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Recent years have witnessed an explosion in the science of networks. Much of this research has been stimulated by advances in statistical physics and the study of complex systems – that is, systems that comprise many interrelated components whose interactions produce unpredictable large-scale emergent behavior. Cities are complex systems formed both through decentralized, bottom-up, self-organizing processes as well as through top-down planning interventions. Humans shape their urban ecosystems (the built environment, institutions, cultures, etc.) and are in turn shaped by them. Cities comprise numerous interdependent components that interact through networks – social, virtual, and physical – such as street networks.This dissertation examines urban street networks, their structural complexity (emphasizing density, connectedness, and resilience), and how planning eras and design paradigms shape them. Interventions into a complex system often have unpredictable outcomes, even if the intervention is minor, as effects compound or dampen nonlinearly over time. Such systems' capacity for novelty, through emergent features that arise from their components' interactions, also makes them unpredictable. These interactions and the structure of connections within a system are the subject of network science. In cities, the structural characteristics of circulation networks influence how a city's physical links organize its human dynamics. Urban morphologists have long studied the built form's complexity and, following from scholars such as Jane Jacobs and Christopher Alexander, various urban design paradigms today speak both directly and indirectly to the value of complexity in the built environment. However, these claims are often made loosely, without formally connecting with theory, implications, or evaluation frameworks.This dissertation develops an interdisciplinary typology of measures for assessing the complexity of urban form and design, particularly emphasizing street network analytic measures. Street network analysis has held a prominent place in network science ever since Leonhard Euler presented his famous Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem in 1736. The past 15 years have been no exception as the growth of interdisciplinary network science has included numerous applications to cities and their street networks. These studies have yielded new understandings of urban form and design, transportation flows and access, and the topology and resilience of urban street networks. However, current limitations of data availability, consistency, and technology have resulted in four substantial shortcomings: small sample sizes, excessive network simplification, difficult reproducibility, and the lack of consistent, easy-to-use research tools. While these shortcomings are by no means fatal, their presence can limit the scalability, generalizability, and interpretability of empirical street network research.To address these challenges, this dissertation presents OSMnx, a new tool to download and analyze street networks and other geospatial data from OpenStreetMap for any study site in the world. OSMnx contributes five capabilities for researchers and practitioners: first, the downloading of political boundaries, building footprints, and elevation data; second, the scalable retrieval and construction of street networks from OpenStreetMap; third, the algorithmic correction of network topology; fourth, the ability to save street networks as shapefiles, GraphML, or SVG files; and fifth, the ability to analyze street networks, including projecting and visualizing networks, routing, and calculating metric and topological measures. These measures include those common in urban design and transportation studies, as well as measures of the structure and topology of the network. This study illustrates the use of OSMnx and OpenStreetMap to consistently conduct street network analysis with extremely large sample sizes, with clearly defined network definitions and extents for reproducibility, and using non-planar, directed graphs.This study collects and analyzes 27,000 U.S. street networks from OpenStreetMap at metropolitan, municipal, and neighborhood scales – namely, every U.S. city and town, census urbanized area, and Zillow-defined neighborhood. It presents wide-ranging empirical findings on U.S. urban form and street network characteristics, emphasizing measures relevant to graph theory, urban design, and morphology such as structural complexity, connectedness, density, centrality, and resilience. We find that the typical American urban area has approximately 26 intersections/km2, 2.8 streets connected to the average node, 160m average street segment lengths, and a network that is 7.4% more circuitous than straight-line streets would be. The typical city has approximately 25 intersections/km2, 2.9 streets connected to the average node, 145m average street segment lengths, and a network that is 5.5% more circuitous than straight-line streets would be. The typical Zillow neighborhood has approximately 46 intersections/km2, 2.9 streets connected to the average node, 135m average street segment lengths, and a network that is 4.4% more circuitous than straight-line streets would be. At all three scales, 3-way intersections are by far the most prevalent intersection type across the U.S.We find a strong linear relationship, invariant across scales, between total street length and the number of nodes in a network. This contradicts some previous findings in the literature that relied on smaller sample sizes and different geographic contexts. We also find that most networks demonstrate a lognormal distribution of street segment lengths. However, an obvious exception to lognormal distribution lies in those networks that exhibit substantial uniformity network-wide. At the neighborhood scale, examples include downtown neighborhoods with consistent orthogonal grids, such as that of Portland, Oregon. At the municipal scale, examples include towns in the Great Plains that have orthogonal grids with consistent block sizes, platted at one time, and never subjected to sprawl. These spatial signatures of the Homestead Act, successive land use regulations, urban design paradigms, and planning instruments remain etched into these cities' urban forms and street networks today. Nebraska's cities have the lowest circuity, the highest average number of streets per node, the second shortest average street segment length, and the second highest intersection density. These findings illustrate how street networks across the Great Plains developed all at once and grew little afterwards – unlike, for instance, cities in California that were settled in the same era but were later subjected to substantial sprawl.The characteristics of a city street network fundamentally depend on what "city" means: municipal boundaries, urbanized areas, or certain core neighborhoods? The first is a political/legal definition, but it captures the scope of city planning jurisdiction and decision-making for top-down interventions into a street network. The second captures the wider self-organized human system and its emergent built form, but tends to aggregate multiple heterogeneous built forms together into a single unit of analysis. The third captures the nature of the local built environment and lived experience, but at the expense of a broader view of the urban system and metropolitan-scale trip-taking. In short, multiple scales in concert provide planners a clearer view of the urban form and the topological and metric complexity of the street network than any single scale can.The emerging methods of computational data science, visualization, network science, and big data analysis have broadened the scope of urban design's traditional toolbox. Such methods may yield new insights and rigor in urban form/design research, but they may also promulgate the weaknesses of reductionism and scientism by ignoring the theory, complexity, and qualitative nuance of human experience crucial to urbanism. The tools we use shape the kinds of questions we can even ask about cities. Today, the dissemination of quantitative network science into the social sciences offers an exciting opportunity to study the dynamics and structure of cities and urban form, but paths forward must consider cities as uniquely human complex systems, inextricably bound up with politics, privilege, power relations, and planning decisions.This dissertation comprises six substantive chapters bookended by introductory and concluding chapters. As a whole, the dissertation is divided into two primary parts. The first comprises chapters 2 and 3 and develops the theoretical framework. Chapter 2 introduces the background of the nonlinear paradigm by discussing systems, dynamics, self-similarity, and the nature of prediction in the presence of nonlinearity. These foundations set up the complexity theories of cities and the study of networks presented in chapter 3. This first part of the dissertation emphasizes the dynamics of complex urban systems before we turn our attention to their structure in the second part. Urban circulation networks serve as a physical substrate that underlies and organizes the city's complex human interactions. Chapter 4 collates various indicators of complexity from multiple research literatures into a typology of measures of the complexity of urban form, emphasizing the scale of urban design practice. In particular, it presents several measures of network complexity and structure that we then operationalize in chapters 5, 6, and 7. Methodologically, chapter 5 introduces OSMnx, a new tool to acquire, construct, correct, visualize, and analyze complex urban street networks. Chapter 6 applies OSMnx empirically in a small case study of street networks in Portland, Oregon. Chapter 7 then expands the empirical application of OSMnx to a large study of 27,000 urban street networks at various scales across the U.S. These street networks and measures data sets have been shared in a public repository for other researchers to re-purpose.

The progress of the communicative competences as well as the speaking abilities of people all around the world in terms of the correct and fluent use of English have gained a considerable amount of importance since the formulation and formation of the CEFR within the European Union countri es. The CEFR as well as the criteria it has brought to the process of language teaching and learning have been accepted as one of the corner stones in this field by Turkish linguists and authorities as well. With the development of the CEFR, the Council of Europe promoted to embosom all the cultural values of the European countries through a very close relation and cooperation of the members in terms of their social and cultural capacites. While doing so, the main anchor for the union has been the mutual un derstanding and tolerance for the otherness of the cultures by means of multicultural and multilingual togetherness. This study has aimed to develop some CEFR - based speaking practices for the B1 level Turkish EFL university students so that they could enh ance their communicative competence and consequently their tolerance for other cultures. Prior to the design of these practices, a Needs Analysis questionnaire was prepared with the help of the B1 level ̳can do' descriptors. Thus, the practices have been d eveloped considering the results of the questionnaire that helped the researcher specify which of the subjects to choose for the training process. In the implementation phase the practices were applied on 44 students, the 25 of whom were the Experimental G roup and the 19 were the Control Group. The process lasted for five weeks and both before and after this treatment process the ix Pre and Posttests were applied on these students. The results of these tests indicated that the treatment process including the C EFR - based practices has been useful to develop the speaking skills and the communicative competence of the students. In addition, it has been understood that the kind of activities centering communicative competence help students focus on the point and have fun while participating the class actively and voluntarily. The assessment of the qualitative data that the researc her has provided by way of the interviews indicates that students are motivated much more for active participation to the lesson when they feel happy and confident in the class ; TABLE OF CONTENTS YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI . . iii ETİK BEYANNAMESİ . . . iv ACKNOWLODGEM ENTS . . . v ÖZ . . . . . vi ABSTRACT . viii TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . x LIST of TABLES . . . . xiv LIST of FIGURES . . . . xv LIST of ABBREVIATIONS . . . xvi 1. INT RODUCTION . . . . 1 1.1. Introduction . . . . 1 1.2. Background to the Study . . . 3 1.3. Statement of the Problem . . . 4 1.4. Purpose of the Study . . . 4 1.5. Research Questions . . . 5 1.6. Scope of the Study . . . 5 1.7. Assumptions and Limitations . . . 6 1.8. Definitions of Specific Terms . . . 6 2. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . 8 2.1. Introduction . . . . 8 2.2. Needs Analysis . . . 8 2.2.1. Needs Analysis in ELT . . . 8 2.2.1.1. Development of ELT Materials through NA . . 9 2.2.1.2. Development of ELT Materials for Speaking Classes . 10 2.3. The CEFR . . . . 10 2.3.1. The Purpose of the CEFR . . . 11 2.3.2. The Common Reference Levels of the CEFR . . 12 2.3.3. B1 Level Descriptors of the CEFR . . 14 2.3.4. The CEFR and Competences . . 15 2.4. Communication & Communicative Competence . . 16 2.4.1. Models of Communication . . . 17 2.4.1.1. Transmission Model of Communication . . 17 2.4.1.2. Interaction Model of Communication . . 18 2.4.1.3. Transaction Model of Communication . . 19 2.4.2. Types of Needs that Communication Meets . . 20 2.4.3. Communicative Competence . . 21 2.4.4. Developing Communicative Competence . . 24 2.4.4.1. Verbal Communication . . . 24 2.4.4.2. Nonverbal Communication . . 25 2.4.5. Models of Communicative Competence and Performance . 25 2.4.5.1. Dell Hymes' Model . . . 25 2.4.5.2. M. A. K. Halliday's ̳Meaning Potential' . . 26 xi 2.4.5.3. Munby's Theoretical Framework . . 26 2.4.5.4. Widdowson's Theory of Communicative Competence . 27 2.4.5.5. Canale and Swain Model . . 28 2.4.5.6. Canale's Adaptation of Canale and Swain Model . 28 2.4.5.7. Van Ek's Model of Communicative Ability . . 28 2.4.5.8. Bachman's Communicative Language Ability . 29 2.4.5.9. Celce - Murcia Model of Communicative Competence . 29 2.4.6. Classroom Activities in Communicative Language Teaching . 31 2.4.6.1. Design of the Classroom Activities . . 32 2.4.6.2. Forms of the Classroom Activities . . 32 2.4.6.3. CLT as a Paradigm Shift . . 33 2.4.7.1. Content - Based Instruction . . 34 2.4.7.2. Task - Based Instruction . . . 35 2.4.7.3. Product - Based Approaches . . 35 2.4.7.4. Text - Based Instruction . . . 36 2.4.7.5. Competency - Based Instruction . . 36 2.4.8. Problems with the Use of CLT in EFL Contexts . . 36 2.4.9. Solutions for the Problems . . . 38 2.5. Speaking Skill . . . 39 2.5.1. The Lexical Aspect of Speaking . . 39 2.5.2. The Linguistic Aspect of Speaking . . 40 2.5.3. The Social Aspects of Speaking . . 41 2.5.4. Why is Speaking Difficult? . . . 42 2.5.5. The Importance of Speaking Skill . . 43 2.5.6. Communicative Tasks and Teaching Speaking . . 43 2.5.6.1. Theoretical Rationale for Tasks . . 44 2.5.6.2. Advantages of Tasks in Speaking Instruction . 45 2.5.7. The Purpose of Speaking . . . 46 2.5.8. Teaching Speaking . . . 47 2.5.9. General Outline of a Speaking Lesson . . 48 2.5.10. Speaking Activities . . . 49 2.6. Conclusion . . . . 51 3. METHOD . . . . 