Suchergebnisse

This research focuses on the use and practice of Competitive Intelligence within the Spanich pharmaceutical sector, as a tool to be used in decision making. For that purpose, it is necessary to perform each step of the IC methdology, in order to identify strengths and weaknesses of competing firms and the own, to plan strategies for the benefit and growth of the pharmaceutical industry in Spain. This is for laboratories and companies regarless of their origin either national or foreign companies affiliated with Farmaindustria and Plan Profarma for the period 2008-2011. The research is founded on the basis of four research questions that expose the following: 1) The characteristics of Competitive intelligence and its practice within pharmaceutical companies of Spain; 2) The contribution of the CI in the process of R&D in the pharmaceutical firms; 3) Enablings and inhibiting factors of innovation, patents and CI, in Spain; and 4) The influence of CI in the chain of product development in the pharmaceutical firms in Spain. The proposal of the methodology is established by considering the aforementioned background and disciplines from which this research is based, espefically CI, R&D+i and patents. First of all, through the stages of the CI cycle, planning, evaluation of sources, information gathering, data processing, analysis (qualitative techniques) and results three work phases were established to conduct the research methodology, 1) a database of 200 pharmaceutical companies was created including fields to be filled about general data, innovation, therapies, and so on. 2) the implementation of a survey of 155 companies with open-ended questions on the themes of R&D, innovation, industrial property, CI and other questions. Finally, 3) a patents analysis though "Matheo Patent software" to identify business leaders, countries, inventors, technology, patent officess, etc. Results indicate the use of the CI in pharmaceutical firms even if the steps of the methodology are often not applied in structured form. Large enterprises give more attention to this type of activities, while SMEs lean towards other interests on the operations, on small innovations found on the way. Among the main perceived needs, it is highlighted the lack of investment in R&D, because the development of innovative new drug is long, expensive and with a rate of slow and uncertain recovery. 25% of pharmaceutical firms performing R&D, record a low rate of innovation, but the market for generic drugs and beauty products increases gradually. It was noted that a variety of information sources and tools for information on the area of interest, with the aim of providing a competitive advantage over the competition. However, there are also factors that impede the efficient and continuous development of the IC as a tool for innovation, since those are processes that must adapt to the changing political, social and cultural environmen as it is the case of research for innovative products and services that pharmaceuticl firms can provide to society. Finally and in the vace of the many possibilities the pharmaceutical industry provides, future research lines are proposed: Knowledge management (KM) to check the status of the company through the transmission of information and skills to their employees, while the external knowledge will indicate what happens in the market; patent analysis to identify whether what has been patented in the last 5-7 years, is still in the market as well as checking product whose patent is about to get due. ; Esta investigación se enfoca en el uso y práctica de la inteligencia competitiva dentro del sector farmacéutico español como una herramienta para ser utilizada en la toma de decisiones. Para ello, es necesario realizar cada paso de la metodología de IC, con la finalidad de identificar puntos fuertes y débiles de las empresas competidoras y las propias para planear las estrategias en beneficio y crecimiento de la industria farmacéutica en España. Esto es para: laboratorios y empresas indistintamente del origen de su procedencia, es decir, empresas nacionales y extranjeras afiliadas a Farmaindustria y al Plan Profarma en el periodo 2008-2011. La investigación se realizó a partir de cuatro preguntas de investigación que exponen lo siguiente: 1) las características de la inteligencia competitiva y sus prácticas dentro de las empresas farmacéuticas de España; 2) la contribución de la IC en el proceso de I+D en las farmacéuticas; 3) los factores facilitadores e inhibidores de innovación, de patentes y de IC en las farmacéuticas en España, así como los de la IC; y, 4) la influencia que tiene la IC en la cadena de desarrollo de productos en las firmas farmacéuticas de España. El planteamiento de la metodología se establece al considerar antecedentes expuestos y disciplinas en las que se base esta investigación, concretamente la IC, I+D+i y patentes. En primer lugar, a través de las etapas del ciclo de la IC, planeación, evaluación de fuentes, obtención de información, procesamiento de datos, análisis (técnicas cualitativas) y, resultados. Para llevar a cabo la metodología en la investigación, se establecieron tres fases de trabajo, 1) se realizó una base de datos de 200 empresas farmacéuticas que incluye campos a documentar sobre datos generales, innovación, terapias, etc. 2) aplicación de una encuesta a 155 empresas con preguntas abiertas y cerradas con temas de I+D, innovación, propiedad industrial, IC, y otros. Por último, 3) un análisis de patentes mediante en software "Matheo Patent", para identificar líderes de empresas, países, inventores, tecnologías, oficinas de patentes, etc. Los resultados indican el uso de la IC en las farmacéuticas que aunque realizan los pasos de la metodología, no suelen aplicarse en forma estructurada. Sin embargo, se distingue que las grandes empresas tienen más atención a este tipo de actividades, mientras que las pymes se inclinan hacia otros intereses de las operaciones, al igual que de las pequeñas innovaciones que van descubriendo. Entre las principales necesidades observadas, destaca la falta de inversión a la I+D, debido a que el desarrollo de nuevos fármacos innovadores son de larga duración, costosos y con una tasa de recuperación lenta e incierta. El 25% de las farmacéuticas que realizan I+D, registran un bajo índice de innovación, sin embargo el mercado para medicamentos genéricos y parafarmacia se incrementa de forma gradual. Con lo anterior se observó que existe una variedad de fuentes de información y herramientas para obtener información sobre el sector de interés, con el objetivo de proporcionar una ventaja frente la competencia. No obstante, también hay factores que impiden el desarrollo eficiente y continuo de la IC como herramienta la de Innovación, y son procesos que deben adaptarse al cambiante entorno político, social y cultural. Como es el caso de la investigación para productos y servicios innovadores que puedan ofrecer las farmacéutica a la sociedad. Para finalizar y frente a muchas posibilidades que ofrece la industria farmacéutica, se proponen futuros trabajos de investigación:la gestión del Conocimiento (GC) para conocer el status de la empresa a través de la transmisión de información y habilidades a sus empleados, mientras que el conocimiento externo indicará lo que ocurre en el mercado; el análisis de patentes para identificar si lo que se ha patentado en los últimos 5-7 años, está en el mercado al igual que los próximos productos a caducar la patente ; Postprint (published version)

Rural-urban migration is increasingly becoming an important livelihood strategy in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Tanzania, and is in many ways viewed as a driving force behind the rapid urbanisation process within this region. Despite urbanisation being associated with benefits such as trade stimulation and the subsequent increase in governments' revenue, it is also accompanied by threats such as higher commodity prices, unemployment, alarming crime rates, inadequate shelter and governments' unpreparedness to combat them. Maasai nomadic pastoralist youth, who started migrating to urban areas on a large scale from the 1990s onwards, are disadvantaged in many ways owing to their cultural, social, economic and political marginalisation since colonial times. In this context, important yet controversial questions include: What migration-related threats are likely experienced by the Maasai migrant youth and local households? How do they cope with these threats; indeed, do they manage to cope? How can migrants and households' capacities be strengthened to more competently cope with such threats? To tackle the above-posed questions, this study explored the influences of the rural-urban migration of Maasai nomadic pastoralist youth on the resilience of both the migrants in Dar es Salaam and local households in Ngorongoro District, Northern Tanzania. It specifically documented factors for and patterns of the rural-urban migration of the Maasai nomadic pastoralist youth, investigating the impact of rural-urban migration on the local households' resilience and analysing migration-related threats encountered by the migrants in urban areas, as well as their coping strategies. Finally, this thesis suggests factors for enhancing migrants and households' resilience against migration-related threats. A myriad of migration theories was employed to understand factors behind migration patterns, while the multi-layered social resilience framework of (Obrist et al. 2010) was deemed suitable to explore migration-related threats for migrants and households, as well as their strategies of coping with them. A qualitative approach was adopted, although data was both qualitatively and quantitatively analysed. Respondents were both randomly and purposely selected and in-depth interviews were conducted with 50 Maasai migrants, 30 households and 30 key informants, including private and public institutional officials and community members at various levels in Dar es Salaam and Ngorongoro. In addition, five focus group discussions (FGDs), observations and the review of secondary data were also carried out. The study revealed that Maasai migrant youth have been migrating to Dar es Salaam city mainly due to the household poverty emanating from the decline of pastoralism and agriculture, prompted by climate change, insufficient access to land, livestock diseases, unemployment and resource conflicts. Rural-urban migration was catalysed by inconsistent land and development policies, social networks, migrants and households' aspirations and technology, notably improved communication and transportation networks such as mobile phones and road networks. Migration both positively and negatively influenced the households' resilience. For instance, remittances from migrants enhanced households' economic capital (notably livestock and agriculture), cultural capital such as food and health support, various household equipment and the improvement of formal education and skills. On the other hand, migration also subjected some households to threats related to financial constrains, inadequate human power and food insecurity. Household members coped with such threats by depending on informal affiliations (social capital), taking on extra work load, child labour and engaging in entrepreneurship activities (cultural capital), mainly at individual, household and community levels. However, they could rarely solicit support from meso, national and international levels. Threats experienced by the Maasai migrants in Dar es Salaam chiefly concerned inadequate income and shelter, unemployment, oppression and exploitation, notably low and delayed labour returns and arbitrary job terminations, stigma and segregation, together with physical insecurity, notably falling victim to crime when working as security guards, typically due to a lack of proper equipment and security training. On the one hand, migrants managed to solicit and utilise capitals from different social layers, thus developing 'reactive' and to a lesser extent 'proactive' capacities to competently cope with the aforementioned migration-related threats. Specifically, migrants competently coped with the threats by utilising cultural capital at the individual level, such as migrants' local knowledge and physical strength. They employed social capital at community and household levels, particularly rural-urban linkages and strong social networks among migrants, which enabled the sharing of resources such as food, finance shelter and working in groups to cope with the insecurity threat. To a lesser degree, migrants also employed aspects of economic capital such as livestock and agricultural products at the household level, as well as symbolic capital such as the Maasai social reputation and identity springing from Maasai culture and local traditions. However, both the Maasai migrants and household members lacked formal skills and education, as well as structures that could support resilience building at meso, regional and national levels. Thus, equipping Maasai migrants and households with formal skills, the changing of land tenure policies and making government and private institutions more responsive to the migration threats affecting Maasai can significantly improve both the Maasai migrants and local households' resilience against such threats. ; Die Land-Stadt-Migration als wichtige Strategie der Überlebenssicherung und als treibende Kraft der schnellen Urbanisierung gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung in Subsahara-Afrika, besonders in Tansania. Auch wenn die Urbanisierung Vorteile wie ein schnelleres Wirtschaftswachstum und folglich höhere Staatseinnahmen mit sich bringt, so ist sie auch mit negativen Auswirkungen wie höheren Preisen für Lebensmittel, Arbeitslosigkeit, wachsender Kriminalität, mangelndem Wohnraum und der unzureichenden Vorbereitung der Regierungen, um diese zu bekämpfen, verbunden. Die jugendlichen Maasai, die insbesondere seit den 1990er Jahren in großem Stil in die Städte ziehen, sind in besonderem Maße kulturell, sozial, ökonomisch und politisch marginalisiert. In diesem Zusammenhang stellen sich einige wichtige, wenn auch kontroverse Fragen: Welche im Migrationskontext auftauchenden Bedrohungen sind dabei besonders relevant für die migrierenden Jugendlichen und die lokalen Haushalte? Kommen sie mit diesen zurecht und wenn ja, wie? Wie können die Kapazitäten der Migranten und Haushalte gestärkt werden, um diese besser zu bewältigen? Um die hier gestellten Fragen zu beantworten, wurden in dieser Arbeit die Einflüsse der Land-Stadt-Migration auf die Resilienz der Migranten in Dar es Salaam und der Haushalte im Ngorongoro District in Tansania untersucht. Besonderes Augenmerk lag dabei auf Faktoren für und Muster von Land-Stadt-Migration. Darüber hinaus wurden die Auswirkungen der Migration auf die Resilienz der Haushalte in Ngorongoro sowie die im Zusammenhang mit der Migration entstehenden Bedrohungen für die Migranten und deren Bewältigungsstrategien untersucht. Abschließend werden Empfehlungen zur Stärkung der Resilienz der Migranten gegeben. Eine Vielzahl von Migrationstheorien beschäftigt sich mit der Erklärung von Migrationsmustern. In dieser Arbeit wurden diese durch das von (Obrist et al. 2010) entwickelte Multi-layered social resilience framework ergänzt, um die im Zusammenhang mit der Migration entstehenden Bedrohungen für die Migranten und Haushalte und die jeweiligen Bewältigungsstrategien zu untersuchen. Dabei wurde ein qualitativer Zugang gewählt. Die Daten wurden darüber hinaus jedoch auch quantitativ ausgewertet. Die Befragten wurden teilweise zufällig, teilweise gezielt ausgewählt. In Dar es Salaam und Ngorongoro wurden ausführliche Interviews mit insgesamt 50 Migranten, 30 Haushalten und 30 Experten – darunter Offizielle aus privaten und öffentlichen Einrichtungen sowie Gemeinschaftsmitglieder verschiedener Ebenen – durchgeführt. Zusätzlich fanden fünf Gruppendiskussionen, Beobachtungen und eine Analyse von Sekundärdaten statt. Durch diese Studie konnte gezeigt werden, dass die jugendlichen Maasai insbesondere wegen der Armut im Herkunftsgebiet nach Dar es Salaam zogen. Diese ist insbesondere bedingt durch den mit dem Klimawandel zusammenhängenden Niedergang des Pastoralismus und der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion, unzureichenden Zugang zu Land, Tierseuchen, Arbeitslosigkeit und Ressourcenkonflikte. Die Land-Stadt Migration wurde dabei durch inkonsistente Land- und Entwicklungspolitiken, soziale Netzwerke, Sehnsüchte und technologischen Fortschritt – wie verbesserte Kommunikation und Transportnetzwerke – beschleunigt. Es konnten positive wie negative Auswirkungen der Migration auf die Resilienz der Haushalte festgestellt werden. Einerseits verbesserten Geldsendungen durch die Migranten das ökonomische (insbesondere im landwirtschaftlichen Bereich) und das soziale Kapital der Haushalte (Nahrung, Gesundheit, Bildung). Andererseits wurden die Haushalte durch die Migration neuen Bedrohungen, wie finanziellen Einschränkungen, fehlender Arbeitskraft und Ernährungsunsicherheit, ausgesetzt. Die Haushaltsmitglieder bewältigten diese durch informelle Netzwerke (soziales Kapital), zusätzliche Arbeit, Kinderarbeit und unternehmerische Tätigkeit (kulturelles Kapital) besonders auf der individuellen, der Haushalts- und Gemeindeebene. Nur in seltenen Fällen konnte dagegen auf Unterstützung durch die meso-, nationale und internationale Ebene zurückgegriffen werden. Die für die Migranten in Dar es Salaam relevanten Bedrohungen waren ungenügende Einkommen und Wohnsituation, Arbeitslosigkeit, Unterdrückung und Ausbeutung (z.B. geringe oder verspätete Entlohnung, willkürliche Entlassung, Stigmatisierung und Segregation) und physische Unsicherheit. Die Migranten konnten Kapital aus verschiedenen sozialen Ebenen (social layers) nutzen und damit 'reaktive' und zu einem geringeren Grad auch 'proaktive' Kapazität entwickeln, um mit den beschriebenen Bedrohungen umgehen zu können. In vielen Fällen schafften es die Migranten durch die Nutzung des kulturellen Kapitals auf der individuellen Ebene, beispielsweise des lokalen Wissens und der physischen Stärke, diese Bedrohungen zu bewältigen. Darüber hinaus machten sie sich das soziale Kapital auf Gemeinschafts- und Haushaltsebene zu Nutze. Hier sind insbesondere die engen Land-Stadt-Beziehungen und starke soziale Netzwerke zwischen den Migranten zu nennen, die das Teilen von Nahrung, finanziellen Mitteln, Unterkunft und Arbeiten in der Gruppe ermöglichten. In geringerem Maße griffen sie auf ökonomisches Kapital, wie Viehbestand und landwirtschaftliche Produktion, sowie auf symbolisches Kapital, wie die Maasai-Kultur und die damit verbundenen Traditionen, zurück. Die migrierten Maasai und die im Ursprungsgebiet verbliebenen Haushalte hatten jedoch nur ein geringes Maß an formeller Qualifikationen und Ausbildung, sowie unzureichende Strukturen zur Stärkung ihrer Resilienz auf der Meso-, Regional- und Nationalebene. Daher werden die Verbesserung ihrer Ausbildungssituation, die Anpassung von Landnutzungspolitiken und eine verstärkte Sensibilisierung öffentlicher und privater Organisationen für die Probleme der Maasai als wichtige Ansätze zur Stärkung ihrer Resilienz angesehen.

This strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is a technical piece intended to assist in the current and future identification of priority industrial pollutants and economic instruments to minimize industrial waste. This industrial sector SEA is one of six pieces of technical support envisioned by the Himachal Pradesh (HP) inclusive green growth (IGG) development policy loan (DPL) to fill knowledge gaps and strengthen operational success of the DPL. The DPL acknowledges that industrial development is an important economic driver within HP, and that such development must be consistent with maintaining the integrity of other natural resource assets on which human health depend. The general objectives of the SEA study are: (i) to assist in identification of priority pollutants and industries; (ii) to review existing institutional structures that address these pollutants; (iii) to identify and recommend potential reform options through the introduction of new policy approaches; and (iv) to identify complementary institutional support necessary to implement such a program. The SEA was undertaken from April to December 2013 based on secondary data collection, existing literature, various consultative meetings with key stakeholders, and diagnostic analyses of this information. The purpose of the consultations was to discuss the findings, issues, and preliminary directions suggested by the desk reviews, and to initiate a work plan for amassing additional information. The SEA has included participatory approaches to ensure that presented policy changes are designed and implemented in a way that is responsive to the different segments of HP society. This report is presented in three parts. Part one forms a foundation for focusing subsequent diagnostic work by providing more extensive detail on the institutional context, pollution situation, health and environmental linkages, and opportunities for using economic instruments. Part two performs additional diagnostic analyses to inform the core recommendations relating to options for new economic instruments, institutional reforms, and capacity building; these recommendations are presented in part three.

Since we introduced the term "middle-income trap" in 2006, it has become popular among policy makers and researchers. In May 2015, a search of Google Scholar returned more than 3,000 articles including the term and about 300 articles with the term in the title. This paper provides a (non-exhaustive) survey of this literature. The paper then discusses what, in retrospect, we missed when we coined the term. Today, based on developments in East Asia, Latin America, and Central Europe during the past decade, we would have paid more attention to demographic factors, entrepreneurship, and external institutional anchors. We would also make it clearer that to us, the term was as much the absence of a satisfactory theory that could inform development policy in middle-income economies as the articulation of a development phenomenon. Three-quarters of the people in the world now live in middle-income economies, but economists have yet to provide a reliable theory of growth to help policy makers navigate the transition from middle- to high-income status. Hybrids of the Solow-Swan and Lucas-Romer models are not unhelpful, but they are poor substitutes for a well-constructed growth framework.

The 6th International Week of Science, Technology and Innovation, is an event organized by Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander Cúcuta and Ocaña, aimed at the academic - scientific community and the productive sectors of the region, whose purpose is the dissemination of the advances in research and extension of institutions of the National and International scope, through research groups and seedbeds, promoting the participation of the productive sectors in research, extension, technological development and innovation activities that strengthen the University - Company - State relationship and the exchange of experiences with researchers from the National and International level. ; La VI Semana Internacional de la Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, es un evento organizado por la Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander Cúcuta y Ocaña, dirigido a la comunidad académico - científica y los sectores productivos de la región, cuyo propósito es la difusión de los avances en investigación. y extensión de instituciones del ámbito Nacional e Internacional, a través de grupos de investigación y semillero, promoviendo la participación de los sectores productivos en actividades de investigación, extensión, desarrollo tecnológico e innovación que fortalezcan la relación Universidad - Empresa - Estado y el intercambio de experiencias con investigadores desde el nivel Nacional e Internacional. ; Programación Aplicación de la metodología de valorización del estado organizacional veo asociada al modelo de acompañamiento rural de la escuela de liderazgo, asociatividad y desarrollo comunitario eladc en norte de santander Apoyo a la internacionalización del sector cacao en norte de santander a través de establecer estrategias de posicionamiento y protección de la marca somos cacao s.a.s. con base en las certificaciones requeridas por el gobierno de colombia Costos de producción: innovaciones y prácticas estratégicas de las mipymes manufactureras Cultura y obligaciones tributarias: un análisis en el sector comercial El impacto de marketing digital en la competitividad las empresas del sector de restaurantes en la ciudad de cúcuta y su área metropolitana El manejo de personal ante la actitud hacia el compromiso organizacional en las empresas del sector hotelero de cúcuta colombia Estrategias laborales de utilización del tiempo libre para estudiantes ufps Fundamentos conceptuales de la estrategia en los negocios internacionales: caso café galavis, cúcuta, colombia Modelo de evaluación externa para la cadena de valor de cacao en norte de santander San cayetano, un destino turistico en norte de santander desde el marketing social Sucesión generacional de las empresas familiares. una mirada desde la literatura mototaxism as an occupational alternative to unemployment Lineamientos pedagógicos para la formación del contador público en la gestión ambiental, desde la accion docente Videoclip como herramienta de promoción turística, caso: municipio de arboledas, norte de santander Análisis del rol de las mujeres administrativas en la resolución de conflictos del sector cooperativo en ocaña, norte de santander Diagnóstico de capacidades emprendedoras con enfoque de economia naranja en aprendices sena cedrum Incidencia del uso de las tic en los resultados académicos La nueva competencia geopolítica por el cáucaso sur y sus complejos conflictos internos Análisis socio-económico de las comunidades indígenas y rom reconocidas por la alcaldía municipal de san josé de cúcuta Auditoria forense, técnica esencial en la prevención de contravenciones en el manejo financiero del sector bancario de ocaña Caracterización del desempeño financiero en las empresas del sector hotelero en el municipio de san josé de cúcuta-colombia para los periodos 2014-2017 Certificación halal como estrategia de internacionalización de productos agrícolas de norte de santander El perfil del emprendedor en tiempo de crisis Estandarización de procesos administrativos y operativos en la fabricación de productos textiles bajo el paradigma de los manuales de procedimientos Impacto socio-económico, político y ambiental de los asentamientos humanos en la periferia de la ciudad Inversiones sostenibles: agroecoturismo Representaciones sociales de los modelos gerenciales que poseen los empresarios de los clubes deportivos de fútbol de la ciudad de cúcuta – norte de santander Panorama actual de la educación superior a distancia en iberoamérica Realidad socioeconómica de la población migratoria venezolana en cúcuta Gestión del conocimiento como estrategia competitiva en las organizaciones entre colombia- finlandia Estudios de la inteligencia sobre la educación para la innovación El proceso de enseñanza en las ciencias contables de la ufps-cucuta La innovación como elemento competitivo de las organizaciones de china La economía sostenible como factor crucial de la localización de plantas industriales en colombia Apropiación y construcción territorial campesina en el catatumbo: zona de reserva campesina y territorios agroalimentarios campesinos Caracterización de semillas con especies nativas propias del catatumbo como eje estratégico para la conservación y manejo agroecológico de la zona Evaluación del endocarpio de coco (cocos nucifera) como sustrato en el cultivo de orellana (pleurotus ostreatus) en el municipio de villa del rosario, norte de santander Propiedades mecánicas del adobe mejorado con cal y ceniza volante, como empleo en ladrillos de construcción ambientalmente sostenible en tierra Reconstrucción de series de tiempo de precipitación mensual en clima tropical Estructura de los escarabajos coprófagos en la evaluación del estado de conservación en el bosque seco del jardín botánico jorge enrique quintero arenas de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña Calidad del agua en la producción de las unidades piscícolas en los municipios del zulia, san cayetano y villa del rosario Comparación de sistemas de evaluación seminal en el parámetro de motilidad (sca® versus imagej®) en semen porcino Diagnóstico de sistemas de producción caprino en el área metropolitana de cúcuta (norte de santander) Efecto de diferentes niveles de inclusión de harina de chachafruto (erythrina edulis), sobre el desempeño productivo y la sobrevivencia de juveniles de cachama negra (colossoma macropomum) Elaboración y caracterización fisicoquímica de la harina de banano bocadillo (musaaa simmonds) Estandarización de diferentes concentrados de sucrosa. en la vitrificación de semen ovino Evaluación de la viabilidad de semillas de capsicum annuum usando la prueba de tetrazolio Identificación de factores que han conllevado a la disminución del rebaño caprino en el área metropolitana de cúcuta Integración de datos georreferenciados, multiescala y multidisciplinares para caracterizar espacialmente la respuesta fenotípica del caballo criollo de la orinoquía La apicultura como estrategia de conservación de la biodiversidad y alternativa productiva de la ganadería doble propósito con uso de sistemas silvopastoriles del bosque seco tropical Uso de la analítica de datos en el estudio epidemiológico de la fiebre aftosa. aplicación en el departamento del cesar Conservación del caballo criollo de la orinoquía y desarrollo de una línea de caballo de tropa para el ejército nacional de colombia Determinación de la edad óptima de pastoreo para la estrella africana (cynodon plectostachyus) en un sistema lechero tropical. Diseño de una planta de producción de células bhk-21 para la obtención de la vacuna leucemia felina vlfe usando superpro designer Efecto del concentrado autólogo de plaquetas en las velocidades espermáticas en semen ovino Evaluación de la funcionalidad del almidon de arracacha (arracacia xanthorrhiza) en galletas tipos finas Evaluación de los impactos ambientales derivados de la actividad de minería de arcilla o carbón a partir de una propuesta metodológica Evaluación ex ante de un proyecto de conservación y desarrollo a partir de "pseudognaphalium" (vira vira) en bogotá-colombia Impacto de los extremos de variabilidad climática en la comunidad de macroinvertebrados acuáticos en el cauce principal del río pamplonita en el periodo (2000 – 2014) Impactos agropecuarios en el catatumbo ocacionados por la conflictividad social pre-factibilidad de la producción de bioplástico a partir de almidón extraido de cáscaras de platanos por fermentación aerobia del hongo rizophus oryzae Validación de la metodologia para la estimacion de la biomasa total de la vegetacion arborea de la comuna 9 del municipio san josé de cucuta Simulación de un bioproceso a escala industrial para la producción del hongo medicinal ganoderma lucidum mediante la herramienta computacional superpro designer Simulación mediante cfd de la hidrodinámicagenerada por una turbina rushton a diferentes velocidades de agitación en fluidos no-newtonianos Sensibilidad de plantas de tomate a salinidad por nacl y fusarium oxysporum Evaluación de las propiedades fisicoquímicas, microbiológicas y organoléptica de de cupcakes apartir de moringa stevia y cocoa. Aislamiento e identificacion de cepas nativas productoras de exopolisacaridos a partir de productos autoctonos arnr 16s como herramienta aplicada en la caracterización molecular de géneros y especies de bacterias Aspectos a tener en cuenta en el proceso de vigilancia epidemiologica relacionada con el riesgo biológico Biodegradabilidad y toxicidad de lixiviados de rellenos sanitarios tratados por fotocatálisis heterogénea, usando tio2 en un colector parabólico compuesto Concentración de cultivos microalgales empleando un electroflotador open-access . Efecto de la altitud y tamaño de explotaciones ganaderas sobre aspectos productivos y reproductivos en la region sur-occidental de norte de santander Efecto de la fuente de carbono en un proceso de fijación biológica de nitrógeno utilizando efluentes piscicolas Estimación de la huella hídrica verde y azul en la producción de caña de azúcar (saccharum officinarum) orgánica. caso de estudio: zona centro del valle del cauca Estrategias de adaptación al cambio climático y de prevención ante la ocurrencia de desastres socio-naturales a partir de la percepción de los habitantes del municipio chitagá Evaluación de dos fuentes de calcio sobre parámetros de calidad de cascara del huevo en reproductoras cobb avian 48 en condiciones comerciales Evaluación de la capacidad de biorremediación de aguas postconsumo de piscicultura mediante el uso de microalgas y cianobacterias Evaluación de la toxicidad de extractos de plantas medicinales contra spodoptera exigua Evaluación de un sistema de riego automatizado para el control de humedad en el proceso de compostaje Evaluación del bienestar animal en proyecto piscicola de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña Evaluación del sistema de tratamiento agua potable san fernando – eficiencia y calidad Identificación del potencial agroindustrial del municipio de tibú desde indicadores del desarrollo sostenible Inducción de genes pr1 y mpk1 asociados a resistencia en papaya inoculada con prsv Medición del bienestar animal en el aprisco de la granja experimental de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña, mediante el protocolo welfare quality® Medición del bienestar animal en el sistema de producción avícola de la granja experimental de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña ufpso, mediante el protocolo welfare quality® Microorganismos rizosféricos asociados al ciclo del carbono en el cultivo de arroz, norte de santander Potencial biotecnológico de una cepa de oscillatoria sp termotolerante para la producción de colorantes Protocolo de cosecha y determinacion de metabolitos de interes industrial en microalgas Protocolo para el mantenimiento de cepas y escalamiento en la producción de microalgas de interés industrial Protocolo para la bioprospección eficiente de microalgas y cianobacterias termotolerantes Protocolo para la extracción de ficobiliproteínas (apc, c-pc, pe) de cianobacterias termotolerantes Sostenibilidad y responsabilidad social: factor determinante de buenas prácticas en el sector microempresarial, ocaña-colombia Tratamiento de aguas contaminadas con glifosato utilizando electrocoagulación Elaboración de yogurt funcional a partir de remolacha (beta vulgaris) y leche ultrasonificada Solución por métodos numéricos de la ecuación del calor asociada a la transferencia térmica en polímeros Caracterización mineralógica de material arcilloso de la formación guayabo a diferentes por difracción de rayos x Impacto de la interdisciplinariedad en las investigaciones científicas Análisis descriptivo de las concepciones sobre storytelling en matemáticas Historia de las vías férreas de cúcuta, en el currículo de matemática financiera Impacto del programa jóvenes en acción en la formacion inicial de educadores en matematicas Efecto de la velocidad de centrifugado sobre las propiedades anticorrosivas de los recubrimientos de bismuto-titanio obtenidos vía sol-gel en sustratos de 316l Análisis térmico, ftir-atr y frx de nidos de avispas de colombia Comportamiento térmico de las cenizas de carbón provenientes de la combustión en hornos colmena y su potencial uso como nutriente tecnológico en la elaboración de bloques cerámicos extruídos Factores actitudinales de los estudiantes que inciden en la enseñanza del calculo diferencial bajo el enfoque ontosemiótico Variables críticas que condicionan la competitividad de la cerámica artesanal en norte de santander bajo la dinámica de su cadena productiva Evaluación en laboratorio del grado de infección de burkholderia glumae en semillas de arroz Valores y servicios ambientales de los árboles urbanos desde el enfoque de la purificación del aire Análisis del recurso solar y eólico en tres zonas específicas del departamento de norte de santander Desarrollo experimental de mezclas para la obtención de materiales compuestos de suelo cemento y residuos de demolición, conformados a través de prensa manual: una alternativa para la sostenibilidad a partir del reuso de materiales de construcción La participacion y el dialogo en la construccion de paz territorial Medición de la calidad y eficacia de la participación ciudadana en el catatumbo con aplicación de la metodología siriri (alianza ufpso-fip) Aprendizaje basado en problemas (abp) para el desarrollo de competencias científicas en biología Objetivos para garantizar la efectividad del principio de oportunidad en colombia El exodo transfronterizo: y el cambio en las dinámicas sociales, economicas y politicas -municipio de cúcuta-san antonio (estado táchira) Módulo de refugio temporal madera pet + acero reciclado: ensambles mpet+ar Factores asociados a las pruebas saber 11° en las instituciones educativas del municipio de pamplona Análisis del cumplimiento del enfoque de gestión responsable desde la perspectiva de los sistemas de gestión de calidad y ambiental Estudio comparativo de la aplicación de tecnologías