per cent, milk was adequate for 20 per cent, eggs were adequate for 11.43 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.57 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 11.43 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 82.86 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 88.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was inadequate for 77.14 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 85.71 per cent and meat was inadequate for 74.29 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 77.14 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (25.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (14.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (2.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (11.43%), inadequate extension services (14.29%), less rainfall (57.14%) and source of agri-technology information (11.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bandehalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 669 ha in Bandehalli-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 85 per cent is covered by soils, 15 per cent by habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 150 cm) soils.  About 30 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 43 per cent loamy soils and 12 per cent sandy at the surface.  An area of about 85 per cent has non-gravelly and 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 21 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) and about 6 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 46 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 35 per cent low (20 ppm) in about 11 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 8 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 10 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 0.2 ppm).  About 85 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Bandehalli-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16 (2) 448 (67) Sapota - 51 (8) Maize - 189 (28) Guava - 51 (8) Red gram - 189 (28) Pomegranate - 417 (62) Bajra - 527 (79) Jackfruit - 10 (1) Ground nut - 139 (21) Jamun - 219 (33) Sunflower 9 (1) 367 (55) Musambi 0.38 (<1) 417 (62) Cotton 67 (10) 386 (58) Lime 0.38 (<1) 417 (62) Bengalgram 67 (10) 387 (58) Cashew - - Chilli - 454 (68) Custard apple 87 (13) 377 (56) Tomato - 138 (21) Amla - 464 (69) Drumstick - 417 (62) Tamarind - 219 (33) Mulberry - 10 (1) Marigold - 504 (75) Mango - 8 (1) Chrysanthemum - 504 (75) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Bandehalli-2 micro-watershed among them 5 (14.29 %) were landless, 8 (22.86 %) were marginal farmers, 18 (51.43 %) were small farmers and 4 (11.43 %) were semi medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 94 (53.71 %) men and 81 (46.29 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.6, marginal farmers' was 4.62, small farmers' was 5.16 and semi medium farmers' was 5.5.  The data indicated that, 44 (25.14 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 78 (44.57 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 41 (23.43 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (6.86 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bandehalli-2 had 54.86 per cent illiterates, 20.57 per cent of them had primary school, 4 per cent of them had middle school, 8.57 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC, 0.57 per cent of them had Diploma and ITI and 3.43 per cent of them had Degree education and 1.14 per cent of them had masters.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 20 per cent of the household members, 49.71 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.14 per cent were Housewives, 0.57 per cent were in Private Service, 25.71 per cent were students and 2.86 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.57 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in NGOs.  The results indicate that 2.86 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 80 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.14 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC.  The results show that 51.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess Refrigerator, 8.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 31.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,083, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,466, Refrigerator was Rs. 6,000, bicycle was Rs. 1,500, motor cycle was Rs. 41,818 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,872.  About 14.29 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 28.57 per cent of them possess plough, 11.43 per cent of them possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill and sprayer and 28.57 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 26,000, plough was Rs. 5,050, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 6,625, tractor was Rs. 450,000, sprayer was Rs. 2,600, and the average value of weeder was Rs. 39.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 5.71 per cent of the households possess Local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 5.71 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.46 and average own labour (women) available was 1.51, average hired labour (men) available was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.40.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.38, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 8.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.38. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.67 and average own labour (women) was 1.72, average hired labour (men) was 11.72 and average hired labour (women) available was 14.33. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.75, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 12.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 14.  The results indicate that, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bandehalli-2 micro-watershed possess 33.02 ha (88.12 %) of dry land and 4.45 ha (11.88 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.54 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 19.39 ha (85.69 %) of dry land and 3.24 ha (14.31 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.09 ha (86.96 %) of dry land and 1.21 ha (13.04 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 311,853.40 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 583,818.18. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 577,777.77 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 304,238 for dry land and Rs. 617,500 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 148,200 for dry land and Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 de-functioning and 3 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.92 meters. 3  The results indicate that small farmers had an irrigated area of 4.13 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (11.56 ha), cotton (22.3 ha) and Paddy (3.64 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram and cotton. Small farmers have grown red gram, cotton and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bandehalli-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 6.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank and Commercial Bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 9,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 34387.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52014.28. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 17626.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.51.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 22963.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41329.76. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 18366.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.8.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 40081.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65866.67. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 25784.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.64.  The results indicate that, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 91,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 81,743.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 115,472.22 and semi medium farmers it was Rs. 115,750. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 9,244.17. For landless households it was Rs. 10,480, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,968.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,827.55 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13,625.  The results indicate that, households have planted 10 teak, 50 Neem, 2 Banyan and 7 tamarind trees in their field and also 5 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 571.43 for land development and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,285.71 for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent each for irrigation facility. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent each for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 46.67 per cent and red gram to the extent of 78.02 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 8.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 77.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 2.86 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Cooperative marketing Society.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 68.57 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and 31.43 per cent of the households used bore well.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 94.29 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 31.43 per cent of the households, vegetables were adequate for 28.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent, Milk were adequate for 20 5 per cent, Eggs were adequate for 22.86 per cent and meat were adequate for 22.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 65.71 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, meat were inadequate for 71.43 per cent of the households and milk were inadequate for 57.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 88.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (11.43 %), High rate of interest on credit, Lack of marketing facilities in the area and Inadequate extension services (8.57 %), High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40 %), Low price for the agricultural commodities (22.86 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (37.14 %), less rainfall (31.43 %) and Source of Agri-technology information (40 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gabbur-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 344 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 90 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm).  About 54 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 36 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 57 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 15 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 75 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 62 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 28 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 17 per cent area.  An area of about 89 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 1 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 11 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) and 88 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 8 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 180(52) 70(20) Sapota 103(30) 32(9) Maize 28(8) 179(52) Pomegranate 103(30) 136(40) Bajra 119(35) 182(53) Guava 103(30) 33(9) Groundnut 32(9) 86(25) Jackfruit 103(30) 32(9) Sunflower 155(45) 69(20) Jamun 74(22) 154(45) Cotton 135(39) 115(33) Musambi 155(45) 84(25) Red gram 103(30) 121(35) Lime 155(45) 84(25) Bengalgram 61(18) 224(65) Cashew 60(18) 74(22) Chilli 77(22) 112(32) Custard apple 180(52) 125(36) Tomato 77(22) 155(45) Amla 162(47) 143(42) Brinjal 45(13) 232(67) Tamarind 74(22) 123(36) Onion 29(8) 144(42) Marigold 60(18) 190(55) Bhendi 29(8) 204(59) Chrysanthemum 60(18) 190(55) Drumstick 103(30) 125 (365) Jasmine 60(18) 129(38) Mulberry 60(18) 97(28) Crossandra 103(30) 96(28) Mango 74(22) 28(8)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 93 (64.14%) men and 52 (35.86%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 4.8, semi medium farmers' was 3.71 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 39 (19.6 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 82 (41.21 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 60 (30.15 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (9.05%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gabbur-4 had 37.93 per cent illiterates, 25.52 per cent of them had primary school education, 0.69 per cent of them had middle school, ITI and master's education, 15.17 per cent of them had high school education, 6.90 per cent of them had PUC and degree education and 1.38 per cent of them had diploma.  The results indicate that, 53.13 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 43.75 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 36.55 per cent of the household members, 37.24 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.69 per cent was in government service and housewives, 2.76 per cent was in private service and children and 19.31 per cent of them were student.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 9.38 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 37.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 12.50 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 40.63 per cent of them possess semi pacca house.  The results shows that 90.63 per cent of the households possess TV, 81.25 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 96.88 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results shows that the average value of television was Rs. 7,068, mixer grinder was Rs. 2,076, motor cycle was Rs. 31,437, mobile phone was Rs. 2,712.  About 12.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 34.38 per cent of the households possess plough, 9.38 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 3.13 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump and sprinkler, 3.13 per cent of the households possess tractor, 18.75 per cent of them possess sprayer, 40.63 per cent of them possess weeder and 3.13 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 16,200, the average value of plough was Rs. 1,425, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.2,000, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 25,000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 450,000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.5,5838, the average 2 value of sprinkler was Rs.1,666 and the average value of weeder Rs.53 and the average value of earth remover/ duster was Rs.3,000.  The results indicate that, 31.25 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 21.88 per cent of the households possess local cow and 25 per cent of the households possess 46.88.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.90, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.65.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 9.38 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gabbur-4 micro watershed possess 17.26 ha (41.12%) of dry land and 24.71 ha (58.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 0.4 ha (45.87%) of dry land and 0.48 ha (54.13%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 12.35 ha (65.18%) of dry land and 6.6 ha (34.82 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 4.5 ha (35.5%) of dry land and 8.18 ha (64.50%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 9.45 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 341,768.29 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 392,384.70. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 741,000 for dry land and Rs. 2,302,542.42 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 340,019.67 for dry land and Rs. 636,441.72 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,691.82 for dry land and Rs. 342,037.58 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 169,178.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 de-functioning and 19 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 59.38 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 61.91 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 2.10 ha, small farmers had 7.52ha, semi medium farmers had 6.58 ha and medium farmers had 9.05 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (30.66 ha), bajra (4.3 ha), tomato (1.74 ha), red gram (1.62 ha), groundnut (1.34 ha), brinjal (0.83 ha), onion and paddy (0.81 ha), ladies finger (1.01 ha) and drumstick and sunflower (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gabbur-4 micro watershed was found to be 83.89 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 51704.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 90365.86. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 38661.68, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.75.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27985.15. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39263.95. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 11278.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.4.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 30365.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30642.85. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 277.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 35982.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100.  The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 38117.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06. The total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 26945.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18525.00. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. -8420.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.69.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies Finger was Rs. 35705.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78113.75. The net income from ladies Finger cultivation was Rs. 42408.53, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.19.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 46251.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47424. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 1172.45, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03. The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 37319.15. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88195.11. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 50875.96, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.36.  The total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 26977.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47918.00. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 20940.58, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.78.  The total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 22455.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22230. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. - 225.44, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 34674.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57205.63. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 22530.71, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The results indicate that, 34.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and another 46.88 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Also, 6.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. 4  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 20,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 172,333.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 84,856.25, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 74,714.29 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 187,250.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 24,974.84. For landless households it was Rs. 6,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs 91,666.