52 3.1. Introduction . . . . 52 3.2. Resea rch Design . . . 52 3.3. The Participants . . . 53 3.4. Research Questions . . . 54 3.5. Data Collection Instruments . . . 54 3.5.1. Needs Analysis Questionnaire . . 54 3.5.2. Order of the Subjects in the Treatment Process . . 55 3.5.3. Pretest / Posttest Questions and Marking Charts . . 55 3.5.4. The Treatment Process Instruments . . 56 3.5.4.1. Voluntary Participation Forms . . 56 3.5.4.2. Lesson Plans . . . 56 3.5.5. Interviews . . . 57 3.6. Data Analysis . . . 57 3.6.1. Ana lyses of the Quantitative Data . . 58 3.6.2. Analyses of the Qualitative Data . . 58 4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION . . . 59 xii 4.1. Introduction . . . . 59 4.2. Findi ngs of the Study . . . 59 4.2.1. The Needs Analysis Questionnaire . . 59 4.2.2. Pretest / Posttest Scores . . . 74 4.2.2.1. The First Research Question . . 74 4.2.2.2. The Second Research Question . . 77 4.2.3. Qualitative Data Assessment . . 81 4.2.3.1. The Findings about The Third Rese arch Question . 82 4.2.3.2. The Findings about The Fourth Research Question . 86 5. SUGGESTED SPEAKING PRACTICES . . 88 5.1. Introduction . . . . 88 5.2. General Aims . . . 88 5.3. The Order of the Subjects to be Studied . . 88 5.4. Practice One . . . 89 A. INTRODU CTION . . . 89 B. PROCEDURE . . . 90 C. PRODUCTION . . . 96 D. NOTES for T EACHERS . . . 99 5.5. Practice Two . . . 103 A. INTRODUCTION . . . 103 B. PROCEDURE . . . 103 C. PRODUCTION . . . 114 D. NOTES for TEACHERS . . . 118 PRODUCTION . . . 122 5.6. Practice Three . . . 124 A. INTRODUCTION . . . 124 B. PRODUCTION . . . 131 C. NOTES for TEACHERS . . . 133 PRODUCTION: Collaborative Study . . . 134 5.7. Practice Four . . . 135 A. INTRODUCTION . . . 135 B. PRODUCTIO N . . . 147 C. NOTES for TEACHERS . . . 150 PRODUCTION . . . 151 5.8. Practice Fi ve . . . 152 A. INTRODUCTION . . . 152 B. PROCEDURE . . . 152 C. PRODUCTION . . . 163 D. NOTES for TEACHERS . . . 165 PRODUCTION . . . 166 6.1. Introduction . . . 167 6.2. Conclusion . . . 167 6.3. Suggest ions . . . 170 REFERENCES . . . . 172 APPENDICES . . . . 178 APPENDIX 1: ETHICS COMMITTEE APPROVAL . . 179 APPENDIX 2: NEEDS ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE . . 180 APPENDIX 3: GÖNÜLLÜ KATILIM FORMU . . 182 xiii APPENDIX 4: PRE - TEST / POST - TEST QUESTIONS . . 183 APPENDIX 5: ORAL PROFICIENCY CRITERIA . . 1 84 APPENDIX 6: LESSON PLAN . . . 187 APPENDIX 7: TEACHER EVALUATION FORM . . 188 APPENDIX 7: ORIGINALITY REPORT . . 190 CURRICULUM VITAE . . . 191 ; Tüm dünyadaki insanların, İngilizceyi doğru ve akıcı kullanmaları yönüyle iletişimsel becerilerinin yanı sıra konuşma kabiliyetlerinin de gelişmesi, Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinde AOÖÇ'nin (Avrupa Ortak Ölçüt Çerçevesi) formü le edilip şekil verilmesiyle hatırı sayılır derecede önem kazanmıştır. AOÖÇ ve onun dil öğretim ve öğrenimine getirdiği kriterler, Türk dilbilimci ve otoriteleri tarafından bu alanın temel taşları olarak kabul edilmişlerdir. Avrupa Konseyi, AOÖÇ'nin gelişm esiyle birlikte Avrupa ülkelerinin çok yakın ilişkileri ve üye ülkelerin de sosyal ve kültürel yönden işbirliğine gitmeleri sonucu tüm kültürel değerlerine kucak açma noktasına geldi. Bunu yaparken birliğin temel dayanak noktası, çok kültürlü ve çok dilli bir birliktelik vasıtasıyla kültürel farklılıklara karşı gelişen karşılıklı anlayış ve hoşgörü olmuştur. Bu çalışma, B1 düzeyindeki üniversite öğrencilerinin iletişimsel yeterliklerini ve buna bağlı olarak da diğer kültürlere karşı hoşgörülerini artırabilm elerine dönük bazı AOÖÇ temelli uygulamalar geliştirmeyi amaç edinmiştir. Bu uygulamaların tasarımından önce B1 düzeyi ̳yapabilirlik' tanımlayıcları vasıtasıyla bir İhtiyaç Analizi anketi hazırlanmıştır. Böylece, eğitim sürecinde hangi konuların seçileceği ni belirleyen araştırmacı, anketin sonuçlarının da yardımıyla uygulamaları geliştirmiştir. İyileştirme sürecinde 44 öğrenci bulunuyordu ve bunların 25'ine, deney grubunda oldukları için söz konusu çalışmalar uygulanmıştır. Öbür 19 öğrenci ise kontrol grubu nda olup kendilerine bu aktiviteler uygulanmamıştır. Uygulama süreci 5 hafta sürmüş olup çalışmaların öncesi ve sonrasında tüm öğrencilere öntest ve sontest yapılmıştır. Bu testlerin sonuçları, AOÖÇ temelli uygulamaları içeren iyileştirme sürecinin öğrenci lere ait konuşma yeteneklerini ve iletişimsel yeterliklerini geliştirdiğini göstermişlerdir. vii Ayrıca, iletişimsel yeterliğe odaklı bu türden etkinliklerin, derse odaklanma ve gönüllü olarak derse katılımları konusunda öğrenciye katkı sağladığı anlaşılmıştır . Araştırmacının, mülakatlar vasıtasıyla elde ettiği nitel verilerin değerlendirmesi de göstermiştir ki, öğrenciler sınıf ortamında mutlu ve kendinden emin hissettiklerinde derse etkin katılımla ilgili daha fazla motive olabiliyorlar

Annotation. In most countries of the world, housing policy is one of the important areas of public policy and the constant acute public debate. The growth in construction in recent years, the majority of the population, especially its unprotected strata, are actually unable to improve their living conditions in any way because of the high cost of housing. The creation of social housing should be one of the most important areas of Ukraine's housing policy, a key factor in the social protection of those segments of the population who need government support. The most important economic condition for the success of the social housing construction program - the minimization of its cost price - will dictate the requirements for both the choice of the location of its construction and the structural systems, floors, construction materials used, etc. The second important problem of creating social housing is providing assistance to people affected by manifestations of natural or man-made impacts, or military actions in the east of the country and completely lost housing. The problem is an essential social task of the state. Solving the problem requires the creation of two building systems. The first should ensure the creation of temporary housing in extremely short terms. The second is the rapid construction by industrial methods of primary housing provided to the victims on the basis of the state subsidy. At the same time, houses for permanent residence, even in conditions of limited construction time, should not only be quick-erect, but also in accordance with the requirements of the current building standards for strength, durability, energy efficiency, comfort, environmental friendliness, architectural expressiveness, etc., as well as climatic, Geological and other features of the construction region. While calculating such schemes of social housing buildings among the listed construction conditions, it is necessary to take into account the duration of use. Therefore, the strength of social housing designs with long-term load effects, taking into account the transformable concrete deformation diagrams, becomes very important.There are many approaches to solve the task. Many of them have their pros and cons. In our case, the most appropriate and logical method is to calculate frame structures by displacement using the deformation method with variable stiffness rods through the use of transformable strain diagrams of concrete. This method gives full freedom in solving the problem of redundancy and the direct calculation of elements section. Such approach helps to solve the problem despite the type of load and / or their combination. In order to calculate the flat frame in nonlinear installment by iterative method with adjusted variable rigidity in sections of crossbar and uprights we are using an algorithm for solving systems of nonlinear equations for concrete estimated sections equilibrium using the deformation method through the use of transformable strain diagrams of concrete. Conclusions. The comparative analysis of four CS and the calculation of variable-rigidity frame structures using timevarying diagrams of concrete deformation make it possible to use the load-bearing capacity of structures as efficiently as possible while reducing production costs and to obtain results with high accuracy. The frame system allows you to freely use the internal space for organizing the planning of an individual house. The panel options create a more "rigid" planning structure, but sufficient for the primary provision of housing to an average family. Increase in the potential resource for the use of load-bearing structures. ; Аннотация. В большинстве стран мира жилищная политика является одной из важных сфер публичной политики и тем постоянных острых общественных дискуссий. Рост объемов строительства в последние годы, большинство населения, особенно его незащищенные слоя, фактически лишены возможности каким-либо образом улучшить условия своего проживания из-за большой себестоимость жилья. Создание социального жилья должно стать одним из важнейших направлений жилищной политики Украины, ключевым фактором социальной защиты тех слоев населения, которые нуждаются в поддержке со стороны государства. Важнейшее экономическое условие успешности осуществления программы строительства социального жилья - минимизация его себестоимости – будет диктовать требования как к выбору места его строительства, так и к применяемым конструктивным системам, этажности, строительных материалов и т.д. Второй важной проблемой создания социального жилья является оказание помощи населению, пострадавшему от проявлений стихии или техногенных воздействий, или военные действия на востоке страны и полностью утратило жилье. Проблема является существенной социальной задачей государства. Решение проблемы требует создания двух систем зданий. Первая должна обеспечивать создание временного жилья в экстремально сжатые сроки. Вторая заключается в быстром строительстве индустриальными методами первичного жилья, предоставляемого пострадавшим по принципу государственной субсидии. При этом дома для постоянного проживания, даже в условиях ограниченных сроков строительства, должны быть не только быстровозводимыми, но и соответствующими требованиям действующих строительных норм по прочности, долговечности, энергоэффективности, комфорта, экологичности, архитектурной выразительности и т.д., а также климатическим, геологическим и другим особенностям региона строительства. Рассчитывая подобные схемы зданий социального жилья среди перечисленных условий конструирования необходимо учитывать продолжительность использования. Поэтому прочность конструкций социального жилья при длительном воздействии нагрузки с учетом трансформируемых диаграмм деформирования бетона приобретает большое значение. Для решения задачи существует множество подходов. Многие из них имеют свои плюсы и минусы. В нашем случае наиболее оптимальный и логичный будет метод расчета рамных конструкций методом перемещений с использованием деформационного метода с переменной жесткостью стержней на основе использования трансформируемых во времени диаграмм бетона. Данный метод дает полную свободу в решении задачи статической неопределимости и непосредственного расчета сечения элементов. Такой подход позволяет решить задачу в не зависимости от типа загрузки и/или их комбинации. Для расчета плоской рамы в нелинейной постановке итерационным методом с корректировкой переменных жесткостей в сечениях ригеля и стоек используем алгоритм решения системы нелинейных уравнений равновесия железобетонного расчетного сечения деформационным методом на основе использования трансформируемых во времени диаграмм деформирования бетона. Выводы. Сравнительный анализ четырех КС и расчет рамных конструкций с переменной жесткостью с использованием трансформируемых во времени диаграмм деформирования бетона дает возможность максимально эффективно использовать несущую способность конструкций со снижением затрат на изготовление и получать результаты с высокой точностью. Каркасная система позволяет достаточно свободно использовать внутреннее пространство для организации планирования индивидуального дома. Панельные варианты создают более «жесткую» планировочную структуру, но достаточную для первичного обеспечения жильем средней по составу семьи. Увеличение потенциального ресурса использования несущих конструкций. ; Анотація. У більшості країн світу житлова політика є однією із найвагоміших сфер публічної політики та тем постійних найгостріших суспільних дискусій. Зростання обсягів будівництва в останні роки, більшість населення, особливо його незахищені верстви, фактично позбавлені можливостей будь-яким чином поліпшити умови свого проживання через велику собівартість житла. Створення соціального житла має стати одним із найважливіших напрямів житлової політики України, ключовим фактором соціального захисту тих верств населення, які потребують підтримки з боку держави. Найважливіша економічна умова успішності здійснення програми будівництва соціального житла - мінімізація його собівартості - диктуватиме й вимоги як до вибору місця його будівництва, так і до застосовуваних конструктивних систем, поверховості, будівельних матеріалів тощо. Другою важливою проблемою створення соціального житла є надання допомоги населенню, яке постраждало від проявів стихії або техногенних впливів, або війскові дії на сході країни і повністю втратило житло. Проблема є суттєвим соціальним завданням держави. Вирішення проблеми вимагає створення двох систем будинків. Перша повинна забезпечувати створення тимчасового житла в екстремально стислий термін. Друга полягає в швидкому будівництві індустріальними методами первинного житла, яке надається постраждалим на засаді державної субсидії. При цьому будинки для постійного проживання, навіть в умовах обмежених термінів будівництва, повинні бути не тільки швидкобудуємими, але, у першу чергу, і такими, що відповідають вимогам чинних Будівельних Норм щодо міцності, довговічності, енергоефективності, комфорту, екологічності, архітектурної виразності і т.д., а також кліматичним, геологічним і іншим особливостям регіону будівництва. Розраховуючи подібні схеми будинків соціального житла серед перелічиних умов конструювання необхідно враховувати довготривалість використання. Тому міцність конструкцій соціального житла при тривалій дії навантаження з врахуванням трасформуємих діаграм деформування бетону набуває великого значення.Для вирішення завдання існує безліч підходів. Багато з них мають свої плюси і мінуси. У нашому випадку найбільш оптимальний і логічний буде метод розрахунку рамних конструкцій методом переміщень з використанням деформаційного методу зі змінною жорсткістю стержнів на основі використання трансформуємих в часі діаграм деформування бетону. Даний метод дає повну свободу у вирішенні завдання статичної невизначеності і безпосереднього розрахунку перерізу елементів. Такий підхід дозволяє вирішити задачу в не залежності від типу завантаження і/або їх комбінації. Для розрахунку плоскої рами в нелінійній постановці ітераційним методом з коригуванням змінних жорсткостей в перерізах ригеля та стійок використаємо алгоритм розв'язання системи нелінійних рівнянь рівноваги залізобетонного розрахункового перерізу за деформаційним методом на основі використання трансформуємих в часі діаграм деформування бетону.Висновки. Порівняльний аналіз чотирьох КС та розрахунок рамних конструкцій зі змінною жорсткістю з використанням трансформуємих в часі діаграм деформування бетону дає можливість максимально ефективно використовувати несучу здатність конструкцій з зниженням витрат на виготовлення та отримувати результати з високою точністю. Каркасна система дозволяє достатньо вільне використання внутрішнього простору для організації планування індивідуального будинку. Панельні варіанти утворюють більш «жорстку» планувальну структуру, але достатню для первинного забезпечення житлом середньої за складом родини. Збільшення потенціального ресурсу використання несучих конструкцій.

