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The functions of cities in societies are discussed in this essay, the specialized functions performed and the integration of functions. The cities are seen as marketplaces of ideas, attitudes, artifacts, and consequently, innovation; they are driving wheels of great cultures. Then the modem city is considered—as it emerges as a vast collection of "small towns" around a small urban center deserted by night with various islands of intense cultural activity. The question is raised: What will be the consequence of the loss of the city as it has developed during the 200 years of modern civilization in the West? Some speculations suggest an isolation of functions and elites, a growing social distance among them, and a situation conducive to fragmentation of culture.

An exploration of the causes of Islamic fundamentalism & terrorism. A history of the Islamic world beginning in the eighteenth century is presented, focusing on its relationship with Western civilization. It is argued that terrorism is a system arising from the rules governing world politics today, which are predominantly Western, even among Islamic countries. It is argued that terrorism is born out of frustration caused by social, economic, & political inequities. As long as these conditions exist, terrorism will continue to thrive. It is recommended that the US attempt to consolidate its relationships with governments connected to terrorism; also, both the West & the Islamic world need to begin a dialogue to "break the cycle of arrogance breeding contempt & fanaticism breeding paranoia.". S. G. Yates

A comparison of alternative approaches to global apprehension of social development -- eg, Karl Marx's modes of production, A. J. Toynbee's civilizations, Alfred Kroeber's configurations, P. A. Sorokin's supersystems, & G. Gurvitch's global societies -- show two basic lines of investigation: one based on SE, & the other on sociocultural, parameters. The need to follow both lines is more clearly perceived from the perspective of the Third World or from east-central Europe than from elsewhere. The relevance of various factors to the major breakthroughs in history points to the ideational aspects of social action as the main driving force for change. A systems theory lacking an adequate idiographic appraisal can hardly be helpful for resolving this dichotomy. AA

The position that the use of traditional psychoanalytic theory in social critical theory has not been critical enough is explored. The ways that T. Adorno, M. Horkheimer, & H. Marcuse have used S. Freud's theories have resulted in an inadequate conception of intersubjectivity, which in turn results in a negative perspective of history, with civilization & socialization representing the victory of instrumental reason. Only individual internalization can be the source of a social criticism of dominance, yet today authority is no longer internalized, but directly exercised. Reason has resolved the conflict between repression & reflection in favor of the former. The beginnings of an alternative social psychology, not based on Freud's theory of instincts & his conception of the ego, are proposed. M. Migalski.

We are very pleased to publish this report by Mrs. Diallo on research into the correlations between the principles of international humanitarian law and the humanitarian principles underlying African traditions. In earlier issues of International Review, various authors have drawn attention to the fact that historically, in Islamic countries, in India and elsewhere in the Far East, in a variety of ethical doctrines and in many different types of civilization, thoughts have been expressed which compare with those of the Red Cross—leading to the conclusion that they arise from aspirations common to most of mankind. It is particularly appropriate therefore to disclose certain concordances between them and to discover, in all these different places, a unity of view and of teaching in ethical and social affairs.

Of all works of literature, the novel is the most referential, the most discursive, and the most elusive. According to Philip Stevick's analysis, the novel, more than any other genre, is capable of containing large, developed consistent images of people, and can give form to a set of attitudes regarding a particular society, history, or the general culture of which it is an important part.1 David Daiches is accurate in pointing out the closeness of this relationship between the novel and its milieu: 'Civilization is the attitudes and actions of people, and fiction uses these… as the raw material out of which to construct the kind of pattern we call a novel. No other art does this quite so directly.2

The Brazilian Negroes must be viewed in the context of Brazilian history and civilization and of the forces of social change operating throughout Brazilian society. In this article I intend to point out some of the historical factors that significantly influence the social mobility, or lack of it, of Brazilian Negroes, to analyze the present status of Negroes in Brazilian society, and to suggest some possible ways of dealing with this largely ignored, but very serious, racial situation that contains the seeds of a potential social crisis.After the discovery of Brazil by Pedro Alvares Cabral in 1500, the Portuguese exploited its coastal territories for more than fifty years with little help other than that of the enslaved Indians.