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,105.93, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10,428.57 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 85,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 113 coconut trees, 1 guava trees, 22 mango trees and 3 pomegranate trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 32 teak trees, 46 neem trees, 1 acacia trees and 3 tamarind trees in their field and also 4 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.3,250 for land development, Rs.1,437.5 for irrigation facility, Rs.2,437 for improved crop production and Rs. 437.50 for livestock management.  The results indicate that, Loan from bank was the major source of investment for 40.63 per cent of households for land development and improved crop production, 18.75 per cent for irrigation facility and 9.38 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 80.39 per cent, brinjal was sold to the extent of 96 per cent, drumstick was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, ladies finger was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 97.62 per cent, onion was sold to the extent of 91.67 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 57.14 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent, sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and tomato was sold to the extent of 98.57 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 53.13 per cent of the households sold their produce in agent/traders, 21.88 per cent of the households sold their produce in local/ village merchant, 25 per cent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 12.50 per cent have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 112.50 per cent of the farmers have used tractor as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 22.73 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 34.38 per cent of the households are interested in soil testing.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 37.50 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 50 5 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the source of drinking water for 9.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, 78.13 percent used fire wood and 21.88 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 28.13 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 28.13 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and milk were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 90.63 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 46.88 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 56.25 per cent, egg were adequate for 75 per cent of the and meat were adequate for 68.75 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maskanahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 668 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 506 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 138 ha by rock outcrops and about 24 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 30 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 46 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25 - 75 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 60 per cent soils are loamy and 12 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 55 per cent of the microwatershed area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity,11 per cent is medium(101-150 mm/m), 19 per cent is low (51- 100 mm/m) and 30 per cent is very low (0.75) in an area of 3 per cent and medium (0.5- 0.75%) in an area of 72 per cent.  About 2 per cent is low (57 kg/ha) in an area of one per cent.  About 42 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium and 33 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of about 11 per cent.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 109(16) 197(29) Guava - 89(13) Maize - 306(46) Sapota - 89(13) Bajra - 305(46) Pomegranate - 198(30) Groundnut - 117(18) Musambi - 198(30) Sunflower 109(16) 89(13) Lime - 198(30) Red gram - 89(13) Amla 128(19) 177(26) Bengal gram 109(16) 127(19) Cashew - 19(3) Cotton 109(16) 127(19) Jackfruit - 89(13) Chilli - 306(46) Jamun - 109(16) Tomato - 197(29) Custard apple 198(30) 107(16) Brinjal 19(3) 286(43) Tamarind - 109(16) Onion 89(13) 216(32) Mulberry - 89(13) Bhendi 89(13) 216(32) Marigold - 306(46) Drumstick - 198(30) Chrysanthemum - 306(46) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 102 (61.45%) men and 64 (38.55%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.5, marginal farmers' was 4.4, small farmers' was 4.9, semi medium farmers' was 5.6 and medium farmers' was 3.7.  The data indicated that, 18 (16.87%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (45.78%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30.72%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (6.63%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Maskanahalli-2 had 64.42 per cent illiterates, 20.48 per cent of them had primary school, 5.42 per cent of them had middle school, 3.61 per cent of them had high school education, 2.41 per cent of them had PUC and 1.2 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 91.43 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.86 per cent of the household's heads were General Labour and housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 72.29 per cent of the household members, 5.42 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.81 per cent were in general labour and housewives, 0.60 per cent were private service, 14.46 per cent were student and 2.41 per cent were children.  The results show that, 1.2 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in raitha sangha and 98.80 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in local institution.  The results indicate that 31.43 per cent of the households possess thatched, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.29 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 71.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 57.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 5.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle and auto, 28.57 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tempo and computer/ laptop, 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,456, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,707, bicycle was Rs. 3,000, motor cycle was Rs. 42,800, auto was Rs. 57,500, tempo was Rs. 200,000, mobile phone was Rs. 1,814 and computer/laptop was Rs. 10,000.  About 14.29 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 57.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 20 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 91.43 per cent of the households possess weeder and 25.71per cent of the households possess thresher. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 13,560, plough was Rs. 1,945, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,550, sprayer was Rs. 4,100, weeder was Rs. 89 and the average value of thresher was Rs. 158.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.79, average own labour (women) available was 1.82, average hired labour (men) available was 11.12 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.30.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Maskanahalli-2 micro-watershed possess 25.16 ha (58.57%) of dry land and 17.79 ha (41.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.36 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 17.8 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.46 ha (100%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 11.34 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 381,467.19 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 306,151.92. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 624,972.49 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 280,809.46 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 479,761.91 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 207,229.56 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 17.7 meters.  The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.62 ha, 3.72 ha and 6.48 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown groundnut (18.93 ha), cotton (11.96 ha), horse gram (5.98 ha), red gram (2.49 ha), green gram (1.86 ha), mandarin (1.62 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha) and paddy (0.81 ha). Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, cotton, red gram and green gram. Small farmers have grown groundnut, cotton, horse gram, green gram and mandarin. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut and horse gram. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, cotton and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Maskanahalli-2 micro-watershed was found to be 85.8 per cent.  The results indicate that, 57.14 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 62.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. 3  The results indicate that, 4.55 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 2,727.27.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households not paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 45643.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82923.49. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 37280.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.82.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 33417.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57542.62. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 24125.39. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 30757.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42762.27. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 12005.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 36668.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 172900. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 136231.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.72.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 19353.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19042.22. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. -3112. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The total cost of cultivation for Maize was Rs. 195857. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24082.50. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 4497.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The total cost of cultivation for Horse gram was Rs. 17866.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40883.93. The net income from Horse gram cultivation was Rs. 23016.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.29.  The results indicate that, 57.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 72,416.67 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 139,481.67, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 112,600 and medium farmers it was Rs. 143,550. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,953.17. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,625, for small farmers it was Rs. 10,231.48, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,666.67 and medium farmers it was Rs. 9,187.50.  The results indicate that, households have planted 4 coconut, 2 lemon and 12 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 eucalyptus, 59 neem, 5 tamarind and 4 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7,686.14 for land development; households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 371.43 for irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,657.14 for improved crop production and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 800 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 65.71 per cent for land development 5.71 per cent for irrigation facility, 45.71 per cent for improved crop production and 14.29 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 71.43 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 86.63 per cent, horse gram was sold to the extent of 66.67 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 93.33 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 60 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 68.75 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 105.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant.  The results indicated that, 102.86 per cent of the households have used tractor and 2.86 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 91.43 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.41 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. 5  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 94.29 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 80 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 68.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 5.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 80 per cent, egg were adequate for 22.86 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, oilseeds and milk were inadequate for 14.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 88.57 per cent, egg were inadequate for 68.57 per cent and meat were inadequate for 91.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 91.43 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases, high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals and lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (17.41%), (80%), high rate of interest on credit (80%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), inadequate extension service (5.71%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (71.43%) and Source of Agri-technology information(2.86%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalhalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 569 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soil and 1 per cent by water bodies and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 7 Land Management Units  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 38 per cent is loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 61 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 32 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 40 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 59 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 19 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 37 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 4 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 41 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 18 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 51 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 48 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 21 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient in 96 per cent of the area and sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 2 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 16 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 44 (8) 241 (43) Pomegranate 39(7) 170(30) Maize 39(7) 246 (43) Guava 39(7) 128(23) Bajra 110(19) 266(47) Jackfruit 39(7) 128 (23) Redgram 39(7) 113 (20) Jamun - 209(37) Bengal gram 5(<1) 297(52) Musambi 44 (7) 165(29) Groundnut 71(13) 175 (31) Lime 44(7) 165 (29) Sunflower 44(8) 108 (19) Cashew 39(7) 128(23) Cotton 5(<1) 281(49) Custard apple 115(20) 281(49) Chilli 39(7) 204(36) Amla 110(19) 286 (50) Tomato 39(7) 204(36) Tamarind - 81(14) Drumstick 39(7) 133 (24) Marigold 39(7) 246(43) Mulbery 39(7) 153(27) Chrysanthemum 39(7) 246(43) Mango - 39(7) Jasmine 39(7) 204(36) Sapota 39 (7) 128(23) Crossandra 39(7) 204(36)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kalhalli mciro-watershed is located at 15012'48.492'' to 150 11'30.734'' North and East 750 59' 24.617'' to 75056'47.418''covering an area of about 569.51 ha coming under Kallahalli, Byrapura and Alavandi villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 46 houaeholds in the micro watershed, 5 (10.87%) were landless, 12 (26.09%) were marginal, farmers 18 (39.13%) were small farmers, 8 (17.39%) were semi medium and 3 (6.52%) medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 135 (58.95%) men and 94 (41.05%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' and small farmers' was 4.9, semi medium farmers' was 5.5 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents 42 (18.34%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 99 (43.23%) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (25.33%) were in 36-60 years of age and 30 (13.1%) were above 61 years of age.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 37.55 per cent illiterates, 20.52 per cent of them had primary school, 12.66 per cent of them had Middle school education, 18.78 per cent of them had high school, 3.49 per cent of them had PUC and 3.93 per cent of them had degree education.  About, 26.09 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 58.7 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.17 per cent of the household heads were trade and business.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 16.59 per cent of the household members, 48.47 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.87 per cent were government and trade and business, 17.03 per cent student, 0.44 per cent were housewives and 4.37 per cent were children.  The household possess, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in local institutions.  In the study area, 21.74 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 63.04 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.70 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC and 6.52 per cent of the households possess semi pacca.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 63.04 per cent of the households possess TV, 15.22 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 19.57 per cent of the household's posses bicycle, 47.83 per cent of the households possesses motor cycle and 93.48 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.39 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart and sprayer, 13.04 per cent of the households possess plough, 4.35 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 2.17 per 2 cent of the households possess irrigation pump and tractor, 39.13 per cent of the households possess weeder and 6.52 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 15.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks and sheep, 19.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 4.35 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.17 per cent of the households possess goat and poultry birds.  The average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.15, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 10.5 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.8.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 54.44 ha (83.65%) of dry land and 10.64 ha (16.35%) of irrigated land.  Marginal farmers possess 8.75 ha (100%) of dry land.  Small farmers possess 22.25 ha (93.22%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (6.78%) of irrigated land.  Semi medium farmers possess 16.35 ha (88.86%)of dry land and 2.07 ha (11.14%) of irrigated land.  Medium farmers possess 6.91 ha (49.84%) of dry land and 6.95 ha (50.16%) of irrigated land.  There were 12 functioning and 22 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 26.09 per cent of the farmers.  The major crops have grown sunflower (22.1 ha), bajra (10.68 ha), maize (12.94 ha), sorghum (6.77 ha), groundnut (6.64 ha), Bengal gram (3.66 ha), cotton (1.69 ha), pea (2.84 ha), sugarcane (1.26 ha), sajje and sunflower (0.92 ha), red gram (0.81 ha), chick pea (0.61 ha) and horse gram (0.4 ha).  The cropping intensity in Kalhalli Micro-watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent.  The sample households possessed 58.7 per cent of the households have bank and 10.87 per cent have savings account.  