Das Buch Futūḥ aš-Šām, das üblicherweise in der Wissenschaft dem bekannten Historiker des 8. und Anfang des 9. Jh. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar al-Wāqidī (g. 207/823) zugeschrieben wird, gilt seit zwei Jahrhunderten als ein gefälschtes Buch, das in einer späteren Zeit (Zeit der Kreuzzüge) verfasst und al-Wāqidī zugeschrieben wurde. Es wurde in dieser Dissertation anhand der Ergebnisse der Untersuchung der Struktur, des Inhalts und der Isnāde des Futūḥ aš-Šām die These aufstellt, dass dieses Werk im Kern das ursprüngliche Futūḥ aš-Šām al-Wāqidīs ist, das nach dessen Lebenszeit eine Veränderung seiner Form und seines Inhalts erlebt hat. Im Folgenden werden die Ergebnisse sowie die Thesen der Arbeit vorgestellt: Es wurde durch die Analyse der Struktur des Futūḥ aš-Šām gezeigt, dass das Narrativ dieses Werkes ein homogenes Narrativ ist, das eine lückenfreie Struktur aufzeigt. Deswegen scheint die vorgenommene Veränderung eine systematische Redaktion des ursprünglichen Futūḥ aš-Šām gewesen zu sein. Diese Redaktionsarbeit besteht scheinbar aus den zwei folgenden Änderungen: Erstens: Die Berichte des ursprünglichen Futūḥ aš-Šām al-Wāqidīs wurden zusammengelegt und seine Isnāde wurden verkürzt bzw. gelöscht, um eine im größeren Maße ununterbrochene fließende Berichtserstattung in Form einer Erzählung herzustellen; Zweitens: religiöse Details und Elemente wurden zum Narrativ des ursprünglichen Futūḥ aš-Šām hinzugefügt, anscheinend um die Rolle der Religion zu verstärken, ein idealisiertes Bild des Islams und der Muslime aus der Zeit der Eroberungen zu vermitteln und den Islam gegenüber dem Christentum zu verherrlichen. Zu der Frage nach der Verfassungszeit wurde festgestellt, dass diese Redaktion vermutlich zwischen dem 12. und 13. Jh. vorgenommen wurde, denn zum einen sind direkte Zitate aus dem ursprünglichen Futūḥ aš-Šām in Ibn ʿAsākirs Taʾrīḫ madīnat Dimašq nachzuweisen, die formale und zum Teil inhaltliche Unterschiede zum al-Wāqidī zugeschriebenen Futūḥ aš-Šām aufzeigen. Das bedeutet, dass zur Lebenszeit Ibn ʿAsākirs (499/1106–571/1175) das ursprüngliche Futūḥ aš-Šām vorhanden war und immer noch seine ursprüngliche Form und Inhalt hatte. Zum anderen ist die älteste bekannte Handschrift des Futūḥ aš-Šām (Saray Ahmet III 2886), d. h. die älteste bekannte Version dieses Werkes, im Jahr 678/1279 verfasst worden. So wurde für den Zeitraum zwischen dem 12 und 13. Jh. als Entstehungszeit des Futūḥ aš-Šām argumentiert. Ein weiteres Indiz für diese These war, dass die angeblichen direkten Zitate aus dem ursprünglichen Futūḥ aš-Šām aus dem 14 Jh. eine sehr deutliche Ähnlichkeit mit dem Inhalt des Futūḥ aš-Šām aufzeigen, während die Zitate Ibn ʿAsākirs aus dem 12. Jh. nur gewisse inhaltliche Ähnlichkeit mit dem Inhalt dieses Werkes nachweisen. Zur Frage nach der Authentizität des Futūḥ aš-Šām wurde festgestellt, dass aufgrund der Hinzufügung von Inhalten im Redaktionsprozess nicht alle Inhalte dieses Werks al-Wāqidī zugeschrieben werden können. Die vorgeschlagene Zeit zur Verfassung des Futūḥ aš-Šām (zwischen dem 12. und 13. Jh.) fällt in die Zeit der Kreuzzüge im Nahen Osten. Es ist in der Forschung zum Futūḥ aš-Šām bereits gezeigt worden, dass einige in diesem Werk auftauchende Begriffe aus der Zeit der Kreuzzüge stammen können (wie z. B. afranǧ und al-muḥammadīyūn). Aus diesem Grund ist es vorstellbar, dass dieses Werk beim Redaktionsprozess Inhalte aus dieser Zeit übernommen habe. Es sieht so aus, dass vor allem die Betonung der religiösen Elemente, die auf die Verherrlichung des Islam gegenüber dem Christentum abzielen, zum Teil aus dieser Zeit stammt. Deswegen könnte man die These aufstellen, dass diese Redaktion hauptsächlich aus religiösen Gründen vorgenommen worden ist. Darüber hinaus, da im Futūḥ aš-Šām eine Neigung zur Herstellung einer fließenden und lückenlosen Erzählung beobachtet werden kann, sieht es so aus, dass man diese Redaktion ursprünglich als eine Erzählung für ein breiteres Publikum angefertigt hat. Wir wissen, dass bereits im 10 und 11. Jh. futūḥ-Werke (angeblich in den arabischsprachigen Regionen der islamischen Welt) einem breiteren Publikum vorgelesen wurden. Aus diesem Grund ist es durchaus vorstellbar, dass diese Redaktion vorgenommen wurde, um einem breiteren muslimischen Publikum während der Kreuzzüge die Superiorität ihrer Religion einzuprägen. Bezüglich der Frage, wo das Futūḥ aš-Šām redigiert worden sein könnte, gibt der Text keinen Hinweis darauf. Man könnte argumentieren, dass der Redaktionsprozess in einer Region stattgefunden haben müsse, die von den Kreuzzügen betroffen war, weil dieses Werk Hinweise auf diese beinhaltet. Dies könnte entweder Ägypten oder Syrien sein. Zwischen dem 12. und 13. Jh. haben die Ayyubiden (reg. 1174-1260) in Ägypten und Syrien regiert, die u. a. von religiösen Gedanken als ein Element zur Vereinigung der muslimischen Welt gegen die Kreuzfahrer profitiert haben. Man könnte also vermuten, dass die Redaktion des ursprünglichen Futūḥ aš-Šām al-Wāqidīs in diesem Kontext in Auftrag gegeben worden sei, so dass die Leserschaft nicht nur eine politische sondern auch eine religiöse Wahrnehmung von den Kreuzzügen erhält. Darüber hinaus wissen wir, dass gegen Ende des 12. Jh. und in der frühen Ayyubidenzeit eine Wiederbelebung der Geschichtsschreibug beobachtet werden kann, die dann unter den Mamluken weiter fortgesetzt wird. Man könnte die Aussage treffen, dass auch dieser Kontext zur Herstellung von zahlreichen Geschichtswerken zur Rehabilitierung des Futūḥ aš-Šām al-Wāqidīs in Form einer Redaktion dieses Werkes, was uns heute unter dem Namen al-Wāqidī zugeschriebenen Futūḥ aš-Šām vorliegt, beigetragen habe. ; The book Futūḥ al-Shām which is commonly ascribed in the scholarship to the distinguished historian of the 8th and early 9th centuries Muḥammad b. 'Umar al-Wāqidī (d. 207/823), has been considered for more than two centuries as a forged work, which was compiled in a later period (time of the Crusades) and was attributed to al-Wāqidī. Based on the results of an analysis of the structure, the content and the isnāds of the Futūḥ al-Shām, the thesis was suggested in this dissertation, that this work is essentially the original Futūḥ al-Shām of al-Wāqidī, whose form and content, however, was modified after al-Wāqidīs lifetime. In the following the results of the research as well as the theses of the dissertation are presented: By the analysis of the structure of the Futūḥ al-Shām, it was shown that the narrative of this work is a homogeneous narrative, which demonstrates a complete and gap-free structure. Therefore, the undertaken alteration in the original Futūḥ al-Shām seems to have been a systematic editorial work on this work. This redaction consists apparently of the following two types of modifications: firstly, the reports contained in the original Futūḥ al-Šām have been merged and the isnāds have been shortened or deleted, apparently in order to produce a larger uninterrupted fluent narrative than the original narrative of the work; secondly, religious details and elements have been added to the narrative of the original Futūḥ al-Shām, seemingly to enhance the role of religion, to convey an idealized image of Islam and Muslims from the time of the conquests, and to glorify Islam over Christianity. On the question of the time of the editorship, it was proposed that it was probably made between the 12th and 13th centuries, since on the one hand, direct quotations from the original Futūḥ al-Shām in Ibn'Asākirs Ta'rīkh madīnat Dimashq are in terms of form and to some extent content at difference with relevant places in the present Futūḥ al-Shām attributed to al-Wāqidī. This means that during the lifetime of Ibn 'Asākir (499/1106 - 571/1175) the original Futūḥ al-Shām existed and had still its original form and content. On the other hand, the oldest known manuscript of the present Futūḥ al-Shām (Saray Ahmet III 2886), i. e. the oldest known version of this work, has been written in 678/1279. Hence, it was argued for the period between the 12th and 13th centuries as the date of the development of the present Futūḥ al-Shām. An additional indication which speaks for this thesis was that the alleged direct quotes from the original Futūḥ al-Shām in 14th centry display a clear resemblance to the content of the present Futūḥ al-Shām, while the 12th-century quotes by Ibn'Asākirs show only a certain similarity. Regarding the question of the authenticity of this work, it was suggested that due to the addition of contents in the editorial process, not all of the contents of this work can be attributed to al-Wāqidī. The proposed period for the development of the present Futūḥ al-Shām (between the 12th and 13th centuries) falls into the time of the Crusades in the Middle East. It has already been shown in the scholarship on the present Futūḥ al-Shām that some of the terms appearing in this work can originate from the time of the Crusades (such as "afranj" and "al-muḥammadīyūn"). For this reason it is conceivable that contents from this period was adopted in this work in the editorial process. It seems that, above all, the emphasis on religious elements, which are aimed at the glorification of Islam against Christianity, comes partly from this period. Hence, one could suggest the thesis that this editorial work has had mainly a religious agenda. In addition, since the present Futūḥ al-Shām has a tendency to produce a fluid and complete narrative, it seems that this redaction was made, also to serve as a narrative for a wider Muslim audience. We know that in the 10th and 11th centuries, futuḥ works (supposedly in the Arabic-speaking regions of the Islamic world) were read to a wider audience. Therefore, it is conceivable that this editorial work was done to memorialize the superiority of Islam over Christianity to a wider Muslim audience during the Crusades. Regarding the question, where the present Futūḥ al-Shām was developed, this work provides no clue. It could be argued that the editorial process must have taken place in a region affected by the crusades, since the work contains indications to it. Given its content, it could be either Egypt or Syria. Between the 12th and 13th century, the Ayyubids (reigned 1174-1260) ruled Egypt and Syria and have benefited from religious thoughts as a strong element to unite the Muslim world against the crusaders. It could therefore be assumed that the editor(s) of the original Futūḥ al-Shām were commissioned in this context to undertake the redaction, so that the readership receives not only a political but also a religious perception of the crusades. Moreover, we know that in the late 12th and early Ayyubid periods, a revival of the historical writing can be observed, which then continues under the Mamluks. It could be suggested that this context of the production of numerous historical works also contributed to the rehabilitation of the original Futūḥ al-Shām of al-Wāqidī in the form of a redaction of this work.

[eng] The Social Economy sector (SE) is especially relevant because its entities have a social aim and they principally operate in areas not fully covered by either the market or the public sector. The number of SE organisations has increased significantly in the last decades and its importance is still growing at global, European and national scale. The high expectations of stakeholders towards the activity of these organizations have increased the transparency and accountability requirements of this sector's entities. Consequently, deficiency of transparency is considered a serious problem as it damages social trust in the organizations that belong to this sector. The objective of this thesis is to study the transparency level of foundations, a specific type of SE organizations, whose volume has significantly risen in the past decades. As a frame, the variety of coexisting registers in Spain and Europe were studied, as well as the evolution of the Spanish and Catalan regulations for foundations, which in recent years has undergone significant changes, especially due to the leading role that these institutions play in the economy. A database of 2,554 foundations from the Register of Catalonia, the largest in Spain, was used; information from the websites of 1,382 foundations, 54.11% of the total, was collected and analysed applying different statistical methodologies: bivariate, multivariate and logistic regression modelling, in order to find the drivers that influence the level of transparency of foundations. Conclusions indicate that this sector has a challenge to overcome: 45.89% of a total of 2,554 foundations do not have an active website, and in application of law 19/2014, in force from 1st July 2015, they should stop their activity. The main driver influencing the transparency level of foundations is the variable activity, being the healthcare activity the most influential. The variable province of Barcelona is more influential than the rest of Catalan provinces. However, there is not a conclusive effect of the variables decade of registration and regulation period. The methodology used to assess the degree of transparency can be extrapolated to other sectors (public or private). One possible future research field suggested is the study of the temporary evolution of the degree of transparency derived from the impact of legislation (law 19/2014). ; [cat] La importància d'aquestes entitats sense ànim de lucre, que realitzen la seva activitat entre el sector públic i el sector privat, es cada vegada més gran tant a nivell europeu com nacional. La tesis s'ha centrat en un tipus específic d'entitats no lucratives: las fundacions, les quals han augmentat marcadament en volum en la última dècada, i el seu grau de transparència. En la investigació s'ha realitzat l'estudi dels següents punts: (i) la diversitat del registres que coexisteixen a Espanya i Europa, caracteritzat per la falta d'homogeneïtat a l'hora de registrar- se com a fundació; (ii) l'estudi de l'evolució en matèria legislativa que regula aquest tipus d'entitats, que en els últims anys ha experimentat uns canvis significatius, especialmente per la importància que estan adquirint aquestes entitats en les economies dels països, sent necessari la seva regulació. En la part empírica, s'ha treballat amb una base de dades de 2.556 fundacions del Registre de Catalunya, que es el registre més nombrós de tota Espanya, realitzant: (iii) anàlisis descriptiu per la caracterització del sector fundacional a Catalunya; (iv) anàlisis del grau de transparència de les fundacions, a través de la informació de la seva web; (v) anàlisis estadístic per descobrir les diverses relacions, utilitzant diferents metodologies. Entre les conclusions destaca la diversitat en el grau de transparència de les fundacions. En un extrem, el 40% de les fundacions no disposen de web pública, i en el compliment de la llei 19/2014, hauran de cèsar la seva activitat. En l'altre extrem, entre els dos terços restants existeix un petit grup de fundacions que han creat un apartat específic en la seva web denominat transparència, en el que apareix totes les dades requerides en l'article 6 de la nova llei de transparència, amb aplicació a partir del 1 Juliol 2015. La principal limitació de l'estudi va ser la no existència d'un registre homogeni de les fundacions, en l'espera de la creació d'un comú per tota Europa o Espanya. Aquest ha estat un greu obstacle que impossibilitat l'estudi de la transparència de les fundacions a un nivell agregat superior. Encara que s'han identificat les principals errors en matèria de registre. L'estudi empíric ens ha proporcionat un ampli coneixement del comportament del sector. La Coordinadora Catalana de Fundacions tenen previst la publicació dels resultats de l'anàlisi descriptiu (caracterització del sector), ja que de forma periòdica, cada 7 anys ( any 2001 I 2008), realitzen aquest tipus d'estudi. En l'any 2015 es preveu la publicació de capítol 9 de la tesis, relatiu a l'evolució del sector fundacional a Catalunya, i el capítol 10, el seu contingut inclou l'impacte de la nova llei de transparència mitjançant l'anàlisi de les webs I les mesures correctores a recomanar a les fundacions per la millora de la seva transparència. Les conclusions indiquen que aquest sector té un repte a superar amb el 45,89% del total de 2.554 fundacions que no disposen de lloc web actiu, i en compliment de la llei 19/2014, amb aplicació a partir de l'1 Juliol 2015, haurien d'aturar la seva activitat. El principal factor que influeix en el grau. de transparència de les fundacions es la variable activitat principal, essent l'activitat assistencial la que més influeix. La variable província de Barcelona es la més influent respecte a la resta de províncies de Catalunya. No hi ha una influència concloent per a les variables dècada d'inscripció al registre i període legislatiu. La metodologia utilitzada per avaluar el grau de transparència és extrapolable a altres sectors (públic o privat). Una de les futures investigacions suggerides és l'evolució temporal del grau de transparència derivada de l'impacte de la legislació (llei 19/2014). ; [spa] El sector de economía social (ES) es de especial importancia porque las entidades de este sector tienen un fin social y operan principalmente en áreas no plenamente cubiertas por el mercado o el sector público. El número de organizaciones que forman parte de la ES ha incrementado notablemente en las últimas décadas y su importancia es creciente a escala global, europea y nacional. Las mayores expectativas de las partes interesadas hacia la actividad de estas organizaciones han aumentado las exigencias de transparencia y rendición de las entidades de este sector. La deficiencia de transparencia es un grave problema pues daña la confianza social en las organizaciones de este sector. Esta tesis estudia el grado de transparencia en un tipo específico de entidades de ES: las fundaciones, las cuales han aumentado significativamente en las últimas décadas. Como marco de referencia se realizó el estudio de la diversidad de registros que coexisten en España y Europa y, por otra parte, la evolución de la legislación española y catalana que regula las fundaciones, que en los últimos años ha experimentado cambios significativos por la importancia que están adquiriendo estas entidades en la economía. En la parte empírica, se trabajó con una base de datos de 2.554 fundaciones del Registro de Cataluña, el más numeroso del estado español, para la caracterización del sector fundacional en Cataluña; se recogió la información de la web de 1.382 fundaciones (54,11% del total) y se analizaron los datos aplicando diferentes metodologías estadísticas: bivariante, multivariante y modelización mediante regresión logística, para hallar los principales factores que influyen en el grado de transparencia de las fundaciones. Las conclusiones indican que este sector tiene un reto por superar con el 45,89% del total de 2.554 fundaciones que no disponen de web activa, y en cumplimiento de la ley 19/2014, con aplicación a partir del 1 Julio 2015, deberían cesar su actividad. El principal factor que influye en el grado de transparencia de las fundaciones es la variable actividad principal, siendo la actividad asistencial la que más influye. La variable provincia de Barcelona es la más influyente respecto a las restantes provincias de Catalunya. No hay una influencia concluyente para las variables década de inscripción al registro y período legislativo. La metodología utilizada para evaluar el grado de transparencia es extrapolable a otros sectores (público o privado). Una de las futuras investigaciones sugeridas es la evolución temporal del grado de transparencia derivada del impacto de legislación (ley 19/2014).