Ann-Louise Shapiro's Breaking the Codes: Female Criminality in Fin-de-Siècle Paris is a compelling and innovative cultural history of the problem of the female criminal in France at the turn of the century. Shapiro's work is also refreshingly distinct from other histories of this period in that it brings a sense of theoretical rigor to her primary argument that the female criminal was "a code that condensed, and thus obscured, other concerns" (p. 4). In this sense Shapiro's work is reminiscent of Mary Louise Roberts' Civilization Without Sexes: Restructuring Gender in Postwar France, 1917-1927 (Chicago, 1994) and Maria Tatar's Lustmord: Sexual Murder in Weimar Germany (Princeton, 1995), recent works which address historical responses to the problem of dangerous femininity.

Humanism, a man-centred interest, is in contrast to the Middle Ages or ecclesiastical period, a God – centred churchianity. The different mankind's interests to control and embellish his surroundings to infuse comfort are discussed under ancient, classical, ecclesiastical, modern and contemporary humanism. The purpose of this paper therefore is to recall that mankind's march of civilization is a march to realize himself, to conquer his environments, and to make himself comfortable. Thus, its contribution is bringing to the forefront language as the pivotal tool facilitating the humanism of mankind, and a tool relied upon in this wanderlust around humanism. In so doing, the paper concludes that humanism and human development, suggestive of humanism, are stored, retained and accounted for by language.

In spite of their importance in the life of nations, military problems have hardly been studied. However, important studies in the US, France, & GB have recently been made in the area of global war & its place in the contemporary history of societies & civilizations. On the other hand, the geo-strategic problems of the nuclear era have commanded the attention of various specialists. Furthermore, empirical studies of military situations during the past 15 yrs have focused attention upon the concepts of subversive war, revolutionary war & psychol'al warfare. Finally, interesting studies have been made of defense systems, of military institutions & of problems in military sociol. Nevertheless, there are still many blank spaces in our understanding of these phenomena. Tr by J. A. Broussard from IPSA.

Milton, the blind, who looked on Paradise! Beethoven, deaf, who heard vast harmonies! Byron, the lame, who climbed towards Alpine skies! Who pleads a handicap, remembering them? —V. A. Storey If we want civilization to march forward it will march not only on the feet of healthy children, but beside them, shoulder to shoulder, must go those others—those children we have called handicapped—the lame ones, the blind, … All these children are ready to be enlisted in this moving army, ready to make their contribution to human progress; to bring what they have of intelligence, of capacity, of spiritual beauty.—From "The Handicapped Child," one of the reports of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection.

A reprint of the edition of 1910 (except for a few pages omitted) with additional studies, written before the war. ; The days burden (Apology. The philosophy of politics. On crossing the Irish Sea. Otto Effertz, gentleman socialist. On written constitutions. Body v. soul: for the plaintiff, Francis Thompson. Reveries of Assize. A new way of misunderestanding Hamlet. Young Egypt. The fatigue of Anatole France. International socialists. A Frenchman's Ireland. On saying good-bye)--Miscellaneous essays (Labour and civilization. The economics of nationalism. Labour: war or peace? The world of the blind. A man troubled about everything. The importance of being narrow-minded. November first, the day of all the dead. The unimportance of politics). ; Mode of access: Internet.