About 4.35 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The sample households possessed, 38 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 6 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative bank, 56 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank and 19 per cent of the households have borrowed from SHGs/CBOs.  The household posess, the average credit amount borrowed by households in microwatershed was Rs, 35000.  The households possessed, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The households possess, 100 per cent of the households do not repay their loan from institutional sources.  The households possess, 100 per cent of the households do not repay their loan from private sources. 3  The households possess, 68.75 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 31.25 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Pea, Groundnut, Sugarcane, Bajra, Sunflower, Bengal gram, Red gram, Horse gram, sorghum and cotton was Rs. 35497.48, 28205.39, 93696.92, 90775.21, 39299.87, 27402.59, 31256.71, 69552.02, 14999.24, 38286.97 and 19850.01 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.44, 1:5.13, 1:0.96, 1:5.03, 1:0.64, 1:1.33, 1:1.21, 1:1.43, 1:0.99, 1:0.97 and 1:1.92 respectively.  Further, 15.22 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 21.74 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate, 13.04 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 23.91 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The average annual gross income was Rs. 108,850 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 78,211.11, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 155,330 and medium farmers it was Rs. 290,083.33.  The average annual expenditure is Rs. 15,002.26. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 14,208.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,408.56, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13,156.25 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 111,666.67.  Sampled households have planted 94 coconut and 1 mango trees in their field to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have planted 1 teak, acacia and peepul tree, 53 neem and 3 banyan trees in their field and also 1 neem trees in their backyard in their field to cultivate forest species.  Households have an average investment capacity of of Rs. 3,760.87 for land development, Rs. 282.61 for irrigation facility, Rs. 1,717.39 for improved crop production and Rs.1,108.7 for improved livestock management.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned; loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 30.43 per cent for land development, 6.52 per cent for irrigation facility, 19.57 per cent for improved crop production and 8.7 per cent for improved livestock management.  Own funds was the source of additional investment for 23.91 per cent for land development, 21.74 per cent for improved crop production and 8.7 per cent for improved livestock management.  Regarding marketing channels, 52.17 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 56.52 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 2.17 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  Further, 10.87 per cent of the households have used cart and 100 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation.  Majority of the households 26.09 per cent have incidence of soil and water erosion problems. 4  The household possess, (67.39%) were interested towards soil testing.  The households possess, 13.04 per cent of households adopted field bunding structure was adopted.  The households possess, 16.67 per cent have field bunding condition was good and severely damaged and 66.67 per cent of the field bunding condition was slightly damaged.  The households possess, 8.7 per cent of the NGOs are involved in soil and water conservation structure and 4.35 per cent of the farmers are involved in soil and water conservation structure.  The households possess, 91.3 per cent of the households used fire wood and 8.7 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45.65 per cent, 54.35 per cent of the households used bore well and 2.17 per cent of the households used lake/tank in the micro watershed.  Kerosene lamp was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 28.26 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possess BPL cards and 2.17 per cent of the sampled households does not possessed PDS cards.  Cereals were adequate for 60.87 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 43.48 per cent, oilseeds and meat were adequate for 26.09 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 58.7 per cent, fruits were adequate for 13.04 per cent, milk were adequate for 56.52 per cent and egg were adequate for 28.26 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 13.04 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 26.09 per cent, oilseed were inadequate for 30.43 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 4.35 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 28.26 per cent, milk and egg were inadequate for 15.22 per cent, and meat were inadequate for 8.7 per cent of the households.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 63.04 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (80.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (73.91%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (69.75%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals, high rate of interest on credit and Low price for the agricultural commodities (76.09%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (43.48%), inadequate extension service (32.61%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (30.43%), less rainfall (13.04%) and Source of Agri-technology information (6.52%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanakapur-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 433 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soil, one per cent by rock out crops and one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others and 150cm) soils.  About 10 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 62 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 27 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 55 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 4 per cent has nearly level (0-1%), 90 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 4 per cent has gently sloping lands (3-5%).  An area of about 51 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 44 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) and 3 per cent is severely eroded.  An area of about 47 per cent is slightly acid (pH6.0-6.5) 41 per cent has neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3) soils, 10 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 0.75%) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 76 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 23 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 49 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 9 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 95(22) 82 (19) Pomegranate 32(7) 187(20) Maize 42 (10) 135 (31) Guava 1(<1) 163(38) Bajra 77(18) 190(44) Jackfruit 32(7) 131(30) Redgram 30(7) 103 (24) Jamun 29(7) 167(39) Bengal gram 53(12) 112(26) Musambi 85(20) 134(31) Groundnut 19(4) 316 (73) Lime 85(20) 134(31) Sunflower 83 (19) 61 (14) Cashew 13(3) 153(35) Cotton 82(19) 84(19) Custard apple 130(30) 296(68) Chilli 56(13) 47(11) Amla 77(18) 349 (81) Tomato 56(13) 47(11) Tamarind 29(7) 59(14) Drumstick 32(7) 268(62) Marigold 41(9) 136(32) Mulberry 32(7) 347(80) Chrysanthemum 41(9) 136 (32) Mango 29(7) 6(2) Jasmine 41(9) 80(19) Sapota 32(7) 131(30) Crossandra 41(9) 104(24) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 91 (55.15%) men and 74 (44.85%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 6.5, marginal farmers' was 4.2, small farmers' was 5.45, semi medium farmers' was 6.29 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 28 (16.97%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (43.64%) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (28.48%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.91 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kanakapur-1 had 30.30 per cent illiterates, 35.15 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.42 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.30 per cent of them had high school education, 11.52 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.21 per cent of them did ITI, 4.85 per cent of them had degree education and 2 persons were doing masters.  The results indicate that, 87.10 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 9.68 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers and 3.23 per cent were in government service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.18 per cent of the household members, 46.67 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.61 per cent were in government service, 1.82 per cent were in private service, 27.88 per cent were students, 3.03 per cent were housewives and 1.82 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 38.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 48.39 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 16.13 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results shows that 96.77 per cent of the households possess TV, 83.87 per cent of the households possess mixer grinder, 25.81 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results shows that the average value of television was Rs.4300, mixer grinder was Rs.1800, motor cycle was Rs.28214, mobile phone was Rs.1435, bicycle was Rs.1222 and refrigerator was Rs.15000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 29.03 per cent of them possess plough, 6.45 per cent of them possess tractor, 38.71 per cent of them posses sprayer, 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder, 3.23 per cent of them possess harvester and 3.23 per cent of them possess thresher. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.15400, plough was Rs.1900, the average value of tractor was Rs. 250000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1064, the average value of harvester was Rs.3500, thresher was Rs.50000 and the average value of weeder Rs.40.  The results indicate that, 29.03 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 12.90 per cent of the households possess local cow and 3.23 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, average own labour (women) available was 1.65, average hired labour (men) available was 6.74 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.39.  The results indicate that, 96.77 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kanakapur-1 micro watershed possess 22.29 ha (38.40%) of dry land and 35.76 ha (61.60%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 273633 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 392264.  The results indicate that, there were 9 functioning and 11 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 29.03 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 22.71 meters.  The results indicate that, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 7.50 ha and 2.02 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (16.5 ha), bajra (9.5 ha), cotton (2.63 ha), groundnut (4.63 ha), navane (0.81 ha), sesamum (0.81 ha), sorghum (0.81 ha), sunflower (0.88 ha), tomato (2.11 ha) and Bengal gram (0.73 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kanakapur-1 micro watershed was found to be 86.25 per cent.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households have bank account and 38.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 23916. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26575.54. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 2659.54, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11. 3  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 24282.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23280.87. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -1001.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 36079.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35197.50. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -882.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 24352.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70110. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 45757.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.88.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 36632.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45304.12. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8671.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 35183.37. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67306.06. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 32122.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.91.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 36338.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111921.87. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75583.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.08.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 18748.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36309. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 17560.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.94.  The total cost of cultivation for sesamum was Rs. 27478.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sesamum cultivation was Rs. -2778.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The results indicate that, 6.45 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 9.68 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Around 12.90 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.30000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.60810, for small farmers it was Rs.100354, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.98328, and for medium farmers it was Rs.105000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7730. For landless households it was Rs.7500, for marginal farmers it was Rs 2405, for small farmers it was Rs. 8834, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7632, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 50000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 18 coconut and 3 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 3 teak trees, 71 neem trees and 3 tamarind trees in their field and 3 neem trees in their backyard. 4  The results indicated that, bajra, chilly, groundnut, ladies finger, mango, paddy, tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Maize was sold to the extent of 93.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 100 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets. But some farmers also sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, but 12.90 per cent have also used cart.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 16.13 per cent of the households adopted field bunding and 3.23 per cent have adopted summer ploughing.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who have adopted field bunding opined that they require full replacement of the structure.  The results indicated that, government was the main agency that was involved in constructing soil conservation structures in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 38.71 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 61.29 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent used fire wood and 12.90 per cent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 32.26 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 30 per cent of the marginal, 18.18 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL card and 9.68 per cent did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 38.71 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 6.45 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 12.90 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 16.13 per cent, eggs were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 54.84 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate 5 for 77.42 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 58.06 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 35.48 per cent, milk was inadequate for 35.48 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 61.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 83.87 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (48.39%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (41.94%), inadequacy of irrigation water (12.90%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (25.81%), high rate of interest on credit (3.23%), low price for the agricultural commodities (25.81%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (22.58%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (45.16%), less rainfall (29.03%) inadequate extension services (16.13%) and source of agri technology information (12.90). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

En los últimos años hemos sido testigos de una notable dinámica social que ha ocasionado que la humanidad haya venido cambiando de manera vertiginosa. Los avances científicos y tecnológicos logrados han dado como resultado que la sociedad sea cada día más libre, plural, informada, autónoma, participativa y consciente de sus derechos. La ciencia jurídica no puede quedarse atrás, el carácter progresivo de las normas jurídicas exige que éstas estén en constante desarrollo y evolución, provocando que su número y ámbito de protección sean mayores acorde a la dinámica social existente. Quienes hemos albergado el ideal de justicia teniendo como instrumento el derecho, nos vemos obligados a adoptar una actitud de apertura hacia el nuevo conocimiento, descubrimiento y preocupación por actualizar nuestro ordenamiento jurídico. Es preciso señalar que la democracia y laicidad de un Estado se mide en virtud de las libertades que otorga a sus gobernados, a través de su amplio catálogo de derechos fundamentales garantizados coactivamente. Dentro de esta inquietud se expone el presente trabajo de investigación, bajo el sistema hipotético deductivo en el que empleamos fundamentos jurídicos e ideas construidas hace tiempo. Hemos realizado un estudio sobre la muerte digna, eutanasia o derecho a disponer de la propia vida, como nuevo derecho o "derecho constitucional no escrito" en el ordenamiento jurídico mexicano, fundando la afirmación anterior, en lo siguiente: a) en los principios pro homine , autonomía y solidaridad que irradian en todo el ordenamiento jurídico mexicano; b) en los derechos humanos de dignidad humana, vida, vida digna, libre desarrollo de la personalidad, integridad física y libertad ideológica, consagrados dentro del "bloque de constitucionalidad" del ordenamiento jurídico mexicano, unos en la propia Constitución y otros, dentro de los tratados internacionales que México ha suscrito con otros países en materia de derechos humanos; c) a través del derecho comparado, analizando las leyes de Holanda (2002), Bélgica (2002) y Luxemburgo (2009), que permiten la eutanasia activa directa, así como las leyes de los Estados de Oregón (1994), Washington (2008), Vermont (2013) y California (2015), de los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica (EUA), las cuales permiten el suicidio medicamente asistido y; d) en base a los diversos criterios jurisprudenciales extranjeros e internacionales, como son las sentencias C-239/97, de 20 de mayo, de la Corte Suprema de Justicia de Colombia, y Carter v. Canadá, de 6 de febrero de 2015, del Tribunal Supremo Canadiense, las cuales determinaron que el derecho a la muerte digna era un verdadero derecho fundamental en sus respectivos ordenamientos jurídicos. Asimismo, las diversas sentencias de EUA, como la dictada por el Tribunal Supremo Federal en el caso Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health, de 1990, en la que dicho Tribunal reconoció el derecho a morir con fundamento en el principio de autonomía firmemente establecido por el common law y confirmado por la Cláusula del Debido Proceso de la Decimocuarta Enmienda de la Constitución. Criterio que en 1997, anuló la misma Suprema Corte al resolver los casos Washignton v. Gluucksberg, y Vacco v. Quill. Así como en un plano internacional se analizó la sentencia emitida por la Corte Europea de Derechos Humanos relativa al caso Diane Pretty v. the United Kingdom, de 29 de abril de 2002, donde la Corte determinó de forma rotunda, que del derecho a la vida no se podía deducir que existiera un derecho a la muerte, como de ningún otro derecho. 