Cette thèse se centre sur l'analyse des politiques éducatives, qui visent la population indigène au Mexique. Son objectif est de rechercher l'impact qu'elles ont sur les constructions identitaires, de genre et d'ethnie, chez les petites filles et les garçons mexicains náhuas. Il s'agit d'un travail de recherche depuis l'instrumentation des politiques éducatives (à partir des stratégies, des programmes et des actions) que réalise la Direction Générale d'Éducation Indigène (DGEI), une instance appartenant au Ministère d'Éducation Publique (SEP), pour analyser les processus générés dans les pratiques scolaires – et extrascolaires – et les signifiés construits par les sujets éducatifs. Pour accomplir cet objectif, nous avons réalisé un travail ethnographique fondé sur des concepts théoriques et méthodologiques de l'ethnographie institutionnelle et du féminisme. La recherche présentée est fondamentalement qualitative, générée à partir du point de vue de l'ethnographie institutionnelle sur les politiques publiques conçues et réalisées par la DGEI dans les entités fédératives. A cet égard, nous avons visité et analysé le cas de cinq écoles indigènes náhuas de la Sierra Norte, dans l'état de Puebla. La conception et la réalisation ont impliqué des considérations épistémologiques d'un type qualitatif, comme la participation des sujets par le biais de l'incorporation de leur voix, de leurs perceptions et apports, pour l'analyse ultérieure des textes et la composition des conclusions finales. Cette recherche tente de se positionner en pourvoyeuse de témoignages et de sens intersubjectifs construits sur la base de données empiriques, ensuite articulées avec les perceptions de celui qui analyse. Elle constitue une recherche féministe dans le sens où elle englobe et analyse l'implication du genre féminin à d'autres facteurs sociaux qui permettent d'expliquer la situation des sujets avec qui ces femmes interagissent. Il en va également de même pour les groupes sociaux qui vivent dans la périphérie comme la majorité d'entre elles, c'est-à-dire dans la marginalité et la subalternité; la présence masculine, quant à elle, est pleinement documentée. L'un des buts de cette recherche féministe est d'expliquer la relation entre exclusion et inégalité. L'exclusion semble s'étendre dans l'esprit de l'époque. Les processus de globalisation se caractérisent en effet par le fait d'approfondir et de multiplier les formes variées d'exclusion des majorités en faveur de l'hégémonie – politique, économique et culturelle – étendant son voile qui rend invisible toute diversité. Dans n'importe laquelle de ces modalités, le fait d'être différent amène à être recalé dans les marges, c'est-à-dire à vivre des formes spécifiques d'exclusion. À partir de ces idées, la thèse vise à caractériser les politiques éducatives comprises comme des processus politiques et idéologiques non neutres, en tant que phénomènes qui peuvent être considérés comme des mécanismes de classification et de construction des sujets: des professeurs, des indigènes, des étudiants… Et aussi, comme des codes de normes et valeurs qui articulent les principes organisant la société à travers des modèles qui conforment l'histoire et la culture de la société dans laquelle ils sont générés. La possibilité de combiner tous les niveaux d'appréciation du micro, du méso et du macro, de trouver et de documenter des processus nationaux et globaux de politiques publiques de la DGEI dans des espaces d'influence locaux et leurs effets dans la construction d'identités, constitue une des contributions principales de cette recherche. Considérer les politiques comme objet d'analyse permet d'examiner au moins trois dimensions : 1) Les perspectives idéologiques prédominantes dans les discours, 2) les pratiques des sujets destinataires de ces politiques, c'est-à-dire, – ceux qui assimilent les discours –, et 3) les systèmes alternatifs de résistance ou de complémentarité qui émergent localement (comme l'acceptation, la modification ou le rejet des discours). Partir de la conception selon laquelle la participation aux politiques (même au niveau des récepteurs de celles-ci) les rend publiques et permet, par ce seul fait, d'en dépasser le caractère gouvernemental. Une politique est réalisée uniquement quand le destinataire de celle-ci agit comme un élément réactif. En conséquence, il est fondamental que la recherche collecte les témoignages des sujets participants, c'est-à-dire des autorités éducatives et communautaires, des enseignants, des étudiants, des pères et des mères de famille, tout comme des acteurs sociaux. De cette manière, la politique peut être cohérente avec sa nature publique et répondre aux nécessités perçues localement, dépassant ainsi les buts abstraits des institutions. Les acteurs de l'éducation au niveau local et de l'État deviennent alors également des auteurs latents des politiques publiques. ; Este trabajo se centra en el análisis de las políticas educativas que se dirigen a la población indígena en México. Su objetivo es indagar el impacto que tienen en las construcciones identitarias, de género y de etnia, en las niñas y niños náhuas mexicanos. Se trata de un trabajo de investigación desde la instrumentación de las políticas educativas (a partir de las estrategias, los programas y las acciones) que realiza la Dirección General de Educación Indígena (DGEI), instancia perteneciente a la Secretaría de Educación Pública (SEP), para analizar los procesos generados en las prácticas escolares – y aun las extraescolares – y los significados construidos por los sujetos educativos. Para cumplir con este objetivo, se llevó a cabo un trabajo etnográfico sustentado en conceptos teóricos y metodológicos de la etnografía institucional y del feminismo. La investigación que se presenta es fundamentalmente cualitativa, generada a partir del enfoque de la etnografía institucional sobre las políticas públicas diseñadas y llevadas a cabo por la DGEI en las entidades federativas, para ello, se visitó y se analizó el caso de cinco escuelas indígenas náhuas de la Sierra Norte en el estado de Puebla. El diseño y realización implicó consideraciones epistemológicas de corte cualitativo, como la participación de los sujetos a través de la incorporación de sus voces, percepciones y aportes, para el posterior análisis de los textos y la conformación de las conclusiones finales. Esta investigación pretende constituirse en proveedora de testimonios y sentidos intersubjetivos construidos con relación a datos empíricos y articulados con las percepciones de quien analiza. Constituye una investigación feminista al tratarse de un abordaje incluyente que analiza la implicación del género de las mujeres con otros ordenadores sociales que permite explicar la situación de los sujetos con quienes se relacionan, así como la de los grupos sociales que viven, como la mayoría de ellas, en la marginalidad, la subalternidad, en la periferia; por tanto la presencia masculina está plenamente documentada. Como investigación feminista una de sus finalidades es explicar cómo se da la relación entre exclusión y desigualdad. La exclusión es la marca de los tiempos, los procesos de globalización se caracterizan por profundizar y multiplicar las formas de exclusión de las mayorías en favor de la hegemonía – política, económica y cultural – que tiende un velo que invisibiliza todas las formas de diversidad. Encarnar la diversidad, en cualquiera de sus modalidades, significa vivir en los márgenes, es decir vivir formas específicas de exclusión. A partir de estas ideas, el trabajo está enfocado a caracterizar las políticas educativas entendidas como procesos políticos e ideológicos no neutrales, como fenómenos que pueden ser considerados mecanismos de clasificación y construcción de sujetos: maestros, indígenas, estudiantes… Asimismo, codificaciones de normas y valores que articulan principios organizadores de la sociedad a través de modelos que conforman la historia y la cultura de la sociedad en que se generan. La posibilidad de analizar los niveles micro, meso y macro, de localizar y documentar procesos nacionales y globales de política pública de la DGEI en espacios de influencia locales, constituye una de las principales contribuciones de esta propuesta de investigación. Considerar a las políticas como objeto de análisis permite examinar al menos en tres dimensiones: 1) las perspectivas predominantes en los discursos, 2) las prácticas de los sujetos destinatarios de las políticas – quienes asimilan los discursos –, y 3) los sistemas alternativos que emergen localmente (la aceptación, modificación o rechazo de los discursos). Partir de la concepción de que la participación en las políticas (incluso en el nivel de receptor de las mismas) las hace públicas posibilita trascender su carácter gubernamental. Por tal razón es fundamental que la investigación recupere los testimonios de los sujetos participantes (autoridades educativas y comunitarias, docentes, estudiantes, padres y madres de familia, actores sociales) y lograr con esto que la política sea coherente con su naturaleza pública y recupere las necesidades localmente percibidas que trasciende las metas abstractas de las instituciones. De esta manera los actores educativos locales y estatales también son hacedores de políticas públicas.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Engenharia Química apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia ; Os nanotubos de carbono são das nanopartículas mais estudadas na atualidade, conseguindo abranger, através das suas propriedades físicas, químicas e elétricas, inúmeras áreas científicas. No entanto, atingir um elevado grau de dispersão destas nanopartículas, livre de agregados, é uma das principais dificuldades, tornando-se também um problema em termos da eficácia dos nanotubos de carbono para com os objetivos definidos. Neste trabalho, três tipos de surfactantes foram estudados - SDBS (aniónico), Pluronic F-127 (não iónico) e polyDADMAC MMW (catiónico) – no sentido de concluir não só em termos da sua eficácia na dispersão dos MWCNTs mas também em termos da remoção de metais pesados, encontrados em abundância em Portugal, tais como Pb (II), Cu (II), Ni (II) e Zn (II). A concentração de MWCNTs aplicada foi de 0.01 % (w/w) e 0.05% (w/w). As condições do tratamento mecânico aplicado na estabilização das suspensões, nomeadamente dispersão por energia ultrassónica, foi também otimizada mas aplicando Glycerox como surfactante. O melhor resultado conseguido nestas dispersões foi 75% de intensidade da energia durante 15 minutos. Em termos da qualidade das dispersões de MWCNTs, o SDBS foi o surfactante com melhores resultados obtidos, uma vez que foi possível estabilizar ambas as suspensões de MWCNTs com uma concentração de surfactante igual a 0.03% (w/w). Para esta mesma concentração, o Pluronic F-127 foi eficiente apenas na suspensão de 0.01% (w/w) de MWCNTs, sendo que com o aumento da concentração da suspensão para 0.05% (w/w), houve também a necessidade de aumentar a concentração de Pluronic F-127 para 1% (w/w). Por outro lado, para 0.03% (w/w) de concentração do surfactante catiónico polyDADMAC MMW, este não foi totalmente eficaz, sendo que para ambas as concentrações foram visíveis a "olho nu" agregados de nanotubos de carbono. Desta forma, foram estudadas as concentrações de 0.05% (w/w), 1% (w/w) e ainda 2% (w/w), cujos resultados não foram melhores que no caso inicial de 0.03% (w/w). Assim sendo, nos testes de adsorção, a concentração aplicada para o polyDADMAC MMW foi a concentração de partida. Os testes de adsorção foram desenvolvidos com base nas concentrações ótimas de dispersão dos surfactantes, durante 7 dias sob o efeito de agitação de 100 rpm, e amostras foram recolhidas às 4h, 18h, 24h e depois de 7 dias de adsorção. Nestes ensaios, a influência da concentração de nanotubos foi estudada, sendo que a concentração mais elevada de 0.05% (w/w) não foi significativamente melhor que a de 0.01% (w/w). Ao longo dos ensaios, o Pb (II) foi o metal com maior remoção, possivelmente devido à sua elevada eletronegatividade e reduzido raio atómico, enquanto que o Ni (II) foi o que apresentou menores percentagens de remoção. Por outro lado, nos testes de remoção do Ni (II), este metal foi libertado pelo complexo surfactante-MWCNTs. Desta forma, um teste sem agitação foi desenvolvido. De facto, a percentagem de remoção deste metal estabilizou às 18h, sendo que as forças hidrodinâmicas poderão estar na causa da libertação subsequente, durante os ensaios de agitação. Além dos ensaios de adsorção individual dos metais, a comparação entre a remoção dos metais pesados das soluções aquosas foi também estudada, através de uma mistura de todos os metais numa só solução. De uma modo geral, o resultado foi semelhante aos testes individuais, sendo que o Pb (II) mostrou maior adsorção, seguido do Cu (II) e Zn (II) e por fim o Ni (II). Todos os surfactantes se mostraram eficazes na remoção dos metais, mesmo no caso da polyDADMAC MMW. O SDBS desempenhou uma espécie de armadilha para os catiões, dado o seu negativo potencial zeta. No entanto, comparando este com o Pluronic F-127, este último mostrou-se ser mais eficaz, sendo que o seu tamanho reduzido, poderá ter conduzido a uma maior dispersão das suspensões de MWCNTs e uma maior disponibilidade de sítios de adsorção. Desta forma, uma mistura de SDBS e Pluronic F-127 foi estudada, tendo sido possível concluir que uma maior remoção de metais pesados foi atingida quando aplicada uma maior concentração de MWCNTs. Este resultado poderá ser explicado pela melhor dispersão de MWCNTs conseguida, o que promove o aumento da área de superfície disponível para reter os iões. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram alcançados, não só em termos de remoção de metais pesados como também em termos da dispersão dos MWCNTs, quando aplicados SDBS e Pluronic F-127. No entanto, em alguns ensaios de adsorção, o limite estabelecido pela Legislação Nacional é inferior ao limite de deteção do equipamento de espectrometria de absorção atómica, o que significa que em alguns casos não foi possível concluir se os objetivos de remoção foram atingidos ou não. ; Carbon nanotubes are one of the most studied nanoparticles, reaching innumerous scientific areas due to their physical, chemical and electronic properties. However, avoiding MWCNTs aggregates is one of the main difficulties and an issue that will influences the performance of these nanoparticles. In this work, three types of surfactants, SDBS (anionic), Pluronic F-127 (non-ionic) and polyDADMAC MMW (cationic), were applied in order to study not only their efficiency on MWCNTs dispersions but also their influence in heavy metal ions removal, presenting in high amounts in Portugal, such as Pb (II), Cu (II), Ni (II) and Zn (II). The concentration of MWCNTs applied were 0.01% (w/w) and 0.05% (w/w). The conditions of mechanical treatment applied in MWCNTs dispersion – sonication– were optimized as well, but applying Glycerox as surfactant. The optimum reached was when it was applied 75% of sonication energy, during 15 minutes. In terms of quality of MWCNTs dispersion, SDBS was the surfactant with better results, once it was possible to disaggregate both concentrations of MWCNTs with a surfactant concentration of 0.03% (w/w). Pluronic F-127 showed to be efficient in the same concentration, but only for 0.01% (w/w) of MWCNTs. When the concentration of MWCNTs was increased, it was necessary to increase the surfactant concentration as well. In this case, the optimum result was for 1% (w/w) of Pluronic F-127. On the other hand, polyDADMAC MMW was not efficient for none of the MWCNTs concentrations, what means that higher concentrations of surfactants were applied (0.05% (w/w), 1% (w/w) and 2% (w/w)). The results for these three concentrations were worse than when applied the initial concentration of 0.03% (w/w). In this way, this concentration were considered the optimal and it was chosen to perform the adsorption tests. Adsorption tests were developed with the optimal concentrations of surfactants, during 7 days under stirring conditions (100 rpm) and taking samples at 4h, 18h, 24h and after 7 days. The influence of MWCNTs concentration were studied, where it was concluded that there is no significant influence in increasing the concentration to 0.05% (w/w). During the tests, Pb (II) was the metal with higher removal, possibly due to its high electronegativity and smaller size, and Ni (II) the one less removed. On the other hand, since Ni (II) showed to be released by the complex surfactant-MWCNTs, a test with no stirring was performed. In fact, the percentage of Ni (II) removed stabilized at 18h, what means that the hydrodynamic forces during the adsorption might be the cause for Ni (II) releasing.Besides individual heavy metal ions adsorption tests, the comparison between all cations was also studied throw a competitive adsorption test, where the general result of percentage adsorbed were Pb (II) > Cu (II) > Zn (II) > Ni (II). All surfactants showed to have a good behavior in metal ions adsorption, even when polyDADMAC MMW was applied as surfactant. SDBS worked as a kind of trap for cations, due its negative zeta potential, but comparing with Pluronic F-127, this last showed to be more efficient possibly due to its smaller size, promoting, in this way, a higher surface area and consequently more available active adsorption sites. Since, SDBS and Pluronic F-127 showed to reach good results in terms of MWCNTs dispersion and metal ions removal, a test with their mixture were applied. It was possible to reach a higher metal ion removal when the concentration of MWCNTs was equal to 0.05% (w/w). This result might be explained by the fact that a better dispersion of MWCNTs was reached, promoting the increase of surface area of these nanoparticles. The objectives of this work could be reached, not only in terms of heavy metal ions removal but also and in terms of MWCNTs dispersions with Pluronic F-127 and SDBS as surfactants. However, in some adsorption tests, the limits required by National Legislation were lower than the detection limit of Atomic Absorption Spectrometry equipment, what means that it was not possible to conclude for sure if the targets were truly reached or not.