colaborativas en el desarrollo de ambientes de aprendizaje Evaluación del ova big toy, herramienta para la enseñanza del ingles en niños de primaria Imaginarios sobre ciudadanía de frontera: un abordaje desde las distintas miradas de los sectores sociales que convergen en la ciudad cúcuta El uso de las tic y su inclusión en las prácticas pedagógicas de los docentes del programa de enfermería ufps Caracteres multiculturales e intuicionistas del emprendimiento en la ciudad fronteriza san josé de cúcuta y los signos de enfoque diferencial para la administración local Hipótesis normativa para una eficaz protección del medio ambiente en colombia Narrativa visual de la migración de venezolanos, caso: puentes internacionales francisco de paula santander y simón bolivar Incorporación de los sistemas educativos lego y fischer technik como recursos de juego didácticos en la enseñanza de la matemática en grados séptimo del colegio isidro caballero delgado del municipio de floridablanca en santander colombia El concepto de inclusión en la educacion superior: acciones demostrativas y buenas prácticas. caso de estudio, institución francisco de paula santander Animación digital como herramienta para el aprendizaje de niños con discapacidad auditiva, caso: cuentos y fábulas infantiles Estrategias de intervención en el proceso "enseñanza de la historia" museo casa natal del general francisco de paula santander Software educativo para el apoyo del aprendizaje de la asignatura fundamentos de programación Las nuevas dinamicas de la movilidad humana en la frontera colombo-venezolana caso: venezolanos El uso de instagram como herramienta de branding en las empresas de calzado en norte de santander Percepciones de los migrantes fronterizos sobre su representación mediática en los contenidos informativos emitidos por canales de televisión nacionales La arcilla y su influencia en la arquitectura representativa del sector centro como elementos de identidad de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta Reconstrucción de la memoria histórica en el catatumbo a partir de la producción audiovisual sobre la masacre de santa inés, vegas de motilonia y planadas el 24 y 25 de diciembre de 2004 Análisis del contexto del aula para fortalecer las habilidades integradas en inglés como lengua extranjera a través de la enseñanza basada en tareas en el grado séptimo de la institución educativa integrado juan atalaya Eficacia de la ley 1561 de 2012 para otorgar títulos de propiedad al poseedor material de bienes inmuebles urbanos y rurales y sanear la falsa tradición en el municipio de cúcuta De la práctica y la investigación a los syllabus en ingeniería. Una experiencia de actualización permanente de la cátedra. La investigación formativa como desafío en la educación superior. caso: semillero de investigación en mantenimiento – universidad francisco de paula santander Práctica pedagógica de los docentes y las competencias y procesos matemáticos de los estudiantes en educación media y superior: alineación mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales Factores que influyen en el bienestar y satifaccion en la vida de los inmigrantes en la zona de frontera Desde el enfoque socio crítico: el restablecimiento de los derechos de los estudiantes en condición de víctimas de las instituciones educativas del municipio de san josé de cúcuta, norte de santander 2018-2019 Vacíos de protección y riesgos psicosociales en el marco de la migración venezolana: un análisis desde lo documental Incidencia en la seguridad personal frente a la regulación de los delitos informáticos en la universidad de pamplona sede villa del rosario Estrategia socioeducativa para la prevención del dengue en el municipio de los patios Permanencia académica en un grupo de estudiantes de la universidad francisco de paula santander Las barreras en el acceso a la justicia para las mujeres victimas del conflicto en norte de santander. El caso de la fundación myriam castrillón Comisiones de la verdad y derecho a la verdad en la jurisprudencia de la corte interamericana de derechos humanos La incidencia de las dinámicas urbanas y territoriales en la transformación de la ciudad. el caso de la avenida 1 éste de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta La comunicación como acción de motivación-productividad en las organizaciones Rendimiento académico en matemáticas y objetos interactivos de aprendizaje-oia Implicaciones sociales del celular en la vida cotidiana de los jóvenes universitarios Estudio de la compactación con calor aplicada sobre fardos de paja para el diseño de soluciones constructivas estructurales Consulta popular minera y competencias de las entidades territoriales (muncipios) La pérdida de oportunidad en la responsabilidad médica del estado Derechos humanos y resocialización en colombia: una cuestión de política criminal Modelo pedagógico transdisciplinario en las carreras de ciencias administrativas y económicas: un cambio de paradigma Una mirada a las concepciones sobre la formación docente: programa de licenciatura en educación infantil. Corporación universitaria minuto de dios – Colombia Análisis de la percepción que presentan los docentes, administrativos y estudiantes de la universidad de pamplona sobre la rsu en sus ejes: campus responsable, formación profesional y ciudadana, gestión social del conocimiento y participación social Transformaciones de la dinámica de familias venezolanas asistidos por la propuesta la casita solidaria Construcción de cultura y territorio en el municipio de tibú por jóvenes víctimas del conflicto Percepción de la discriminación por razones de orientación sexual en estudiantes de trabajo social en la ufps cúcuta Catálogo arquimod (ver lo que hemos sido capaces de hacer) Excepción de inconstitucionalidad frente a la conservación de la supremacía constitucional en colombia Energía renovable para la población vulnerable del barrio el paramo en el municipio villa del rosario estudio de la eficacia de la defensa ejercida por los defensores publicos en los procesos penales en el municipio de villa del rosario análisis desde el principio del enfoque diferencial de las mujeres trabajadoras sexuales migrantes en el municipio de cúcuta y zona de frontera niños y niñas migrantes en zona de frontera e inclusión en las instituciones educativas en el municipio de san jose de cùcuta análisis jurisprudencial en relación de los derechos humanos en la población migrante venezolana región del catatumbo: almas atrapadas entre las memorias del olvido y el dolor población migrante entre fronteras analisis de la transculturación y adaptación de los migrantes venezolanos en el municipio de san josé de san josé de cúcuta realidad fronteriza e impacto social de la migración de población venezolana en el municipio de san josé de cúcuta. (2016-2018) el impacto de la salud pública en las mujeres migrantes de venezuela en estado de gestación en el municipio san josé de cúcuta en el año 2016-2019 liderazgos de las mujeres gramaloteras a partir del proceso de reasentamiento al nuevo casco urbano formación de conciencia política en la niñez juguemos por la igualdad saberes de los yerbateros sobre medicina tradicional en el municipio de cúcuta durante el primer semestre del 2020 la restitución de tierras como reparación transformadora en la construcción de paz 437 estrategia educomunicativa para la prevención del acoso escolar en el colegio instituto técnico patios centro 2-sede patios centro uno uso de la guadua para viviendas de interés social frente a sistemas constructivos tradicionales en la ciudad de cúcuta heterotópia de género: reflexiones desde las mujeres trabajadores informales avances teórico-metodológicos del estudio de factores asociados a los resultados de las pruebas saber pro en los estudiantes de ingenieria civil de la ufps reconstrucción de memoria histórica de las mujeres desplazadas en el barrio ciudad rodeo, cúcuta, mediante la elaboración de un monumento representativo optimización estructural y arquitectónica desde lógicas topológicas a soluciones constructivas de arquitectura en tierra reconstrucción de memoria histórica a través de la creación del libro de relatos para narrar las experiencias de vida de las mujeres víctimas del conflicto armado residentes en el barrio ciudad rodeo, cúcuta-colombia estado del arte de instrumentos de evaluación sobre estilos de aprendizaje en publicaciones científicas internacionales protección a los derechos colectivos y del ambiente en villa del rosario y cúcuta frente a la emisión de agentes contaminantes por el transporte público responsabilidad estatal frente a la vulneración de los derechos humanos a mujeres víctimas de violencia sexual en el conflicto armado interno en colombia mineria tradiconal una mineria especial proteccion laboral a pastores y religiosos revisión de literatura sobre computación cuántica aplicada propuesta de un laboratorio steam bajo el enfoque industria 4.0 en la ufps sistema de control de un estacionamiento basado en tecnología rfid comparacion de momentos flectores producidos por carga gravitacional en losas de concreto reforzado armadas en dos direcciones obtenidos por diferentes metodos de analisis prototipo para la adquisición de señales cardiacas aplicaciones alternativas ambientalmente sustentables del carbón de norte de santander recubrimientos de dioxido de titanio mediante rf-magnetron sputtering sobre sustratos geopolimericos a base de metacaolines automatización de un sistema hidropónico nft para la optimización de la producción de hortalizas de hoja en la casa rural villa fonseca del municipio de salazar de las palmas n. de s. herramientas y algoritmo para la identificación de personas con procesamiento de señales cálculo del valor de variación del asentamiento de consolidación por efecto de modificación de cargas estructurales en zona de amenaza sísmica alta. caso de estudio: san jose de cucuta, colombia diseño e implementación de un banco para la detección de fallas en motores trifásicos mediante el uso de inteligencia artificial estudio comparativo de modelos empíricos para el cálculo de la evapotranspiración potencial en la región andina colombiana diseño y analisis de transductores fotonicos para aplicaciones de biosensado extracción de características sobre regiones de interés en mamogramas digitales adaptación de una bacteria nativa compatible con acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans y acidithiobacillus thiooxidans para desulfurar carbón a nivel de laboratorio análisis de variables ambientales para el diseño de circuitos de medición para sistemas solares fotovoltaicos análisis de un escenario de radio sobre fibra como propuesta para soportar los requerimientos de la red 5g software de reconocimiento facial para el control de acceso del personal a los laboratorios de investigación del programa de ingeniería de sistemas de la universidad francisco de paula santander prototipo de un panel modular compuesto a partir de calcín y grafeno, para la configuración arquitectónica de una envolvente pivotante captadora de energía diseño del sistema de riego auto-suficiente y sostenible para zonas verdes en la universidad francisco de paula santander, mediante el uso del software arduino y labview modelo dinámico lineal y no lineal de un dedo robótico para una prótesis de mano modelación y simulación hidráulica de las zonas de desbordamiento de la quebrada tanauca mediante hec-ras en la provincia de pamplona, norte de santander diseño, desarrollo e integración de un chatbot en organizaciones para la mejora en la atención usando inteligencia artificial como servicio en la nube diseño de protesis transfemoral mecanica graduable responsabilidad social empresarial como estrategia de impulso al emprendimiento e innovación en la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta condiciones de vulnerabilidad del contexto socioeducativo de la región del catatumbo que inciden en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas percepción social de estudiantes con discapacidad auditiva y sus docentes sobre la educación inclusiva en una universidad privada de cúcuta el deporte como una herramienta para la construcción de paz territorial en el pos-acuerdo de paz, en cúcuta zeolitas sódicas y potásicas a partir de cenizas volantes provenientes de la combustión del carbón de la termoeléctrica termotasajero s.a.s estudio para la viabilidad de una zona franca en áreas del posconflicto en el municipio de ocaña, norte de santander estudio sobre el impacto del consumo de energía en las ips de san josé de cúcuta desde el análisis del plan de uso eficiente de ahorro de energía implementado tratado de integración progresista de asociación transpacífico (cptpp) evolución e implicaciones para colombia dentro del contexto de inversión aplicación de un sistema de realidad virtual para la práctica en los procesos de importación y exportación en los estudiantes de comercio internacional de la ufps oportunidad de los supermercados y almacenes de cadena instalados en cúcuta por la crisis venezolana la efectividad de la legislación y desarrollo reglamentario en el progreso fronterizo cucuteño situación actual de la zona franca-cucuta como alternativa de productividad para la generacion de empleo las buenas prácticas para la internacionalización de la miel de abeja de asoarimaan oferta exportable del municipio de teorama del departamento de norte de santander como alternativa para el desarrollo socieconómico retos y oportunidades del sector agricola de norte de santander en el mercado asiatico plan de internacionalización para la miel producida por la asociación asoarimaan del corregimiento buena esperanza, municipio de cúcuta comercio internacional de norte de santander y santander frente a las políticas comerciales colombianas después de la salida de venezuela de la comunidad andina de naciones entre 2006-2018 caracterización del sector mipymes formal e informal de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta evaluación de las propiedades fisicoquímica del caliz de la physalis peruviana (uchuva) en la elaboración de ungüento antiinflamatorio establecimiento de un cultivo de scenedesmus sp en fotobioreactores de 2 l para la producción de carotenoides de interés comercial a partir de efluentes piscicolas análisis de la tasa de cambio en la cobertura natural presente en la ronda hídrica del río pamplonita en su paso por el casco urbano del municipio de cúcuta microencapsulación mediante secado por aspersión del aceite contenido de las hojas de mora (rubus glaucus) diseño experimental para la cuantificación de biomasa aérea a partir de ecuaciones alométricas en ecosistemas de bosque muy seco tropical, sometidos a baja intervención antrópica validacion del software open casa, sperm motility track v. 1.0 y bgm de imagej en semen de porcino evaluación del efecto de la composición del medio de cultivo sobre la propagación in vitro de híbridos de phalaenopsis determinación de la calidad fisiológica de la semillas de linum usitatissimum l. utilizando el test de tetrazolio pisum sativum un bioindicador eficaz para evaluar el efecto citotoxico del hipoclorito de sodio factores de riesgo relacionados con la adherencia al tratamiento en pacientes con hipertensión arterial, centro de salud once de noviembre calidad de vida del cuidador informal del paciente con alzheimer de la clínica stella maris de cúcuta en el primer semestre del año 2019 percepción de la eutanasia en docentes de la universidad francisco de paula santander durante el segundo semestre del 2019 diseño y aplicación de un programa de intervención en seguridad y salud en el trabajo, basado en los factores de riesgos laborales, en salones de belleza / peluquerías de cúcuta 2019 autoconcepto en adolescentes una mirada desde la migración - ii semestre de 2018 y i semestre de 2019 construcción de un sistema automatizado para conformar equipos de trabajo definición de los parámetros para el diseño de un prototipo clasificador de tipos de mente beneficios del pensamiento triádico en los estudiantes de ingeniería mecánica de la universidad francisco de paula santander, ocaña identificación del tipo de mente de los estudiantes de primer semestre de ingeniería civil mediante el pensamiento tríadico en la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña límites a la libertad de prensa en el municipio de ocaña, norte de santander dificultades de aprendizaje alrededor del algebra elemental en estudiantes de octavo grado actitudes y creencias de estudiantes de matemáticas y su correlación con el uso de las tic análisis de optimización topológica aplicada a espacios arquitectónicos. diseño desde la teoría de grafos enseñanza del concepto de derivada: una propuesta desde la ingeniería didáctica fortalecimiento del programa de prevención de la violencia escolar e intrafamiliar a través de la ejecución del proyecto mediadores en resolución de conflictos perteneciente a la casa de justicia barrio la libertad en las instituciones educativas simón bolívar y misael pastrana borrero de san josé de cúcuta incidencia en la seguridad personal frente a la regulación de los delitos informáticos en la universidad de pamplona sede villa del rosario política de participación social en salud (ppss) desde las competencias ciudadanas como herramienta para la gestión pública de programas y servicios de la e.s.e hospital universitario erasmo meoz representaciones gráficas de una función, ¿ayuda o problema en los jóvenes universitarios? una mirada al contexto penitenciario de las fuerzas militares, estudio de caso: trigésima brigada del ejército nacional de colombia (brigada treinta) felicidad y autoestima como bases esenciales para el desarrollo personal de los estudiantes del colegio universitario san carlos factores que influyen en el bienestar y satifaccion en la vida de los inmigrantes en la zona de frontera estrés laboral en las madres cabezas de hogar vinculadas al comercio informal en cúcuta norte de santander diseño de un estetoscopio digital para el análisis de taquicardia supraventricular analisis de calidad en el ciclo combinado buscando aprovechar el calor residual y control de agentes contaminantes analisis de estructuras de disipacion de energia para mitigar el impacto producido por flujo de avalanchas análisis del desempeño mecánico y de porosidad de una matriz de concreto reforzado con diferentes porcentajes