2. Contenido de la investigación. El vocablo eutanasia proviene del griego eu que significa bien y thánatos que significa muerte . Es decir, buena muerte. En el ámbito doctrinal la eutanasia ha sido definida según Diez Ripollés como: "aquél comportamiento que, de acuerdo con la voluntad o interés de otra persona que padece una lesión o enfermedad incurable, generalmente mortal, que le causa graves sufrimientos y le afecta considerablemente a su calidad de vida, da lugar a la producción, anticipación, o no emplazamiento de la muerte del afectado". Hay múltiples clasificaciones de la eutanasia, sin embargo, la más típica es la que distingue entre eutanasia activa y pasiva. La eutanasia activa, indica un facere de un sujeto agente sobre el paciente, que utilizando determinados medios, acelera, y trae la muerte del otro. A su vez, la eutanasia activa se sub-clasifica en directa e indirecta; la directa se refiere a la culminación de la vida de una persona con salud extremadamente menoscabada mediante el acto del otro ; la indirecta, es la aplicación de determinados fármacos para paliar el dolor aunque lleven aparejada la consecuencia de acotar la vida . Por el contrario, la eutanasia pasiva indica un non facere, es decir, omitir o suprimir o no adoptar medidas de alargamiento de la vida . Dentro del marco normativo vigente de la eutanasia en México, respecto de la eutanasia activa podemos decir que es una conducta penalmente ilícita tipificada como el delito de ayuda al suicidio, contemplado en el artículo 312 del CPF, el cual a la letra señala: "El que prestare auxilio o indujere a otro para que se suicide, será castigado con la pena de uno a cinco años de prisión; si se lo prestare hasta el punto de ejecutar él mismo la muerte, la prisión será de cuatro a doce años". Así mismo, el artículo 313, del mismo ordenamiento legal, agrega: "Si el occiso o suicida fuere menor de edad o padeciere alguna de las formas de enajenación mental, se aplicarán al homicida o instigador las sanciones señaladas al homicidio calificado o a las lesiones calificadas". La eutanasia pasiva e indirecta son conductas no punibles en México, las cuales son consagradas desde la Declaración de Manzanillo de 1996, revisada en Buenos Aires en 1998 y en Santiago en 2001, Declaración Ibero-Latinoamericana sobre Derecho, Bioética y Genoma Humano y, la Declaración Universal sobre el Genoma Humano y los Derechos Humanos de 1997, las cuales contemplan el derecho a adoptar medidas sobre la propia salud; asimismo, dichas conductas son regulada en la Carta de los Derechos Generales de los Pacientes en México de 2001, el Reglamento de la Ley General de Salud en Materia de Prestación de Servicios de Atención Médica de 1989 y reformado en 2014, y el Anteproyecto del Código-Guía Bioética de Conducta Profesional de la Comisión Nacional de Bioética de 2001; asimismo, a través de las doce leyes de voluntad anticipada de las diversas entidades federativas del país que han legislado al respecto, siendo pionera la ley del Distrito Federal publicada en enero de 2008, misma que generó una reforma a la Ley General de Salud en el 2009, incluyendo en dicha ley el derecho a emitir consentimiento informado por escrito para la aplicación o no de tratamientos, medicamentos y cuidados paliativos adecuados a su enfermedad, necesidades y calidad de vida. Las entidades federativas que cuentan con ley de voluntad anticipada son además del Distrito Federal, Coahuila, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosí, Michoacán, Hidalgo, Guanajuato, Chihuahua, Guerrero, Nayarit, Edo. de México y Colima, además, el Estado de Tabasco no cuenta con una ley en la materia, sin embargo, reformó su ley local de salud, e incluyó el derecho a emitir voluntad anticipada. De entre los derechos y principios que podrían ser fundamento de la existencia de un derecho a la muerte digna en México se encuentra el derecho a la vida, el cual es un derecho constitucional no escrito en el orden jurídico mexicano, mismo que ha sido reconocido de forma expresa en los numerosos instrumentos de carácter internacional que México ha suscrito en materia de derechos humanos, tal como lo prevé el art. 4 de la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, el art. 3 de la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos y el art. 6 del Pacto Internacional de los Derechos Civiles y Políticos, por citar algunos; asimismo, el derecho a la vida ha sido reconocido de manera tácita en las diversas legislaciones penales que condenan con pena privativa de libertad a quien priva de la vida a otro. Cuando en un conflicto jurídico determinado se encuentra en colisión el derecho a la vida frente a otro derecho, se pueden adoptar dos posturas, la primera de ellas es la que concibe al derecho a la vida como súper derecho, es decir, un derecho que se encuentra por encima de los demás derechos, postura que ha sido adoptada por el TCE en la sentencia 53/1985, de 11 de abril, la cual versa sobre el aborto y a la letra se señaló: "… la proyección de un valor superior del ordenamiento jurídico constitucional -la vida humana- y constituye el derecho fundamental esencial y troncal en cuanto es el supuesto ontológico sin el que los restantes derechos no tendrían existencia posible…". La segunda de las posturas señaladas se refiere a considerar el derecho a la vida en un plano de igualdad con respecto a los otros derechos y valores constitucionales, postura que ha sido adoptada por la Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República de Colombia en la sentencia C-239/1997, de 20 de mayo, referente al homicidio por piedad, la cual señaló: "La Carta no es neutra frente al valor de la vida sino que es un ordenamiento claramente a favor de él, ya que comporta efectivamente un deber del Estado de proteger la vida…El Estado no puede pretender cumplir esa obligación desconociendo la autonomía y la dignidad de las personas… Y si los derechos no son absolutos, tampoco lo es el deber de garantizarlos, que puede encontrar límites en la decisión de los individuos." En el mismo sentido se encuentra la sentencia emitida por el Tribunal Supremo Canadiense relativa al caso Carter vs. Canadá de 6 de febrero de 2015, sobre la eutanasia, en la cual resolvió: "… la santidad de la vida es uno de nuestro valores sociales más fundamentales. Pero también abarca a la vida, a la libertad y a la seguridad de la persona durante el paso de la muerte. Es por esta razón que la santidad de la vida ya no exigirá que toda vida sea preservada a toda costa". Por otra parte, la Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación se ha sostenido en la segunda de las posturas aludidas, considerando en el año de 2009 al resolver el amparo directo 6/2008, que la dignidad humana constituye un derecho fundamental, el cual es la fuente, base y condición de los demás derechos, del que se desprende el derecho a la vida. Dicho criterio fue reiterado por la misma Corte en octubre de 2014 al resolver el amparo directo 1200/2014, agregando que la importancia de la dignidad humana es tal, que se consagra como la base y condición para el disfrute de todos los demás derecho. Por nuestra parte, coincidimos con la segunda de las posturas indicadas, y en concordancia con Pilar Molero , el presupuesto necesario para ejercer cualesquier derecho es poseer vida, empero, ese no es argumento suficiente para sostener que el derecho a la vida es el derecho superior; por ende, el derecho a la vida, ni es ilimitado ni es prócer, por lo que en aquellos casos que entre en colisión con otros valores se debe acudir a la ponderación y determinar qué valor debe prevalecer. Otro derecho que podría ser fundamento de la existencia de un derecho a la muerte digna en México es el derecho a la dignidad humana, al respecto, el reconocimiento de la dignidad humana en el ámbito legislativo tuvo su nacimiento en la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos, adoptada y proclamada por la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, el 10 de diciembre de 1948 , para extenderse luego a diferentes leyes supremas, sobre todo a las del mundo occidental . La Constitución mexicana hace uso en los preceptos 1, 2, 3, 4, 25 y, 123 de locuciones que tienen correspondencia con dicha dignidad. En el ámbito jurisprudencial interno, la dignidad humana ha sido objeto de innúmeros pronunciamientos, el Pleno de la SCJN en octubre de 2014 al resolver el amparo directo 1200/2014, manifestó que la dignidad humana no debe ser confundida con un precepto puramente moral… merecedor de la más amplia protección jurídica, reconocido en la propia Constitución; el cual funge como un principio jurídico que permea en todo el ordenamiento, pero también como un derecho fundamental, que debe ser respetado, cuya importancia es capital, ya que es la base y condición para el disfrute de los demás derechos humanos y el desarrollo integral de la personalidad. De igual manera la SCJN afirmó que: "La dignidad humana es un derecho humano general cuyo medio de reconocimiento y garantía son los derechos específicos" . En sentido parecido, parte de la doctrina alemana sostiene que la dignidad humana es un derecho fundamental, tal es el caso de Benda , quien considera que el reconocimiento que hace la Ley Suprema Alemana en el artículo 1.1, de la dignidad humana, es de un derecho fundamental, con todo y garantías. En contrasentido el español Ignacio Gutiérrez ha argüido que la dignidad humana no es un derecho fundamental, sino es un concepto excesivamente endeble, y su empleo conlleva riegos, y tres dificultades específicas: 1) ya que es un concepto ambiguo; 2) en permanentemente desarrollo y; 3) a diferencia de otros valores del ordenamiento, como la libertad e igualdad, se identifica pues, con el ser humano como tal. En base a lo anterior, discurrimos que la dignidad humana en el derecho positivo mexicano se configura como principio, valor y derecho fundamental superior a todos los demás derechos de su misma clase, deduciendo lo anterior de los numerosos precedentes jurisprudenciales del último intérprete de la Constitución Mexicana. 3. Conclusión. Consideramos afirmar la existencia de un derecho a morir con dignidad en el orden constitucional mexicano, el cual fulgura como un derecho constitucional no escrito, mismo que cobraría vigencia a partir de la interpretación evolutiva de los derechos fundamentales de vida, dignidad humana, vida digna, libre desarrollo de la personalidad, libertad ideológica e integridad personal, y en los principios del Estado de derecho mexicano, pro homine, solidaridad y autonomía de la voluntad, reconocidos por la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos en los artículos 1, 3, 4, 13, 24, 25, 29, 31, fracción IV y 123; aunados a diversos instrumentos internacionales suscritos por México y constitutivos del bloque de constitucionalidad mexicano, formando la base o punto de partida desde la cual los individuos cuentan con la libertad de decidir sobre su vida cuando a su juicio, su vida ha perdido toda calidad o les resulte indigna como consecuencia de graves afectaciones físicas y/o psíquicas, producto de una enfermedad incurable y/o terminal. En este sentido, la Suprema Corte Colombiana en la sentencia C-239/1997, de 20 de mayo y el Tribunal Supremo de Canadá en la sentencia Carter v. Canadá, de 6 de febrero de 2015, aseveraron la existencia de una derecho constitucional a la muerte digna en sus respectivos ordenamientos jurídicos. La primera, con base en el derecho a la vida, principio de dignidad humana y solidaridad social y el respeto al derecho al libre desarrollo de la personalidad. El segundo, con base en el derecho a la vida, libertad y seguridad, entendiendo el derecho a la seguridad, con la connotación que en México se le da al derecho a la integridad personal y en el principio de autonomía. De igual manera, la Suprema Corte estadounidense, en la sentencia relativa al caso Cruzan v. Director del Departamento de Salud de Misuri, de 1990, reconoció el derecho a morir, con base al principio de autonomía, establecido por el common law y confirmado por la Cláusula del Debido Proceso de la Decimocuarta Enmienda de la Constitución, criterio que fue anulado por la misma Suprema Corte en 1997, en las sentencias relativas a los casos Washington v. Gluucksberg, y Vacco v. Quill, donde negó la existencia de un derecho constitucional al suicidio asistido amparado en el derecho a la privacy; sin embargo, remitió el asunto del ámbito federal al estatal, aduciendo que independientemente de que no exista un derecho constitucional al suicidio, nada impide que los estados puedan permitirlo. Aunado a esto, también los grandes y reconocidos juristas norteamericanos Ronald Dworkin Thomas Nagel, Robert Nozick, John Rawls, Thomas Scanlon y Judith J. Jhonson , han considerado la existencia de un derecho constitucional a morir. Los anteriores pronunciamientos se encuentran absolutamente opuestos a lo sostenido por la Corte Europea de los Derechos Humanos en la sentencia relativa al caso Diane Pretty v. Reino Unido, de 29 de abril de 2002, en donde la Corte asentó que del derecho a la vida no se puede deducir la existencia de un derecho a la muerte, ni de ningún otro derecho; en el mismo sentido se encuentra la sentencia emita por el TCE 120/1990, de 27 de junio, relativa a la huelga de hambre de los presos del Grapo, manifestando que el derecho a la vida no es un derecho de libertad, de tal forma que el artículo 15 CE, que contempla el derecho a la vida, no faculta a los individuos para disponer de ella, y que la existencia de esa facultad, tampoco podría fundarse en la autodeterminación personal, ya que éste no es no derecho fundamental.

In einer Welt, die sich zunehmend der Wichtigkeit des Umweltschutzes bewusst wird, ist es an der Zeit, über ein Thema zu sprechen, das nicht nur unsere Ökosysteme betrifft, sondern auch tiefergreifende soziale Ungerechtigkeiten aufdeckt. Wir sind alle Zeugen und Verursacher des Klimawandels und seiner verheerenden Auswirkungen. Nun wollen wir genauer hinsehen und verstehen, wie dieser Wandel bestimmte Gemeinschaften in unverhältnismäßigem Maß betrifft. Die Rede ist von Umweltrassismus.Im Folgenden soll gezeigt werden, dass Umweltprobleme nicht gleichmäßig auf alle Bevölkerungsgruppen verteilt sind, sondern oft die treffen, die bereits benachteiligt sind. Dafür wird zuerst der Begriff Umweltrassismus aus verschiedenen Perspektiven betrachtet. Anschließend wird an Beispielen genauer aufgezeigt, was für Arten es gibt, bevor es um Lösungsvorschläge gehen wird.In dem Beitrag wird von BIPoC gesprochen. BIPoC steht für "Black, Indigenous and People of Colour". Das Akronym setzt sich also aus politischen Selbstbezeichnungen von Menschen zusammen, die von rassistischer Unterdrückung betroffen sind.Ursprung des Begriffs "Umweltrassismus"?Dass die Folgen des Klimawandels immer verheerender werden, ist nichts Neues. Und dass dies enorme Gesundheitsfolgen mit sich bringt, ist auch bekannt. Dabei wird zwischen direkten (primären) Folgen und indirekten (sekundären und tertiären) Folgen unterschieden. Zu den direkten Folgen zählen eine erhöhte Sterbe- und Erkrankungsrate durch Ereignisse wie Hitzewellen, Überschwemmungen oder Waldbränden. Zu den indirekten Folgen gehören Auswirkungen wie Nahrungsmittelknappheit, Zunahme von Infektionskrankheiten und Allergien. Außerdem gibt es sozial bedingte Folgen, beispielsweise Hungersnöte, Entwicklungsstagnation oder Kriege (Kuehni, Egger 2012, S. 190). Doch was ist, wenn Teile der Erde oder bestimmte Gruppen schlimmer unter den Folgen des Klimawandels leiden als andere? In diesem Zusammenhang wird mittlerweile immer häufiger von "Umweltrassismus" gesprochen.Der Begriff kam Anfang der 1980er Jahre auf. Damals suchte der Bundesstaat North Carolina einen Ort, an dem man mit Polychlorierte Biphenylen (PCB) verseuchte Erde entsorgen kann. Zuerst war eine Entsorgungsdeponie in einem Bezirk mit hauptsächlich weißen Menschen geplant. Eine Bürgerinitiative verhinderte dies. Daraufhin war schnell klar, dass die Deponie in einem der Bezirke mit hauptsächlich schwarzen, armen oder anderweitig benachteiligten Nachbarschaften errichtet werden sollte.1982 wurde beschlossen, die verseuchte Erde in einer kleinen Gemeinde namens Afton zu entsorgen. Diese Stadt liegt in Warren County, dem damals ärmsten Landkreis in North Carolina mit einem schwarzen Bevölkerungsanteil von 65 %. Die Bevölkerung versuchte dagegen anzugehen. Zuerst gerichtlich, doch als das nichts half, gab es über sechs Wochen Sitzblockaden, Straßensperren und Demonstrationen. Dabei wurden mehr als 500 Demonstrierende verhaftet. Doch alle Bemühungen halfen nichts. Die Mülldeponie wurde dennoch gebaut. (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 4-5). Kurz darauf wurde PCB weltweit verboten, da es sich als hochgiftig, krebserregend und erbgutschädigend herausstellte (Warda 2020).Trotz der Niederlage bei dem Bau der Deponie waren diese Proteste von großer Bedeutung und wurden von vielen anderen als Vorbild genommen. Aus Kämpfen gegen diese Art von Umweltrassismus ist schließlich die Bewegung für Klimagerechtigkeit hervorgegangen, welche erstmals Fragen sozialer Gerechtigkeit im Zusammenhang mit umweltpolitischen Aspekten betrachtete (FARN, o.J.). Geprägt wurde der Begriff Umweltrassismus von dem Bürgerrechtler Dr. Benjamin F. Chavis Jr., der an den Demonstrationen in Afton beteiligt war. Er definiert Umweltrassismus als"the intentional siting of polluting and waste facilities in communities primarily populated by African Americans, Latines, Indigenous People, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, migrant farmworkers, and low-income workers" (Ihejirika 2023)Chavis veröffentlichte im Jahr 1987 gemeinsam mit der United Church of Christ (UCC) Kommission eine Studie zum Thema "Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States". Aus der Studie ging hervor, dass drei von fünf BIPoC nahe einer Giftmülldeponie wohnen. In einem Dokumentarfilm sagte Davis:"The issue of environmental racism is an issue of life and death. It is just not an issue of some form of prejudice where someone doesn't like you because of the color of your skin. This is an issue that will take your life away, if you don't get involved." (United Church of Christ 2023 / o.J.).Die Protestaktion und der Film löste eine nationale Debatte über Umweltrassismus aus (United Church of Christ 2023). Die Studie von 1987 wurde bis 2007 fortgesetzt und zeigte, dass nach wie vor eine Ungleichheit herrscht und Menschen aufgrund ihrer Hautfarbe einem höheren Risiko von umweltschädlichen Stoffen ausgesetzt sind. Noch immer werden Mülldeponien eher an Standorten mit einem hohen Anteil an BIPoC erbaut, als dort, wo weiße Menschen leben (Bullard et. al. 2007, S. 155).Seither gibt es immer mehr Studien zu Umweltrassismus. Diese bestätigen, dass PoC viel stärker Umweltrisiken ausgesetzt sind als weiße Personen. Die Ursache liegt vor allem darin, dass die Industrie sich meistens dort ansiedelt, wo hauptsächlich BIPoC leben. Deshalb sind schwarze Menschen 1.5 Mal, Hispanics 1.2 Mal und einkommensschwache Menschen 1.3 Mal so viel Feinstaub ausgesetzt wie weiße Menschen bzw. einkommensstarke (Warda 2020). Durch die Studien und Veröffentlichungen zum Thema Umweltrassismus hat sich der Begriff weiterentwickelt. Der amerikanische Soziologe Robert Bullard definiert ihn als"any policy, practice or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages (where intended oder unintended) individuals, groups or communities based on race or color" (Batiste 2022, S. 1).Das Projekt "ENRICH" (Environmental Noxiousness, Racial Inequities, and Community Health) unterscheidet zwei Bestandteile des Umweltrassismus. Zum einen gibt es die räumliche Verteilungsungerechtigkeit, die sich auf die Standortwahl industrieller Umweltverschmutzer und anderer umweltgefährdender Projekte bezieht. Zum anderen handelt es sich um die Verfahrensungerechtigkeit. Dabei stehen die institutionellen Mechanismen und Richtlinien im Mittelpunkt, welche die Ungerechtigkeit aufrechterhalten (ENRICH o.J.).Umweltrassismus, Klimawandel und Kolonialismus Durch den Klimawandel werden weitere, ganz neue Seiten von Umweltrassismus aufgezeigt. Die Ursachen und Folgen des Klimawandels sind ungleich über den Planeten verteilt. Länder im globalen Süden sind meist viel stärker von den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels betroffen. Und das, obwohl sie deutlich weniger CO2-Emissionen erzeugen als der globale Norden (Warda 2020). Das zeigt, dass die Klimakrise die (globale) soziale Krise und somit den Umweltrassismus in großen Dimensionen enorm beeinflusst. Um dieses Ungleichgewicht von Nord- und Südkugel, welches mit dem Klimawandel einhergeht, zu erfassen, muss der Kolonialismus berücksichtigt werden.Im Zuge der Kolonialisierung kam es zu neuartigen globalen Handels- und Machtbeziehungen, welche bis heute anhalten. Dadurch blühte der globale Norden auf und erreichte Reichtum und Wohlstand (Bendix 2015, S. 273). Die Länder des globalen Südens galten als "Ressourcen- und Absatzmärkte" und halfen den Ländern auf der Nordhalbkugel, ihren Reichtum zu vermehren (Öztürk 2012, S. 2).Viele westliche Firmen wollen günstig in ärmeren Ländern produzieren. Meist haben die ärmeren Länder zudem eine fragile staatliche Struktur. Westliche Länder und Firmen nutzen dies aus und verschmutzen dadurch dort vor Ort die Natur und achten wenig auf Einheimische (Warda 2020). Der globale Süden wird ausgebeutet und leidet unter den massiven Eingriffen in deren Ökosysteme von außerhalb (Ziai 2012, S. 23).Aktuell zeigt sich eine erhebliche Diskrepanz im durchschnittlichen Pro-Kopf-Ausstoß von Emissionen zwischen den ärmsten Ländern, zu welchen Niger, Somalia und die Zentralafrikanische Republik gehören. Dieser Ausstoß ist in den ärmsten Ländern mehr als 140 Mal niedriger als beispielsweise in Deutschland. Dazu kommt die historische Verantwortung des Globalen Nordens hinsichtlich des Klimawandels. Der größte Teil der Emissionen, der sich seit Beginn der Industrialisierung in der Atmosphäre gesammelt hat, geht auf den Globalen Norden zurück (Kurwan 2023).Eine interessante Abbildung zu den Pro-Kopf-CO2-Emissionen im Jahr 2021 findet ihr hier. Dort wird der durchschnittliche Verbrauch von fast jedem Land dargestellt. Durch Klicken auf das Land kann man sehen, dass zum Beispiel Deutschland einen durchschnittlichen Pro-Kopf-Verbrauch an Emissionen von 8.09 hatte. Eine klare Nord-Süd Trennung der Welt ist erkennbar.Damals wie auch heute sind die Länder im globalen Süden zudem stark von der Landwirtschaft abhängig. Ihre Existenz steht babei auf dem Spiel. Um sich vor den Auswirkungen zu schützen, fehlt den Menschen, aber auch den Ländern, oftmals das Geld. Von außerhalb kommt wenig Hilfe und das, obwohl der Klimawandel ein globales Problem ist. Dennoch gibt es auf politischer Ebene einen einseitigen Fokus, welcher nur auf den vergleichsweise geringen Auswirkungen auf den globalen Norden liegt. Die Länder des globalen Südens werden mit den schlimmen gesellschaftlichen und ökologischen Folgeschäden nahezu allein gelassen.Das bedeutet nicht, dass einzelne Personen, welche die Entscheidungen treffen, eine konkrete diskriminierende Absicht haben (Bellina 2022, S. 64), aber dass viele die globalen Konsequenzen außen vor lassen und nicht bedenken. Die Folge? Sie müssen fliehen. Menschen können aufgrund der Probleme, die durch den Klimawandel ausgelöst werden, nicht in ihrer Heimat bleiben (Warda 2020).Laut einem Bericht des Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (iDMC) aus dem Jahr 2015 verlassen seit 2008 jedes Jahr durchschnittlich 26.4 Mio. Menschen, ihre Heimat aufgrund von Naturkatastrophen. Das ist eine Person pro Sekunde. Die Zahl der geflohenen Personen sollen sich in den nächsten Jahren vervielfachen. Hauptursachen hierbei sind wetterbedingte Katastrophen wie Stürme, Überschwemmungen und Sturmfluten. Zu eher schleichenden Umweltproblemen wie Dürren oder dem ansteigenden Meeresspiegel gibt es (noch) keine konkreten Zahlen. Das sind deutlich mehr Personen, die aufgrund von Naturkatastrophen fliehen müssen, als aufgrund von Krieg. Oft stehen Umweltkatastrophen mit anderen Konflikten im Zusammenhang, beispielsweise Wasserknappheit (Yonetani 2015, S. 8). Umweltrassismus beeinflusst also das reale Überleben dieser Menschen.Doch nicht nur zwischen Süd und Nord gibt es Unterschiede. Auch die Einkommensunterschiede innerhalb eines Landes tragen dazu bei. So treffen die Folgen des Klimawandels die Menschen mit weniger Einkommen oft härter. Zum einen, weil sie weniger Wohnraum und somit weniger Rückzugsorte haben, zum anderen haben Einkommensschwache meist auch kein Auto oder eine andere Möglichkeit, am Straßenverkehr teilzunehmen und vor der Katastrophe zu fliehen (Adick 2022).Es kann auch Diskriminierung zwischen Geschlechtern und Generationen geben. Besonders Frauen und Kinder sind von den Folgen der Klimakrise betroffen (Kurwan 2023). Und das, obwohl Männer durchschnittlich mehr zur Klimaerwärmung beitragen als Frauen. Ein Grund dafür ist, dass Warnungen bei Naturkatastrophen größtenteils im öffentlichen Raum stattfinden, Frauen sich allerdings eher zuhause aufhalten und sich dort um Kinder und Haushalt kümmern und darum erst später davon erfahren. Sie sind auch bei der Flucht für Kinder und die Pflege der älteren Angehörigen zuständig (DGVN 2016). Ein weiterer Grund ist gerade bei Flutereignissen, dass Frauen seltener schwimmen können und schlechteren Zugang zu Verkehrsmitteln haben (Kurwan 2023).Eine Folge von Umweltkatastrophen, die nichts direkt mit Umweltrassismus zu tun hat, möchte ich dennoch nicht unerwähnt lassen. Laut Studien steigt die Anzahl der gewaltsamen Übergriffe auf Frauen nach Umweltkatastrophen enorm. Oftmals verdoppeln sich die Zahl der Gewalttaten von Männern gegenüber Frauen. Warum das konkret nach Katastrophen häufiger auftritt, hängt wahrscheinlich mit den fehlenden Strukturen im Chaos zusammen. Frauen sind dadurch weniger geschützt (DGVN 2016).Umweltrassismus kann also gegen einzelne Personen, Gruppen oder auch Länder auftreten. Aus den Kämpfen gegen Umweltrassismus erfolgten verschiedene Bewegungen für Klimagerechtigkeit. Einige sind uns allen bekannt, wie "Fridays for Future". Sie setzen sich nicht nur für Klimapolitik und Klimaschutz ein, sondern auch für Klimagerechtigkeit, wodurch dem Umweltrassismus entgegengewirkt werden soll (Fridays for Future 2020). Es handelt sich dabei also nicht nur um eine Klimabewegung, sondern um eine Klimagerechtigkeitsbewegung.FallbeispieleUm noch deutlicher zu zeigen, was für Arten von Umweltrassismus es auf der Erde gibt und wie oft diese auftreten, werden im Folgenden einige Beispiele aufgeführt.Das erste Beispiel handelt von den USA, genauer gesagt von den Gemeinden eines über 130 km langen Landstrichs entlang des Mississippi von Baton Rounge bis New Orleans in Louisiana. Hier haben sich insgesamt über 150 Ölraffinerien, Kunststofffabriken und andere chemische Anlagen angesiedelt, die viele Emissionen ausstoßen. Und das direkt an den zuvor bestehenden Siedlungen. Gleichzeitig weist der Abschnitt eine sehr hohe Inzidenz- und Sterblichkeitsrate im Vergleich zum Rest der USA auf. Auch die Krebsrate ist viel höher als im Rest des Landes. Aufgrund dessen wird dieser Abschnitt auch "Cancer Alley", die Allee der Krebskranken, genannt. In kaum einem anderen Bundesstaat ist die Luft so schlecht wie in Louisiana (Batiste 2022, S. 1).Doch nicht alle Menschen am Mississippi sind gleichermaßen betroffen. Vor allem die hier lebenden schwarzen Menschen auf der einen Seite des Flusses kämpfen gegen den Krebs. Verantwortlich dafür wird die Industrie gemacht. Auf der anderen Seite des Flusses leben hauptsächlich weiße Menschen, oftmals derselben Gemeinde. Aufgrund von Protesten wurden dort keine Industrieanlagen erbaut. Diese sehen die Industrie mittlerweile als Chance für neue Arbeitsplätze und Steuereinnahmen. Aber nur, wenn sie in einem bestimmten Abstand erbaut werden. Studien haben gezeigt: Je näher die Menschen an den Industrieanlagen wohnen, desto höher das Gesundheitsrisiko. Und da sich die Industrie hier auffällig nahe in Nachbarschaften mit hauptsächlich BIPoC oder Armen angesiedelt haben, gehen diese von einem rassistischen Motiv aus. Sie haben das Gefühl, geopfert zu werden, an zweiter Wahl zu stehen (Schmidt 2023).Eine Studie aus den USA zeigt, dass es eine besonders hohe Sterberate bei BIPoC gibt im Zusammenhang mit Hitzewellen. Vor allem in Großstädten sterben doppelt so viele wie weiße Menschen. Das liegt an den Temperaturdifferenzen innerhalb der schwarzen und weißen Nachbarschaft, welche bei bis zu 1.7° Celsius liegen kann (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 12/13).Doch Umweltrassismus gibt es auch in Deutschland. So wurde durch verschiedene Studien festgestellt, dass es beispielsweise in Kassel eine erhöhte Luftverschmutzung in den Bezirken gibt, in welchen Menschen mit niedrigen sozioökonomischen Status und Migrationshintergrund wohnen (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 9). Auch andere marginalisierte Gruppen, wie Sinti*zza und Rom*nja erleben dies immer wieder. Meistens werden sie in Gegenden mit einer hohen Umweltbelastung geschoben und von Umweltgütern wie sauberem Trinkwasser ausgeschlossen (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 8).Eine neue Studie aus Chicago verdeutlicht, dass Schwarze während der Pandemie für 50 % der Corona-Infektionen und sogar 70 % der Todesfälle verantwortlich waren. Und das, obwohl sie lediglich 30 % der Bevölkerung von Chicago ausmachen. Und auch in Großbritannien zeigt sich, dass schwarze Menschen fast doppelt so häufig wie weiße Menschen einem erhöhten Risiko ausgesetzt sind, an Covid-19 zu sterben (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 13).Ebenso können ganze Länder von Umweltrassismus betroffen sein, wie beispielsweise Senegal. Der globale Süden ist durch Kolonialisierung und jahrhundertelange Ausbeutung viel später in die Industrialisierung eingestiegen. Bis dahin haben die Länder des Nordens schon viel, viel mehr CO2 ausgestoßen, welches über 100 Jahre in der Atmosphäre bleibt. Trotzdem sollen die Länder des globalen Südens genau so viel CO2 einsparen wie die Länder auf der Nordhalbkugel. Gleichzeitig sollen sie die Schulden gegenüber dem globalen Norden abbauen. Das führt dazu, dass Länder im Süden (z.B. Senegal) ihre fossilen Energieträger von Industrienationen ausbeuten lassen, um nicht noch tiefer in die Schulden zu stürzen (Adick 2022).Umweltrassismus bekämpfenDie Bekämpfung von Umweltrassismus wird von Land zu Land unterschiedlich gehandhabt. Der gemeinsame Kern ist jedoch, dass das Leid der betroffenen Personen gemindert werden soll. Diese wollen auf sich aufmerksam machen und gegen das Unrecht ankämpfen. So war es auch bei Cancer Alley. Gemeinsam mit Anwälten wurden Klagen gegen staatliche Einrichtungen oder chemische Fabriken angestrengt (Schmidt 2023). Robert Taylor, der Gründer der Initiative gegen die Chemiefabriken, kämpft für eine bessere Zukunft. Vor allem für die BIPoC-Kinder der Gemeinden. Weitere Forderungen sind Verschärfungen von Vorschriften der EPA (Envioronmental Protection Agency), welche eine unabhängige Behörde der USA ist und sich für den Umweltschutz und den Schutz der menschlichen Gesundheit einsetzt, und eine Wiedergutmachung für die betroffenen und hinterbliebenen Personen (Batiste 2022, S. 29).Mittlerweile hat auch Präsident Joe Biden davon gehört und Taylor ins Weiße Haus eingeladen. Hier soll er verdeutlichen, dass Umweltschutz oberste Priorität hat und somit auch dem Umweltrassismus entgegengewirkt werden kann. Es gibt den Anwohner*innen und Umweltgruppen Hoffnung. Außerdem verlangen sie mehr Forschung zu dem Thema, um besser ihr Leid belegen zu können. Sie glauben, dass die Politik ihnen dann mehr Glauben schenkt (Schmidt 2023). Die daraus resultierende nationale Aufmerksamkeit soll der Wendepunkt von Cancer Alley sein (Batiste 2022, S. 29).Ein weiteres einzigartiges und innovatives Projekt wurde 2012 von Dr. Ingrid Waldron in Kanada ins Leben gerufen. Dabei handelt es sich um das sogenannte ENRICH-Projekt (Environmental Noxiousness, Racial Inequities, and Community Health), welches sich auf die sozialen, ökologischen, politischen und gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen von Umweltrassismus in Mi´kmaq-Gemeinden (Ureinwohner*innen) und Nova Scotia, einer kleinen Provinz in Kanada, spezialisieret (ENRICH o.J.). Die hauptsächlich dort lebenden BIPoC berichten von Krankheiten wie Krebs oder Diabetes, welche aufgrund von Mülldeponien, die 1974 und 2006 eröffnet wurden, hervorgerufen wurden. Außerdem hatten sie kaum Zugang zu sauberem Trinkwasser, da das Wasser viele Giftstoffe enthielt. Der Müll zog zudem Bären, Waschbären und Insekten an (Klingbeil 2016).Das Projekt will Wege finden, um räumliche wie verteilungstechnische Arten des Umweltrassismus in diesen Gemeinden anzugehen und mithilfe der Bürger*innen die Politik bzw. Politiker*innen zum Handeln zu zwingen. Des Weiteren wollen sie national über die Ansiedlung und Regulierung von Industrieanlagen im Zusammenhang mit Umweltrassismus informieren. Das machen sie mithilfe von Interessenvertretungen, gemeinschaftlichem Engagement, Mobilisierung und Kapazitätsaufbau in betroffenen Gemeinden, öffentlicher Bildung, Studierendenausbildung, sektorübergreifenden Partnerschaften, Workshops und Kommunikation (ENRICH o.J.). Auch ihnen ist es in erster Linie wichtig, auf diese Umstände aufmerksam zu machen. Die Beteiligten schafften es, dass im Jahr 2015 zum ersten mal in Kanada ein Gesetzesentwurf zum Thema Umweltrassismus eingebracht und bis zur zweiten Lesung durchgebracht wurde. Allerdings wurde das Gesetz nicht verabschiedet (Klingbeil 2016).Das Projekt sorgte weltweit für Aufsehen. Im April 2018 veröffentlichte Waldron das Buch "There´s something in the water" und verwendete Nova Scotia als Fallbeispiel, um die Auswirkungen von Umweltrassismus und dessen gesundheitliche Folgen auf indigene und schwarze Gemeinschaften in Kanada zu untersuchen. Das Buch erhielt zwei Preise. 2019 wurde der gleichnamige Dokumentarfilm veröffentlicht.Das sind einzelne Projekte, die wichtig sind und von denen Betroffene profitieren können. Jedoch können sie nicht dem globalen Umweltrassismus entgegenwirken, welcher heute enorme Dimensionen angenommen hat. Nicht nur Bevölkerungsgruppen, sondern auch Länder sind unterschiedlich von den Folgen des Klimawandels betroffen. Die Politik kann und muss dagegen ankämpfen. Es gibt schon Lösungsideen, wie dem Umweltrassismus entgegengewirkt werden kann.Ein Prinzip, das dabei beachtet werden sollte, ist das Verursacherprinzip. Dabei sollen nicht nur die aktuellen Emissionen berücksichtigt werden, sondern auch die historische Verantwortung. Das bedeutet, dass beachtet werden muss, welches Land wie viel CO2 in der Vergangenheit ausgestoßen hat. Dadurch verändert sich das CO2-Budget der Länder im Norden. Teilweise wäre das Budget schon komplett aufgebraucht. Außerdem sollen die Nationen des globalen Nordens die Verantwortung als hauptsächliche Verursacher des Klimawandels auf sich nehmen und für die Kosten von Anpassungsstrategien und klimabedingten Schäden in Ländern des globalen Südens aufkommen müssen (Kurwan 2023).Eine weitere Lösung, die das Problem beheben könnte, ist ein Schuldenerlass. Das führt dazu, dass fossile Energieträger des globalen Südes im Boden bleiben können und die Länder das Geld anders investieren können. Beispielsweise in eine Veränderung, die sozial und ökologisch gerecht wäre. Des Weiteren könnten sie mit dem Geld die Klimaanpassung (mit-)finanzieren. Viele Wissenschaftler*innen oder auch der Internationale Währungsfonds (IWF) haben sich positiv zu dieser Lösung geäußert. Somit könnte den ärmeren Ländern mehr finanzieller Spielraum gegeben werden. Das kann ein Hilfsmittel gegen die Ungerechtigkeit sein. Jedoch kann es diese nicht komplett lindern. Der Norden muss definitiv noch mehr investieren. Denn wie schon weiter oben gesagt, hängt die Klimakrise eng mit der sozialen Gerechtigkeit und somit dem Umweltrassismus zusammen.FazitDer Beitrag beleuchtete das komplexe Thema des Umweltrassismus. Der Begriff wurde Anfang der 1980er Jahre geprägt und bekommt immer mehr Bedeutung. Umweltrassismus hat viele Facetten. Es tritt auf, wenn Umweltprobleme und Umweltverschmutzung unverhältnismäßig stark bestimmte Gemeinschaften betreffen. Meist betrifft es die Menschen, die bereits benachteiligt sind.Umweltrassismus ist also nicht nur eine Frage der Umwelt, sondern auch eine der sozialen Gerechtigkeit, wenn nicht sogar eine Frage von Leben und Tod. Neben BIPoC können auch Geschlechter und Generationen sowie ganze Länder direkt oder indirekt betroffen sein. Häufig trifft es Frauen, Kinder und Einkommensschwache am stärksten.Der globale Norden, der historisch für einen Großteil der CO2-Emissionen verantwortlich ist, leidet weniger unter den Folgen des Klimawandels als der globale Süden. Und das, obwohl der Süden deutlich weniger Emissionen verursacht.Um dem Umweltrassismus entgegenzuwirken, gibt es verschiedene Lösungsansätze. Diese reichen von gemeindebasierten Initiativen und internationaler Zusammenarbeit bis hin zu Gerichtsverfahren und politischen Maßnahmen. Ein wichtiger Schritt dabei ist es, die historische Verantwortung anzuerkennen und den globalen Norden zur Verantwortung zu ziehen. Ein Schuldenerlass für die Länder des globalen Südens könnte ihnen zudem finanzielle Ressourcen verschaffen, die sie in umweltfreundliche Technologie stecken können.Mit diesem Beitrag soll ein Bewusstsein für Umweltrassismus geschaffen werden. Das Ziel ist es, dass weniger CO2 freigesetzt wird, um eine nachhaltige Welt zu schaffen, in der Umweltressourcen und Chancen fair verteilt werden und niemand aufgrund seiner Hautfarbe oder seines sozialen Status benachteiligt wird. Es erfordert Engagement auf individueller und globaler Ebene, um die notwendigen Veränderungen herbeizuführen.LiteraturverzeichnisAdick, Katharina (2022): SPEZIAL: Klimagerechtigkeit – So wird Klimaschutz sozialer (Audio-Podcast). In: Quarks Daily. < https://open.spotify.com/episode/7g3b3BPJO9FHbJS9cHyeiB > (30.09.23).Batiste, Joheneisha (2022): Being Black Causes Cancer: Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism. < https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4092077 > (28.09.23).Bellina, Leonie (2022): Environmental Justice. In: Gottschlich, Daniela/Hackfort, Sarah/Schmitt, Tobias/Von Winterfeld, Uta (Hrsg.): Handbuch Politische Ökologie. Majuskel Medienproduktion GmbH: Wetzlar. S. 63-78.Bendix, Daniel (2015): Entwicklung. In: Arndt, Susan/Ofuatey-Alazard, Nadja (Hrsg.): Wie Rassismus aus Wörtern spricht. (K)Erben des Kolonialismus im Wissensarchiv deutscher Sprache. Unrast: Münster, S. 272-278.D. Bullard, Robert/Mohai, Paul/Saha, Robin/Wright, Beverly (2007): Toxic Wastes and Race at Twenty. 1987-2007. A Report Prepared for the United Chruch of Christ Justice & Witness Ministeries. < http://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/unitedchurchofchrist/legacy_url/7987/toxic-wastes-and-race-at-twenty-1987-2007.pdf?1418432785 > (27.09.2023).Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen (DGVN) (2016): Klimagerechtigkeit und Geschlecht: Warum Frauen besonders anfällig für Klimawandel & Naturkatastrophen sind. < https://dgvn.de/meldung/klimagerechtigkeit-und-geschlecht-warum-frauen-besonders-anfaellig-fuer-klimawandel-naturkatastroph > (30.09.23).Environmental Noxiousness, Racial Inequities, and Community Health (ENRICH): Welcome to the ENRICH Project < https://www.enrichproject.org/ > (28.09.23).Fachstelle Radikalisierungsprävention und Engagement im Naturschutz (FARN) (o.J.): Von Umweltrassismus zu Klimagerechtigkeit? Koloniale Kontinuitäten in der Klimakrise. < https://www.nf-farn.de/umweltrassismus-klimagerechtigkeit-koloniale-kontinuitaeten-klimakrise > (28.09.23). 