Abstract:The article 87.2 of the Spanish Constitution assigns to the Assemblies of the Autonomous Communities the power to initiate state laws, power that can exercise before the National Government or the Chamber of Deputies. However, few studies dealing with the regional legislative initiative focusing exclusively on the second of the routes received by that article. Practically it has not been carried out any theoretical commentary try to make sense, to criticize and develop a certain guarantees to the use of the road with the Government.The procedure for exercising the request to government bills opens some substantive problems (for example, why should stimulate the implementation of the law before a body which is not a legislator?), and others of a procedural nature (mainly concerning the processing to be followed within the Government requests for bills approved by regional parliaments), all of which this study try to respond. For this, it examines each of the two phases through which the exercise of this regional initiative articulates. The first phase takes place within regional parliaments in accordance with the provisions of their respective parliamentary rules in order that such chambers approve the referral to the State Government a proposed bill. The second phase develops within the Government, which, if it decides to grant the request submitted by a regional Assembly, it will initiate the procedure for preparation, approval and subsequent submission to the state Parliament of the bill. We examined its regulatory framework, the assumption of the regional impulse by the Government (the "previous pass" of the Council of Ministers), or the advantages can have this form of the regional legislative initiative against the other form of regional legislative. Of particular interest is analyzed the consequences of the incomprehensible absence of a minimum procedure to prolong the action of the regional initiative with some kind of action to be taken by the Government of the Nation, which has the result of reducing to a "vacuum" the statutory provision of article 87.2 of the Constitution, for which reason it is proposed here some further measures de lege ferenda that are desirable in order to this institution might better fulfil their purposes in an efficient manner. ; Resumen:Las Comunidades Autónomas pueden, porque así se lo autoriza el artículo 87.2 de la Constitución, iniciar leyes estatales tanto ante el Gobierno de la Nación como ante el Congreso de los Diputados. Sin embargo, los escasos trabajos que se ocupan de la iniciativa legislativa autonómica se centran casi exclusivamente en la segunda de las vías acogidas por aquel artículo, sin que prácticamente se haya llevado a cabo ningún comentario teórico que trate de dar sentido, hacer la crítica y elaborar unas ciertas garantías a la utilización de la vía ante el Gobierno. El ejercicio de esta modalidad de iniciativa legislativa regional abre todo un panel de cuestiones a tratar, algunas más sustantivas, como el saber el por qué de dicha previsión (¿para qué estimular la puesta en marcha de la ley ante un órgano que no es un legislador?), y otras estrictamente procedimentales (principalmente referidas a la tramitación que han de seguir, en el seno del Gobierno, las solicitudes de proyectos de ley remitidas por los parlamentos regionales), a todas las cuales el presente estudio trata de dar respuesta. Con el fin de ordenar todas estas cuestiones es útil distinguir dos fases claramente diferenciadas a través de las cuales se articula la actuación de este estímulo de la iniciativa legislativa gubernamental. La primera de estas fases tiene lugar en el seno de los parlamentos regionales de acuerdo con lo previsto en sus respectivos reglamentos parlamentarios, y se concreta en la aprobación por tales Cámaras de la remisión al Gobierno de una propuesta -articulada o no- de proyecto de ley. La segunda fase se desarrolla en el seno del Gobierno, el cual, si decide discrecionalmente atender la solicitud remitida por una Asamblea autonómica, iniciará el procedimiento de elaboración, aprobación y posterior remisión a las Cortes del proyecto de ley previsto en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico. De especial interés resulta, a este respecto, analizar las consecuencias de la incomprensible ausencia de un mínimo procedimiento que prolongue la actuación de la iniciativa autonómica con algún tipo de actuación necesaria a cargo del Gobierno de la Nación, lo cual viene a reducir la facultad atribuida por la Constitución a las Asambleas de las Comunidades Autónomas que nos ocupa a un "vacío" ayuno de toda entidad jurídica, razón por la cual nos permitimos proponer algunas medidas de lege ferenda con el fin de reintegrar este instituto a su verdadero sentido y a su más cierta eficacia.Abstract:The article 87.2 of the Spanish Constitution assigns to the Assemblies of the Autonomous Communities the power to initiate state laws, power that can exercise before the National Government or the Chamber of Deputies. However, few studies dealing with the regional legislative initiative focusing exclusively on the second of the routes received by that article. Practically it has not been carried out any theoretical commentary try to make sense, to criticize and develop a certain guarantees to the use of the road with the Government.The procedure for exercising the request to government bills opens some substantive problems (for example, why should stimulate the implementation of the law before a body which is not a legislator?), and others of a procedural nature (mainly concerning the processing to be followed within the Government requests for bills approved by regional parliaments), all of which this study try to respond. For this, it examines each of the two phases through which the exercise of this regional initiative articulates. The first phase takes place within regional parliaments in accordance with the provisions of their respective parliamentary rules in order that such chambers approve the referral to the State Government a proposed bill. The second phase develops within the Government, which, if it decides to grant the request submitted by a regional Assembly, it will initiate the procedure for preparation, approval and subsequent submission to the state Parliament of the bill. We examined its regulatory framework, the assumption of the regional impulse by the Government (the "previous pass" of the Council of Ministers), or the advantages can have this form of the regional legislative initiative against the other form of regional legislative. Of particular interest is analyzed the consequences of the incomprehensible absence of a minimum procedure to prolong the action of the regional initiative with some kind of action to be taken by the Government of the Nation, which has the result of reducing to a "vacuum" the statutory provision of article 87.2 of the Constitution, for which reason it is proposed here some further measures de lege ferenda that are desirable in order to this institution might better fulfil their purposes in an efficient manner.Title:The exercise of the legislative initiative of the Autonomous Communities before de national Government. Singularity, deficits and proposals de lege ferenda Summary:I. INTRODUCTION. II. WHAT THE LAW SAYS ABOUT IT: 2.1 The autonomic phase. Articulated or unarticulated formulation of the impulse of the Assemblie of the Autonomous Community. 2.2 State phase and the action (or inaction) of the national Government: A) Regulatory framework. B) The assumption of the autonomic impulse by the Government: the «praevios pass» of the Council ofMinisters. C) Excursus: advantages and disadvantages that can result from this type of autonomic initiative. Considerations about the supposed primacy of the governmental legislative initiative. III. WHAT THE LAW DOES NOT SAY. THE FACTS AS «PASSIVE» OF THIS FIGURE: 3.1 A cause that still belongs to the realm of law: the absurdity that implies that a power granted by the Constitution to autonomics parliaments did not follow any procedure. 3.2. Andtwo consequences of that nonsense: A) An unavoidable sequel: the almost total disengagement of the Government of the Nation. B) And an already proven dysfunctional practice: the use of this figure diverted for different purposes than those you are supposed to. Recourse to the «case method». IV. PROPOSALS DE LEGE FERENDA. V. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Nowadays, the concept of mentality - is the object of study of such blighty and foreign scientists as I. Abramova, J. Bychko, I. Habdulhafarova, P. Hnatenko, J. Grabowski, N. Gregoriv, I. Dintselbakh, R. Dodonov, P . Kravchenko, S. Krimsky, A. Lavryk, A. Liseyenko, M. Popovic, I. Starovoit, V. Khramova and others.However, even at present time, science has not gained unanimous and exhaustive definition of what the term "mentality" is . There are represented numerous variants of it: mindset, mental attitude, collective representation, mentality, character of thinking, seeing of the world, and so on. German scientist Peter Dintselbaher determines mentality as a set of methods and contents of thought and perception, which are typical for the relevant collective in the relevant period. The modern Ukrainian Academic Victoria Khramova treats mentality as a worldview, that is formed at a deep psychological level of individual or collective consciousness. We also attempted to summarize our own interpretation and defined it as: mentality - is a character of thoughts, a set of mental skills and spiritual priorities, that are generated by the surrounding reality, which determine the behavior of the individual person or social group.There are many types of mentality: men, women, children, youth, professional, ethnic, national, etc. In the current scientific literature there is some uncertainty about the term "national mentality". It is often treated as synonymous with such concepts as "national character", "national luck", "national consciousness", "the soul of the nation" and others. But S. Grabowski , S. Stavroyani and L. Shkliar treat it as "national political mentality". At the present stage of development of Ukraine, when national relationship are subordinate to two trends: on the one hand the formation and development of nations, and the other – scrapping of the national boundaries by integration processes, we thought that a scientific understanding of the nature of national mentality is one of the primary scientific objectives. We dared to present our version of the understanding of the national mentality. The national mentality is - way of thinking, mental structure, psychological specialties of politically and stately organized nation, which became the cultural, economic, and ideological identity.European integration provides Zatushuvannya not only of legal differences, but also of mental. Between states of the European Union exist extremely serious language barriers, as Margaret Thatcher notes, in the current member - states, people speak not less than on 12 major languages: English, Greek, Danish, Irish (hэlskiy), Spanish (Castilian) Italian, German, Dutch, Portuguese, Finnish, French and Swedish languages. Except their native language 41 % of Europeans speak English, 19 % - French and 10 % - German. Moreover, 70 % of Europeans believe that in EU everyone must know English language. Over time, Margaret Thatcher said, Europeans can completely switch to communicate only in English. Language - is not just a way of communication or exchanging of information. This is - one of the most characteristical features, in which historical, cultural and moral experience of native people is focused. Once Ukraine already had to go through the processes of Russification, Polonizing, Germanization. So can we protect our native language? After all, it is the most important mental attribute. Academician of the Academy of Sciences of Higher School of Ukraine, Doctor of Psychology Anatoly Furman in his work "Psychological culture of Ukrainian mentality" has formed a number of functions , that mentality performs in society. To this comprehensive characteristics we would add only one thing - mentality integrates people into a nation. Loss of national mentality can lead to the loss of the nation.Social adaptation to the conditions of life in Europe requires from each nation to cede certain principles of mental development, such as the prestige of ethnic values, cultural endonym, ethnic identity, and so on. By survey of Time Magazine, 26 March 2001, every third inhabitant of the EU country feels himself as an European, not a citizen of his own country. However, this figure varies depending on the country: 40 % of young Italians consider themselves primarily Europeans, and in the UK this figure is 25%. Unfortunately today standards of democracy and human rights in the European Union failed to reconcile the fundamental mental values of national states, to create new forms of interaction between people to achieve social harmony. Realistic assessment of modern European ethnicity is characterized by diversity of conflicts. In September 2011, in north Bohemia: City Varnedorf, Usti nad Labem, Rubmurk, Shluknov, Novy Bor and even Prague were covered by anti-Gypsy protests. If previously these moves were the prerogative of skinheads, now victorian Czechs went on demonstrations on T-shirts with the inscription "Bring Hitler back. Gypsies- to the gas chambers ."At the same time anti-Gypsy protests took place in another EU country - Bulgaria. What if after a while similar protests will affect not only the Gypsy nation? Autumn events in France and London in 2012 also tell about complexity, contradiction and ambiguity of ethnic relations. Europe is a dangerous confrontational region already for a long time. Today is a very difficult situation in Belgium, which Flemish nationalism breaks apart. Still is not exhausted the Anglo- Irish conflict, is not subsided ethno-political conflict between the people of Catalonia and the Government of Spain , between the Basque Country people and the central government of Spain. The island of Cyprus is shared by so-called " Green Line ", which is protected by peacekeeping contingents and separates the Republic of Cyprus ( 60% of territory and 770,000 people) and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (38 % of the territory - 300 000 people) , which was self-proclaimed in 1983. The Republic of Cyprus is recognized by all countries, except Turkey and the TRNC (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ) is recognized by Turkey and Abkhazia. We can remind a series of anti Hungarian moves held in May - early June 2012 by the initiative of the new Romanian government. At the heart of most conflicts in Europe are both objective and subjective contradictions. And one of the main - the desire to confirm their nationality. The historical way, that Ukrainian people passed, formed not militant, but compassionate, sincere Ukrainian nation, to which, as notes D.Chizhevsky, emotionalism , sentimentalism , sensitivity and lyricism is inherent . Even till now Ukrainian mentality is under the influence of ethnic symbols of grain-grower - agriculturist (who represents the Ukrainian peasants ), defender - protector (that is personified with the Ukrainian Cossacks ), Mother Hostess ( Mother - Guardian ). They are formed by the social, genetic , political , religious , legal , moral, ethical , economic , ethnic , ideological , historical and international factors. In independent Ukraine , in our opinion , is fairly weak class of political elite : some of them ideologically stopped in the former of the Soviet Union , and since independence new generation is not yet crystallized, some of them went abroad, some are not working for reunion , but for the separation of Ukrainians. But actually this last part along with a culture-creating elite will be the buffer that will protect Ukrainian from the European individualism and egocentrism, from foreign ideals and values, that have grown on an entirely different ethnic and mental basis.Although mentality is forming for a long time, it is a living organism, to which persistent representations and bedding of new are inherent. It may experience periods of recovery, upturns, decline, destruction and loss of its main features. But then on the basis of vague mental values no national idea can grow, because national mentality is that integrating, unifying factor in the existence of any nation-state. In such conditions development of basic principles of preserving national mentality is extremely important,also as a formation of clear strategic and tactical targets, including those enormous changes that have taken place in Europe and in the world at the turn of XX-XXI centuries. ; Поднимается вопрос о сохранении национальной ментальности как одного из показательных признаков нации в условиях евроинтеграции. Представляется терминологическая дискуссионность и взгляды других ученых. Обобщаются теоретические концепции проблемы, что дает возможность сравнить взгляды других ученых на процесс развития национальной ментальности и выявить структурные элементы или фазы развития. ; Ставиться питання про збереження національної ментальності як однієї із показових ознак нації в умовах євроінтеграції. Представляється термінологічна дискусійність та погляди інших науковців. Узагальнюються теоретичні концепції проблеми, що дає можливість порівняти погляди інших науковців на процес розвитку національної ментальності та виявити структурні елементи або фази розвитку.