de fibras de tereftalato de polietileno (pet) reciclado caracterizacion de las curvas de un motor de ignicion por compresion a diferentes factores de operación caracterizacion de sistemas de desarrollo esp32 para adquisicion de datos caracterización termo-física y mecánica de un cemento geopolimérico a base de cenizas volantes para diferentes relaciones si/al control de conmutación de baterías para un sistema de carga y descarga elaboración de un pan funcional a partir de harina de centeno (secale cereale) con adición de cúrcuma (curcuma longa) evaluación de la eficiencia de un sistema de refrigeración que opera con distintos refrigerantes evaluación de las propiedades mecánicas, morfológicas y estructurales de tabletas cerámicas con y sin recubrimiento de magnetita usando proyección térmica oxiacetilanica prototipo de cerradura electrónica para el control de acceso mediante huella dactilar y rfid prototipo electrónico para la actualización del sistema de desarrollo "de lorenzo dl3155e24" recubrimientos de poliestireno postconsumo para modificacion de tension superficial 547 rediseño y simulación del rodete y los alabes de la turbina pelton de la universidad francisco de paula santander sistema de cultivo hidropónico semiautónomo diseño e implementación de un sistema de caracterización de un transistor fet con interfaz gráfica de usuario en matlab sistema integrado de desplazamiento entre zanjas basado en sistemas embedidos diseño e implementacion de un sistema de caracterización de dispositivos electrónicos de tres terminales para la medición de la capacitancias internas cπ y cμ caracterización de genes productores de proteasas y quitinasas de hongos entomopatógenos aislados de suelo a caracterización fisicoquimica del raquis de palma de aceite para su aplicación en el uso de nuevos productos agroindustriales efecto de la adición de concentrado autólogo de plaquetas sobre las subpoblaciones espermáticas en semen ovino remocion de coliformes totales y fecales presentes en agua mediante la aplicación de nano particulas de plata tratamiento de aguas contaminadas con glifosato utilizando electrocoagulación utilización de tierras diatomáceas recicladas de la industria cervecera como medio de transporte de macronutrientes estandarización de procesos administrativos y operativos en la fabricación de productos textiles bajo el paradigma de los manuales de procedimientos factores de apoyo social en los pacientes con trastorno bipolar, episodio depresivo sin síntomas psicóticos, en una clínica de la ciudad en el último trimestre del año 2018 selección de un nuevo material refractario determinación del efecto de los fragmentos de bosque urbano sobre el co2 producido por las fuentes móviles en el municipio de ocaña norte de santander desarrollo de una mezcla asfáltica reciclada (rap) en cúcuta analisis comparativo de los tipos de pretratamientos usados en el bagazo de la caña de azúcar diseño de un modelo de gestion de logistica inversa en el sector de muebles en la ciudad de san jose de cúcuta y el área metropolitana identificación de la avifauna, tomando como criterio taxonómico el canto influencia del uso del grano de caucho triturado (gcr) sobre la resistencia bajo carga monotónica en una mezcla drenante caracterización morfológica y térmica de cerámica plastica modelado de la gestión del conocimiento en docencia universitaria empleando dinámica de sistemas desarrollo de un sistema de supervisión de las variables de temperatura, presión y humedad en un biodigestor con el fin de visualizar el balance de energía de la ufpso diseño de la estrategia de control de una celda electrolítica para producir hho como combustible complementario desarrollo de un sistema automatizado para el banco de prueba de soldadura mig modelo numérico de detección de fugas para sistema de tuberias evaluación de un sistema de comunicaciones óptico modulado en desplazamiento de fase empleando multiplexación por división de frecuencia estrategias de producción limpia para las empresas del sector cerámico del área metropolitana de cúcuta aplicación móvil de reconocimiento óptico de caracteres (ocr) en el proceso de tabulación de registro de información de la asociación de padres de hogares comunitarios de bienestar familiar de la comuna siete de san josé de cúcuta análisis de volátiles en el proceso de fermentado de cacao, mediante el uso de una matriz multisensorial o nariz electrónica para el control de calidad del producto en norte de santander cúcuta procesamiento de datos implementado python para identificar clúster asociados a muestras de cacao seco sano e infectado con monilia en norte de santander análisis de la estructura intelectual y la evolución de la investigación en el concepto de universidad inteligente: un análisis bibliométrico modelado 3d aplicado a las plantas del vivero de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña análisis y control de humedad del suelo a través de un sistema soportado por sensores en el jardín botánico "jorge quintero arenas" de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña portable energy: desarrollo de un multigenerador eléctrico portátil a base de energía fotovoltaica y energía cinética efecto de la polaridad del solvente durante la electrodeposición de asfaltenos de petroleo extrapesado colombiano en presencia de un campo magnético y nanoparticulas magnéticas determinación del índice de compresión a partir de propiedades de plasticidad en los suelos cohesivos residuales de la ciudad de ocaña, norte de santander modelo dinámico lineal y no lineal de un dedo robótico para una prótesis de mano análisis y modelación del transito vehicular en las intersecciones semaforizadas de la avenida 10 del municipio de los patios, colombia gestion del alcance en proyectos de desarrollo de software desarrollo de una aplicación web para la asignación de citas, historias clínicas y facturación utilizando la metodología cmmi (capability maturity model integration) para el hospital de los patios técnicas de medición y análisis del fenómeno de envejecimiento en asfaltos y mezclas asfálticas análisis técnico y económico para evaluación de pavimento flexible entre método convencional y nueva tecnología desarrollo de un sistema embebido configurable para la adquisicíon y monitoreo de un proceso termico – neumatico utilizando una plataforma raspberry pi métodos para la recuperación de aceites lubricantes automotrices usados: revisión del estado de arte propuesta metodologica para la optimizacion de la producción en pequeñas empresas mineras de carbon en norte de santander diseño de un sistema de perfilación de férulas mediante el escaneo 3d de muñeca, brazo y tobillo para fines de impresión 3d evaluación de parámetros mecánicos y de durabilidad de una mezcla asfáltica tipo mdc-19 con inclusión de chamota como reemplazo en agregados de 3/8" simulación computacional del proceso de alivio de tensiones residuales en cilindros para glp identificación del tipo de mente de los estudiantes de primer semestre de ingeniería civil mediante el pensamiento tríadico en la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña desarrollo e implementación con herramientas tecnológicas de la información y comunicación (tic) para dar solución a requerimiento a diferentes sectores empresariales recuperación de oro desde minerales refractarios auroargentíferos usando una bacteria nativa químicamente compatible con acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans bancas paramétricas [diseño generativo de mobiliario] validación del modelo matemático de una bomba centrífuga barnes de 0.25 hp análisis de componentes principales en cromatogramas para diagnósticar cáncer de próstata análisis de las redes neuronales artificiales en función de base radial para ser empleadas en la extracción de bordes de imágenes aéreas análisis y estimación de la radiación solar en la ciudad de cúcuta usando estadística inferencial aplicación web para la administración de la infraestructura de red y telecomunicaciones del campus central de la universidad francisco de paula santander en la sede cucuta determinación del índice de compresión a través de las propiedades de plasticidad de los suelos de la ciudad de ocaña, norte de santander caracterización del docente y el estudiante de educación superior en la planificación, dinámica de la clase y evaluación caracterización física y funcional del intercambiador de calor con fines de detección y diagnostico de fallos competencias gerenciales de los gerentes de las empresas de del sector ladrillero de villa del rosario como ventaja competitiva comunicación vía bluetooth para la emulación del control de un sistema de iluminación en proteus professional 8.1 a través de una aplicación móvil desarrollo de un prototipo mecatrónico con realimentación háptica para un simulador de actividades de entrenamiento de la cirugía laparoscópica en animales caninos diagnóstico y análisis del impacto social del uso de dos tipos de infraestructura de vivienda de tipo horizontal en poblaciones vulnerables caso de estudio, cúcuta, colombia diseño de envolventes arquitectónicas paramétricas diseño de un sistema de emulación de movimiento robotizado de mano de bajo costo diseño de un sistema de medición de material particulado mediante un vehículo aéreo no tripulado diseño de un sistema de percepción del impacto de choques mecánicos y golpes en el cerebro dureza de recubrimientos de si-ti-zr fabricados por la técnica de sol-gel sobre sustratos de aluminio aa2024-t3 efecto del número de reynolds sobre la relación de coeficientes aerodinámicos de un aerogenerador sin aspas amplificador electrónico portátil con energía solar para el análisis de la variabilidad de la frecuencia cardiaca en campo estimación de la radiación solar utilizando redes de neuronas artificiales autoreparación del concreto y el impacto en el futuro de las construcciones evaluation of the use of biomaterials for the manufacture of biodegradable films alternatives for critical points of vehicular accident according to statistical analysis estudio de patología para la rehabilitación del teatro juan atalaya en san josé de cúcuta, colombia estudio de seguridad vial mediante la implementación de comparendos por medios técnicos y tecnológicos en la autopista san antonio, villa del rosario, colombia evaluación estimada de derrames de crudo ocasionados por acciones subversivas al oleoducto caño limón coveñas experiencias significativas en los procesos de movilidad académica en un programa de ingeniería industrial factores de riesgo de la desercion estudiantil del programa de ingenieria industrial en una universidad publica gerencia creativa para el desarrollo del marketing social gestión del riesgo frente a movimientos telúricos en construcción de edificaciones en san josé de cúcuta impacto socioeconómico y nivel de emprendimiento en los graduados de un programa de ingeniería industrial la educación inclusiva y las tecnologías en las prácticas pedagógicas medición de parámetros en líneas de transmisión con sistemas embebidos metodología del cálculo de la exergía en la chimenea de una caldera pirotubular de 10bhp metodología para la selección de perfiles aerodinámicos de aerogeneradores a bajo número de reynolds microstructure and morphology of wc-18co coatings obtained by thermal spray by flame modelo de simulación de eventos discretos, para mejorar los tiempos de espera en los servicios de urgencias de un hospital público modelo matematico de un intercambiador de calor tipo tubo y coraza pbx ip como herramienta de integración de servicios de comunicaciones para la ufps basado en las mejores prácticas de itil percepción empresarial del impacto de los trabajos de grado desarrollados por un programa de ingeniería industrial en el área metropolitana de cúcuta plataforma web para la gestión de protección y adopción de animales en condición de calle en la ciudad de cúcuta y su área metropolitana predicción del precio del petróleo mediante redes de neuronas artificiales propuesta de mejoramiento de las zonas de estacionamiento vehicular y de motos de la ufps cúcuta empleando simulación prototipo para control de asistencia académica de manera remota con tecnología rfid resistencia a la compresion de concretos con adicion parcial de polietileno de alta densidad simulación bidimensional del flujo de aire sobre un perfil aerodinámico sg6043 a bajos números de reynolds mediante la simulación computacional simulación de un alabe de aerogenerador para bajas potencias y velocidades software de registro de asistencia usando mecanismos de hardware libre con comunicación nfc "agile sheduling" generación automática de la planificación de la entrega "release planing" asignación de historias de usuario a los desarrolladores usando algoritmos genéticos la tecnología una alternativa creativa en el proceso enseñanza- aprendizaje en los deportes sobre ruedas caracterización espectroscópica y fisicoquímica de la gulupa passiflora edulis sims de la provincia de pamplona, norte de santander asociación entre el conocimiento de los factores de riesgo y las condiciones de salud vocal en docentes universitarios ansiedad, depresión y autoconcepto en mujeres diagnósticadas con cáncer de mama autoconcepto en adolescentes una mirada desde la migración - ii semestre de 2018 y i semestre de 2019 estilos de vida en jóvenes estudiantes de fisioterapia de dos universidades de bucaramanga, colombia diseño y aplicación de un programa de intervención en seguridad y salud en el trabajo, basado en los factores de riesgos laborales, en salones de belleza / peluquerías de cúcuta 2019 impacto del programa cuidado de enfermería a las puérperas y su recién nacido egresados de una institución de salud del municipio de cúcuta decálogo de seguridad vial para la disminución de los riesgo en los usuarios viales en una empresa ubicada en la intervención pedagógica mediada por las tics en la enseñanza y el aprendizaje del cuidado de personas con enfermedad crónica cuidado humanizado de enfermería desde la experiencia de los pacientes: metasíntesis en búsqueda de la humanización de la unidad de cuidados intensivos nivel de conocimiento sobre sífilis gestacional en mujeres gestantes que asisten a la unidad básica de comuneros, en el segundo trimestre del año 2019 la espiritualidad de los cuidadores en el contexto de la alta complejidad memoria histórica en los trabajadores de salud en la zona del catatumbo, un abordaje desde la bioética para la deliberación descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en el mercado del municipio de sardinata, norte de santander prevalencia de molestias osteomusculares y calidad de vida laboral en el personal de enfermería de un centro quirúrgico de la ciudad de cúcuta en el primer semestre de 2019 perfil cognitivo de los pacientes con trastorno afectivo bipolar activo y en remisión en el hospital mental rudesindo soto en el segundo trimestre del 2019 perspectiva del cuidador entrenado en pacientes con enfermedad renal cronica desde tres dimensiones estado serológico igg e igm frente a toxoplasma gondii y factores de riesgo relacionados, en gestantes de primer trimestre atendidas instituciones de salud de cúcuta, colombia análisis dimensional del riesgo percibido por la exposición a radiaciones ionizantes del activo intangible del sector salud ; International scientific commiteeI Prof. Ricardo Santiago Puca Molina Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral, Argentina Prof. William J. Ugarte Guevara Universidad de Uppsala, Suecia Prof. Antoni Bosch Pujol Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, España Prof. Libardo Flórez Villamizar Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela Prof. Jimmy Jefferson Túllume Salazar Gerente General - ICACIT / Coordinador IEEE YP Region 9, Perú Prof. Maura Olivia García Pineda Universidad Tecnológica de Querétaro, México Prof. Carlos Humberto Sierra Becerra Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, México Prof. Ramona Moliné Escanilla Institute of Audit and IT-Governance Prof. Anderson Sandoval Amador Universidad Nacional del centro de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina Prof. Ely Dannier V. Niño Basque Center on Materials, Applications and Nanostructures (BCMaterials), Leioa, Spain; Fundation of Researchers in Science and Technology of Materials, Colombia. ; National scientific commitee Prof. Octavio Andrés González Estrada Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga Prof. Fredy Humberto Vera Rivera Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, San José de Cúcuta Prof. Oscar Javier Rodríguez Riveros IEEE Colombia / Universidad de San Buenaventura, Bogotá D.C. Prof. Elkín Gélvez Almeida Universidad Simón Bolívar, San José de Cúcuta Prof. José José Barba Ortega Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá D.C. Prof. Hugo Fernando Castro Silva Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, Tunja Prof. Nelson Afanador García Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander seccional Ocaña ; Organizing commitee Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander- UFPS Jhan Piero Rojas Suarez Olga Marina Vega Angarita Judith Del Pilar Rodriguez Tenjo Liliana Marcela Bastos Osorio Nydia María Rincón Villamizar Mawency Vergel Ortega Edwin Alberto Murillo Ruiz Giovanni Mauricio Baez Sandoval Gloria Esperanza Zambrano Plata Jessica Lorena Leal Pabón Marling Carolina Cordero Díaz Andrea Cacique Dixon Alirio García Carrillo Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander - Seccional Ocaña Torcoroma Velasquez Perez Ana Melissa Rodríguez Chinchilla Lady Sánchez Jácome Nelson Fernando Gaona Díaz Didier Camilo Gaona Sánchez ; 6th ed

This paper assesses the relation between access to markets and cultivated land in Sub-Saharan Africa. Making use of a geo-referenced panel over three decades (1970-2005) during which the road network was significantly improved, the analysis finds a modest but significant positive association between increased market accessibility and local cropland expansion. It also finds that cropland expansion, in turn, is associated with a small but significant increase in local gross domestic product. These results are suggestive of agricultural activities that develop at the extensive margin, which are mostly to serve local demand, but are not indicative of commercial agriculture that serves external markets.