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S. 187-194.Kurwan, Jenny (2023): Klimagerechtigkeit. < https://www.bpb.de/themen/klimawandel/dossier-klimawandel/515255/klimagerechtigkeit/ >Öztürk, Asiye (2012): Editorial. In: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte. Kolonialismus. (44-45). S. 2Schmidt, Sarah (2023): Krebskrank am Öl-Delta. < https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/amerika/krebs-diskriminierung-usa-100.html > (30.09.23).United Church of Christ (2023): A Movement Is Born: Environmental Justice and the UCC. < https://www.ucc.org/what-we-do/justice-local-church-ministries/justice/faithful-action-ministries/environmental-justice/a_movement_is_born_environmental_justice_and_the_ucc/ > (27.09.2023).Warda, Johanna (2020): Ist der Klimawandel rassistisch? Die einen produzieren die Klimakatastrophe, die anderen baden sie aus – diese Annahme beschreibt der Begriff "Klimarassismus". Woher kommt er und was ist dran? < https://www.fluter.de/klimawandel-ist-ungerecht-verteilt > (27.09.2023).Yonetani, Michelle (2015): Global Estimates 2015. 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VIRIBUS VNITIS. DAS BUCH VOM KAISER Viribus Vnitis. Das Buch vom Kaiser ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([V]) Impressum ([VI]) Titelseite ([VII]) [Abb.]: ([VII]) Unter dem höchsten Protectorate ihrer kaiserl. . ([VIII]) [Abb.]: ([VIII]) Inhalt. ([IX]) Mit Bildern u. Zeichnungen von ([X]) Vowort. (XI) Des Kaisers Jugend (XIII) [4 Abb.]: (1)Habsburg. (2)Lothringen. (3)Wappen von Österreich u. der Enns. (4)Wappen von Österreich ob. der Enns. (XIII) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wappen von Salzburg u. Steiermark (2)[Zeitungsausschnitt]: Oesterreichische-kaiserliche privilegirte Wiener Zeitung 189. Donnerstag, den 19. August 1830. (XIV) [Abb.]: Wappen von Kärnten und Krain. (XV) [Abb.]: Wappen von Stadt Triest, Görz und Gradiska. (XVI) [Abb.]: Wappen von Tirol mit Vorarlberg. (XVII) [Abb.]: Wappen v. Böhmen. (XVIII) [Abb.]: Wappen von Mähren und Schlesien. (XIX) [Abb.]: Wappen von Galizien und Bukowina. (XX) [Abb.]: Wappen von Istrien und Dalmatien. (XXI) [Abb.]: Wappen v. Ungarn und Siebenbürgen. (XXII) [Abb.]: Wappen v. Croatien und Slavonien. (XXIII) [Abb.]: Vorstellung des ersten Ministeriums am 2. Dezember 1848. (XXIV) [Gedicht]: Hymne. ([1]) [Abb.]: ([1]) In Wien (3) [Abb.]: Leibbüchenspanner Déjeuner anrichtend. (3) [Abb.]: Leibkammerdiener im Schlafzimmer des Kaisers. * Rudolf Rottner. (4) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser am Arbeitstisch. ([5]) [Abb.]: In der Uniformen-Garderobe. * Leibkammerdiener Eugen Ketterl. (6) [Abb.]: Kaiser und Kaiserin beim Frühstück ihrer Majestät. ([7]) [Abb.]: Gewehrkammer. * Leibkammerdiener Raimund Zrunek. (8) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser fährt aus. ([9]) [Abb.]: Im Bureau des ersten Hofrathes Wetschl. * 1. Regierungsrath Victor Horsetzky Edler von Hornthal; 2. Erster Hofrath Franz Wetschl; 3. Oberbaurath Heinrich Schemfil. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)In der Hofwäschekammer. * 1. Hofwäschebewahrerin Helene Rudler; 2. Hofwäschebewahrerin Anna Dietrich; 3. Hofwäschebewahrerin Johanna Hofer. (2)Ein Hofwäschewagen. (11) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zimmeraufseher. * Josef Traxler. (2)Holzträger. **Franz Meidl. (12) [Abb.]: Pensionstag im Hofzahlamte. * 1. Pens. Hofcapellendiener Ziehrer; 2. Cassendiener Dorndorfer; 3. Hof-Reisecassier Stöger; 4. Pens. Hoflakai Sukup; 5. Pens. Revierjäger Jelinek; 6. Rehberger, Ordonanz von Schöbrunn. (13) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Hofweinkeller. *1. Officiendiener Stadler; 2. Officiant Aimoth; 3. Extra - Officiendiener Teufelbauer. (2)Gläserauspackung nach einer Hofreise. **1. Extra-Officiendiener Joh. Beran; 2. Officiant Franz Holzinger; 3. Gehilfe Franz Waismayer; 4. Officiendiener Johann Smikal. (14) [Abb.]: In der Hofküche. *1. Hofkoch Bernardt; 2. Küchenträger Seiser; 3. Bestallungskoch Wscheteczka: 4. Mundkoch Skoda; 5. Hofkoch Münsch; 6. Hofkoch Hampel; 7. Wetty; 8. Rosa Kral. ([15]) [Abb.]: In der Hofzuckerbäckerei. *1. Hofzuckerbäcker Franz Effenberger; 2. Hofzuckerbächer Wilhelm Fürnkranz; 3. Officiendiener Johann Dobery; 4. Officienfrau Helene Petrik. (16) [Abb.]: In der Freudenau: vor der Hofloge. *1. Erzherzog Otto; 2. Erzherzogin-Witwe Stephanie; 3. G. d. C. Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Fürst Carl Trautmannsdorff; 7. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 8. Gräfin Thun-Wilczek; 9. Minister d. Aussern Graf Agenor Goluchowski; 10. Oberst Carl Graf Auersperg; 11. Minister-Präsident Graf Franz Thun; 12. Erzherzog Franz Salvator. (17) [Abb.]: Bei Vater Emmerich. *1. Leopoldine Müller; 2. Anton Musch; 3. Hofdiener Franz Zapletal; 4. Emmerich Danyicska. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vor dem Schweizerhofthor. *1.Hofstabs-Adjutant Oberlieutenant Anton Trost; 2. Hofstabs-Feldwebel Weber. (2)Wachzimmer d. Leibgarde - Infanterie. **1. Leopold Drexler; 2. Johann Baumgärtner; 3. Josef Csacska; 4. Wenzel Rosin; 5. Wenzel Werner; 6. Wilhelm Peiker; 7. Raimund Hejtmann; 8. Michael Heinsel; 9. Johann Houžek. (19) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser beim Fenster während der Burgwache-Ablösung. (20) [Abb.]: Bei der Burgmusik. ([21]) [Abb.]: Im Audienzsaal. I*1. K. u. Garde u. Rittm. Otto v. Unghváry; 2. k. u. Garde u. Rittm. Franz v. Borsiczky; 3. k. u. Garde-Vice-Wachtm. u. Major Julius v. Zsarnay; 4. k. u. k. Garde u. Rittm. Johann v. Soukup; 5. k. u. k. Garde u. Rittm. Eugen Freiherr v. Pillerstorff; 6. k. u. k. Garde-Vice-Wachtm. Otto v. Lesonitzky; 7. k. u. Garde u. Rittm. Leonh. v. Kiss; 8. Flügeladjutant Carl Ritter v. Wessely; 9. Graf Hans Wilczek jun.; 10. Geh. Rath Nik. Dumba. Im Audienzsaal. II.*1. Hof-Commissär Ritter von Weckbecker; 2. kaiserlicher Rath J. E. Ruthmayer; 3. Hof-Obercommissär Carl Pusch; 4. FZM. Rudolf Freiherr von Merkl; 5. Geh. Rath Carl Graf Lanckoroński; 6. Nuntius Mns. Taliani; 7. Geh. Rath Josef Freiherr von Bezecny; 8. Cardinal Fürsterzbischof Dr. Gruscha; 9. Unterrichtsminister Dr. Julius Wlassics; 10. Dr. Rob. Pattai; 11. Marquis Moussa Freige. (22 - 23) [Abb.]: Vor dem Audienzsaal. *1. Polizei Oberkommissär Otto Marinovich: 2. Official im Obersthofmeisteramt Ritter von Waldhütter. (24) [Abb]: Vor der Erstattung des Vortrages. *1. Minister des Aeussern Graf Agenor Goluchovski; 2. Geheimer Rath Emil Freiherr von Chertek; 3. Geheimer Rath Adolf Freiherr von Braun. (25) [Abb.]: Garden beim Fenster. *1. Kgl. ungar. Garde und Rittmeister Ludwig von Dadányi; 2. k. u. k. Garde und Rittmeister Johann Soukup von Salisko. (26) [Abb.]: Im Flügeladjutanten-Zimmer. *1. Flügel-Adjutant Major Heinrich Freiherr von Kulmer; 2. Flügel-Adjutant Obst. Hugo Fürst Dietrichstein; 3. Flügel-Adjutant Major Carl Ritter v. Wessely. (27) [Abb.]: Vortrag des ersten Obersthofmeisters. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein. (28) [Abb.]: Gemeinsame Minister-Conferenz unter Vorsitz des Kaisers. *1. Österreichischer Finanzminister Dr. Josef Kaizl; 2. Vice-Admiral Freiherr von Spaun; 3. Hofrath Cajetan von Mérey; 4. Reichs-Finanz-Minister Benjamin v. Kállay; 5. ungarischer Ministerpräsident Ladislaus Lukács; 7. Reichs-Kriegsminister G. d. C. Edmund Edler v. Krieghammer; 8. österreichischer Ministerpräsident Franz Graf Thun; 9. Minister d. Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski. ([29]) [Abb.]: Feierliche Eröffnung des Reichsrathes. ([30 - 31]) [Abb.]: Säbel Radetzky's und Standarte des I. Englische Dragoner-Reg. (32) [Abb.]: Das Ministerium Thun vor der Beeidung. *1. Garde-Vice-Wachtmeister u. Major Otto Edler v. Lesonitzky; 2. Garde u. Rittmeister Arthur Prennschitz v. Schützenau; 3. Garde u. Rittmeister Adolf Foser; 4. Garde u. Rittmeister Ladislaus Edler v. Benesch; 5. Garde-Vice-Wachtmeister u. Major v. Herdlicska; 6. Garde u. Rittmeister Sigmund Juhász de Kislapás; 7. Oberstkämmerer Hugo Graf v. Abensperg-Traun; 8. Garde u. Rittmeister Raimund Sebetić; 9. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 10. Landesverteidigungs-Minister FZM Zeno Graf Welsersheimb; 11. Hof-Ober-Commissär Maximilian von Eltz; 12. Hof-Commissär Josef Renglovics; 13. Minister-Präsident Franz Graf Thun; 14. Finanz-Minister Dr. Josef Kaizl; 15. Justiz-Minister Dr. Ignaz Edler von Ruber; 16. Ackerbau-Minister Michael Freiherr von Kast. 17. Minister für Galizien, Adam Ritter von Jędrzejowicz; 18. Eisenbahn-Minister Dr. Heinrich Ritter v. Wittek; 19. Unterrichts-Minister Arthur Graf Bylandt-Rheidt; 20. Handels-Minister Dr. Josef Maria Baernreither; 21. Hofrath Eugen Freiherr v. Hausenschield-Bauer. ([33]) [Abb.]: Auferstehung: Mitglieder der Hofcapelle. *1. Paukenträger Rohrhofer; 2. Hof-Trompeter Adolf Stiegler; 3. Paukist Franz Weber; 4. Hoftrompeter Franz Stiegler; 5. Paukenträger Franz Jellinek. (35) [Abb.]: Fusswaschung: Pfründner wird heimgeführt. (36) [Abb.]: Ceremonie der Fusswaschung. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 2. Oberhof-Caplan Dr. Carl Schnabl; 3. Propstpfarrer Ph. Dr. Gottfried Marschall; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Erzherzog Eugen. ([37]) [Abb.]: Frohnleichnams-Procession: Kämmerer und Truchsessen. *[linke Bildseite] 1. Marian von Bogdanovics; 2. Ernst Freiherr von Laudon; 3. Oberlieutenant Ernst Graf Hoyos; 4. Emmerich Freiherr von Mattencloit; 5. Oberlieutenant Baron Dobrzenski; 7. Adolf Graf Beust; 8. Gustav Graf Pötting. [rechte Bildseite] 1. Béla Gr. Cziráky; 2. Oberl. C. Gr. Kinsky; 3. Flügel-Adj. Maj. Fr. Folliot de Crenneville-Poutet; 8. Hofsecr. E. Frh. v. Weber; 9. M. Gr. Bossi-Fedrigotti; 10. Flüg.-Adj. Gr. Alberti de Poja. (38 - 39) [Abb.]: Frohnleichnams-Procession: ungarische Leibgarde. *1. FML. Alexander Ritter Baccarcich von Nagy-Écs; 2. kgl. ung. Garde u. Rittmeister Adalbert Farkas von Orbánfalva; 3. kgl. ung. Garde und Rittmeister Alexander Zgórski von Gyarmata; 4. kgl. ung. Garde und Rittmeister Coloman Miticzky de Nemes-Miticz; 5. kgl. ung. Garde und Rittmeister Novaković Edler von Gyuraboj. (40) [Abb.]: 1. Oberhofmeister Alfred Fürst Montenuovo; 2. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 3. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Erzherzog Leopold Ferdinand; 7. Erzherzog Josef Ferdinand; 8. Erzherzog Leopold Salvator; 9. Erzherzog Friedrich; 10. Erzherzog Eugen; 11. Garde-Capitän G. d. C. Eugen Freiherr v. Piret; 12. Erzherzog Rainer; 13. Cardinal Fürst-Erzbischof Dr. Anton Gruscha; 14. Garde-Infant.-Compagnie-Commandant Oberst Carl Freiherr v. Minutillo; 15. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Prinz Rudolf Liechtenstein; 16. Garde-Hauptmann Franz Mayer; 17. Geheimer Rath Ferdinand Fürst Kinsky; 18. FML. Josef Sommer; 19. Garde Wachtmeister Major Carl Geiger v. Klingenberg; 20. Garde und Rittmeister Hermann Freih. v. Waldegg. ( - ) [Abb.]: Frohnleichnams-Procession: Ankunft des Kaisers vor der Stephanskirche. ([41]) [Abb.]: Hofball: Cercle. *1. Gräfin Roman Potocka-Radziwill; 2. Fürstin Pauline Metternich; 3. Gräfin Wilcek-Kinsky; 4. Weihbischof Eduard Angerer; 5. Minister-Präsident a. D. Paul Frh. v. Gautsch; 6. Geh. Rath Johann Graf Harrach; 7. Aelxander Markgraf Pallavicini; 8. Leopold Graf Podstatzky-Liechtenstein; 9. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein; 10. Statthalter Graf Erich Kielmansegg; 11. Capit. d. ung. Leibg. Andreas Pálffy. (43) [Abb.]: Hofball: Erzherzogin Maria Josepha Hält Cercle. *1. Obersthofmeisterin Gräfin Marietta Széchenyi-Hoyos; 2. Erzherzogin Maria Josefa; 3. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie. (44) [Abb.]: Hofball: Vorstellung des Diplomatischen Corps im Marmorsaale. *1. Bayer. Gesandter Clemens Freiherr von Podewils-Dürniz; 2. Gesandter von Nordamerika Charlemagne Tower; 3. Niederländ. Gesandter Frederic Philippe Van der Hoeven Jonkheer; 4. Belgischer Gesandter E. Baron de Borchgrave; 5. Gesandter der Schweiz Alfred de Clapréde; 6. Belg. Legations-Rath Konrad Buisseret-Steenbecque; 7. Rumän. Gesandter Emile J. Ghika; 8. Persischer Gesandter General Nériman Khan; 9. Französischer Botschafter Marquis Frédéric de Reverseaux; 10. Französ. Milit. Attaché, Escadrons-Chef Baron de Berckheim; 11. Engl. Botschafter Sir Horace Rumbold; 12. Engl. Milit.-Attaché Oberst F. M. Wardrop C. B.; 13. Türkischer Botschafter Mahmoud Nedim Bey; 14. Span. Botschafter Don Isidoro Hoyos Marquis se Hoyos; 15. Span. Milit.-Attaché, Oberstlieut. des Gen.-Stabes Don José Centano; 16. Russ. Milit.-Attaché Oberst Stephan de Woronine; 17. Russ. Botschafter Peter Graf Kapnist; 18. Deutscher Botschafter Philipp Graf zu Eulenburg-Hertefeld; 19. Russ. II. Botschafts-Secretär Nikolaus v. Stolypine; 20. Deutscher Milit.-Attaché Oberstlieut. Kuno Graf v. Moltke; 21. Deutscher Boptschafter Prinz Carl Max v. Lichnowsky; 22. Italien. Botschafter Conte Constantin Nigra; 23. Italien. Milit.-Attaché Oberst im Gen.-Stab Cav. Luigi Nava; 24. Ital. Botschafts-Secretär Marchese Cusani Confalonieri; 25. Apost. Nuntius Erzbischof Mons. Emilio Taliani; 26. Päpstl. Uditore Monsign. Achille Locatelli; 27. Päpstl. Secretär Monsign. Charles Montagnini. ([45]) [Abb.]: Hofball: Der Kaiser verlässt den Saal. (46) [Abb.]: 1. Elisabeth Gräfin Kinsky-Henckl; 2. Geh. Rath Ferdinand Fürst Kinsky; 3. Obersthofmeister Alfred Fürst Montenuovo; 4. Geh. Rath Adolf Josef Fürst zu Schwarzenberg; 5. Präsident, Geheimer Rath Dr. Josef Alexander Freiherr von Helfert; 6. Marie Gräfin Wydenbruck-Fugger; 7. Präs. d. Gemeins. Obersten Rechnungshofes, Geh. Rath Ernst von Plener; 8. Oberceremonienmeister G. d. C. Koloman Graf Hunyady; 9. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rud. Prinz Liechtenstein; 10. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 11. Erzherzogin Franz Ferdinand; 12. Erzherzogin Isabella; 13. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 14. Erzherzog Otto; 15. Hans Graf Wilcek jun.; 16. Anastasia Gräfin Kielmansegg-Lebedeff. ( - ) [Abb.]: Hofball: beim Buffet. (47) [Abb.]: Hofball: ermüdet. (48) [Abb.]: Hofball: im Theesalon. *1. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 2. Grossherzogin Alice von Toscana; 3. Prinzessin Maria Louise von Cumberland; 4. Erzherzogin Maria Josepha; 5. Prinzessin Maria von Liechtenstein-Apponyi; 6. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 7. Gräfin Elisabeth Wilcek-Kinsky; 8. Fürstin Franziska Montenuovo Kinsky; 9. Fürstin Josefine Trauttmansdorff-Pallavicini; 10. Gräfin Marietta Széchenyi-Hoyos. ([49]) [Abb.]: Ball bei Hof: Comtessen-Insel. *1. Comtesse Gabrielle Eleonore Chotek; 2. Prinzessin Marie Montenuovo; 3. Prinzessin Windischgrätz; 4. Prinzessin Julie Montenuovo; 5. Comtesse Marie Kinsky; 6. Comtesse Sofie Bawarowska; 7. Comtesse Franziska Larisch; 8. Graf Ottokar Czernin; 9. Baronesse Ida Gudenus; 10. Comtesse Gabrielle Rechberg; 11. Garde-Rittm. Erbgraf Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg; 12. Kämmerer Marian Ritter von Rosco-Bogdanovicz. (50) [Abb.]: Ball bei Hof: Vortänzer. *1. Erzherzog Ferdinand Carl; 2. Prinzessin Marie Montenuovo; 3. Prinzessin Windischgrätz; 4. Prinzessin Julie Montenuovo; 5. Gräfin Caroline Széchenyi-Ledebur; 6. Garde-Oberlieutenant Ottokar Freiherr von Dobrzensky; 7. Lieutenant Prinz Friedrich Liechtenstein; 8. Comtesse Essi Fürstenberg; 9.Baronesse Marie Gudenus. (51) [Abb.]: Ball bei Hof: Auf der Botschafterstiege. (52) [Abb.]: 1. Botschafter Sir Horace Rumbold; 2. Lady Luiza Rumbold; 3. Fürstin Marie Kinsky-Liechtenstein; 4. Erster Stallmeister, Rittmeister Graf Ferdinand Kinsky; 5. Landesvertheidigungs-Minister FZM. Graf Zeno Welsersheimb; 6. Minister a. D. Geh. Rath Dr. Leon Ritter von Bilinski; 7. Fürstin Franziska Montenuovo-Kinsky; 8. Geh. Rath Fürst Paul Esterházy; 9. Oberstkämmerer Graf Hugo Abensperg-Traun; 10. Oberstjägermeister Leopold Freiherr von Gudenus; 11. Oberlieutenant Carl Graf Trauttmannsdorff-Weinsperg; 12. Unterrichtsminister Arthur Graf Bylandt-Rheidt; 13. Bank-Gouverneur Geheimer Rath Julius Kautz; 14. Rittmeister Carl Fugger Babenhausen; 15. Gräfin Eleonore Fugger-Hohenlohe; 16. Othon Baron de Bourgoing; 17. Baronin Therese Bourgoing-Kinsky; 18. Gräfin Marie Wydenbruck-Fugger. ( - ) [Abb.]: Portier beim Aufgang zu den kaiserlichen Apartements. *Josef Schlögl. (53) [Abb.]: Hofrath von Loebenstein, Hofconcipist Nepalleck und Hofcommissär Bar. Lütgendorff. (54) [Abb.]: Empfang des Kaisers Wilhelm II. auf dem Nordbahnhofe. *1. Sattelmeister Dithrich; 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 3. Botschafter Philipp Graf Eulenburg; 4. Botschafter Ladislaus von Szögenyi-Marich; 5. G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 6. Erzherzog Rainer; 7. General Graf Schlieffen; 8. Militär-Attaché Graf Hülsen-Haeseler; 9. General-Adjutant Graf von Hahnke; 10. Erzherzog Friedrich; 11. Erzherzog Otto; 12. Statthalter Erich Graf Kielmannsegg; 13. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 14. Erzherzog Eugen. ([55]) [Abb.]: Galavorstellung in der Oper zu Ehren des Kaisers Wilhelm II. *1. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 2. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 3. Erzherzogin Caroline Imaculata; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Kaiser Wilhelm II. 6. Erzherzogin Maria Theresia; 7. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 8. Erzherzogin Elisabeth; 9. Erzherzog Rainer; 10. Erzherzog Albrecht. (56) [Abb.]: Fahrt des Kaisers mit Kaiser Nikolaus II. in die Hofburg. ([57]) [Abb.]: Saalthürherr. *Alois Hein. (58) [Abb.]: Galadiner zu Ehren Kaiser Nikolaus II. im Ceremoniensaal. *1. Minister d. Aeussern Graf Agenor Goluchowski; 2. Erzherzogin-Witwe Stephanie; 3. Kaiserin Alexandra; 4. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 5. Kaiser Nikolaus II.; 6. Erzherzogin Maria Josepha. (59) [Abb.]: Galadiner: auftragende Lakeien. (60) [Abb.]: Trauung des Prinzen Louis Philipp von Orleans in der Hofburgpfarrkirche. *1. Cardinal Fürst-Erzbischof Gruscha; 2. Bischof von Stuhlweissenburg Dr. Philipp Steiner; 3. Hofburgpfarrer Prälat Dr. Laurenz Mayer; 4. Hofceremoniär Dr. Schnabl; 5. Herzog Louis Philipp von Orleans; 6. Erzherzogin Maria Dorothea; 7. Nuntius Mns. Taliani; 8. Erzherzog Joseph; 9. Herzog von Chartres; 10. Maria Amalia Königin von Portugal; 11. Erzherzogin Clotilde. ([61]) [Abb.]: Erster Stallmeister Graf Kinsky bei der Bespannung. *1. Futtermeister Ankowitsch; 2. Stallübergeher Martin Kasamas; 3. Erster Stallmeister Graf Kinsky; 4. Hofkutscher Kaspar; 5. Hofkutscher Rufera; 6. Hofkutscher Fialka; 7. Hofkutscher Boursch. (62) [Abb.]: Aus dem Lipizaner Gestüt. (63) [Abb.]: Oberbereiter Styles und Leibbereiter Lechartier. (64) [Abb.]: Im Marstall: bei der Morgen-Toilette. *1. Ober-Reitknecht Czerny; 2. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 3. Leibbereiter Adolf Lechartier. ([65]) [Abb.]: Lipizaner in Dressur. *Oberbereiter Meixner. (66) [Abb.]: Officiersgardewagen.* 1. K. u. k. Garde und Rittmeister Ernst Graf Wurmbrand-Stuppach. (67) [Abb.]: Im Künstlerhause.* 1. Erzherzog Otto; 2. Baurath Prof. Deininger; 3. Maler Eugen Felix; 4. Maler Hans Temple. (69) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Atelier Angeli. (70) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in der Ausstellung der "Vereinigung der Bildenden Künste Oesterreichs".* 1.Flügel-Adjut. Major Karl Ritter von Wessely; 2. Präsident Gustav Klimt; 3. Professor Rudolf Alt; 4. Josef Engelhart; 5. Carl Moll; 6. Franz Hohenberger; 7. Hans Tichy; 8. Architekt Josef Olbrich; 9. Carl Müller; 10. Eugen Jettel. ([71]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in der Incognitologe des Burgtheaters.* 1. General-Director Eduard Palmer; 2. Hofrath Dr. Max Burckhard; 3. Schriftsteller Hermann Bahr; 4. Gen.