This thesis deals with geomorphic processes associated with Small-Scale Opencast Mining (SSOM) in the Gatumba sector of the Western Highlands of Rwanda. In this area tin and tantalum mining was carried out for decades, and it has brought about increase in the wealth and standard of living of the people. Though a lot has been done and achieved in soil erosion research, and despite the enormous wealth coming from mining in Rwanda and Gatumba sector in particular, the negative environmental impacts resulting from mining activities were overlooked by miners and stakeholders and are scarcely addressed in the research yet. This trend was bound to last since there were no valid guidelines for assessing impacts and reclamation of mine sites for the operators in the sector. It was recently, in 2007, that restoration of mining areas has received great attention from the Rwanda Geology and Mine Authority. The objective of the research was to assess and to increase the understanding of geomorphic impact produced by SSOM. In this regards, the following aspects which indicate the types and spatial distribution of geomorphic processes were measured: (i) investigate the landforms typical of SSOM, (ii) map the watershed morphometry of the study area, (iii) analyse the most relevant properties of soils in term of geomorphology, and (iv) to assess the soil loss potential in the study area. Primary and secondary data were collected from Government agencies and personal observations. Desk study to review papers and relevant literatures, field observation and experiments, laboratory analyses, mapping and modelling using RUSLE were combined together to develop a practical and integrated methodological approach to effect and realize the objectives. The argument guiding this analytical approach is that physical processes produced by mining cannot be assessed through a single method. The first step mainly concentrated on defining mining sites suitable for assessing geomorphic processes. Within the two studied mines, namely Ruhanga and Gatare, different plots were identified based on the post-mining land uses, to investigate the level of soil and landscape degradation by comparing them with that of control sites located outside of mining influence. Modelling using RUSLE in GIS interface enabled to quantify soil loss potential within the mines and the watershed. Results indicate that the direct processes associated with opencast mining commonly involve pitting and trenching. Indirect and less conspicuous processes emerge as a long-term consequence of mining. They include depletion of organic matter, compaction or loosening of soil particles in mine sites mostly reflected by low content in organic matter, low rating in soil stable aggregates, and often high soil bulk densities which are variably distributed within the mine sites. This could explain the restriction or lowering, or the rapid infiltration of water into the soil during field experiments, as a consequence probably of the sealing of soil pores or the formation of fissures around mine shafts, from which slides or slumps occur. In average, soil organic matter comprises between 1 and 2.5 % on control sites and ex-mine cultivated sites. organic matter content of soils on reclamation sites was in the same ranges with that of control and ex-mine cultivated sites, but could reach 4,8 % in topsoil of some sample locations. The ex-mine self-recovering sites present much lower organic matter content which doesn't exceed 2 % in general. The soil aggregation rating of the area is from very low (8%) to low (≤13.5 %). In general, the bulk density ranges between 1.29 to 1.56 g cm-3, and locally can attain 1.76 g cm-3. As a consequence, the total porosity changes locally. Application of correlation and multiple regression models showed a strong influence of soil organic matter on the bulk density. Infiltration tests performed on different experimental sites showed differences of rates in water intake rates as in infiltration curves as well. Infiltration rates are variably distributed over the mines. They range from very slow (3.8 mmhr-1) to rapid (111.18 mm hr-1). Atterberg Limits analyses showed that soils of Gatumba Mining District do not possess extreme properties and they are suitable for engineering purposes. The liquid limit ranges between 51 % and 26 %, whereas the plastic limit is comprised between 22 % and 18 %. The highest plastic index (PI) determined was 29 % and the later soil had a plastic index of 6 %. The average soil loss in the Gatumba watershed is 27.45 t ha-1 yr-1 with a standard deviation of 0.891. More than 65% of land are prone to high rates of soil loss (exceeding 10 t ha-1 yr-1), and an increasing soil erosion follows increasing slope and land use patterns. The maxima of soil erosion rates are found in Upper Kibilira, Kirombozi and Gisuma catchments respectively. Based on different scenarios applied to quantify soil erosion rates, we found that more the organic matter content from 0. 5%, 2% and >2%) is increased with better support practice (from contour, strip and terrace), more the soil erosion potentials are decreased linearly, in the order of 18.8 to 17.8 t ha-1 yr-1 from 2% to >2 % of organic matter content respectively. To make SSOM more environmentally sustainable, there is a need of developing integrated practices and cross-cutting approaches that reduce the environmental impact of mining operations, and leave mine sites in an acceptable state for reuse by people or systems. Practices such as isolation of soil and earth material, stabilization of slopes and amendments of sites to be restored should be highly considered in the process of rehabilitation of affected sites. ; Diese Arbeit behandelt geomorphologische Prozesse, die im Zusammenhang mit kleinräumigen Tagebauen (Small-Scale Opencast Mining) in der Gatumba-Region des westlichen Hochlands von Ruanda auftreten. In diesem Gebiet fand jahrzehntelanger Zinn- und Tantalabbau statt, der das Einkommen und den Lebensstandard der Bevölkerung erhöht hat. Obwohl im Bereich der Bodenerosionsforschung viel unternommen und erreicht wurde, und trotz des aus dem Bergbau in Ruanda und Gatumba kommenden enormen Reichtums, wurden dessen negative Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt sowohl von Bergbautreibenden als auch anderen Interessengruppen ignoriert und von der Forschung weitgehend vernachlässigt. Dieser Zustand hat sich verfestigt, da es für die Akteure in der Region keine verbindlichen Regelungen hinsichtlich Erfassung von Auswirkungen des Bergbaus und Wiederherstellungsmaßnahmen gibt. Erst kürzlich, im Jahr 2007, hat die Wiederherstellung der Bergbaugebiete größere Aufmerksamkeit seitens der Ruandischen Geologie- und Bergbaubehörde erhalten. Das Ziel der Forschungsarbeiten war es, die geomorphologischen Auswirkungen von kleinräumigen Tagebauen abzuschätzen und besser zu verstehen. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden die folgenden Aspekte, die die Art und räumliche Verteilung von geomorphologischen Prozessen charakterisieren, erfasst: (i) Untersuchung der Landschaftsformen, die für SSOM kennzeichnend sind, (ii) Kartierung der Einzugsgebiets-Morphometrie im Untersuchungsgebiet, (iii) Analyse der relevantesten Bodeneigenschaften hinsichtlich der Geomorphologie, und (iv) Abschätzung der potentiellen Bodendegradation im Untersuchungsgebiet. Primäre und sekundäre Daten wurden bei Regierungsbehörden und durch eigene Beobachtungen zusammengestellt. Literaturrecherche, Feldbeobachtungen und-experimente, Laboranalysen, Kartierung und Modellierung mittels RUSLE wurden kombiniert um einen praktischen und integrativen methodischen Ansatz für das Erreichen der Zielstellungen zu entwickeln. Die Grundidee bei diesem analytischen Ansatz ist, dass die mit dem Bergbau assoziierten physikalischen Prozesse nicht durch nur eine einzige Methode erfasst werden können. In einem ersten Schritt wurden geeignete Tagebaue für die Erfassung geomorphologischer Prozesse bestimmt. Innerhalb der zwei untersuchten Tagebaue (Ruhanga und Gatare) wurden anhand der nachbergbaulichen Landnutzung verschiedene Untersuchungsflächen identifiziert, um den Grad der Boden- und Landschaftsdegradierung anhand des Vergleichs mit Kontrollstandorten außerhalb des bergbaulichen Einflusses zu untersuchen. Modellierung mit RUSLE über ein ArcGIS-Interface ermöglichte die Quantifizierung des Bodenabtragspotentials innerhalb der Tagebaue und des Einzugsgebiets Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die direkten Prozesse, die mit tagebaulichem Bergbau verbunden sind, üblicherweise die Anlage von Gruben und Gräben umfassen. Indirekte und weniger augenfällige Prozesse treten als langfristige Konsequenz des Bergbaus auf. Sie umfassen die Verringerung der organischen Substanz, Verdichtung oder Auflockerung von Bodenpartikeln an Bergbaustandorten, die meist mit einem niedrigen Gehalt an OS einhergeht, niedrige Gehalte an stabilen Bodenaggregaten, und oftmals hohen Lagerungsdichten, die variabel innerhalb der Bergbaustandorte verteilt sind. Dies könnte die Beschränkung oder Absenkung, oder die schnelle Infiltration von Wasser in den Boden während der Feldexperimente erklären, möglicherweise als Konsequenz der Porenversiegelung oder der Rissbildung um Minenschächte, von denen aus Rutschungen oder Grundbrüche entstehen. Die organischen Substanz-Gehalte reichen von 1 bis 2,5% an den Kontrollstandorten und landwirtschaftlich genutzten ehemaligen Bergbaustandorten. OS-Gehalte an wiederhergestellten Standorten waren in derselben Größenordnung wie die Kontrollstandorte und die landwirtschaftlich genutzten ehemaligen Bergbaustandorte. Die sich selbst erholenden Standorte im ehemaligen Tagebau weisen weit niedrigere organischen Substanz-Gehalte auf, die generell 2 % nicht überschreiten. Die Rate der Bodenaggregatbildung reicht von sehr gering (8 %) bis gering (≤13,5 %). Die Lagerungsdichten reichen von 1,29 bis 1,59 g cm-3, und können lokal bis 1,76 g cm-3 erreichen. Als Konsequenz ändert sich auch die Gesamtporosität lokal. Die Anwendung von Korrelations- und multiplen Regressionsmodellen ergab einen starken Einfluss der organischen Substanz auf die Lagerungsdichten. Infiltrationsexperimente, die an Proben der verschiedenen Versuchsstandorte durchgeführt wurden, zeigten Unterschiede sowohl bei der Wasseraufnahmerate als auch bei den Infiltrationskurven. Infiltrationskurven sind variabel über die Untersuchungsstandorte verteilt. Sie reichen von sehr langsam (3,8 mm h-1) bis schnell (111,2 mm h-1). Die Versuche zu den Atterberg'schen Grenzen zeigen, dass die Böden des Gatumba-Bergbaudistrikts keine extremen Eigenschaften aufweisen und für technische Maßnahmen geeignet sind. Die Fließgrenze liegt zwischen 26 % und 51 %, wohingegen die Ausrollgrenze Werte zwischen 18 % und 22 % umfasst. Die höchste gemessene Ausrollgrenze war 29 %, und dieser Boden wies eine Plastizitätszahl von 6 % auf. Der durchschnittliche Bodenabtrag im Gatumba Einzugsgebiet beträgt 27,45 t ha-1 a-1 mit einer Standardabweichung von 0,891. Mehr als 65 % des Landes sind anfällig für hohe Bodenabtragsraten (mehr als 10 t ha-1 a-1), und eine steigende Bodenerosion folgt steigenden Hangneigungen und Landnutzungsmustern. Die Höchstwerte der Bodenabtragungsraten finden sich jeweils im Oberen Kibilira, Kirombozi und Gisuma-Einzugsgebiet. Auf Grundlage verschiedener Szenarien, die zur Quantifizierung der Bodenerosionsraten angewendet wurden, zeigte sich, dass mit höheren organischen Substanz-Gehalten (2 % bis >2 %) und mit verbesserten Anbaupraktiken (Kontur-, Streifen-, Terrassenanbau) die Bodenerosionsraten linear in der Größenordnung von 17,8 bis 18,8 t ha-1 a-1 verringern. Um kleinräumigen Tagebauen umweltverträglicher zu gestalten bedarf es der Entwicklung integrierter Methoden und interdisziplinärer Ansätze die die Umweltfolgen von Bergbauoperationen reduzieren und Bergbaustandorte in einem nutzungsfähigen Zustand hinterlassen. Praktiken wie die Trennung von Boden und Gesteinsaushub, die Stabilisierung von Hängen und die Verbesserung von Wiederherstellungsstandorten sollten größte Berücksichtigung beim Rehabilitationsprozess betroffener Standorte finden.