This note assesses the main micro?determinants of informal employment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region from a human development stand point. It's main purpose is to quantify the patterns of labor informality (defined as the share of all employment with no access to social security) according to age, gender, education level, employment sector, profession, marital status, employment status, and geographic area in a selected group of countries in the region. Results indicate that the size of the public sector and the size of the agriculture sector are perhaps the main correlates of informality in the region. Countries where agricultural employment still constitutes a large share of overall employment (such as Morocco and Yemen) are associated with higher levels of overall informality. On the contrary, countries with larger public sectors and more urbanized such as Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon, display lower levels of overall informality. The existence of a large public sector, still associated with generous benefits and better employment quality, creates an important segmentation between public and private employment in many MENA countries. Informality rates are very high among youth between ages fifteen and twenty-four. After age twenty-four, informality decreases rapidly until individuals reach prime working age (forty to forty?five years). This rapid decrease in informality rates goes hand in hand with a rapid increase in public sector employment, suggesting that informal workers enter into public sector jobs as they move from youth into adulthood. Results also indicate that the average worker in the informal sector is disadvantaged versus the average worker in the formal sector, as they are uncovered against social risks and are generally employed in low-productivity/low pay jobs.

Taxes are the price you pay for civilization. Taxes provide government revenues, and those who pay them have a stake in the system and in how government spends its money. Taxes are lifeblood of a stable and prosperous society. In the wake of the global economic downturn levying tax in even more difficult. With large structural deficits in the big developed economies, fiscal policy has never been under so much public scrutiny. While there is a clear expectation that economies will need to raise taxes as well as making spending cuts, they will need to remain cautious in how they raise taxes to ensure that recovery is not stifled. For developing economies, with cuts in aid budgets, tax revenues may prove to be a more sustainable source of financing. But challenges remain in terms of combating capital flight. Reducing the size of the informal economy and helping tax authorities to monitor compliance and collect taxes.

The problems of employment have become a central global concern in recent times. This makes nearly all the governments and development partners to be fully engaged in finding a lasting solution to the problems. In the past, development planning efforts were concentrated on the development of a modern industrial sector. It was believed that this would serve the domestic market and facilitate the absorption of redundant or surplus workers in the urban economy. It was also the belief that rapid economic growth and development would be achieved. The study is structured into five chapters. While chapter one looks at the background to the study, the terms of reference and the structure of the report, chapter two focuses on copious relevant literature on skills development bringing out the conceptual definitions, theoretical and empirical issues in the informal sector of the economy. Chapter three presents the methodology of how training providers as well as the beneficiaries of the programs were surveyed in the study. Chapter four gives the inventory of the programs for the informal sector skills development and a detailed analysis of five most important non- state-run programs in the country. Chapter five forms the conclusions and recommendations of the work.

Several decades of intensive dryland-farming in the Gadarif Region, located in the Eastern part of Sudan, has led to rapid landuse/landcover (LULC) changes mainly due to agricultural expansion, government policies and environmental calamities such as drought. The study area represents part of the African Sahel. The fundamental goal of the thesis was to assess land degradation and the impact of agriculture expansion on land cover, soil and crops production. To analyse and to monitor the LULC changes, multi-temporal Landsat data of the years 1979, 1989 and 1999 and ASTER data of the year 2009 covering an area of approximately 1200 km² were used. For this a post-classification comparison technique was applied to detect LULC changes from satellite images. Six LULC classes were identified during the classification scheme, namely cultivated land, fallow land, woodland, bare land, settlement and water. For the four dates of satellite images the overall classification accuracy ranged from 86 % to 92 %. During the three decades of the study period an extensive change of LULC patterns occurred. The cultivated areas increased significantly, covering 81 % of the previous woodland in the period 1979 – 2009. Fallow land only increased during the period 1989 – 1999. Over the three decades, urban expansion continuously increased covering an area of 23, 21 and 27 km² for the periods 1979 – 1989, 1989 – 1999 and 1999 – 2009 respectively. The detailed LULC map of the study area was obtained by using a dual polarisation (HH and HV) TerraSAR-X data of the year 2009. The different LULCs of the study area were analysed by employing an object-oriented classification approach. For that purpose, multi-resolution segmentation of the Definiens Software was used for creating the image objects. Using the feature-space optimisation tool the attributes of the TerraSAR-X images were optimised in order to obtain the best separability among classes for the LULC mapping. In addition to the classes that have been obtained by the optical data, the following LULCs resulted from SAR data: harvested land, rock, settlement 1 (local-roof buildings) and settlement 2 (concrete roof buildings). The backscattering coefficients for some classes were different along HH and HV polarisation. The best separation distance of the tested spectral, shape and textural features showed different variations among the discriminated LULC classes. An overall accuracy of 84 % with a kappa value of 0.82 was resulted from the classification scheme. Accuracy differences among the classes were kept minimal. For more than six decades in the Gadarif Region mechanised dryland farming is practised. As a result, due to continuous conventional tillage, extensive woodcutting and over-grazing, serious soil degradation occurred. To discuss the impact of LULC changes on the selected soil properties, three main LULC types were chosen to be investigated, namely: cultivated land, fallow land and woodland. In addition to the reference soil profiles, soil samples were also collected at two depths from ten sample plots for each of the LULC type. For these soil samples, various soil properties such as texture, bulk density (BD), organic matter (OM), soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SoAR), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) were analysed. Laboratory tests proved that soil properties were significantly affected by LULC changes. Within the different LULC types, clay content in the surface layers (0 – 5 and 5 – 15 cm) varied from 59 % to 65 %, whereas silt fractions ranged from 27 % to 37 %. Soil BD, OM and P were significantly different (p < 0·05) across the three LULC types. Soil pH was significantly different between cultivated land and woodland on one side and between fallow land and woodland on the other side. EC and SoAR values of fallow land were found to be significantly different (p < 0·05) from woodland. The dryland vertisol of the Gadarif Region in Sudan produced more than one-third of the national production of sorghum – the main food stuff in the country. Soil compaction has been recognised as one of the major problems in crop production worldwide. Soil strength and infiltration rate are important variables for understanding and predicting the soil processes. The effects of three different landuse systems (cultivated land, fallow land and woodland) on soil compaction and infiltration rate were investigated at two sites of the study area. Site 1 represents the older one of the two. The soil penetration resistance (SPR) was measured in three depths using a manually operated cone penetrometer. Infiltration rate was measured in the field using a double-ring infiltrometer. Following the cone-penetrometer sampling, soil samples were collected to determine the variables that affect SPR and infiltration rate vs. particle size, dry BD, volumetric moisture content (VMC) and organic carbon (OC) content. Field measurements and soil samples were collected for each landuse type. The measured infiltration rate data were inserted into the Kostiakov Model in order to predict the cumulative soil water infiltration. Soil compaction for the cultivated land was 65 % larger in comparison to woodland. Woodland areas showed an increase in the infiltration rate by 87 % and 74 % compared to cultivated and fallow land respectively. Both study sites showed an increase in the dry BD when SPR is increasing, while VMC decreases with increasing SPR. Also, low OC contents were observed to be associated with high SPR values. For Site 1 the average coefficient of determination (R²) for the infiltration data fit to the Kostiakov Model were 0.65, 0.73 and 0.84 for cultivated land, fallow land and woodland respectively. However, for Site 2 they were 0.63, 0.76 and 0.78. In the Gadarif Region agriculture is the main activity and practised in many forms with a variety of environmental effects and consequences. Continuous ploughing of the cultivated land coupled with inproper soil management has contributed to soil deterioration when the landuse changed from woodland to cultivated and fallow land. Therefore, the development of sustainable landuse practises in the dryland-farming of the study area need to be improved in order to reduce the amount of soil degradation in the future. ; Mehrere Jahrzehnte intensiven Trockenfeldbaus in der Region von Gadarif, welche sich im östlichen Teil des Sudans befindet, führten hauptsächlich aufgrund von landwirtschaftlicher Expansion, politischen Beschlüssen der Regierung und Naturkatastrophen wie Trockenheit zu einer raschen Veränderung der Landnutzung und Landbedeckung. Das wesentliche Ziel dieser Dissertation war es, die Degradation des Landes, sowie die Auswirkungen von landwirtschaftlicher Expansion auf die Landbedeckung, den Boden und den Pflanzenbau im Untersuchungsgebiet, welches Teile der afrikanischen Sahelzone beinhaltet, abzuschätzen. Zur Analyse und Beobachtung der Veränderungen der Landnutzung und Landbedeckung wurden multi-temporale Landsat-Daten der Jahre 1979, 1989 und 1999 sowie ASTER-Daten aus dem Jahr 2009 genutzt, welche eine Fläche von schätzungsweise 1200 km² abdecken. Um Veränderungen von Landnutzung und Landbedeckung aus Satellitenbilddaten zu bestimmen, wurde ein auf Post-Klassifikation basierendes Vergleichsverfahren angewandt. Sechs Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungsklassen, welche die Namen bewirtschaftetes Land, brach liegendes Land, Waldgebiet, Ödland, besiedeltes Land und Wasserfläche tragen, wurden während des Klassifikationsprozesses bestimmt. Für die vier Aufnahmezeitpunkte der Satellitendaten lag die allgemeine Klassifikationsgenauigkeit zwischen 86 % und 92 %. Während des dreißigjährigen Untersuchungszeitraums fand eine beträchtliche Veränderung der Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungsstruktur statt. Bewirtschaftete Flächen nahmen in ihrem Anteil signifikant zu und bedeckten innerhalb des Zeitraums von 1979 bis 2009 81 % der früheren Waldgebiete. Der Anteil von brach liegendem Land nahm lediglich während des Zeitraums von 1989 bis 1999 zu. Besiedelte Gebiete breiteten sich über die drei Jahrzehnte kontinuierlich aus und wuchsen innerhalb des Zeitraums von 1979 bis 1989 um eine Fläche von 23 km², sowie um 21 km² zwischen 1989 und 1999 und um 27 km² in dem Zeitabschnitt 1999 – 2009. Eine detaillierte Karte zur Landnutzung und Landbedeckung des Untersuchungsgebiets wurde mittels der Nutzung dual polarisierter (HH und HV) TerraSAR-X Daten aus dem Jahr 2009 erzeugt. Die verschiedenen Landnutzungen und Landbedeckungen im Beobachtungsgelände wurden durch die Anwendung eines objektorientierten Klassifikationsansatzes analysiert. Um Bildobjekte zu erzeugen, wurde für diesen Zweck die auf einer mehrfachen Auflösung basierende Segmentierung der Software Definiens genutzt. Das Werkzeug Feature Space Optimisation wurde für die Optimierung der Attribute der TerraSAR-X Bilder angewandt, damit eine ideale Unterscheidungsfähigkeit entlang der Klassen für die Kartierung der Landnutzungen und Landbedeckungen erreicht werden kann. Zusätzlich zu jenen Klassen, welche mittels optischer Daten abgeleitet wurden, ergaben sich aus SAR-Daten noch die nachfolgenden Landnutzungen und Landbedeckungen: Abgeerntetes Land, Fels, Besiedlung 1 (Gebäude mit landestypischer Bedachung) und Besiedlung 2 (Gebäude mit Betondach). Die Koeffizienten der Rückstreuung entlang der Polarisationen HH und HV waren für einige Klassen unterschiedlich. Der günstigste Trennungsabstand der getesteten spektralen, formgebenden und texturalen Features ergab verschiedene Abweichungen zwischen den bestimmten Klassen der Landnutzung und Landbedeckung. Die Klassifikationsmaßnahmen ergaben eine Gesamtgenauigkeit von 84 % mit einem Kappa-Wert von 0.82. Genauigkeitsunterschiede entlang der Klassen wurden minimal gehalten. Seit über sechs Jahrzehnten wird in der Region Gadarif maschinenbetriebener Trockenfeldbau ausgeübt. In Folge dessen fand eine beträchtliche Abholzung und Überweidung sowie eine schwerwiegende Bodendegradation aufgrund des stetigen konventionellen Feldbaus statt. Um die Auswirkungen der Veränderung von Landnutzung und Landbedeckung auf die ausgewählten Bodenbeschaffenheiten auszuwerten, wurden drei Haupttypen der Landnutzung und Landbedeckung für die weitere Untersuchung ausgewählt: Bewirtschaftetes Land, brach liegendes Land, und Waldgebiet. Zusätzlich zu den Referenzbodenprofilen wurden außerdem für jeden Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungstyp auf je zehn Probeflächen Bodenproben in zwei Tiefen entnommen. Bei diesen Bodenproben wurden zahlreiche Bodeneigenschaften analysiert, wie etwa Textur, Bodendichte (BD), organischer Materialgehalt (OM), pH-Wert des Bodens, elektrische Leitfähigkeit (EC), Adsorptionsgeschwindigkeit von Natrium (SoAR), Phosphorgehalt (P) sowie Kaliumgehalt (K). Labortests ergaben, dass die Bodeneigenschaften signifikant durch die Veränderungen der Landnutzung und Landbedeckung beeinflusst werden. Innerhalb der verschiedenen Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungstypen variierte der Tongehalt in den Deckschichten (0 – 5 cm und 5 – 15 cm) zwischen 59 % und 65 %, wohin gegen sich die Lehmanteile von 27 % bis 37 % bewegten. Bodendichte, organischer Materialgehalt und Phosphorgehalt zeigten signifikant unterschiedliche Werte bei den drei Typen der Landnutzung und Landbedeckung (p < 0.05). Der pH-Wert des Bodens war signifikant verschieden zwischen bewirtschaftetem Land und Waldgebiet zum einen, und zwischen brach liegendem Land und Waldgebiet zum anderen. Die Werte der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit und der Adsorptionsgeschwindigkeit von Natrium bei brach liegendem Land erwiesen sich als maßgeblich verschieden zu jenen von Waldgebieten (p < 0.05). Auf dem Trockenland-Vertisolboden der Region Gadarif im Sudan wurde mehr als ein Drittel der nationalen Hirseproduktion erwirtschaftet – dem Haupternährungserzeugnis des Landes. Bodenverdichtung erwies sich als eines der weltweiten Hauptprobleme für den Pflanzenbau. Bodenfestigkeit und Versickerungsrate sind wichtige Variabeln, um Bodenprozesse verstehen und vorhersagen zu können. Die Auswirkungen der drei verschiedenen Landnutzungssysteme (bewirtschaftetes Land, brach liegendes Land und Waldgebiet) auf die Bodenverdichtung und Versickerungsrate wurden an zwei Standorten im Beobachtungsgebiet untersucht. Standort 1 ist der ältere der beiden. Der Widerstand der Bodenpenetration (SPR) wurde in drei Tiefen durch eine manuell angewandte Rammsonde gemessen. Mittels der Nutzung eines Doppelring-Infiltrometers ist die Versickerungsrate im Feld gemessen worden. Im Anschluss an die Probenentnahme mittels Rammsonden wurden Bodenproben gesammelt, um jene Variabeln bestimmen zu können, welche den Widerstand der Bodenpenetration sowie der Versickerungsrate im Vergleich zur Partikelgröße, zur trockenen Bodendichte, zum volumetrischen Feuchtigkeitsgehalt (VMC) und zum organischen Karbongehalt (OC) beeinflussen. Für jeden Landnutzungstypen wurden Feldmessungen durchgeführt und Bodenproben entnommen. Die gemessenen Daten der Versickerungsrate wurden in das Kostiakov-Modell eingespeist, um die gesamte Bodenwasserversickerung vorhersagen zu können. Die Bodenverdichtung bei bewirtschaftetem Land war 65 % stärker als bei Waldgebiet. Für Waldgebietsflächen wurde eine Zunahme der Versickerungsrate um 87 % verglichen mit bewirtschaftetem Land und um 74 % im Vergleich zu brach liegendem Land aufgezeigt. Beide Untersuchungsstandorte zeigten eine Zunahme in der trockenen Bodendichte für den Fall, dass der Widerstand der Bodenpenetration zunimmt, während der volumetrische Feuchtigkeitsgehalt mit zunehmendem Bodenpenetrationswiderstand abnimmt. Ebenso wurde beobachtet, dass ein geringer organischer Karbongehalt in Verbindung zu hohen Widerstandswerten der Bodenpenetration steht. Bei Standort 1 passte der durchschnittliche Bestimmungskoeffizient (R²) der Versickerungsrate zum Kostiakov-Modell mit den Werten 0.65 für bewirtschaftetes Land, 0.73 für brach liegendes Land und 0.84 für Waldgebiet. Für Standort 2 indessen ergaben die Werte 0.63, 0.76 und 0.78. Landwirtschaft, die in vielen Formen ausgeübt wird, ist die Haupttätigkeit in der Region Gadarif, und geht mit verschiedenartigsten Umweltauswirkungen und Konsequenzen einher. Kontinuierliche Feldbestellung des bewirtschafteten Landes, verbunden mit ungeeigneter Bodenbewirtschaftung, hat sich seit jenem Zeitpunkt, als sich die Landnutzung von Waldgebiet zu bewirtschaftetem und brach liegendem Land änderte, zu Bodenschädigung geführt. Daher muss die Entwicklung nachhaltiger Landnutzungspraktiken beim Trockenfeldbau im Untersuchungsgebiet verbessert werden, damit in Zukunft der Umfang der Bodendegradation verringert werden kann.