This article examines Eurasian integration in the context of the ideas which accompany it and make possible the implementation of its practices, especially law-making and law-enforcement practices. The central theme of the article is the competition among values and social technologies claiming to play an integrating role. The starting point of this analysis is the theory of justice by John Rawls presented in the form of many interpretations thereof by legal theorists, as well as experts in the field of political and moral philosophy. It is examined based on assessments made from the standpoint of the politico-legal and socio-historical development of the West, as well as on attempts to look at this theoretical concept from a different cultural and civilizational point of view. Detailed consideration is given to the ideas and images of justice formed within the philosophical symbiosis of Confucianism and Legalism and providing a value-based legal identity of the Chinese civilization. The article shows that the ideas and values of the Rawlsian theory of justice are rooted in the political and legal history of European civilization and the dependence thereof on the philosophical and theoretical language of European enlighteners and even on the Indo-European national language family. As the main alternative to the neoliberal theory of justice, the article studies the philosophical and theoretical and politico-legal heritage of the Eurasianists. The theory of Eurasian law advanced by representatives of this movement is analyzed in depth. This type of legal relations, based on obligations, is considered as a special type of law capable of uniting heterogeneous entities without requiring their full unification or depriving them of their civilizational and value-based peculiarities. The authors analyze the real experience of economic and politico-legal integration, both within the framework of international organizations and at the level of inter-governmental [inter-country] cooperation. An assessment is made of the justifiability of the claims of Eurasianist philosophy regarding its ability to successfully provide integration processes in this part of the world. ; This article examines Eurasian integration in the context of the ideas which accompany it and make possible the implementation of its practices, especially law-making and law-enforcement practices. The central theme of the article is the competition among values and social technologies claiming to play an integrating role. The starting point of this analysis is the theory of justice by John Rawls presented in the form of many interpretations thereof by legal theorists, as well as experts in the field of political and moral philosophy. It is examined based on assessments made from the standpoint of the politico-legal and socio-historical development of the West, as well as on attempts to look at this theoretical concept from a different cultural and civilizational point of view. Detailed consideration is given to the ideas and images of justice formed within the philosophical symbiosis of Confucianism and Legalism and providing a value-based legal identity of the Chinese civilization. The article shows that the ideas and values of the Rawlsian theory of justice are rooted in the political and legal history of European civilization and the dependence thereof on the philosophical and theoretical language of European enlighteners and even on the Indo-European national language family. As the main alternative to the neoliberal theory of justice, the article studies the philosophical and theoretical and politico-legal heritage of the Eurasianists. The theory of Eurasian law advanced by representatives of this movement is analyzed in depth. This type of legal relations, based on obligations, is considered as a special type of law capable of uniting heterogeneous entities without requiring their full unification or depriving them of their civilizational and value-based peculiarities. The authors analyze the real experience of economic and politico-legal integration, both within the framework of international organizations and at the level of inter-governmental [inter-country] cooperation. An assessment is made of the justifiability of the claims of Eurasianist philosophy regarding its ability to successfully provide integration processes in this part of the world.

The article is devoted to the investigation of such phenomenons as text and subtext (the implication). The aim of the article is to determine the nature of author's conception of reality, embodied in the story by A. S. Grin «The Poisoned island» (1916). Attention is concentrated on the objective and subjective levels of text of the work. Text of A. S. Grin's story is divided into four parts. From the first two parts the reader learns about the tragedy of an unknown island, all inhabitants of which, excepting two children, voluntarily died (they poisoned). The fourth part contains an explanation of this tragic situation. Due to seamen, who got to the island, one of the residents of the island was saved. He told about the cause of mass suicide. This part is the most important in the content of the story. Therefore, it is more other volume (5,5 pages). Text of the story is characterized by circularity and presence of inversion, too. But the main role in the story belongs to the subjective relations. A. S. Grin includes in the text of the story several points of view on the tragedy in the island. Their classification helps to highlight semantic opposition «civilization — idyll» as the main and «we — they», «own — alien» as the private. The resident of «large world» of civilization is proud of soldiery and technical successes. Residents of idyll world have a fear before the destructive capacity of military technique. The presence of the opposition «civilization — idyll» makes evident the universal sense of the problems, which were addressed by the author of the story to it's readers. In the process of investigation of Grin's conception author of the article dwells on the semantics of title of the story. The first title, under which the story was printed for the first time in 1916, was «The Tale of the Distant Ocean». The second title — «The Poisoned Island». It means that A. S. Grin focused reader's attention on the causes of death of people in the island because of external factors. The story refers to the fact that residents of the fabulous «Golden age» learned about the big world of other continents and countries and this knowledge scared them so much that they were afraid of possible destructive encounters with the «big world». In their world were peace and harmony in a great world — war, disharmony, violence. In the article A. S. Grin's conception of reality is compared with O. Spengler's conception in the «Sunset of Europe». They are close in understanding of civilization as the last stage of culture, which is characterized by the degradation. All this helps to understand the analysis of subjective level and subtext in the story by Alexander Grin. The author of the article makes a conclusion about the proximity of the story o the parable. ; Цель статьи определить характер воплощенной в рассказе А. С. Грина «Отравленный остров» авторской концепции действительности с помощью изучения объектной и субъектной сторон этого произведения. Автор сосредоточил внимание на двух планах рассказа Грина — плане текста и плане подтекста. Исследуется структура текста, устанавливается связь между объемом глав и их местом в раскрытии авторской концепции, определяется роль цикличности и инверсии в тексте. Делается вывод о ведущей роли субъектных отношений в рассказе Грина. Исследуется место в нем оппозиций «свое — чужое», «цивилизация — идиллия». Анализ символики названия рассказа и подтекста в нем позволяет выделить универсальный смысл решаемых в рассказе проблем, а также судить о близости рассказа к притче. ; Мета статті — визначити характер втіленої в оповіданні О. С. Гріна «Отруєний острів» авторської концепції дійсності за допомогою вивчення об'єктної і суб'єктної сфер цього твору. Автор зосередив увагу на двох планах оповідання Гріна — плані тексту і плані підтексту. Досліджується структура тексту, встановлюється зв'язок між обсягом глав і його місцем в розкритті авторської концепції, визначається роль циклічності оповідання і інверсій в тексті. Робиться висновок про провідну роль суб'єктних стосунків в оповіданні Гріна. Досліджується місце в ньому опозицій «своє — чуже», «цивілізація — ідилія». Аналіз символіки назви оповідання і підтексту у творі дозволяє уявити універсальний сенс проблем, до яких звернувся письменник, а також знайти ознаки притчі в «Отруєному острові».