Besides being confronted with fierce competition, today's corporations face macroeconomic driving forces that change the configuration of existing and future markets that are also called "global economic trends" (GET) or "megatrends". Currently, research does not provide a coherent view or theory for the assessment of these trends, which often leads to misinterpretation in business and academics. Literature such as publications provided by governmental institutions, multinational corporations, or consulting companies provide numerous examples where economic trends like globalization or the over-aging of western societies are depicted as global megatrends in the context of strategic management and economic research. The rather arbitrary use of the terms in literature leads to the idea that trend terms are vehicles to transport subjective assumptions about future developments that stem from foresight and innovation activities. Authors like Groddeck and Schwarz (2013) or Rust (2008) criticize the vague definition of these types of trends and question the information value and validity of "global economic trends" and "megatrends". A growing body of literature points out that web search data is an ideal foundation for econometrical analysis and forecasting, because behavioral data of online user activity allow researchers to make inferences about the current state of economic decision-making of users, which is also called nowcasting (cf. e.g. Askitas and Zimmermann, 2009; Choi and Varian, 2012; Vosen and Schmidt, 2011; Dimche and Davcev, 2014). So far, there has been little to no work on trends that implements the tool Google Trends, which is the breading ground for the empirical research of this thesis. To get an insight view into the utilization of trends, a pilot study revealed that (1) corporation use of the terms "global economic trend" and "megatrend" in annual reports from 2008 to 2012, and (2) web search data from Google Trends correlates with the geographical location of multinational enterprises and economic wealthy regions measured in GDP. In the empirical part of the thesis, a long-term study from 2004 to 2014 explores how German stock market listed corporations (DAX) adopt trends in their business strategy, and how these trends are represented in web searches. Based upon a mixed-methods research approach, the thesis examines in detail what trends are utilized in annual reports and investigates these trends based on qualitative methods from the field of foresight. Then the results are analyzed with the use of web search data quantitatively. The qualitative analysis of annual reports revealed that: • In total, 5,920 passages that contained the term "trends" were identified in the population (n=330) of annual reports from 2004 to 2014. Included in the empirical research were 2,012 trend passages, whereof 392 trends were categorized as direct trend passages (TP), and whereof 1,620 were classified as indirect TPs. • The use of terms like "global economic trends" and "megatrends" grows from 2004 (117) to 2014 (273). However, only a few corporations used this term directly, but describe the effects indirectly with the use of other terminology. In 2005, Siemens AG firstly introduced the term "megatrends". • The analysis revealed that directly mentioned TPs are more likely to be depicted as an opportunity, rather than a risk in annual reports with an odds ratio of 6.63. The 2,012 trend passages found in annual reports were categorized with an existing system that provides the attributes social, technological, economic, environment, political, and value (STEEPV). In addition, an individual categorization system (ICS) was developed as a tailor-fitted solution for the analysis of trends used in annual reports. The following outcomes were produced when both systems were applied to the data: • The STEEPV categorization system is capable of categorizing trend passages from an ex-post perspective. The final distribution of categories has a strong qualitative appeal and the application of a STEEPV category is ambiguous. The category "Economic" (74%) dominates in the overall population. • The implementation of the newly developed system reduced the overall use of the category "economic" was reduced to 45%. For quantitative analysis, (1) an indicator called Regional Index (RI) was created to analyze geographical information of web search data and (2) an indicator called confidence ranking index (CRI) was developed that measures the reported confidence of a corporation towards each trend mentioned in the annual report that is used for further examination. First, the regional index was used for correlation analysis between geographical information of web search data and GDP data, and for creating a visualization module developed with the statistical software R that provides geographical maps of web trend searches. It could be shown that: • Google Trends data is not provided globally. Scarce data from countries like China and Russia shows that the use of Google is restricted in these countries. • The regional index correlates well GDP with .591 (p < .001) on a global level, which indicates a linear relationship. A regression analysis reveals that the global RI index is able to explain 35% of the total variance. • The regional index has an even higher correlation for Germany with .841 (p < .001) on a local level. In the regression model, the local RI is able to explain 70% of the total variance. This undermines the results of the pilot study. Assuming that financial KPIs might have an influence on the CRI index, two regression models were developed that incorporate operational income and shareholders' equity as explanatory variables. One model interprets the overall population as cross-sectional data and uses regression analysis, and the other model uses a generalized estimated equations (GEE) approach. The results indicate that: • The cross-sectional model has an R2 of .103 and adjusted R2 of .097. Approximately only 10 % of the total variation is explainable by the model, which is considered as interim results in the exploratory research. • The GEE model only contains operating income as an independent variable. With an R2 of 0.174 and an adjusted R2 of .143, the model showed little improvement in comparison to the cross-sectional model. The rather weak influence indicates that financial KPIs have a rather low influence to the CRI index, which motivated further steps of inquiry. At this phase, web search data from Google Trends was implemented and tested for its explanatory capacity. An automated correlation analysis based on the qualitative assessment of annual reports was developed to identify those Google Trend time series with the best model fit. It could be demonstrated that, • Nine hundred forty-one trend terms were found in the annual reports that were the foundation for extracting Google Trends data from 2004 to 2014 with the regional setting global and local for Germany. Globally 315 trends were returned, of which 87 trend series had a high significance (p < .01) to the CRI index. One hundred twenty- two (39%) series correlated significantly with CRI (p <0.05), and 106 (34%) showed no correlation. Thirty-six trends were returned on the local level, whereof six were highly significant (17%), 19 were significant (53%), and 11 (31%) had no significance. • Each dataset was used as a foundation for regression analysis with the confidence ranking index (CRI) as the dependent variable. The individual qualities of the ordinary least square (OLS) models measured by the coefficient of determination (R2) range from .36 to .85 on a global level and from .37 to .75 on a local level. • To optimize the previously developed OLS model with CRI as the dependent variable, the annual mean of the obtained global and local web search data was added. Google Trend data could optimize the regression measured in R2 to .151 for global data based on search terms like "Innovation trends" or "Corporate responsibility, and to .149 for local data based on search terms like "Social media" or "RFID". • On the contrary to OLS, an optimization of the developed GEE model required the creation of an index per annual report that sums up the local and global Google web search results individually per for each trend used per annual report. A comparison of different working structures based on the Akaike's information criterion reveals that an one-period autoregressive correlation or AR(1) has the best model fit. The thesis contributes to the theoretical discussion about the information value of GETs and shows empirically that trend terms like "GETs" and "megatrends" are rather artificial and have a strong subjective character. This was also confirmed by the longitudinal trend analysis that was based on the methodologies of mixed-method research, which combined and extended qualitative and quantitative methods. In addition, the thesis takes a unique approach optimizing the quality of multivariate models. By implementing web search data into linear regression and generalized estimation equation models, the overall performance of the models could be improved. ; Administración y Dirección de Empresas

Die Annäherung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit seit Beginn der 1990er Jahre gilt in Teilen der Fachöffentlichkeit als wesentliches Merkmal einer zunehmenden Eigennutz- und Interessenorientierung der deutschen Entwicklungspolitik nach Ende des Ost-West-Konflikts. Den Ausgangspunkt der vorliegenden Untersuchung bildete die Skepsis gegenüber diesem Befund eines Wandels deutscher Entwicklungspolitik weg von moralischen Begründungszusammenhängen und hin zu nationaler Interessenpolitik seit Beginn der 1990er Jahre. Diese Skepsis begründet sich in der Annahme, dass die bisherige Kritik gegenüber einer möglichen Versicherheitlichung von Entwicklungspolitik die Rolle von eigennutzorientierten Interessen als erklärendem Faktor überbetont und gleichzeitig ideellen Strukturen und deren möglichem Wandel als konstitutivem Faktor für politische Prozesse zu wenig Aufmerksamkeit schenkt. Die Forschungsfrage lautet dementsprechend: Kann die deutsche Entwicklungspolitik im Lichte der Verknüpfung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit als zunehmend interessenorientiert gedeutet werden und hat sich damit ein grundlegender Politikwandel vollzogen? Theoretisch knüpft die Arbeit an die konstruktivistisch-orientierte Forschung im Thema Entwicklung und Sicherheit an und entwickelt diese weiter. Für die Herleitung der theoretischen Position wird auf konstruktivistische Überlegungen in den Theorien der Internationalen Beziehungen rekurriert. Im Vordergrund stehen dabei jene Ansätze der Internationalen Beziehungen, die die konstruktivistische Wende nicht nur ontologisch, sondern auch epistemologisch vollziehen und der Rolle von Sprache besondere Aufmerksamkeit schenken. In empirischer Hinsicht wird die Verknüpfung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit in der deutschen staatlichen Entwicklungspolitik anhand von Interpretationen dieser Verknüpfung im Agenda-Setting und in der Politikformulierung untersucht. Der Untersuchungszeitraum der empirischen Analyse beläuft sich auf die Amtsjahre der SPD-Politikerin Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul als Bundesministerin für wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit, nämlich 1998 2009. Der Datenkorpus der Untersuchung in Agenda-Setting und Politikformulierung umfasst über 50 Reden von Mitgliedern der Bundesregierung sowie ausgewählte offizielle Politikdokumente, in denen relevante Textpassagen enthalten sind. Die beispielhafte Untersuchung der Institutionalisierung im Lichte der Verknüpfungen von Entwicklung und Sicherheit bezieht sich auf weitere Primär- und Sekundärquellen. Auf der Grundlage der empirischen Analyse wird deutlich, dass unterschiedliche Interpretationen in der staatlichen deutschen Entwicklungspolitik hinsichtlich der Verknüpfung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit über den Untersuchungszeitraum 1998 - 2009 nachgezeichnet werden können. Bemerkenswert ist dabei insbesondere die diffuse Vielfalt der Konstruktionen des Sicherheitsbegriffs. Außerdem wird anhand der empirischen Untersuchung nachgezeichnet, dass zum Teil erhebliche Unterschiede bestehen zwischen den Verknüpfungen von Entwicklung und Sicherheit auf der ressortübergreifenden Ebene einerseits und der entwicklungspolitischen Ebene andererseits. Auch die beispielhafte Diskussion von Meilensteinen der institutionalisierten Entwicklungspolitik bestätigt diese Varianzen, die durch die nuancierte Analyse sprachlicher Konstruktionen sichtbar gemacht werden konnte. Ausgehend vom empirischen Ergebnis der Varianz und Variabilität der Begründungsmuster für die Verknüpfungen von Entwicklung und Sicherheit ist es nunmehr möglich, Schlussfolgerungen im Hinblick auf die Forschungsfrage zu ziehen: Ist deutsche Entwicklungspolitik im Lichte der Verknüpfung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit zunehmend eigennutz- und interessenorientiert? In den Anfangsjahren von Wieczorek-Zeul spielen normative Aspekte wie Gerechtigkeit und Frieden im Zusammenhang mit der Genese des Themenfelds Frieden und Sicherheit eine wichtige Rolle. Prägend für die Politikformulierung sind dabei vor allem die Herausforderungen im Zusammenhang mit der Globalisierung, die den Ausgangspunkt für die Formulierung der von Wieczorek-Zeul geprägten Globalen Strukturpolitik bilden. Eine Eigennutzorientierung im realistischen Sinne scheint nur dann präsent, wenn es um unser Interesse der Wohlstandssicherung geht. Entwicklungspolitische Friedenförderung und Krisenpräventionen dienen dazu, die ökonomischen Kosten von Kriegen zu verringern und leisten einen Beitrag zur Vermeidung von wohlstandsgefährdender Migration. Es wird auf einen Sicherheitsbegriff rekurriert, der die Menschliche Sicherheit der Bevölkerung in den Entwicklungs- und Transformationsländern in den Vordergrund stellt. Nach 9/11 verschieben sich die sprachlichen Konstruktionen weg von unserem Wohlstand und dem Frieden weltweit in Richtung unsere Sicherheit. Artikulierte Eigennutzorientierung mit Bezug auf Sicherheit gewinnt an Dominanz gegenüber moralischen Begründungszusammenhängen. Diese Entwicklung lässt sich vor allem im Rahmen der ressortübergreifenden Interpretationen des Zusammenhangs von Entwicklung und Sicherheit nachzeichnen. Auch bei dieser ressortübergreifenden Verschiebung lässt sich die Verknüpfung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit auf der Ebene des für die deutsche Entwicklungspolitik federführenden Bundesministeriums für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ) hingegen weiterhin als vorwiegend verpflichtungsorientiert deuten. Erst mit der Großen Koalition ab 2005 kann von umfassenderer Neu-Interpretation der Verknüpfung von Entwicklung und Sicherheit ausgegangen werden: Wohlstand und Sicherheit in der Welt werden nunmehr gleichermaßen als in unserem Interesse artikuliert, die neben der internationalen Verpflichtung zur Friedenssicherung als gleichwertig eingeschätzt werden können Zusammenfassend bringen diese empirischen Ergebnisse im Lichte der theoretischen Deutung ein nuancierter es Bild hervor als in der bisherigen Forschung mit ihrem meist einseitigen Fokus auf einer zunehmenden Interessenorientierung angenommen wurde. Die ideellen Bezüge waren immer präsent als prägender Faktor für die deutsche Entwicklungspolitik, sie haben sich allerdings im Zeitverlauf verändert. Der theoretische Ertrag der Studie und die Policy-Relevanz liegen auf mehreren Ebenen. Erstens wird mit der differenzierten Untersuchung und Deutung deutscher Entwicklungspolitik im Lichte der Verknüpfungen von Entwicklung und Sicherheit die Forschung zum Thema Versicherheitlichung von Entwicklungspolitik angereichert und deren theoretische Prämissen weiterentwickelt. Zweitens leistet die Arbeit einen Beitrag zur Forschung zur deutschen Entwicklungspolitik. Mit der vorliegenden Studie wird diese oft an der Umsetzung und Praxis interessierte Forschung durch die theoretische Beschäftigung mit der Deutung deutscher Entwicklungspolitik angereichert. Dieser Beitrag ergibt sich konkret aus der Anwendung theoretischer Überlegungen der Sicherheitsstudien, aus dem konstruktivistischen Strang der Theorien der Internationalen Beziehungen (IB) sowie konzeptionellen Überlegungen aus der Policy-Forschung, die miteinander verknüpft werden. ; The so-called nexus between development and security since the beginning of the 1990s is considered by many authors as an expression of an increased orientation towards self-interests in a realist sense of German development policy and thus a shift away from its normative foundations. The starting point of this research was a certain degree of skepticism vis-à-vis this fairly common interpretation regarding a fundamental change of German development policy in light of the growing inter-linkages between development and security since after the end of the cold war. This skepticism is based upon the hypothesis that many contributions to the debate on a potential "securitization" of development so far have overemphasized the role of self-interests as explanatory factor for the course of development policy in this context. At the same time, it is assumed that the research contributions have sometimes overlooked the role that normative factors continue to play as well as how these may also change over time. Consequently, the research question is: Can German development policy in light of the inter-linkage between development and security be interpreted as an increased self-interest-oriented policy and does this mean that German development policy has undergone a fundamental policy change? From a theoretical perspective, this research is closely linked to constructivist research on the so-called nexus of development and security and it aims to contribute to this constructivist debate. In terms of developing an appropriate theoretical position, this research draws on International Relations (IR) Theory with a focus on IR-approaches which implement the constructivist turn both ontologically as well as epistemologically and which pay particular attention to the role of language in this regard. Empirically, this research focuses mainly on interpretations of the so-called nexus between development and security in German development policy during agenda-setting and policy formulation. The time-frame covered encompasses the years 1998 – 2009, thus the three term of the socio-democrat development policy minister Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul. The dataset consists of more than 50 speeches of members of cabinet as well as selected official policy documents which contain relevant interpretations of the so-called nexus between development and security in German development policy. Based upon this empirical analysis it becomes clear that interpretations about the so-called nexus of development and security vary significantly over the years 1998 – 2009. Moreoever, The diffuse constructions of meaning around the notion of "security" are particularly remarkable in this regard. Furthermore, there are also significant variations regarding the inter-linkages between development and security in the researched documents depending upon the level of "intervention", e.g. interpretations in speeches and documents from the development policy perspective differ from those in speeches and documents on the inter-ministerial level. These different interpretations allude to different types of policy meanings and frames for the inter-linkage of development and security which lead to the following empirical conclusions of this research: In the first years of Wieczorek-Zeul's first term in the late 1990s, normative factors such as global equity and justice as well as peace are the predominant meanings around interpretations of the inter-linkage of development and peace. Challenges in the context of globalization are coin for policy formulation in this regard and can be seen as the starting point and rationale for constructing the inter-linkage between development and security from a development perspective. Self-interests in the realist sense are – if at all - constructed around our interest of safeguarding our economic wealth, but not around security issues. Peace and Security measures from a development perspective aim to lower economic costs of war and to contribute to prevent migration. In the German development policy in those years, security is primarily interpreted in the sense of Human Security of populations in partner countries to development policy. However, following the 9/11 attacks interpretations change: the constructed meaning of inter-linking development and peace moves more towards our own security issues and challenges as rationale for development. Normative patterns and meanings are less present. This evolution of these meanings is particularly notable on the inter-ministerial level of interpretations. At the same time, genuine constructions and interpretations from a development perspective hold on to their normative patterns of meaning. It is only with Wieczorek-Zeul's third term starting in 2005 that a more holistic re-shifting of meaning can be traced: now, economic wealth and security as well as our responsibility for peaceful global development are constructed as seemingly equally important needs and responsibility both in global and in our self-interest. To summarize, the nuanced research of interpretations in selected documents covering 11 year brings about new results to the debate of the so-called nexus between security and development against the background of the theoretical perspective which considers these interpretations and constructions as performative for the policy in itself. In German development policy, normative factors have thus always played a role in constructing this inter-linkage; a one-sided, linear evolution over time towards more self-interest orientation in the realist sense could not be traced in this nuanced research. The theoretical contribution of this research lies on different levels: Firstly, with this research the debate on the so-called development –security –nexus will be complemented with new findings on the specific German case. At the same time, theoretical assumptions for example for the Securitization theory are complemented by the approach and perspective presented there. Secondly, the research contributes to the debate of interpretation of German Development Policy between interests and normative factors in line with reflections from constructivist International Relations theory.

