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This Article examines whether contemporary international law is equipped to address the recurrent phenomenon of covert involvement by a state in internal conflicts of another state. Ms. Michael analyzes this phenomenon in the context of United States assistance to the Contras in collective self-defense on behalf of El Salvador, and Nicaragua's concomitant support of the Salvadoran Rebels' attempts to overthrow the existing El Salvador Government. Ms. Michael summarizes the extensive history of conflict between the United States and Nicaragua culminating in the contemporary dispute existing between the Reagan Administration and the Sandinista Government. Both the Sandinistas and the Reagan Administration charged the other with violating international law through waging an unlawful war of indirect aggression. In outlining the basic substantive and procedural requirements of international law imposed on any exercise of individual or collective self-defense, Ms. Michael examines governing provisions of the United Nations and Organization of American States Charters. The Article then addresses three substantive requirements under customary international law entitling individual or collective self-defense: 1) a state must exhaust peaceful procedures; 2) the responsive measure of force employed must be necessary; and 3) a defensive use of force must be proportional to the character and magnitude of the attack. Ms. Michael next appraises the merits of the Reagan Administration's position supporting the Contras in light of these governing legal principles. Ms. Michael concludes that the actual context underlying the dispute between the Sandinistas and the Reagan Administration indicates that neither government had "clean hands" in Central America, with the United States becoming another aggressor in the conflict.

In this episode of our interview series, Lynda Iroulo talks to Prof. Siddharth Mallavarapu from the Department of International Relations and Governance Studies at Shiv Nadar University, Uttar Pradesh, India. …
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International Armed Conflict Since 1945 is a bibliographic handbook that briefly describes each of 269 international wars and other war-threatening conflicts occurring between 1945 and 1988.

Theorizing norm change -- The atom bomb : constructing a nuclear order -- Atoms for peace? : new nuclear technology export controls -- Satellites and sovereignty : humanitarian intervention and the "responsibility to protect" -- Armed UAVs and the norm against assassination of foreign adversaries -- The final frontier? : weaponizing space

AbstractThis article introduces both a conceptual and an analytical framework of economic diplomacy so as to contribute to sounder understanding of economic diplomacy's activities, tools and goals. While the state is not regarded as the only player, or as a coherent entity, it is assumed that the state is the primary actor in economic diplomacy. The conceptual framework discerns five strands of economic diplomacy, which involve tools and purposes that are relatively more commercial/economic or political in character and are thereby closer to the 'business end' or 'power-play end' of economic diplomacy. The analytical framework identifies four essential dimensions of economic diplomacy within which historically contingent change may occur: the context; tools; theatres; and processes. Interaction between these dimensions takes place in multiple ways. Building on the insights provided by these frameworks, the article analyses the foci, assumptions and methodologies of the research fields that are concerned with economic diplomacy, and discusses the strategic and ideological considerations that underpin it.