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; The world is going through constant technological changes, and what it seems to be a great improvement to the life in Earth at one moment, can lead to disastrous effects in the future. This has happened several times during the human being history, and one clear example is the climate change, global warming, and greenhouse effect. Since the industrial revolution, the humanity went through several technological changes: some of them allowed us to progress as a civilization, but others will lead us to self-destruction. A recent example is the release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases that destroyed a huge part of the ozone layer at the Earth's poles. Nowadays, one of the big problems that we are facing is the massive amount of carbon dioxide that we are throwing into atmosphere, mainly due to the energy generation activities. That is why this thesis is focused on increase the efficiency of devices that produce energy in a cleaner way, using solar energy. Doing so, in a near future we will be able to replace the actual contaminating energy sources for cleaner, non-emitting, renewable energy sources. Of course, this topic is too general, so this work is split in three big sections, intending to give full coverage to the topic. The first section is based onto the building blocks of solar harvesting, i.e., the solar cells. The more mature technology, commercially available is the silicon-based solar cell, but in the last years, a lot of technologies were also developed such as organic photovoltaics or perovskites. Each of these technologies have their own fabrication procedure, being the silicon very expensive and high energy demanding, while in the case of organic or perovskite the fabrication procedures are usually solvent-based and cheaper in terms of energy and material costs. After a brief explanation of the most used thin-film deposition techniques (used on organics and perovskites) the building process of a methylammonium lead iodide perovskite is explained step by step. This fabrication gave a resulting solar cell with a power conversion efficiency of 16.9%. Due to the environmental issues that this novel material can cause (mainly because it has lead in its composition), a lead-free perovskite was also studied (cesium tin iodide). The conclusion extracted from this study is that this lead-free perovskite could have very interesting applications, for example in smart windows, but their electrical conductivity problems should be solved first. Ending with this section, a proof of concept including organic and perovskite photodetectors into a visible light communication system was carried out, resulting in both technologies being able to perform good enough to be part of an audio link (with a bandwith higher than 40 kHz). Once we have a device to work with, in order to stablish their properties, it should be characterized. That is what the second section is about. This characterization must be done in a standardized way, under certain conditions and circumstances. One of these conditions is to have a stable, well-defined illumination source, that can recreate the standard AM1.5G spectrum (which is the spectrum of light that arrives at the Earth's surface, coming from the Sun). All this restrictions and parameters that dictates whether a light source is valid for this process or not are defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission under the standard IEC 60904-9. During this thesis, due to the necessity of this light to characterize devices, we decided to create one. This gave birth to SUNBOX, our proprietary solar simulator. SUNBOX belongs to a AAA-Class according to the IEC standard, which represents the highest quality possible in solar simulators. It is fully based on light emitting diodes and also customizable, with a tunable spectrum that can go from 0.2 to 1.2 suns and has 14 different wavelengths that can be intensity-tuned freely. It is also clearly distinguishable from the commercial ones because its structure is 3D-printed, so it is lightweight and has a low cost. Due to the intellectual property protection as a utility model, only a brief part regarding the electronic design is explained in this document, together with the calibration procedure that was carried out in terms of spectral match, homogeneity, and temporal instability that qualifies SUNBOX as an AAA-Class solar simulator. At the end of this section, some characterizations made with SUNBOX are shown, using different functionalities, to obtain key parameters in different types of solar cells. The characterization methods that were used, such as I-V curves or spectroscopy impedance are also explained along the document. Finally, in the third section, other approaches to improve the efficiency of the devices were studied, based on the optical treatment of light (light management). This management lies on the ability that some materials have to interact with the incident light, mainly in the form of nanoparticles, nanorods, or small gratings. Using a Finite Element Method simulation software (COMSOL® and JCMSuite®), several results were obtained remarking the importance of the inclusion of a nanostructure inside a device, increasing the amount of photogenerated current by 40% in a hydrogenated amorphous silicon-based device and by 20.5% in a perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell. Furthermore, preliminary results were obtained applying a nanostructure into a deep ultraviolet light emitting diode, that went from a light extraction efficiency value of 4.57% to around 15%, thus, multiplying by three the amount of extracted light with the same electrical power consumption. In summary, the main conclusion of this work is that it is possible to increase the efficiency of actual devices by and important factor and that there is a lot of room for future improvements. A boost in efficiency can be applied not only using novel materials with better electrical and optical properties, but also optimizing the devices that exist nowadays using light management techniques through the inclusion of nanostructures inside these devices. This has been demonstrated during this work using both approaches: the material science, creating a novel material with a cutting-edge fabrication method, unraveling the properties and applications for this material; and the photonics science, simulating the response of the device with the inclusion of a nanostructure in it, showing an outstanding improvement in all three study cases. ; El mundo actual está constantemente sometido a cambios tecnológicos, y lo que en un momento pudo ser un gran avance para la vida en la Tierra, puede ocasionar efectos desastrosos en el futuro. Esto ha ocurrido en varias ocasiones en la historia de la humanidad y claros ejemplos de ello son el cambio climático, el calentamiento global y el incremento del efecto invernadero. Desde la Revolución Industrial se han producido diversos cambios y avances tecnológicos muy importantes para la sociedad: algunos de ellos nos permitieron avanzar como civilización, pero otros nos dirigen hacia nuestra propia autodestrucción. Un ejemplo reciente podría ser la emisión de los llamados clorofluorocarbonos a la atmósfera, unos gases que destruyeron la mayor parte de la capa de ozono en los polos de la Tierra, ocasionando que una gran parte de radiación solar incidiera en los glaciares polares, incrementando la fusión de ellos y con ello contribuyendo al peligroso deshielo polar. Hoy en día, uno de los grandes problemas a los que nos enfrentamos es la gran cantidad de dióxido de carbono que estamos vertiendo a la atmósfera, principalmente debido a las actividades de generación de energía. Por ello, el objetivo de esta tesis está centrado en incrementar la eficiencia de los dispositivos capaces de producir energía de una forma más limpia, usando la energía solar. De esta forma, en el futuro cercano seremos capaces de sustituir las fuentes de energía contaminantes que usamos actualmente por otras fuentes de energía mas limpia, renovables y que no emitan gases. Cierto es que este tema puede parecer prácticamente inabarcable, y por ello se ha dividido este trabajo en tres secciones principales que se estudian en detalle, para dar cobertura completa a todo el tema. La primera sección está basada en el estudio de las unidades básicas de la recolección de energía solar, las celdas solares. La tecnología más madura comercialmente disponible es la celda solar basada en silicio (tanto monocristalino como policristalino), pero durante los últimos años se han desarrollado otras tecnologías tales como las celdas orgánicas o de perovskita. Cada una de estas tecnologías tiene su propio procedimiento de fabricación, siendo las basadas en silicio las más caras de hacer debido a su procesamiento y a la gran cantidad de energía necesaria para su refinado. Sin embargo, en el caso de las celdas orgánicas y de perovskita los métodos de fabricación están basados en solventes y deposiciones de líquido en capas delgadas, lo que las hace mucho más económicas en términos de materiales y de consumo energético. Después de una breve explicación de las técnicas de deposición de lámina delgada más usadas (aplicables tanto en orgánicas como en perovskitas), se explica el proceso de fabricación paso a paso de una celda solar de yoduro de metilamonio plomo. Esta fabricación dio como resultado una celda solar con un valor de eficiencia del 16.9%. Debido a los problemas ambientales que puede causar este material (ya que contiene plomo, altamente tóxico), durante este trabajo se estudió también una perovskita libre de plomo (yoduro de estaño cesio). La conclusión principal extraída de este estudio es que esta perovskita libre de plomo puede tener aplicaciones muy interesantes, tales como ventanas inteligentes debido a su transparencia, pero sus problemas de conductividad eléctrica deben de ser resueltos en primer lugar, para conseguir un dispositivo eficiente. Para finalizar esta sección, se llevó a cabo una prueba de concepto que consistió en introducir fotodetectores orgánicos y de perovskita en un sistema de comunicación por luz visible (VLC), comprobando que ambas tecnologías respondían de forma correcta para formar parte de un sistema de transmisión de audio (su ancho de banda era superior a 40 kHz en ambos casos). Una vez se dispone de un dispositivo funcional, para poder determinar sus propiedades internas, se debe caracterizar. En esto consiste la segunda sección. Estas caracterizaciones deben hacerse siguiendo los estándares correspondientes, bajo ciertas condiciones y en unas circunstancias determinadas. Una de estas condiciones es tener una fuente de luz estable y bien definida, que pueda recrear el espectro AM1.5G (que es el espectro de luz que llega a la superficie de la Tierra emitido por el Sol) para excitar las muestras que se encuentren bajo análisis. Todas las restricciones y parámetros que determinan si una fuente de luz es adecuada o no para este proceso están definidos por la Comisión Electrotécnica Internacional bajo el estándar IEC 60904-9. Durante el desarrollo de esta tesis, debido a la necesidad de caracterizar dispositivos, se optó por crear una de estas fuentes de luz. Así nació SUNBOX, nuestro simulador solar. SUNBOX pertenece a la clase AAA según el estándar IEC, lo que significa que posee la mayor calidad posible como simulador solar. Está completamente basado en diodos emisores de luz y también es personalizable, con un espectro ajustable que puede cubrir desde 0.2 hasta 1.2 soles. Dispone de 14 longitudes de onda de emisión diferentes que también pueden ser ajustadas libremente, de forma que se pueden realizar análisis en longitudes de onda concretas, tales como azul, ultravioleta o infrarrojo. Es fácilmente distinguible de sus contrapartes comerciales disponibles en el mercado, ya que su chasis está realizado por impresión 3D, así que es muy ligero y de bajo coste. Debido a la protección de la propiedad intelectual bajo un modelo de utilidad y un registro software, solo una parte del diseño electrónico se explica en este documento, junto con todo el procedimiento de calibración que se llevó a cabo en términos de coincidencia espectral, homogeneidad y estabilidad temporal, que clasifican a SUNBOX como un simulador solar de clase AAA. Al final de esta sección, se muestran algunas de las caracterizaciones de dispositivos llevadas a cabo con SUNBOX, usando sus diferentes funcionalidades para obtener parámetros clave de distintos tipos de celdas solares. Los métodos de caracterización llevados a cabo, tales como el trazado de curvas tensión corriente o la espectroscopía de impedancias también se explican en el documento. Por último, en la tercera sección, se estudian otras técnicas para mejorar la eficiencia de los dispositivos, basadas en el tratamiento óptico de la luz (gestión de la luz o "light management"). Esta gestión de la luz se basa en la habilidad que tienen algunos materiales para interactuar con la luz que incide sobre ellos. Normalmente estos materiales necesitan estar en forma de nanopartículas, nanobarras o pequeñas redes de difracción. Usando varios softwares de simulación (COMSOL® y JCMSuite®) basados en el método de elementos finitos (FEM), se han obtenido varios resultados que remarcan la importancia de incluir nanoestructuras dentro de los dispositivos, incrementando la cantidad de corriente fotogenerada en un 40% en un dispositivo basado en silicio amorfo hidrogenado y en un 20.5% en un dispositivo basado en un tándem de perovskita y silicio monocristalino. Además, se han obtenido resultados preliminares que demuestran que estas nanoestructuras pueden ser también muy efectivas no solo en dispositivos receptores de luz, sino también en emisores. En este caso se aplicó una nanoestructura a un diodo emisor de luz ultravioleta profunda, que mejoró su eficiencia de extracción de luz de un 4.57% a alrededor de un 15%, triplicando la cantidad de luz emitida con el mismo consumo de potencia eléctrica. En resumen, la conclusión principal de este trabajo es que es posible incrementar la eficiencia de los dispositivos actuales de una forma sustancial, quedando aún mucho espacio para mejorar. Se ha demostrado que un incremento en la eficiencia puede obtenerse no solo usando materiales novedosos con mejores propiedades ópticas y eléctricas, sino también optimizando los dispositivos existentes actualmente usando técnicas de gestión de la luz a través de la inclusión de nanoestructuras en estos dispositivos. Respecto a la primera aproximación, relacionada con la ciencia de materiales, en este trabajo se ha fabricado un material novedoso usando una técnica de fabricación poco explorada en estas aplicaciones (co-evaporación), descubriendo las propiedades y posibles aplicaciones de este material. Respecto a la segunda aproximación, relacionada con la fotónica, se han creado diseños de nanoestructuras y se ha simulado su respuesta, descubriendo una mejora muy importante en la eficiencia de los tres dispositivos estudiados. ; The present work has been funded from the following projects: • Comunidad de Madrid through SINFOTON-CM Research Program (S2013/MIT-2790) and SINFOTON2-CM (S2018/NMT-4326) • Ministerio de Economia, Agencia Estatal de Investigación and European Union's FEDER through TEC2016-77242-C3-(1-R, 2-R and 3-R) AEI/FEDER, UE Projects. • European Research Council (ERC) via Consolidator Grant (724424-No-LIMIT) • Generalitat Valenciana via Prometeo Grant Q-Devices (Prometeo/2018/098) • European Commission via FET Open grant (862656-DROP-IT) Also, this project could not be possible with the financial support of the Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional through the following grants that I have received: • Doctoral Grant FPU research fellowship (FPU17/00612). • Research Stay Grant (EST18/00399) supporting my research stay at Jaume I University (Castellón, Spain) • Research Stay Grant (EST19/00073) supporting my research stay at Helmholtz Zentrum Berlin and Zuse Institute Berlin (Berlin, Germany). ; Programa de Doctorado en Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y Automática por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: Javier Alda Serrano.- Secretario: Fernando B. Naranjo Vega.- Vocal: Sven Burger

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalakeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 497 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm).  About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 65 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 31 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 80 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 95 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 53 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 46 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 10 per cent soils are moderately acid to slightly acid (pH 5.5-6.5), 12 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 68 per cent soil are slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) and 8 per cent soils are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 59 per cent area.  An area of about 52 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 47 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 34 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of 66 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 58 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 24 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 58(12) 81(16) Sapota 56(11) 112(23) Maize 56(11) 99(20) Pomegranate 56(11) 170(34) Bajra 56(11) 186(37) Guava - 168(34) Groundnut - 380(77) Jackfruit 56(11) 112(23) Sunflower 58(12) 81(16) Jamun 56(11) 154(31) Cotton 58(12) 82(16) Musambi 58(12) 168(34) Red gram 56(11) 77(16) Lime 58(12) 168(34) Bengalgram 2(<1) 137(38) Cashew - 195(39) Chilli 56(11) 25(5) Custard apple 58(12) 417(84) Tomato 56(11) 25(5) Amla 56(11) 419(84) Brinjal 15(3) 389(78) Tamarind 56(11) 76(15) Onion 15(3) 330(66) Marigold 56(11) 84(17) Bhendi 15(3) 389(78) Chrysanthemum 56(11) 84(17) Drumstick 56(11) 294(59) Jasmine 56(11) 25(5) Mulberry 56(11) 419(84) Crossandra 56(11) 56(6) Mango 56(11) 75(13)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  Results indicated that, 49 farmers were sampled in Kalakeri micro watershed among them 17 (34.69%) were marginal farmers, 19 (38.78 %) were small farmers, 6(12.24 %) were semi medium farmers, 2 (4.08 %) were medium farmers and 5 (10.20 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 228 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 135 (59.21%) men and 93 (40.79 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and medium farmers were 4, small farmer was 5 and semi medium farmer was 7. On an average the family size was 5.  The data indicated that 35 (15.35%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 110 (48.25 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (25.44 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 25 (10.96 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Kalakeri had 35.53 per cent illiterates, 27.19 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.63 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.91 per cent them had high school education, 8.77 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.44 per cent them had Diploma education, 2.63 per cent of them had degree education, 1.75 per cent of them had masters education and 6.14 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 89.79 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.04 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 8.16 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 52.63 per cent of the household members, 12.72 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.70 per cent were general labours, 0.44 percent were in government service, 4.39 per cent of them were in private sector, 1.32 per cent of them were trade and business, 17.54 per cent of them were students, 4.82 per cent of them were children and 0.44 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 76.47 per cent were general labourers and 11.76 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 59.70 per cent were agriculturist, 8.96 percent was in agricultural labour, 2.99 per cent of both were in private and trade and business and 20.90 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 58.06 per cent of them were agriculturist and 15.05 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 48.84 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 23.26 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 62.50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 25 per cent of them were in private service.  The results showed that 0.88 per cent of them participated in self help groups and 99.12 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Small, semi medium and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local 2 institutions. Land less and marginal farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 65.31 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 2.04 per cent of the households possess Pucca house, 30.61 per cent of the households possess Semi Pacca house and 2.04 per cent of them possess Thatched house. 100 percent of the landless and medium farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that, 2.04 per cent of the households possess radio, 83.67 per cent of the households possess TV, 53.06 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.04 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 32.65 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 30.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.04 per cent of the households possess Auto, 89.80 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 4.08 per cent of the households possess computer/laptop.  The results showed that the average value of radio was Rs.800, television was Rs. 5024, mixer grinder was Rs.1892, refrigerator was Rs.15000, bicycle was Rs.7437, motor cycle was Rs.42866, Auto was Rs. 100000, mobile phone was Rs.1723 and computer/laptop was Rs. 2000.  Results showed that 12.24 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20.41 per cent of them possess plough, 6.12 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 10.20 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, 4.08 per cent of the households possess tractor, 16.33 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 2.04 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 67.35 per cent of the households possess weeder, 12.24 per cent of the households possess harvester, 4.08 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter and 2.04 per cent of the households possess JCB/Hitachi.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20833; the average value of plough was Rs. 1040, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 1925, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 20750, the average value of tractor was Rs. 301500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4825, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 73, the average value of harvester was Rs. 80, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000 and the average value of JCB/Hitachi was Rs. 300000.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo, 2.04 per cent of the households possess sheep and 4.08 per cent of the households possess poultry birds respectively.  In case of marginal farmers, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullock and local cow respectively and 5.88 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of small farmers, 42.11 per cent of households possess bullock, 21.05 per cent possess local cow, 10.53 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5.26 per cent possess sheep and poultry birds respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per 3 cent of the households possess both bullock and local cow correspondingly, 16.67 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.56, average own labour (women) available was 1.33, average hired labour (men) available was 22.16 and average hired labour (women) available was 21.63.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.18, average own labour (women) was also 1.18, average hired labour (men) was 11.65 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.18. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.72, average own labour (women) was 1.28, average hired labour (men) was 30.28 and average hired labour (women) available was 30.28. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 25 and average hired labour (women) available was 21.67. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 30 and average hired labour (women) available was 32.50.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate which includes 94.12 per cent of the marginal farmers, 94.74 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers and 2.04 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Kalakeri micro watershed possess 28.05 ha (62.87 %) of dry land and 16.57 ha (37.13 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.26 ha (98.07 %) of dry land and 0.20 ha (1.93%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.25 ha (70.99 %) of dry land and 6.23 ha (29.01 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.54 ha (29.46 %) of dry land and 6.09 ha (70.54 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 495354.20 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 633488.03. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 682051.27 for dry land and Rs. 1482000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 419532.91 for dry land Rs. 737792.21 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 196656.04 for dry land and Rs. 706183.51 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 321100 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 7 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 39.13 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 39.76 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 20 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 9.06 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 8.05 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 8.10 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 25.41 ha of irrigated land. 4  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (12.09 ha), maize (83.02 ha), paddy (1.82 ha) and sesamum (0.81ha) in kharif season. Also grown chilly (1.21 ha), cow pea (2.24 ha), groundnut (3.63 ha), paddy (0.40 ha), sunflower (3.04ha) and tomato (0.08 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sesamum, cowpea and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, paddy, cowpea, groundnut and tomato. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, chilly, cowpea, groundnut and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown bajra, maize and sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Kalakeri micro watershed was found to be 177.17 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 527.38 per cent, in small farmers it was 92.17, in semi medium farmers it was 79.59 and in medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 41.30 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 58.82 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 36.84 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Semi medium farmers possess 16.67 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings correspondingly.  The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of marginal, 31.58 per cent of small and 50 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank and friends/ relatives correspondingly, 52.94 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank, 23.52 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 29.41 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, marginal, small and medium have availed Rs.37500, Rs. 90166.67 and Rs. 200000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 62000.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, agriculture production, purchase–agricultural implements/ farm machinery, purchase-vehicle, household consumption and social functions like marriage reasons were the purpose for which marginal and small farmers borrowed loan from private credit. About 54.55 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production, 9.09 per cent of the loan was taken for purchase–agricultural implements/ farm machinery, purchase-vehicle, household consumption respectively and 18.18 per cent of the farmers taken loan for social functions like marriage.  Results indicated that 9.09 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially and 90.91 percent of the households have unpaid their loan. 5  Results indicated that 27.27 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 54.55 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 18.18 per cent of them fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, higher rate of interest and forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 32955.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29877.63. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -3078.33, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 48488.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94802.50. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 46314.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 42321.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60771.15. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 18449.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.44.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sesamum was Rs. 11003.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20748.00. The net income from Sesamum cultivation was Rs. 9744.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.89.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 18128.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75746.67. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 57618.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.18.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 32618.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16444.98. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. -16173.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.5.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 75670.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82435.19. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 6764.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 21608.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19142.50. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -2465.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 148312.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 493999.99. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 345687.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.33.  The results indicated that, 32.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.04 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. 6 Similarly 28.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 2.04 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3,918.37, business Rs. 1,530.61, wage Rs. 38,653.06, agriculture Rs. 61,736.73, dairy farm Rs. 612.24 and goat framing Rs. 1,020.41.  The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 816.33, business Rs. 979.59, wage Rs. 8,326.53, agriculture Rs. 33,040.82, dairy farm Rs. 204.08 and goat farming Rs. 510.20.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 105 coconut trees and 21 mango tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 1 Eucalyptus tree, 4 teak trees, 97 neem trees, 16 tamarind tress and 4 banyan trees in their field and also grown 2 Neem tree in the backyard.  The results indicated that for 2.04 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development, irrigation facility and improved crop production respectively.  The results indicated that, Bajra, Chilly, Cowpea, Paddy, Sesamum and Tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut, maize and sunflower were sold to the extent of 56.32 per cent, 75.89 per cent and 75 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 75.51 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 18.37 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 26.53 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 24.49 per cent of the households have used head load as a mode of transport, 32.65 per cent of them have used cart and 63.27 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 23.53 per cent of marginal, 10.53 per cent of small farmers and 16.67 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that full replacement is required for the bunds.  The results indicated that 10.20 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government and 4.08 per cent is constructed by others.  The results indicated that, 71.43 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, 24.49 percent of the households used LPG and 4.08 per cent of the households used dung cake as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 51.02 per cent, 36.73 per cent of them were using bore well and 10.20 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water. 7  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 48.98 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 47.06 per cent of marginal, 42.11 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 95.92 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 4.08 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 32.65 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 17.65 percent of the marginal, 15.79 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 50 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 83.67 per cent, 57.14 per cent, 69.39 per cent, 20.41 per cent, 91.84 per cent, 81.63 per cent and 63.27 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, vegetables, fruits and meat were inadequate for 26.53 per cent of the households. Pulses, oilseed, milk and egg were inadequate for 16.33 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 6.12 per cent and 10.20 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 38.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (67.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (30.61%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (44.90%), high rate of interest on credit (53.06%), low price for the agricultural commodities (34.69%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (46.94%), inadequate extension services (26.53%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (38.78%), less rain fall (48.98%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (18.37 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Oddarahatti microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 546 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils , 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 4 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 89 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 15 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 80 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 29 per cent are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 25 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 42 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 66 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is high (>57 kg/ha) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 78 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 17 per cent soils.  Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in the 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 89 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 70 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 53 (10) 200 (37) Sapota 16 (3) 180 (33) Maize 37 (7) 217 (40) Pomegranate 16 (3) 229 (42) Bajra 122 (22) 300 (55) Musambi 32 (6) 213 (39) Groundnut 22 (4) 323 (59) Lime 32 (6) 213 (39) Sunflower 28 (5) 156 (28) Amla 97 (18) 423 (78) Red gram 12 (2) 154 (28) Cashew 5 (1) 179 (33) Bengalgram 48 (9) 294 (54) Jackfruit 16 (3) 180 (33) Cotton 28 (5) 225 (41) Jamun - 190 (35) Chilli 18 (3) 187 (34) Custard apple 119 (22) 401 (74) Tomato 50 (9) 155 (29) Tamarind - 101 (18) Brinjal 87 (16) 215 (39) Mulberry 70 (13) 273 (50) Onion 22 (4) 232 (42) Marigold 1 (<1) 253 (46) Bhendi 22 (4) 280 (51) Chrysanthemum 1 (<1) 253 (46) Drumstick 70 (13) 192 (35) Jasmine 1 (<1) 204 (38) Mango - 85 (16) Crossandra 1 (<1) 222 (41) Guava - 195 (36)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SILENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that among 35 farmers, 17 (48.57%) were marginal farmers, 10 (28.57 %) were small farmers, 2 (5.71 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.86%) medium farmers and 5 (14.29 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 128 population households were there in the studied micro-watershed. Among them 64 (50 %) men and 64 (50 %) were women. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 4, semi medium farmer was 4 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that 22 (17.19 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 49 (38.28 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 40 (31.25 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 17 (13.28 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Oddarahatti had 27.34 per cent illiterates, 35.16 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.16 per cent of them had both middle school and high school education, 6.25 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.78 per cent them had Diploma education, 7.81 per cent of them had degree education and 0.78 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicated with reference to occupation of the household showed that, 54.29 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers, general labour, in Government service and in private service respectively. 8.57 per cent of the households were doing trade and business and 11.43 per cent of them were housewives.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 50.78 per cent of the household members, 1.56 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.13 per cent were general labours, 1.56 percent were in government service, 1.56 per cent of them were in private sector, 4.69 per cent of them were trade and business, 19.53 per cent of them were students and 9.38 per cent were housewives.  In case of landless households 10.53 per cent were agricultural labourers, 15.79 per cent were general labour, 5.26 per cent in government service, 15.79 per cent were in trade& business, 21.05 per cent ware housewife and 26.32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 60.94 per cent were agriculturist, 1.56 percent was in government service, 3.13 per cent were in trade and business and 18.75 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 55.88 per cent of them were agriculturist and 20.59 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 12.50 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 3.13 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.78 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank. Landless, semi medium farmers and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. 2 Marginal farmers and small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.86 per cent of them possess Thatched house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that 88.57 per cent of the households possess TV, 54.29 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.71 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 2112, mixer grinder was Rs.1121, refrigerator Rs.13500, bicycle Rs.1000, motor cycle was Rs.29250 and mobile phone was Rs.800.  The results indicated that about 22.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.29 per cent of them possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 5.71 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 62.86 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.660; the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 22000, the average value of sprayer Rs.2480, the average value of weeder Rs. 39 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000.  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 5.71 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 29.41 per cent of the households possess bullock and 5.88 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of small farmers, 20 per cent of households possess bullock. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per cent of the households possess bullock and local low respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro-watershed was 1.23, average own labour (women) available was 1.03, average hired labour (men) available was 7.53 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.37.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.24, average own labour (women) was 1.12, average hired labour (men) was 4.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.82. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.10, average own labour (women) was 0.90, average hired labour (men) was 10.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 12.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. 3  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers have opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Oddarahatti micro-watershed possess 21.17 ha (71.84 %) of dry land and 8.26 ha (28.06 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.45 ha (91.25 %) of dry land and 0.81 ha (8.75%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 10.70 ha (86.01%) of dry land and 1.74 ha (13.99 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (66.67%) of dry land and 1.01 ha (33.33%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.69 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 318724.91 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 363235.29. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 408313.36 for dry land and Rs. 494000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 261573.37 for dry land Rs. 746744.19 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247000 for dry land and Rs. 494000 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 170344.82 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 6 functioning and 7 defunctioning bore wells in the micro-watershed. The results indicated that, there were 2 functioning open wells in the micro-watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the irrigation source for 17.14 per cent of the farmers and open well was the source for 5.71 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that, in case of semi medium farmers there was 1.01 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (3.94ha), cotton (1.77ha), crossandra (0.81ha), horse gram (1.32ha), maize (9.72 ha), navane (1.21 ha), papaya (0.91 ha),red gram (3.78 ha), sorghum(0.45 ha) and sugarcane (1.01 ha). Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, crossandra and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, cotton, horse gram, navane and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, and red gram. Medium farmers have grown papaya.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Oddarahatti micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent in marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 60 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 88.24 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Semi medium farmers possess 50 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively and medium category of farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account and also savings. 4  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of landless, 88.24 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 56.67 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 16.67 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 3.33 per cent have availed loan from commercial bank, input dealers/ suppliers and SHGs/CBOs respectively.  The results indicated that,, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.62666.67, Rs. 80500, Rs50,000, and Rs. 100000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro-watershed is 63166.67.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, agriculture production, Construction-house, Construction-cattle shed and other reasons were the main purpose for which marginal, small farmers, semi medium farmers borrowed loan. About 71.43 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production and 14.29 per cent of the farmers taken loan for construction-house, Construction-cattle shed and other purpose respectively.  Results indicated that 38.89 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially and 55.56 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 5.56 per cent of the households were fully paid their loan.  Results indicated that 28.57 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 57.14 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 14.29 per cent of them fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 16072.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21880.63. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 5808.58, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 18362.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35368.63. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 17005.84. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.93.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 10533.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 20588.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.95. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 18020.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26596.61. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8576.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 17906.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31578.54. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 13671.95. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.76. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Horse gram was Rs. 12039.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31271.56. The net income 5 from Horse gram cultivation was Rs. 19232.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.60.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sugarcane was Rs. 220236.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 978120.00. The net income from Sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 757883.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.44. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 20286.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48946.79. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 28659.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.41. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for crossandra was Rs. 41401.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 97330.35. The net income from crossandra cultivation was Rs. 55928.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.35.  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Among overall households 23.56 per cent of the marginal farmers, 30 per cent of small farmers and 50 per cent of semi medium farmers were opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 16514.29, business Rs. 17571.43, wage Rs. 23971.43, agriculture Rs. 81182.86, farm income Rs. 3,800 and dairy farm Rs. 414.  The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 76.47 per cent marginal farmers, 100 per cent small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers respectively. The results indicated that for 68.57 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility was 77.14 percent and 20 percent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, chilly, cotton, Horse gram, Kanakambara flower, maize, navane, papaya, red gram, sorghum and sugar cane crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Only bajra was sold to the extent of 98.15 per cent.  The results indicated that, 11.43 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants and 77.14 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets. The results indicated that 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 11.76 per cent of marginal, 60 per cent of small farmers, and 50 per cent of semi medium farmers.  Results showed that summer ploughing was adopted by 82.86 per cent of the households i.e. 94.12 per cent of the marginal farmers and 100 per cent of the small and semi medium farmers respectively. Form pond was adopted by the farmers was 2.86 per cent. 6  The results indicated that 14.29 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government, 2.86 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the farmer's organization and another 5.71 per cent is constructed by others.  The results indicated that, 74.29 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 25.71 percent of the households used LPG. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 94.12 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small farmers, semi medium and medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 97.14 per cent and 2.86 per cent of the households were used kerosene lamp as a source of light.  The results indicated that, 48.57 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 41.18 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.43 per cent of the sampled households not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 8 per cent of the landless, 47.06 percent of the marginal, 30 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of cereals, pulses, milk and egg were adequate for the households. Vegetables and fruits were adequate only for 5.71 per cent and meat was adequate for only 2.86 per cent for the households respectively.  The results indicated that, both vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 94.29 per cent, of the households. Oilseed was inadequate for 5.71 per cent. Meat was inadequate for 97.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 60 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (74.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (2.86). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Naregallu-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 869 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 89 per cent is covered by soils and 11 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 82 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 70 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 19 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 70 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 31 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 77 per cent soil are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and an area of about 12 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 11 per cent area.  An area of about 81 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is low (>23 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 37 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 52 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 39 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 53 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 225(26) 540(62) Sapota 116(13) 18(2) Maize 80(9) 648(75) Pomegranate 116(13) 506(58) Bajra 116(13) 622(72) Guava 116(13) 18(2) Groundnut 61(7) 129(15) Jackfruit 116(13) 18(2) Sunflower 187(22) 434(50) Jamun 61(7) 473(54) Cotton 173(20) 592(68) Musambi 187(22) 434(50) Red gram 116(13) 463(53) Lime 187(22) 434(50) Bengalgram 162(19) 603(69) Cashew 133(15) - Chilli 116(13) 128(15) Custard apple 270(31) 496(57) Tomato 116(13) 112(13) Amla 133(15) 632(73) Brinjal 97(11) 610(70) Tamarind 61(7) 474(54) Onion 97(11) 36(4) Marigold 116(13) 649(75) Bhendi 97(11) 573(66) Chrysanthemum 116(13) 649(75) Drumstick 133(15) 488(56) Jasmine 116(13) 199(23) Mulberry 133(15) 286(33) Crossandra 116(13) 249(29) Mango 61(7) 75(9)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE SURVEY  The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Naregallu-1 micro watershed among them 11 (31.43%) were marginal farmers, 9 (25.71 %) were small and semi medium farmers, 4 (11.43 %) were medium farmers and 2 (5.71 %) large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 181 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 111 (61.33 %) men and 70 (38.67 %) were women. The average family size of marginal, small farmers and semi medium farmers were 5, medium farmer was 6 and large farmer was 7.  