-Director Theodor Ritter v. Taussig; 5. Albert Freiherr von Rothschild; 6. Schriftsteller Ludwig Speidl; 7. Gen.-Intendant Aug. Freih. v. Plappart; 8. Director des Burgtheaters Dr. Paul Schlenther; 9. Redakteur Julius Bauer; 10. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Nothnagel; 11. Schauspielerin Rosa Retty; 12. Hofrath Friedr. Uhl; 13. Redakteur Ludwig Hevesi. (73) [Abb.]: Bei der Audienz.* Kammer- und Hofopern Sängerin Marie Renard. (74) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser bei der Rettungsgesellschaft.* 1. Erzherzog Eugen; 2. Erzherzog Rainer; 3. Landesgerichtspräsident Eduard Graf Lamezan; 4. Chefarzt Dr. Charas; 5. Geheimer Rath Hans Graf Wilczek. 6. Weihbischof Dr. Eduard Angerer; 7. Bürgermeister Dr. Karl Lueger. (76) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser auf dem Ball der Stadt Wien.* 1. Zweiter Vice-Bürgermeister Dr. Josef Neumayer; 2. Statthalter Erich Graf Kielmansegg; 3. Erster Vice-Bürgermeister Josef Strobach; 4. Erzherzog Rainer; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Apostol. Nuntius Monsign. Taliani; 7. Erzherzog Otto; 8. Marie Porzer; 9. Käthe Kment; 10. Mathilde Cžjžek-Breymann; 11. Amalie Pattai; 12. Anastasia Gräfin Kielmansegg-Lebedeff; 13. Emmy v. Eisner-Eisenhof; 14. Stadtrath Dr. Theodor Wähner. 15. Bürgermeister Dr. Carl Lueger; 16. Stadtrath Vincenz Wessely. (77) [Abb.]: Leibkutscher und Leibjäger beim Wagen sr. Majestät. (78) [Abb.]: Hofcourier. (79) [Abb.]: Schönbrunn: der Kaiser besichtigt die Orangenbäume. (80) [Abb.]: Schönbrunn: der Kaiser spricht einen Gärtner an. (81) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser verlässt Schönbrunn. (82) In Budapest. (83) [Abb.]: Der Portier der Ofner Burg in Wintergala.* Alois Rauschbacher. (83) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in seinem Arbeitszimmer. (84) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Burggarten. (85) [Abb.]: Das Schlafzimmer des Kaisers. (86) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser wohnt in der Burgcapelle der Messe bei. (87) [Abb.]: Domherr Vézinger. (88) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Rauchzimmer. (89) [Abb.]: Adjutantenzimmer. Flügeladjutant Graf Alberti. (90) [Abb.]: Ministerpräsident Baron Banffy beim Vortrag. (91) [Abb.]: Hoftafel.* 1. Bischof Karl Rimély; 2. Stefan Rakovszky; 3. Josef von Szlávy; 4. Graf Aladár Andrássy. (92) [Abb.]: Der grosse Vorsaal des Audienzzimmers.* 1-4. Herzegov. Deputation; 5. Georg Zala; 6. Johann Fadrusz; 7. Baron Friedrich Podmaniczky; 8. Baron Alexius Nopcsa; 9. Ignaz Darányi; 10. G. d. C. Baron Géza Fejérváry; 11. Alexander Erdélyi; 12. Desiderus Szilágyi; 13. Cardinal Lorenz Schlauch. ([93]) [Abb.]: Die Herolde des Banderiums. (94) [Abb.]: Graf Zeno Csáky an der Spitze des Banderiums des Békéser Comitates. (95) [Abb.]: Minister des Inneren Perczel und Gefolge. (96) [Abb.]: 1. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 2. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 3. Erzherzogin Gisela; 4. Erzherzogin Clotilde; 5. Erzherzogin Isabella; 6. Erzherzogin Auguste; 7. Erzherzog Eugen; 8. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 9. Erzherzog Joseph; 10. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 11. Erzherzog Otto; 12. Erzh. Friedrich; 13. Ferdinand IV., Grossherzog v. Toscana; 14. Erzherzog Joseph August; 15. Erzherzog Leopold Salvator; 16. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 17. Geh. Rath Eugen Graf Zichy; 18. Michael Munkácsy; 19. Geh. Rath Eugen Graf Karácsonyi; 20. Honvédminister FZM. Géza Baron Féjerváry; 21. Dr. Maurus Jókai; 22. Mitglied des Magnatenhauses Feodor Baron Nikolics; 23. Reichstagsabgeordneter Aurel Münnich; 24. Präsident des ung. Abgeordnetenhauses Desider v. Szilágyi; 25. Ung. Ministerpräsident a. D. Geh. Rath Koloman von Tisza; 26. Geh. Rath Albin Graf Csáky; 27. Banus Carl Graf Khuen-Héderváry; 28. Cardinal Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary; 29. Ung. Handelsminister Ernst Baron Dániel; 30. Ung. Minister-Präsident Desider Baron Bánffy; 31. Präsident des österr. Abgeordnetenhauses Johann Freih. v. Chlumecky; 32. Ung. Oberstkämmerer Geh. Rath Aladár Graf Andrássy; 33. Kronhüter Koloman von Széll; 34. Cardinal Lorenz Schlauch; 35. Ung. Staats-Secretär geh. Rath Desider von Gromon; 36. Reichstagsabgeordneter Albert Graf Apponyi; 37. Ung. Unterrichtsminister Dr. Julius von Wlassics; 38. Österreichischer Minister-Präsident Kasimir Graf Badeni; 39. Präs. des ung. Verwalt.-Gerichtshofes, Geh. Rath Dr. Alex. Wekerle; 40. Min. d. Aeussern Graf Agenor Gluchowski. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser eroffnet die Millenniumsausstellung. ([97]) [Abb.]: Géza Melzer im Banderium des Borsoder Comitats. (98) [Abb.]: Graf Andreas Bethlen mit der Fahne Siebenbürgens. (99) [Abb.]: Abgeordnete erwarten vor dem Reichstagsgebäude die ungarische Krone. (100) [Abb.]: Millenniums-Tedeum: Rede des Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary. *1. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 2. Oberstkämmerer Graf Aladár Andrássy; 3. Generaladjutant G. g. C. Graf Paar; 4. Oberstküchenmeister Graf Bellegarde; 5. Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary. ([101]) [Abb.]: Prachtcarrosse mit der ungarischen Krone. ([102]) [Abb.]: Gefolge des Kronenwagens. *1. Karl Gerlóczy; 2. Karl Vosits; 3. Paul Olhauser. (103) [Abb.]: Cardinal Fürstprimas Vaszary in seiner Prachtcarosse. (104) [Abb.]: Der ungarische Reichstag huldigt dem Herrscherpaare. - Rede Desider Szilágyi's. * 1. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 2. Landesvertheidigungs-Minister G. d. C. Baron Géza Fejérváry; 3. Minister für Cultus und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics; 4. Minister-Präsident Baron Desiderius Bánffy; 5. Erzbischof von Kolocsa Georg Császka; 6. Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary; 7. Koloman Tisza; 8. Präsident des Abgeordnetenhauses Desiderius Szilágyi; 9. Vicepräsident des Abgeordnetenhauses Graf Tibor Károlyi. ([105]) [Abb.]: Baron Georg Bánffy. (106) [Abb.]: Graf Tassilo Festetics. (107) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser bei dem Turnfest der Schuljugend. *1. Reichskriegsminister G. d. C. Baron Krieghammer; 2. Corps-Commandant FZM. Prinz Lobkowitz; 3. Oberststabelmeister Albert Berzeviczy; 4. Vicebürgermeister Karl Gerlóczy; 5. Handelsminister Baron Ernst Dániel; 6. Minister für Cultus und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics. (108) [Abb.]: Einzug des deutschen Kaisers Wilhelm II. in Budapest. ([109]) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und Kaiser Wilhelm II. gehen vom neuen Reichstagsgenäude zum Justizpalast. *1. Baron Desiderius Bánffy; 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II., 3. Béla Rudnay. (110 - 11) [Abb.]: Obersthofmeister Garf Ludw. Apponyi. (112) [Abb.]: Trinkspruch Kaiser Wilhelms II. ([113]) [Abb.]: Das beleuchtete Ofen. (114) [Abb.]: Das Redoutengebäude während der Beleuchtung. ([115]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser mit dem rumänischen Königspaare im Parkclub. *1. Baron Béla Aczél; 2. Graf Csekonits; 3. Frau von Perczel; 4. König von Rumänien; 5. Königin von Rumänien; 6. Graf Széchényi; 7. Gouverneur von Fiume Graf Ladislaus Szapáry; 8. Baronin Dániel; 9. Oberstkämmerer Graf Aladár Andrássy. (117) [Abb.]: Die Burg in Ofen. (118) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser wird vor der Kunsthalle erwartet. *1.Erzherzog Josef; 2. Ferdinand IV. Grossherzog von Toscana; 3. Herzog Philipp von Coburg; 4. Erzherzog Leopold Salvator; 5. Erzherzog Josef August; 6. Erzherzog Friedrich; 7. Minister für Cultur und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics; 8. Honvédminister Baron Ernst Dániel; 10. Erzherzog Otto; 11. Staatssecretär Albert Berzeviczy; 12. Sectionsrath Dr. Nicolaus von Zsmerecsányi. ([119]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser bei dem Photographen Koller. *1.Roman Forché; 2. Stefan Gálfy. (120) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser lässt sich durch Michael Munkácsy dessen Bild "Ecce Homo" erklären. *1. Sectionsrath Dr. Nikolaus v. Szmrecsányi; 2. Minister für Cultus und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics; 3. Michael Munkácsy. ([121]) [Abb.]: Das neue Parlamentsgebäude. (122) [Abb.]: Georg Zala modelliert die Büste des Kaisers. ([123]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser besichtigt die neuen Burgbauten. *Oberpolier Franz Grossmann. (124) [Abb.]: Burghauptmann Ludwig Ritter von Ybl. (125) [Abb.]: Ansicht der neuen königl. Burg mit der Statue des Urhebers Nikolaus Ybl. (126) [Abb.]: Huldigungs-Fackelzug für den Kaiser. ([127]) [Abb.]: 1. Hauptstädt. Rath Karl Vosits; 2. Gemeinderath Andreas Thék; 3. Reichstagsabgeordneter Advokat Johann Radócza; 4. Gemeinderath Franz Fektor; 5. Reichstagsabgeordneter Gemeinderath Albert von Berzeviczy; 6. Hauptstädt. Rath Dr. Johann Vaszilievits; 7. Vice-Bürgermeister Karl Gerlóczy; 8. Bez.-Vorst. Paul Olhauser; 9. Hauptstädt Rath Franz Faller; 10. Ober-Bürgermeister Josef Márkus; 11. Gemeinderath Johann Mérő; 12. Bürgermeister Johann Halmos; 13. Gemeinderath Architekt Julius Pártos; 14. Gemeinderath Sigmund Medrey; 15. Pfarrer Vincenz Stieber; 16. Reichstags-Abgeordneter Gemeinderath Alexander Hegedüs; 17. Oberhausmitglied Gemeinderath Julius Ludvigh; 18. Gemeinderath Samuel Tiller; 21. Gemeinderath Truchsess Dr. Gustav Degen; 22. Gemeinderath Baumeister Joh. Bobula; 23. Gemeinderath Architekt Alfred Wellisch; 24. Reichstagsabgeordneter Advokat Géza Polonyi; 25. Reichstags-Abgeordneter Gemeinderath Dr. Max Falk; 26. Gemeinderath Jos. Pucher. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser empfängt die Abordnung der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Budapest. ([129]) Auf Reisen. (131) [Abb.]: (131) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser begibt sich in den Hofzug. *1.Wagenmeister Josef Lehmayer; 2. Hofrath Klaudius Ritter von Klaudy; 3. Ingenieur August Hagen; 4. Wagenrevisor Josef Müller. (132) [Abb.]: Hofzug auf der Fahrt. (133) [Abb.]: In der Küche des Hofzuges. (134) [Abb.]: Kaiser mit Suite an der Tafel im Speisesalon des Hofzuges. *1. Generalstabs-Hauptmann Rudolf Dittl v. Wehrberg; 2. Kaiserl. russ. Oberst und Militär-Attaché Stefan de Woronine; 3. Oberstabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl; 4. Flügel-Adjutant Major Hugo Fürst v. Dietrichstein; 5. Flügel-Adjutant Oberstlieutenant Thaddäus graf Alberti; 6. Oberlieutenant Adolf Graf Ledebur-Wicheln; 7. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 8. Hofrath Klaudius Alexander Ritter v. Klaudy; 9. General-Adjutant FML. Arthur Bolfras von Ahnenburg; 10. Obersthofmeister Alfred Fürst von Montenuovo; 11. Erzherzog Otto; 12. Generalstabs-Oberst Ludwig Wanka; 13. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 14. Generalstabs-Chef FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 15. Geh. Rath Julius Freiherr von Zwiedinek-Südenhorst. (135) [Abb.]: Schlafsalon des Kaisers im Hofzuge. (136) [Abb.]: Klosterneuburg: der Kaiser in der Grabcapelle des heiligen Leopold. *1. Erzherzog Carl Ludwig; 2. Erzherzog Rainer; 3. Professor Paul Wache; 4. Stiftsdechant Leopold Hanauska; 5. Abt Ubald Kostersitz. (137) [Abb.]: Korneuburg: Vorstellung des Gemeinderathes. *1. Kriegsminister G. d. C. Edm. Edl. von Krieghammer; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Bürgermeister Schaumann; 4. General-Adjutant Arthur von Bolfras. (138) [Abb.]: Linz: im Garten des Museums. *1. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; Erzherzog Carl Ludwig; 3. Statthalter Victor Freiherr von Pouthon. (140) [Abb.]: Graz: costümierte Reiter geleiten den Kaiser zur Universität. (141) [Abb.]: Graz: der Kaiser in der Universität. *1. Rector Hofrath Alexander Rollet; 2. Professor Dr. Moriz Holl; 3. Professor Dr. Schütz; 4. FZM. Wilhelm Freiherr von Reinländer. (142) [Abb.]: Abbazia: Kaiser Franz Joseph und Kaiser Wilhelm II. vor dem Hotel Stephanie. *1. Director Anton Silberhuber; 2. Oberst Guido Wachter; 3. General-Adjutant Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzog Josef; 5. Kaiser Wilhelm II. (143) [Abb.]: Das beleuchtete Abbazia vom Meere aus. ([145]) [Abb.]: Abbazia: die Deutsche Kaiserfamilie bei der Villa Amalaia. *1. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 2. Kaiserin Auguste; 3. Kaiserliche Prinzen. (146) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: eine historische Abtheilung d. Festzuges. (147) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: Enthüllung des Andreas Hofer-Denkmals. *1. Erzherzog Carl Ludwig. (148) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: der Kaiser am Schiessstand. *1. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 2. Leibjäger Friedrich Spannbauer; 3. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar. (149) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: aus dem Festzug der alten Tiroler Schützen. (150) [Abb.]: Prag: der Hradschin. (151) [Abb.]: Prag: in der Ausstellung. *1. Carl Max Graf Zedwitz. (152) [Abb.]: Prag: Bauernhochzeit in der Ausstellung. (153) [Abb.]: Prag: Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand in der Landesausstellung. *1. FML. Hugo Graf Wurmbrand; 2. GM. Leo Graf Wurmbrand; 3. Franz Graf Thun; 4. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand. (154) [Abb.]: Prag: Der Kaiser vor dem Grabdenkmal des heil. Johannes von Nepomuk. *1. Carl Max Graf Zedwitz; 2. Cardinal Fürst-Erzbischof Graf Schönborn; 3. Franz Graf Thun; 4. Georg Fürst von Lobkowitz. (155) [Abb.]: Prag: Typen böhmischer und mährischer Landbevölkerung in der Landesausstellung. (156) [Abb.]: Landskron: Begrüssung durch weissgekleidete Mädchen. *1. Französischer Militär-Attaché Baron den Berckheim; 2. Erzherzog Albrecht; 3. General-Adjutant FML. von Bolfras; 4. Erzherzog Rainer. (157) [Abb.]: Mährische Königsreiter. (158) [Abb.]: Landskron: Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand, Franz Graf Thun und Prinz Rudolf von und zu Liechtenstein. ([159]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser mit fremdländischen Attachés auf dem Bahnhof Welleschin. *1. Russ. Mil.Attaché Oberst Steph. de Woronine; 2. Niederl. Mil.-Attchaé Col. Fredric Meyer Wardrop C. B.; 4. Deutsch. Mil.-Attaché Graf Hülsen-Häseler; 5. Leibgarde-Esc.-Commandant Oberst Jos. v. Görgey; 6. Italien. Mil.-Attaché Oberst Luigi Nava; 7. Türk. Mil.-Attaché Ahmed Abouk Bey. (160) [Abb.]: Bistriz: der Kaiser am heiligen Hostein. *1. Stadtrath von Kremsier J. N. Harna; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Kriegsminister FZM. Edler von Kriegshammer; 4. Generalvicar Johann Weinlich; 5. Herrenhaus-Mitglied Ernst Baron Laudon; 6. Lieutenant Julius Graf Seilern; 7. Reichsrathsabgeordneter Ph. Dr. Anton Stojan. (161) [Abb.]: Brünn: der Kaiser im Schützenzelt. *1. Landeshauptmann Graf Vetter von der Lilie; 2. Statthalter Ritter von Löbl; 3. Oberschützenmeister Anton Jelinek; 4. Bürgermeister Gust. Winterholler; 5. Fahnenträger S. Fluss; 6. Vicebürgermeister Rudolf Rohrer. (162) [Abb.]: Brünn: Schützenvorstand mit Banner. *1. Ada Robinson; 2. Fritz Haas; 3. Josef Jelinek; 4. A. Diensthuber. (163) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brünn: Austria - Festwagen. (2)Teschen: Erzherzog Rainer im Gespräch mit Erzh. Wilhelm. (164) [Abb.]: Teschen: Landmädchen erwarten den Kaiser. (165) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lemberg: Ruthenisches Mädchen in der Ausstellung. (2)Lemberg: ländl. Bevölkerung in der Ausstellung I. (166) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lemberg: ruthenischer Bauer in der Ausstellung. (2)Lemberg: ländl. Bevölkerung in der Ausstellung II. (167) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lemberg: der Kaiser im Gespräch mit Fürst Sapieha. *1. Adam Fürst Sapieha; 2. Julius Graf Falkenhayn; 3. Landtagsabgeordneter Franz Hoszard. (2)Krakau: Banderium. (168) [Abb.]: Lemberg: der Kaiser nimmt ein Gesuch entgegen. (169) [Abb.]: Kolomea: der Kaiser spricht einen Invaliden an. *1. Adam Fürst Sapieha; 2. Kriegsminister Edler von Krieghammer. (170) [Abb.]: Zara: auf dem Landungsplatze. *1. Admiral Maximilian Freiherr Daublebsky von Sterneck; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. FZM: Emil David von Rhonfeld. ([171]) [Abb.]: Sinj: das Volk erwartet den kaiserlichen Wagen. (172) [Abb.]: Debreczin: galoppierendes Banderium. (173) [Abb.]: Debreczin: der Kaiser kommt! (174) [Abb.]: Orsova: der Kaiser begrüsst den König von Rumänien und den König von Serbien. *1. Serbischer Gesandter Milan Michailowitsch; 2. König Alexander; 3. König Karl I. (175) [Abb.]: Orsova: Fahrt durch den Kasanpass. (176) [Abb.]: Serbische Landbevölkerung begrüsst bei Salaria das Kaiserschiff. ([177]) [Abb.]: Am Ufer von Ada Kaleh. *1. Bego Mustapha. (178) [Abb.]: Besichtigung von Herkulesbad. *1. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 2. Minister des Aussern Graf Góluchowski; 3. FZM. Friedrich Freih. v. Beck; 4. Herzog Albert von Coburg; 5. König Karl von Rumänien; 6. König Alexander von Serbien. (179) [Abb.]: Pressburg: Enthüllung des Maria Theresien - Denkmales. *1. Erzherzog Josef August; 2. Erzherzog Friedrich; 3. Bildhauer Johann Fadrusz; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Bürgermeister Tröxler. (180) [Abb.]: Agram: Mädchen streuen Blumen vor der Ankunft des Kaisers. (181) [Abb.]: Agram: Schlussteinlegung des Theaters. *1. Architekt Leo Hönigsberg; 2. Baurath Hermann Helmer. (182) [Abb.]: Agram: der Kaiser verlässt die Synagoge. *1. Vorstand der israelitischen Cultusgemeinde Josef Siebenschein; 2. Banus Carl Graf Khuen-Héderváry; 3. Ober-Rabbiner Dr. J. Jakobi. (183) [Abb.]: Agram: der Kaiser verlässt die evangelische Kirche. *1. Banus Carl Graf Khuen-Héderváry; 2. Vorstand der evangelischen Gemeide A. Munda; 3. Sections-Chef Dr. J. Kršnjavi; 4. Pastor Kolaček; 5. Minister-Präsident Desider Freiherr von Bánffy. (184) [Abb.]: Empfang des Kaisers auf dem Bahnhofe Rohnstock. *1. G. d. C. Graf Waldersee; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Prinz Heinrich von Preussen; 4. Prinz Albert von Preussen; 5. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 6. König Albert von Sachsen; 7. Prinz Friedrich Leopold von Preussen; 8. Graf Caprivi; 9. General-Adjutant von Hahnke; 10. Graf von Wedel. ([185]) [Abb.]: Kaiserin-Witwe Auguste überreicht dem Kaiser Franz Joseph I. das Bild des Kaisers Wilhelm I. *1. Kaiserin Auguste; 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II. (186) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und Kaiser Wilhelm II. im Charlottenburger Mausoleum. (187) [Abb.]: Berlin: Besuch des Kaisers beim Fürsten Bismarck. (188) [Abb.]: Berlin: grosse Truppen-Parade. *1. Oesterreichischer Militär-Bevollmächtigter Baron Steininger; 2. Prinz zu Engalitschew; 3. General-Adjutant von Hahnke; 4. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 5. Kaiserin Auguste Victoria; 6. Kaiser Wilhelm II. ([189]) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und Kaiser Wilhelm II. auf dem Manöver-Felde. (190) [Abb.]: Preussisch-Schlesien: Manöver-Kritik. *1. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 2. G. d. C. Graf Waldersee; 3. Graf Caprivi; 4. Major Steininger. (191) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in der Uniform seines Deutschen Husaren-Regimentes. (192) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in d. Uniform seines Deutschen Garde-Grenadier-Regimentes. (193) [Abb.]: Stettin: Kaiser Wilhelm II., Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und König Albert von Sachsen. (194) [Abb.]: Tegernsee: der Kaiser im Hochzeitszuge. *1. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 2. Prinz Regent Luitpold von Bayern; 3. Königin Carola von Sachsen; 4. Erzherzogin Maria Theresia; 5. König Albert von Sachsen; 6. Erzherzogin Maria Josepha; 7. König von Neapel. ([195]) [Abb.]: St. Petersburg: Besuch bei der Kaiserin. (196) [Abb.]: St. Petersburg: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. zur Parade reitend. *1. Kaiser Nikolaus II.; 2. Grossfürst Wladimir; 3. Erzherzog Otto; 4. Baron Meindorf. (197) [2 Abb.]: (1)St. Petersburg: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. führt sein Regiment dem Kaiser von Russland vor. *1. Kaiser Nikolaus II.; 2. Grossfürst Waldimir. (2)St. Petersburg: Fahrt zum Fürsten Liechtenstein. (198) [Abb.]: Rumänien: rumänische Mädchen am Ufer der Donau. (199) [Abb.]: Rumänien: Truppen Revue in Bukarest. *1. General-Adjutant Graf Paar; 2. Herzog Albert von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha; 3. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 4. Kronprinzessin Marie von Rumänien; 5. Königl. rumän. Kriegsminister; 6. König Karl I. (200) [Abb.]: Rumänien: im Familienkreise in Sinaia. *1. Königin Elisabeth von Rumänien; 2. König Karl I.; 3. Herzog Albert von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha; 4. Kronprinzessin Marie von Rumänien; 5. Kronprinz Ferdinand von Rumänien: ([201]) [Abb.]: Rumänien: Schloss Pelesch. (202) [Abb.]: Territet: das Kaiserpaar auf einem Ausfluge. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 2. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Graf Paar; 3. General-Adjutant FML. von Bolfras; 4. Kaiserin Elisabeth. (203) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: das Kaiserpaar bei den Pinien der Madonna. (204) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser inNizza prominierend. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 2. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar. (205) [Abb.]: Village d'Eze. (206) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: Fahrt des Kaisers zum Präsidenten Faure. (207) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: Besuch des Kaisers beim Präsidenten Faure. (208) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser besichtigt die Spielsäle von Monaco. *1. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Graf Paar; 2. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein. (209) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: das Kaiserpaar mit der Kaiserin Eugenie im Hôtelgarten. *1. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 2. Kaiserin Eugenie. (210) Der oberste Kriegsherr. (211) [Abb.]: Einzug der Burggendamerie. (211) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in Parade-Uniform. (212) [Abb.]: Der Vorstand der Militär-Kanzlei Generaladjutant FML. v. Bolfras beim Rapport. ([213]) [Abb.]: Oberst Wanka in der Militär-Kanzlei. (214) [Abb.]: Die Rothe Tasche. *1. Hauptmann Gust. Mallász; 2. Garde-Wachtmeister Michael Popescul. (215) [Abb.]: Trabanten-Leibgarde. (216) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fahnenübergabe bei der Burgwache - Ablösung. (2)Hofrath Karl Appel in der Militärkanzlei. (217) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: im reservierten Raum vor Beginn. *1. Secondelieutenant d. R. Albert Gschwind; 2. Premierlieutenant d. R. Manuel Mahn; 3. Secondelieutenant d. Z. Max Rolffs; 4. Kammersängerin Frau Ellen Forster Brandt; 5. Secondelieutenant d. r. Gustav Illner. (218) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: Gruppen aus der Suite. *1. Leibbereiter Adolf Lechartier. (219) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: FZM. Anton Baron von Schönfeld und Oberst Emil Ritter von Brasseur. (220) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: Ankunft des Kaisers. *1. S. W.-Inspector-Stellvertreter Julius Pawelka; 2. S. W.-Oberinspector Roman Fuchs; 3. S. W. Josef Schwelle; 4. S. W.-Revier-Inspector Johann Kolba; 5. S. W. Johann Biegler. ([221]) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: Ankunft Kaiser Wilhelm's II. (222) [2 Abb.]: (1)Revue auf der Schmelz: Oberst von Brasseur Ordnung schaffend. (2)Revue auf der Schmelz: Gardereiter zu Pferd in Parade-Adjustierung. (223) [Abb.]: Die beiden Monarchen verlassen die Schmelz. *1. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 2. Erzherzog Friedrich; 3. Erzherzog Eugen. (224) [2 Abb.]: (1)Revue auf der Schmelz Abfahrt der Erzherzoginnen. *1. Obereiter Wilhelm Wagner; 2. Bereiter Stephan Tautmann; 3. Leibkutscher Hengge; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 5. Gräfin Cornis; 6. Erster Stallmeister Graf Ferdinand Kinsky. (2)Inspicierung im Prater: Regiment auf der Krieau-Wiese den Kaiser erwartend. **1. Hauptmann Johann Fernengel; 2. Hauptmann Carl Stracker; 3. FML. Josef Sommer; 4. Corps-Commandant Alexander Graf Üxküll-Gyllenband. (225) [2 Abb.]: (1)Inspicierung im Prater: der Kaiser in der Plänklerkette. *1. General-Adjutant FML. Artur von Bolfras. (2)Inspicierung in Bruck: Regiment auf der Spitalswiese aufgestellt. (226) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: der Kaiser lässt ein Cavallerie-Regiment vorrücken. *1. Erzherzog Otto. (227) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: Fremdländische Militär-Attachés. *1. Russischer Militär-Attaché Oberst Stephan v. Woronine; 2. Rumänischer Militär-Attaché Major Auréle Demetrescu; 3. Französischer Militär-Attaché Baron de Berckheim; 4. Serbischer Militär-Attaché Oberst Alexander Machine. (228) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: der Kaiser setzt mit Husaren über einen Strassengraben. (229) [2 Abb.]: (1)Inspicierung in Bruck: Defilierung eines Uhlanen-Regimentes. (2)Inspicierung in Bruck: der Kaiser lässt im Zuge Exercieren. (230) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: Schlussbesprechung. (231) [Abb.]: Schloss in Totis. (232) [Abb.]: Im Totiser Park. *1. Erzherzog Rainer. (233) [2 Abb.]: (1)Altes Kastell in Totis. (2)Totiser Feuerwehr. (234) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Bergleute von Ober-Galla. (235) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Streuen von Lorbeer-Blättern. (236) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: in Tóváros vor der Ankunft des Kaisers. ([237]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Totiser Manöver: Banderium. (2)Totiser Manöver: Aufziehen der Mädchenschule mit Fahne. (238) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Honvéd in Reserve. ([239]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Mädchen-Spalier. (240) [2 Abb.]: (1)Totiser Manöver: Genossenschaften und Sänger. (2)Totiser Manöver: Deputationen aus der Umgebung. (241) [2 Abb.]: (1)Totiser Manöver: Schankzelt am Wege z. Bahnhof. (2)Auswaggonierung von Handgepäck. (242) [Abb.]: Hofequipagen beim Totiser Bahnhofe. (243) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Leiterwagen-Tribüne auf freiem Felde. (244) [Abb.]: Totis: die Manöver-Oberleitung. *1. FZM. Friedr. Freih. v. Beck; 2. G.-St.-Oberst Oskar Potiorek; 3. G.-St.-Major Franz Freiherr von Khun; 4. G.-St.-Oberst Johann Schemua. (244) [2 Abb.]: (1)FZM. Freiherr v. Beck mit Officieren den Gang des Totiser Manövers beobachtend. *1. FML. Heinrich Ritter von Pitreich; 2. Oberlieutenant Gordian Freiherr von Gudenus; 3. Oberst Johann Schemua; 4. Hauptmann Josef von Schneider; 5. Oberst Oscar Potiorek; 6. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr vonBeck; 7. Hauptmann Josef Graf Ledóchowsky; 8. Major Franz Freiherr von Kuhn; 9. Major Franz Freiherr von Gerstenberger; 10. FML. Alexander Graf Hübner. (2)Totiser Manöver: Militär-Attachés. **1. Englischer Militär-Attaché Colonel Frederic Meyer Wardrop C. B.; 2. Französischer Militär-Attaché Baron de Berckheim. (246) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: FZM. Fejérváry und der deutsche Generalstabs-Chef von Schlieffen. ([247]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: der russische Generalstabs-Chef Obrutschew. (248) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Fremdländische Militär-Attachés. *1. Italienischer Militär-Attaché Oberst Luigi Nava; 2. Japanischer Militär-Attaché Major D'Ohara; 3. Spanischer Militär-Attaché Oberstlieutenant José Centano; 4. Englischer Militär-Arraché Colonel Frederic Meyer Wardrop C. B. ([249]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: die Schiedsrichter. *1. Oberst Carl Georgi. (250) [2 Abb.]: (1)FZM. Prinz Lobkowitz. (2)Totiser Manöver: Schnapshändler. (251) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Rastende Honvéd-Infanterie. (252) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Erzherzog Friedrich mit Suite. *1. Erzherzog Friedrich; 2. Oberst Friedrich Georgi; 3. Oberst Carl Schikofsky. ([253]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: improvisierte Platzmusik in Tóváros nach Schluss der Manöver. (254 - 255) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Zuschauer. (256) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Generalstabs-Chef von Schlieffen lässt sich das österr. Geschütz erklären. ([257]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Suite am Rendezvous-Platz die Majestäten erwartend. *1. FZM. Anton Galgótzy; 2. Kriegsminister Edmund Edler von Kriegshammer; 3. Deutscher Militär-Attaché Graf Hülsen-Haeseler. (258) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Victualien-Händler und Marketender-Wagen. (259) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: zuschauende Bauern. (260) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: FML. von Kropatschek, Auffahren des 13. Corps-Art.-Reg. (261) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Bagagewagen-Colonne. (262) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Mannschaftsküche an der Strasse in Kocs. ([263]) [Abb.]: Markt in Totis. (264) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Vorrücken zur grossen Cavallerie-Attaque. ([265]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: das Ende der Festlichkeiten. ([266]) [Abb.]: Schwimmteich des Militär-Waisenhauses in Fischau. (267) [Abb.]: Kriegshafen in Pola. (268) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: der Kaiser mit FZM. Freiherrn von Beck, Minister von Krieghammer und Engerer Suite. *1. Italienischer Militär-Attché Oberst Luigi Nava; 2. Major Ferdinand von Khuepach; 3. Gen.-Adj. G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Oberst Oscar Potiorek; 5. Gen.-Adj. FML. Arthur v. Bolfras; 6. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 7. Reichskriegsminister Edmund Edler von Krieghammer. ([269]) [Abb.]: Admiral Freiherr von Sterneck. (270) [Abb.]: Vice-Admiral Freiherr von Spaun. (271) [Abb.]: Linienschiffs-Lieutenant Huber in der Militär-Kanzlei. (272) Auf der Jagd (273) [Abb.]: (273) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: das Jagdschloss. (274) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: der Kaiser ertheilt dem Leibkammerdiener Aufträge. *1. Leibkammerdiener Raimung Zrunek. (275) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Gedicht der Erzherzogin Marie Valerie. (276) [Abb.]: Mürzzuschlag: Ankunft der Jagdgäste auf dem Bahnhofe. *1. Ingenieur August Haben; 2. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 4. Flügel-Adjutant Oberstlieut. Thaddäus Graf Alberti; 5. Erster Obersthofmeister Prinz Rudolf zu Liechtenstein; 6. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 7. König Albert von Sachsen; 8. Ober-Forstrath Gustav Förster. ([277]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hofrath Pichler. (2)Josef Kundrat. (278) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: äsende Gemsen. (279) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Herunterbringen des erlegten Wildes. (280) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Zusammenkunft bei der Taschelschwelle nach einer Winterjagd. *1. Ober-Forstrath Gustav Förster; 2. König Albert von Sachsen; 3. Generalstabs-Chef FZM. Friedr. Freih. v. Beck; 4. Reichskriegsminister G. d. C. Edmund Freiherr v. Krieghammer; 5. Prinz Leopold v. Bayern; 6. Gutsbesitzer Bräunlich; 7. Forstverwalter Jul. Greiner. ([281]) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Nachsuche des angeschossenen Wildes. (282) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Eingang zum "Todten Weib". (283) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Gedenktafel beim "Todten Weib". (284) [Tabelle]: Programm für die Allerhöchste Hofjagd am 26. September 1894. (284) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: vor der Heimfahrt bei der Lechnerbrücke. *1. Forstverwalter Guido Hentsch; 2. Forstverwalter Julius Greiner; 3. Postmeister von Mürzsteg Baron de Prey; 4. Werksdirektor G. A. Pummer; 5. Bezirks-Jagdarzt Dr. Sonnenthal; 6. Erster Obersthofmeister Prinz Rudolf Liechtenstein; 7. Reichskriegsminister G. d. C. Edmund Edler von Krieghammer; 8. Geh. Rath Johann Graf Ledebur-Wicheln; 9. Erzherzog Otto; 10. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 11. Generalstabs-Chef FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 12. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freiherr von Wiederhofer; 13. Flügel-Adjutant Oberstlieut. Thaddäus Graf Alberti; 14. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 15. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 16. König Albert von Sachsen; 17. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 18. Deutscher Botschafter Philipp Graf Eulenburg; 19. Sächsischer Ober-Stabsarzt Dr. F. W. Selle; 20. Gutsbesitzer Bräunlich; 21. Forstverwalter Hugo von Kham; 22. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchówski; 23. FZM. Gustav Freih. v. Wersebe. ([285]) [Abb.]: Oberjäger Mühlbacher. (286) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: der Kaiser und der König von Sachsen besichtigen beim Abstieg das erlegte Wild. *1. König Albert von Sachsen. (287) [Karte]: Jagdprogramm mit eigenhändigen Vormerkungen des Kaisers. (288) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Conversation nach dem Diner. *1. Ober Forstrath Gustav Förster; 2. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freih. v. Widerhofen; 3. Geh. Rath Johann Graf Ledebur-Wicheln; 4. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 5. König Albert von Sachsen; 6. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 7. Flügel-Adjutant Major Carl Ritter v. Wessely; 8. Oberstjägermeister Leopold Freiherr v. Gudenus; 9. FML. Gustav Freiherr von Wersebe; 10. Sächsischer Ober-Stabsarzt Dr. F. W. Selle; 11. Statthaltereirath Franz Sarsch; 12. General-Adjutant Graf Bellegarde; 14. Forstverwalter Unger; 15. Gutsbesitzer Bräunlich. ([289]) [Abb.]: Jagdschloss Radmer. (290) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Die Abschußtabellen des bei den Hofjagden erlegten Wildes in den Salzkammergut-Jagdgebieten ergeben folgendes Resultat: (2)In allen kaiserlichen Hochgebirgsrevieren erlegte der Kaiser, soweit es aus den Abschusslisten nachweisbar ist: (291) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser mit seinen Jagdgästen beim frühstück vor der Kaiserhütte in der Seeau. *1. König Albert von Sachsen. (291) [Abb.]: Gretl. (292) [Abb.]: Eisenerz: der Kaiser am Abend zur Birsch gehend. (293) [Abb.]: Ebensee: der Kaiser besichtigt eine kleine Strecke beim Almhaus Fahrnau. (294) [Abb.]: Der Kaiserstand bei der Grünbergjagd im Offenseer Jagdrevier. (295) [Abb.]: Ebensee: Vorderer Langbathsee. (296) [Abb.]: Ebensee: der Kaiserstand bei der Steinbergjagd. (297) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stoanhansl. (2)Ebensee. der Kaiser und Prinz Leopold verlassen das Jagdhaus auf der Spitzalm. *1. Prinz Leopold von Bayern. (298) [Abb.]: Jägermeister Grill mit Treibern. (299) [Abb.]: Ebensee: sieben Geweihe von, bei einer Jagd in Steineckfahrnau, vom Kaiser erlegten Hirschen. (300) In Ischl. (301) [2 Abb.]: (2)Der Kaiser auf einem Spaziergange. (301) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ansicht v. Ischl und der Kaiserlichen Villa. (2)Eingang z. Kaiserlichen Park. (302) [Abb.]: Vor der Ankunft des Hofes. *1. Hofdiener Franz Gruber; 2. Hofdiener Felix Gastauger; 3. Hofdiener Friedr. Hanna; 4. Villen-Inspector Nikol. Zellner. (303) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser u. seine Jagdgäste reiten auf die Zimnitz. *1. Leibkammerdiener Raimund Zrunek; 2. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 3. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Prinz Georg von Bayern; 5. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 6. Ob.-Stabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl; 7. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freih. v. Widerhofen. (304) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser auf dem Wege zur Kirche. ([305]) [Abb.]: Hofrath Titz empfängt den Kaiser am Rendevousplatz zur Jagd. *1. Leibkutscher Josef Walter; 2. Hofrath und Hofjagdleiter Leo Titz; 3. Forst- und Domänen-Verwalter Franz Straschilek; 4. Prinz Leopold von Bayern. (306) [Abb.]: Speisenbeförderung von der Küche in die Villa. *1. Hof-Zuckerbäcker Carl Geraus; 2. Chef-Koch Richard Skoda; 3. Hofkeller-Officiant August Bischof; 4. Hoftafel-Inspector Anton Grill; 5. Hofwirtschafts-Adjunct Carl von Prileszky. ([307]) [Abb.]: Erzherzogin Gisela radfahrend. *1. Erzherzogin Gisela; 2. Prinz Konrad v. Bayern. (308) [Abb.]: Familien-Diner. *1. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 2. Prinz Konrad von Bayern; 3. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 4. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 5. Erzherzogin Gisela; 6. Prinz Georg v. Bayern; 7. Erzh. Marie Valerie. ([309]) [Abb.]: Leibarzt Hofrath Widerhofer. *1. Thorwächter Anton Wiesauer; 2. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freiherr von Widerhofer. (310) [Abb.]: Reichskanzler Fürst zu Hohenlohe und Minister Graf Golouchowski vor dem Hotel Elisabeth. *1. Alfred Freiherr von Springer; 2. Redacteur Julius Bauer. 3. Deutscher Reichskanzler Chlodwig Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst; 4. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 5. Hotelier Franz Koch. ([311]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser Zeitung lesend. (312) [Abb.]: Kaisers Geburtstag: die Kinder der Erzherzogin Valerie gratulieren. (313) [Abb.]: Kaisers Geburtstag: Aufmarsch der Salinenkapelle. *1. Salinenmeister Bruckschlögel. (314) [Abb.]: Kaisers Geburtstag: Concert auf der Esplanade. *1. Adele Strauss; 2. Componist Johann Strauss; 3. Flügel-Adjutant Heinrich Freiherr von Kulmer; 4. Anastasia Gräfin Kielmansegg-Lebedeff; 5. Statthalter Victor Freiherr von Puthon; 6. Sections-Chef Ludwig von Dóczy; 7. Hof-Reise-Cassier Victor Stöger; 8. Kammer-Virtuose Alfred Grünfeld; 9. General-Director Eduard Palmer. ([315]) [Abb.]: Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein und General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar auf dem Kreuzplatze. (316) [Abb.]: Flügel-Adjutant Major Heinrich Freih. v. Kulmer; 2. Flügel-Adjutant Major Hugo Fürst v. Dietrichstein; 3. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 5. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 6. Hof-Wirthschafts-Adjunkt Carl Prileszky von Prilesz; 7. Ober-Stabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl; 8. Hof-Secretär Franz v. Hawerde-Wehrlandt; 9. Regierungs-Rath Carl Edler von Herdliczka; 10. Hof-Schauspielerin Wilhelmine Mitterwurzer; 11. Alexander Girardi; 12. Bezirkshauptmann Julius Graf Salburg; 13. Kämmerer Andreas Graf Csekonits; 14. Statthalter Victor Freiherr von Puthon; 15. Theater-Director J. Wild; 16. Chef-Redakteur Dr. Ed. Bacher; 17. Villen-Inspector i. P. Nikolaus Zellner; 18. Maler Artur Halmi; 19. Bürgermeister von Ischl Wiesinger; 20. Hofwirthschafts-Assistent Max Eckmann; 21. Hof-Reisecassier Victor Stöger. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Theater. (317) [Abb.]: Erzherzog Franz Salvator von einer Bergpartie heimkehrend. *1. Alexander Girardi; 2. Kammervorsteher Rittmeister Hugo Freiherr von Lederer; 3. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 4. Ob.-Stabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl. (318) [Abb.]: Im Stiegen-Vestibül. *1. Erzherzogin Elisabeth Franziska; 2. Erzherzog Franz Carl Salvator; 3. Erzherzog Franz Salvator. (319) [Abb.]: Die Obersthofmeister seiner Majestät. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein; 2. Obersthofmeister Alfred Fürst von Montenuovo. (320) Schlusswort. (321) [Abb.]: (321) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - ) Buchschnitt ( - ) Buchschnitt ( - ) Buchschnitt ( - )