Similar to the mankind, civilizations also occur and develop by certain life cycle. In the process of rationality growth, the Indian and Chinese civilizations melt the outside experience material continuously with their profoud spriritual potential and gave rise to two great "philosophical breakthrough", thus renewing the original net of meaning. Just as Upanisad rules that Buddhism concerns how to set soul free, classical statecraft culture also rules that Chinese thinkers pay close attention to political order. With the emergence of their great spiritual masters, the two civilization grew up from the childhood and obtained their adult forms—Buddhism and Confucianism. Mahayana Buddhism as the crystal of the Indian "philosophical breakthrough" spread toward faraway east along the"Silk Road" and collided with the Chinese civilization which also experienced the similar"philosophical breakthrough" , as the result, the latter's gene was changed forever. Keywords: philosophical break through, cultural gene, Buddhism, Confucianism, Mahayana Buddhism, statecraft culture, Neo-Confucianism Résumé Les grandes civilisations, comme le développement de l'humanité, ont leur propre cycle vital de la naissance au vieillissement. Dans le processus de développement rationnel, les civilisations indienne et chinoise constituent deux grandes « percées philosophiques » dans l'histoire de la pensée grâce à leur renouvellement constant avec le temps. De même que Upanisad définit l'attention que le bouddhisme prête à la délivrance de l'âme de l'individu, la culture royale et officielle décide aussi la poursuite de l'ordre politique parfait par les différentes écoles de pensées de l'époque pré-Qin. Ces deux grandes civilisations ont réussi à accomplir leur développement spirituel et atteint l'état de maturité—le bouddhisme et le confucianisme. Le bouddhisme de grand Cheng hautement philosophique, en tant que la cristallisation du développement rationnel de la civilisation, a été diffusé vers l'Est lointain le long de la Route de la Soie et assimilé par la civilisation chinoise qui avait connu elle-même une percée philosophique, et a modifié ainsi à jamais le gène intérieur de la civilisation de la Chine. Mots-clés: percée philosophique, gène culturel, bouddhisme, confucianisme, bouddhisme de grand Cheng, culture royale et officielle, philosophie néo-confucianiste des dynasties Song et Ming 摘 要 各大文明也和人類一樣有著發生發育以至衰老的生命週期。在理性發育的過程中印度文明和中國文明以其深刻而豐富的意蘊不斷融化經驗材料,更新其原有的意義之網,從而形成思想史上兩次偉大的"哲學突破"。正如《奧義書》規定了佛學對個人靈魂解脫的關注,王官文化也規定了諸子百家對完美的政治秩序的追求。兩大文明在其偉大的精神導師那裏順利地完成了心智發育,從而獲得了自己的成年形態――佛教與儒教。高度哲理化的大乘佛學作為印度文明理性發育之結晶則沿著"絲綢之路"傳向遙遠的東方,為同樣發生過"哲學突破"的中國文明所消化,從而永遠地改變了後者的內在基因。關鍵詞:哲學突破;文化基因;佛教;儒教;大乘佛學;王官文化;宋明理學