The data indicated that 23 (12.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (48.62 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (27.62 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 20 (11.05 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of household's heads were practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour.  The results indicated that the Naregallu-1had 28.18 per cent illiterates, 29.83 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.10 per cent of them had middle school, 25.41 per cent them had high school education, 6.08 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.55 per cent them had diploma education, 7.73 per cent of them had degree education and 1.10 per cent of the household members had other education.  The results indicated that agriculture was the occupation for 23.76 per cent of the household members, 59.67 per cent were agricultural labourers, 14.36 per them were students and 1.10 per cent of them were children and housewives respectively. In case of marginal farmers 26 per cent were agriculturist, 60 percent was in agricultural labour and 12 per cent of them were students. In case of small farmers 22 per cent of them were agriculturist, 60 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 16 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 23.81 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 54.76 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 19.05 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 25 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 62.50 per cent of them were in agricultural labour and 12.50 per cent of them were students. In case of large farmers 20 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 66.67 per cent of them were in agricultural labour and 6.67 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.86 per cent of the households possess Pucca house.  The results showed that, 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 5.71 per cent of the households possess DVD player, 74.29 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 11.43 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 11.43 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 85.71 per cent of the households possess motor 2 cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess Car, 2.86 per cent of the households possess landline phone, 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 2.86 per cent of the households possess computer/laptop.  The results showed that the average value, television was Rs.23281, DVD/VCD Player was Rs. 1600, mixer grinder was Rs.1903, refrigerator was Rs.11000, bicycle was Rs.1050, motor cycle was Rs.32882, Car was Rs. 300000, landline phone was Rs. 500, mobile phone was Rs.1507 and computer/laptop was Rs. 12500.  The results showed that, about 8.57 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.86 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households equally possess seed/fertilizer drill, power tiller, tractor, thresher, groundnut decorticator, chaff cutter and earth remover/duster, 11.43 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, 14.29 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 5.71 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 51.43 per cent of the households possess weeder and 20 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.26666; the average value of plough was Rs. 2200, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.3500, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 273250, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 150000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 2600, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3000, the average value of weeder was Rs. 42, the average value of harvester was Rs. 74, the average value of thresher was Rs. 25, the average value of groundnut decorticator was Rs. 18000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2100 and the average value of Earth remover/Duster was Rs. 20000.  The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 14.29 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 5.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  In case of marginal farmers, 9.09 per cent of the households possess both bullock and local cow respectively and 18.18 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow. In case of small farmers, 22.22 per cent of households possess equally bullock and buffalo and 11.11 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 11.11per cent of the households possess bullock and 22.22 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow. In medium farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess local cow. 50 per cent of the large farmers possess bullock and crossbred cow respectively.  The data regarding the average labour availability in Naregallu-1 micro watershed is presented in Table 14. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.91, average own labour (women) available was 1.18, average hired labour (men) available was 17.86 and average hired labour (women) available was 19.37. 3  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2.09, average own labour (women) was also 1.18, average hired labour (men) was 9.18 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.18. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.22, average own labour (women) was 1.22, average hired labour (men) was 15.22 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.89. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.44, average own labour (women) was 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 22.22 and average hired labour (women) available was also 22.22. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.75, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 29.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 33. In large farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 0, average hired labour (men) was 35 and average hired labour (women) available was 40.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 94.29 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Naregallu-1 micro watershed possess 1.80 ha (3.75 %) of dry land and 46.27 ha (96.25 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 1.80 ha (36.95 %) of dry land and 3.08 ha (63.05%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.17 ha (100 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 12.87 ha (100 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 10.07 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmers possess 13.07 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 443049.32 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 490456.62. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 443049.32 for dry land and Rs. 1655321.93 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 1004178.43 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 473656.08 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 297709.93 for irrigated land. In large farmers the average land value was Rs. 99411.77 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 23 functioning and 3 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 65.71 per cent of the farmers and 5.71 per cent of the farmers were using canal for irrigation.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 68.88 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 3.08 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 7.17 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 12.88 ha of irrigated land, medium farmers were having 10.06 4 ha of irrigated land and large farmers having 13.08 ha irrigated land. On an average there were 46.26 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown coriander (0.40 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), cowpea (0.88 ha), groundnut (0.50ha), Sorghum (1.24 ha), maize (38.21 ha), paddy (0.81 ha), bajra (0.81 ha), red gram (1.62ha) and sunflower (2.98 ha) in kharif season. Also grown 2.27 ha of cowpea and 3.33 ha sunflower in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown coriander, groundnut, Maize, Bajra, cowpea and sunflower. Small farmers have grown cowpea and maize. Semi medium farmers have grown sorghum, maize, paddy, cowpea and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown cotton, maize and red gram. Large farmers have grown only maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Naregallu-1 micro watershed was found to be 85.70 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 88.19, in semi medium farmers it was 87.80, in medium farmers it was 64.04 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 36122.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46683. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 10560.51, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 41582.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62427.57. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 20844.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 42196.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42237.00. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 40.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.0.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 33136.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22466.85. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. -10669.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.68.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 54187.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 96239.63. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 42051.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.78.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 32861.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51830.19. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 18968.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.58.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 20210.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31377.85. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 11167.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.55. 5  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 60504.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23053.33. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -37451.39. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.38.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for coriander was Rs. 71385.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from coriander cultivation was Rs. 39764.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 24308.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46312.50. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 22003.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.91.  The results indicated that, 83 tons of dry fodder was available for 44 days and 46 tons of green fodder was available for 26 days in studied micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Similarly 22.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The table indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 72,685.71, business Rs. 2,857.14, wage Rs. 285.71, agriculture Rs. 102,091.43, non farm income Rs. 428.57 and dairy farm Rs.857.14.  The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 2,428.57, business Rs. 1,714.29, agriculture Rs. 33,114.29 and dairy farm Rs. 171.43. On an average the expenditure was Rs. 11,005.24.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 13 coconut trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 25 Neem trees, 8 tamarind tress, 2 banyan trees and 2 peeple trees in their field and also grown 2 Neem trees in the backyard.  The results indicated that, bajra, coriander, cotton, cowpea, sorghum, paddy, Red gram and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and maize was sold to the extent of 56.32 per cent.  The results indicated that, 5.71 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 85.71 percent of the households have sold their produce to regulated market, 34.29 percent of the households have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society and 5.71 percent of the households sold their produce in contract marketing arrangement. 6  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of them have used cart, 128.57 per cent of the households used tractor and 2.86 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 65.71 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 34.29 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 11.43 per cent of the households and 88.57 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 27.27 per cent of marginal, 55.56 per cent of small, 22.22 per cent of semi medium, 25 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the sampled household's possessed APL card, 60 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 14.29 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 36.36 percent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 55.56 per cent of the semi medium, 25 percent of the medium farmers and 50 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses and milk were adequate for 100 per cent, 11.43 per cent and 22.86 respectively. Oilseed, vegetables and fruits were adequate for 2.86 per cent of the households correspondingly.  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk and egg were inadequate for 88.57 per cent, 11.43 per cent, 8.57 per cent, 11.43 per cent, 57.14 per cent and 54.29 per cent of the household.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 8.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (65.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (51.43%), high rate of interest on credit (2.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (5.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25.71%), less rain fall (100%) and source of agri. Technology information (Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (85.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Nala-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 593 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 485 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 102 ha by rock outcrops and 7 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 485 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 24 per cent area is shallow (25-50 cm), 7 per cent area is moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 11 per cent area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 24 per cent area is deep (100-150 cm) and 16 per cent area is very deep (>150 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 42 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 18 per cent loamy soils and 23 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 70 per cent area in the microwatershed is gravelly (15-35%) and 12 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m).  About 67 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope), 8 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 6 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 8 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 67 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 6 per cent is severely eroded (e3)  An area of about 74 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction and 8 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an area of about 73 per cent and 9 per cent area is high (>337 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in an area of 49 per cent and low in an area of 32 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 78 per cent and deficient in an area of 3 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the cultivated soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 141 (24) 136 (23) Guava 43 (7) 2 (<1) Maize - 277 (47) Sapota 43 (7) 2 (<1) Bajra 43 (7) 234 (39) Pomegranate 43 (7) 193 (33) Groundnut 43 (7) 2(<1) Musambi 234 (39) 2 (<1) Sunflower 141 (24) 95 (16) Lime 234 (39) 2 (<1) Redgram - 236 (40) Amla 43 (7) 234 (39) Bengal gram 191 (32) 86 (14) Cashew 43 (7) - Cotton 141 (24) 136 (23) Jackfruit 43 (7) 2 (<1) Chilli - 277 (47) Jamun 43 (7) 191 (32) Tomato - 144 (24) Custard apple 236 (40) 41 (7) Brinjal 45 (8) 232 (39) Tamarind 43 (7) 191 (32) Onion 43 (7) 99 (16) Mulberry 43 (7) 2 (<1) Bhendi 95 (16) 182 (31) Marigold - 277 (47) Drumstick 43 (7) 193 (33) Chrysanthemum - 277 (47) Mango 43 (7) 2 (<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (57.29%) men and 85 (42.71%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 7.3, semi medium farmers' was 5.6, medium farmers was 7 and large farmers was 4.  The data indicated that, 27 (13.57%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 99 (49.75%) were in 16-35 years of age, 59 (29.65%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (7.04%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgiri Nala-2 had 47.44 per cent illiterates, 21.79 per cent of them had primary school, 2.56 per cent of them had Middle school and PUC education, 12.82 per cent of them had high school, 1.92 per cent of them had ITI and masters, 5.77 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.86 cent of the household heads were government service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 62.31 per cent of the household members, 6.03 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.53 per cent were in general labour, 0.5 per cent were household industry, 2.51 per cent were private service, 13.57 per cent student, 8.04 per cent were housewives and 1.51per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5.56 per cent of the households possess thatched, 55.56 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 38.89 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 91.67 per cent of the households possess TV, 38.89 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 25 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.56 per cent of the households posses auto and 91.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,393, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,642, motor cycle was Rs. 56,333, auto was Rs. 160,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,474.  About 8.33 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, plough and harvester, 5.56 per cent each of the households possess tractor, 2.78 per cent of the households possess harvester and thresher, and 88.89 per cent of the households possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 15,500, plough was Rs. 3,666, tractor was Rs.760,000, sprayer was Rs. 2,000, weeder was Rs. 2,777, harvester Rs. 1,050 and the average value of thresher was Rs. 30,000.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 8.33 per cent of the households possess local cow and goat, 2.78 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 11.11 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.45, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 8.62 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.  The results indicate that, 80.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgiri Nala-2 micro-watershed possess 25.97 ha (63.83%) of dry land, 14.31 ha (35.18%) of irrigated land and 0.4 ha (0.99%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 8.11 ha (85.09%) of dry land, 1.02 ha (10.66%) of irrigated land and 0.40 ha (4.25%) of permanent fallow land. Small farmers possess 6.50 ha (78.22%) of dry land and 1.81 ha (21.78%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.28 ha (74.84%) of dry land and 2.45 ha (25.16%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.09 ha (55.8%) of dry land and 3.24 ha (44.20%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 5.8 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 554,191.33, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 516,765.62 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 494,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 826,210.68 for dry land, the average land value was Rs. 2,066,533.8 and the average land value was Rs. 494,000. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 723,302.1 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 828,859.0 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 301,888.8 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 816,528.9 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 195,643.56 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for irrigated land. In case of large famers, the average land value was Rs. 172,245.4 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 5 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 13.89 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 9.82 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had an irrigated area of 0.45 ha, 0.89 ha, 1.21 ha, 3.24 ha and 5.81 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (1.74%), green gram (8.25 ha), groundnut (12.06 ha), red gram (14.25 ha), sorghum (9.51 ha) and tomato (0.49 ha). 3 Marginal farmers have grown cotton, green gram, groundnut, red gram, sorghum and tomato. Small farmers have grown green gram, groundnut and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown green gram, groundnut, red gram and sorghum. Medium farmers have grown groundnut and red gram. Large farmers have grown groundnut. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgiri Nala-2 microwatershed was found to be 99.96 per cent.  The results indicate that, 58.33 per cent of the households have bank account and 2.78 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 61.11 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 23101.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41501.74. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 18400.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.8.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 43519.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69871.90. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 26352.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 24912.90. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65203.22. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 40290.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.62.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 23304.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42878.37. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 19574.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.84.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 1:2.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 72225. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 53724.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.9.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46592.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 246999.99. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 200407.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.3.  The results indicate that, 27.78 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 112,580, for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 162,216.67, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 151,600, for medium farmers it was Rs. 151,600 and large farmers it was Rs. 89,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 20,669.76. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 9,969.66, for small farmers it was Rs. 13,011.11, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 17,500, for medium farmers it was Rs. 160,000 and for large farmers it was Rs.109,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 76 neem, 22 tamarind, 1 pongamia and 2 banyan trees in their field and also 3 neem trees in their backyard. 4  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7,972.22 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,750 for irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,972.22 for improved crop production and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,805.56 for orchard development/ maintenance.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 54.05 per cent for land development and 8.11 per cent for irrigation facility, improved crop production and orchard development/ maintenance. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.7 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton and tomato was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 88.24 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 94.86 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 98.75 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 87.43 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 72.22 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 2.78 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that, 72.22 per cent of the households have used tractor and 2.78 per cent of the households used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used fire wood and 5.56 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 44.44 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 86.11 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 72.22 per cent, fruits were adequate for 11.11 per cent, milk were adequate for 91.67 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.67 per cent and meat were adequate for 5.56 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseed were inadequate for 11.11 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 25 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 5 88.89 per cent, milk were inadequate for 8.33 per cent, egg were inadequate for 83.33 per cent and meat were inadequate for 91.67 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil in the area was the constraint experienced by 86.11 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field, frequent incidence of pest and diseases and high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (83.33%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (13.89%), high rate of interest on credit (75 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (66.67 %), inadequate extension service (16.67 %), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (77.78%), less rainfall(5.56 %) and Source of Agri-technology information (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project