Проаналізовано причини та витоки кризової ситуації в Україні за період незалежності держави. Досліджено форми і способи вирішення імперських інтересів Росії. Висвітлено прорахунки і недоліки у реформуванні Збройних сил України та роль патріотизму у вирішенні бойових завдань силовими відомствами України. Ключові слова: Антитерористична операція; незаконні збройні формування; збройні сили; збройна агресія. DEVELOPMENT CRISIS IN UKRAINE: SOME MILITARY AND POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS This article analyzed the practice of contemporary armed conflicts, which can be considered as a composite manifold of a new generation of warfare – a hybrid war, namely the application of the international confrontation between the proportion of political-diplomatic, economic, informational, cybernetic, psychological means.It is noted that the aggression against Ukraine is carried out by starting a war of a new type. The enemy realizes its aggression not only in the military sense, but also in other spheres.The causes and origins of the crisis in Ukraine for the period of independence.Particular attention is paid to the placement the intercontinental ballistic missiles, tactical nuclear missiles and strategic bombers, capable of carrying nuclear weapons, the presence of one of the three largest missile production centers in the USSR on the territory of Ukraine in the early 90-ies of XX century. Also the path of our state to the signing of the Memorandum of security according which a US, Russian Federation (RF) and Great Britain guarantees to respect for the independence, sovereignty and the existing borders of Ukraine.It noted a package of disputes between Ukraine and Russia concerning the ownership and location of the Crimean peninsula and placement of the Black Sea fleet there, what later has played the role of «Trojan horse» during annexation of Crimea.It is emphasized that economic instability in the state of corruption in all spheres of life have led to the fact that society simply require changes to better and open up new opportunities for the development of the country. This hope was destroyed by the suspension of the process of preparation for the signing of an agreement on Ukraine's EU association.Independence Square was the center of the peaceful resistance to this decision of the government. However, the final and most dramatic stage of the revolution of Dignity were the events in Kiev on February 18–20 2014, in which more than a hundred protestors were shot. Events on European Square sharpened contradictions between Kiev and south-eastern regions, in particular the Crimea and Donbas. The political leadership of Russia took advantage of the unstable socio-political situation in Ukraine and moved to the implementation of the imperial project «Russian world» and «Novorosii» that began with the annexation of the Crimea.It is noted that before the start of active phase in the process of organizing, planning and carrying out the Russian special services, military (special) operations were carried out a number of relevant preparatory activities.It is emphasized that the result of these complex preparatory activities, in fact, were the total control from the separatists' part over the infrastructure system in the selected areas of the state authorities and representatives of local law enforcement agencies, the creation of the regime of «assistance» in the area of the State border of Ukraine.Reviewed the sequence of events for the annexation of the Crimean peninsula by Russian army, the action of self-proclaimed government on the request to assist in the «peace and quiet» in the Crimea, which are subsequently recognized as military aggression by the Parliamentary assemble of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe's.It is noted that the Russian president sent the proposal on the introduction of Russian troops in the Crimea to the Federation Council. Both chambers of the State Duma voted in favor of the introduction of Russian troops on the territory of Ukraine and in Crimea in particular on 1 March 2014.It is noted that the information war against Ukraine began immediately after the proclamation of independence of Ukraine and acquired particularly aggressive form since the annexation of the Crimea. Actually, it was an attempt of disinformation not only the citizens of Ukraine, but also Russian citizens and the international community as a whole.We investigated the events in the south-eastern part of Ukraine. Their analysis in the marked period of time can attest that all seizures of administrative buildings, areas and objects were made for well-planned and pre-organized screenplay of FSB, GRU and General Staff of RF. It is noted that as a result of the events in the south-east of Ukraine in the Kremlin came to the conclusion that the capacity significantly underestimated the fighting capacity of the Ukrainian state and the Ukrainian army in particular. All attempts to raise havoc in the southern and central regions of Ukraine have been strangled. Due to the rise the amount of patriotic society the new leadership of the state has managed not only to bring to Donbass the Armed Forces and the National Guard of Ukraine, but also begin to restore constitutional order in the liberated territories.Serious attention is paid to the start of the anti-terrorist operation (ATO) with the involvement of the Armed Forces (AF). The attack on the Volnovakha checkpoint which was under control of Armed Forces of Ukraine, the result is 18 Ukrainian military killed, is seen as the beginning of an understanding of the brutal war.Recorded errors and shortcomings in the reform of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.Analyzed in detail the operations in Ilovaisk and Debaltsevo. It was highlighted as a result of agreements with the Russian military column Ukrainian leadership was insidiously shot. Actions under Ilovaisk became the turning point of the war in the east of Ukraine. After the events in Ilovaisk the first time, in a time of independence of Ukraine, begin to radically reform the army.Events near the city Debaltsevo showed that the Armed Forces of Ukraine, despite the significant loss, able to lead active hostilities and to give a fitting rebuff not only to the illegal armed groups, but well-trained elite sub regular Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.As a result of fighting the Kremlin elite was forced to move to an open military aggression with greater involvement of the regular units of the Russian army.The heavy losses on both sides urged Ukrainian and Russian leaders to the conclusion of the Minsk ceasefire in the contact group Ukraine - Russia - OSCE with participation of representatives of terrorist organizations DNR and LNR.The attention is focused on the format of negotiations on the peaceful settlement of the conflict, more commonly known as the «Minsk agreement».As a consequence of events in the overall situation underlines the possibility of Ukraine to carry out six waves of mobilization and appeals for conscript military service, to resume military-technical support of its armed forces and other security agencies, to prove to the world community need the help of international partners in the allocation of funds to the trust funds, the transfer of non-lethal weapons, equips and humanitarian assistance.Attention is paid to the importance of volunteers in supply questions for the Armed Forces soldiers with the beginning of military operations in the zone of the ATO in the south-east of Ukraine.It is emphasized that due to human assistance saved a big amount of soldiers life during the war, national sense of patriotism and public danger, gaining strength and understanding.At the same time it noted continued deterioration of the situation along the line of differentiation in the area of ATO revitalization of illegal armed groups, particularly enemy's reconnaissance groups and snipers, the placement in close proximity to the state border and on the occupied territory of Ukraine group of forces totaling about 40 thousand soldiers of the regular the Armed Forces of RF.It is noted that the history of recent decades, and immediately the events in Ukraine testifies to the dangerous trend: domestic conflict that occurred in the country, it becomes a kind of «field of attraction» for foreign hostile forces.It is noted that the resolution of such conflicts, for that would not be approved by the «Customer», is possible only in the format of the temporary address. While there is no corresponding «solutions», the conflict will fester and continue to bleed.There is an obvious need for unity of the Ukrainian people for the sake of the national idea, a radical revision of Ukraine plans to protect and fundamental reform of its security sector, and above all, its armed forces.Key words: anti-terrorist operation; illegal armed groups; the armed forces; armed aggression.

Nuestra Tesis Doctoral versa sobre el origen y la configuración institucional de la Facultad de Trabajo Social de Huelva y abarca un periodo de quince años, desde 1968 hasta 1983. Hasta llegar al centro de nuestra investigación, hemos hecho un recorrido por las diferentes formas de acción social que ha habido a lo largo de la historia porque el Trabajo Social es una profesión que se ha ido construyendo en el andamiaje social y político de varios siglos, aunque su consolidación se produce en los siglos XIX y XX. Posteriormente pasamos a estudiar este contexto histórico concreto donde nace el Trabajo Social, en la realidad europea y americana fundamentalmente. Hemos visto también el papel que las mujeres han tenido en la historia del Trabajo Social como creadoras e impulsoras del mismo y de las propias escuelas, que han sido también objeto de nuestra atención, ya que son la primera instancia donde los futuros profesionales toman contacto con la profesión. En cuanto a la metodología empleada nos hemos centrado básicamente en el uso del archivo de la Escuela y entrevistas realizadas a personas que estuvieron vinculadas con la misma. También se ha realizado una revisión bibliográfica para establecer el marco teórico conceptual, así como la revisión de todas aquellas investigaciones disponibles que han abordado el tema del Trabajo Social desde los centros donde se han impartido sus enseñanzas. La Escuela de Trabajo Social de Huelva se pone en marcha por la llegada a esta ciudad del Polo de Desarrollo, cuyo objetivo era el crecimiento de la industria española, como sucedió en otras zonas de España como Barcelona, País Vasco y Madrid, donde se implantaron asimismo estructuras industriales que, a su vez, generaron múltiples problemas sociales y donde también se instalaron las primeras escuelas de Trabajo Social. La Escuela de Huelva pasó por un periodo crítico que amenazó seriamente con su cierre. Se analiza todo este proceso y se indaga en la celebración del día 6 de marzo como día institucional de la Facultad, que responde al momento en que se inicia la lucha y las movilizaciones que emprendieron profesores y alumnos ante los problemas que acuciaban a la escuela y que podían ocasionar su posible cierre. Es necesario dejar constancia de una serie de aspectos conclusivos de cómo una entidad que nace como un espacio de estudios sin casi entidad propia pasa a convertirse en una Escuela donde se imparte un título académico muy similar a otras escuelas del mismo tipo que había en España, no sin atravesar por serias dificultades para su consolidación institucional. De una media de 16,5 alumnos por curso desde 1970-1971 (año en el que están implantados los tres cursos) hasta 1973-1974 se pasa a 112 en los tres cursos en 1982-1983. Hay una serie de circunstancias que hacen que la Escuela se quede sin una figura jurídica que la respalde, ello, añadido a otros factores hará que se genere un conflicto que se mantendrá en total efervescencia desde el curso 1977-1978 hasta 1979-1980, curso en el que se constituye plenamente como Escuela de Trabajo Social a través de una Fundación, comenzando un nuevo periodo basado en un reconocimiento jurídico, saneamiento de la situación económica, revisión de los planes de estudio, formalización de los procedimientos para entrar a formar parte de la Escuela como profesor. A partir de este curso podemos decir que nace la Escuela de Trabajo Social de Huelva. Respecto a las aportaciones más novedosas que hacemos con nuestra investigación, podemos hacer una primera síntesis en la respuesta que da a una necesidad del panorama actual del Trabajo Social español que es la de contribuir a conocer nuestra propia historia, para que sea comprendida por las generaciones venideras. Ello no es posible, pensamos, sin contar con las particularidades de las distintas escuelas, por cuanto la vinculación de las mismas al desarrollo de la profesionalización del Trabajo Social es, hoy día, un hecho indiscutible. Conocer y reconocer las distintas vicisitudes por las que han pasado las instituciones académicas no hace más que dar brillo y lustre a nuestros orígenes por muy insignificante que fuera nuestra cuna. Esta es nuestra máxima intención, que se conozca el origen de este centro de formación y con ello contribuir a ampliar el panorama del Trabajo Social español, ya que hasta que no estén reconocidas las historias particulares este panorama seguirá estando incompleto. ; Our Doctoral Thesis treats on the origin and the institutional configuration of the Social Work School of Huelva and includes a fifteen year period, from 1968 to 1983. To be able to get to the focus of our investigation, we have done a tour through the different ways of social action that have existed in history since the Social Work is a profession that has been constructed in the social and political structure of several centuries, though its consolidation takes place in the XlXth and XXth century. Afterwards, we go on to study its specific historical context where the Social Work is born, mainly in the European and American society. We have seen also the role that the women have had in the history as creators and promoters of Social Work and of the schools, which have also been an object of our attention, as they are the first place where the future professionals take contact with the profession. As for the methodology used, vve have focused mainly on the use of the historical files of the School and interviews done to persons who were linked to it. We have also done a bibliographical review to establish the theoretical conceptual frame, as well as the review of all the available investigations that have approached the topic of Social Work from the schools where this education were taught. The School of Social Work of Huelva was started by the arrival to this city of the Industrial center, its aim was the growth of the Spanish industry, as it happened in other parts of Spain as Barcelona, Basque Country and Madrid, where were established industrial structures that, in turn, generated multiple social problems and also were opened the first Social Work schools. The School of Huelva had a critical period that threatened seriously with its closing. All this process is analyzed and is investigated in the celebration of March 6 as institutional day of the School, which answers to the moment in which mobilizations where started by the teachers and pupils due to the problems that they were harassing the school and that could have caused its closure. It is necessary to place on record a series of conclusive aspects on how an entity that was born as a space of studies without almost any structure goes on to become a School where is taught an academic title similar to other schools of the same type that existed in Spain, not without going through serious difficulties for its institutional consolidation. From an average of 16,5 pupils per course from 1970-1971 (year in which three courses started) to 1973-1974 it goes up to 112 in three courses in 1982-1983. There are a series of circumstances by which the School remains without a juridical figure that supports it, added to other factors will generate in a conflict that will be kept in total effervescence from the course of 1977-1978 up to 1979-1980, year in which it is constituted fully as a Social Work School by a Foundation, beginning a new period based on a juridical recognition, an economic reparation, review of the study plans and formalization of the procedures to be part of the School as a teacher. From this course on, we can say that the School of Social Work of Huelva is born. Regarding to the new contributions that we do with our investigation, we can do the first summary as the response that it gives to a need of the current panorama of the Spanish Social Work, that of knowing our own history, in order that it will be understood by future generations. That will not be possible, we think, without knowing the particularities of the different schools, since the link of them to the development of the professionalization of Social Work is, nowadays, an absolute fact. To know and to recognize the different difficulties by which the academic institutions have had to go through makes our origins shine, even though our cradle was insignificant. This is our maximum intention, to know the origin of this school and with it, help to extend the landscape of the Spanish Social Work, since until the particular histories are not known, this landscape will continue being incomplete.

Objetivos: análisis comparativo de los principales sistemas de gestión de seguridad y salud tomando como referente el Sistema de la Comunidad Andina. Elaborar un sistema de auto auditorías automatizado y comparar sus resultados con auditorías externas realizadas por expertos del Instituto Ecuatoriano de la Seguridad Social (IESS) y conocer el grado de aceptación de empresarios y trabajadores de! sistema de auditorías. Metodología: Se comparó el sistema Andino, vigente en los países de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia, tomándo como ejes del análisis comparativo los cuatro elementos constitutivos: Gestión Administrativa, Técnica, del Talento Humano y Procesos Operativos Básicos, con sus respectivos sub elementos, y mediante tablas de correlación con el de la OIT 2001-2011 y OHSAS 18001. Se elaboró un sistema de auto auditorías automatizado, subido a la web del IESS, con acceso de empleadores, 24 horas y 365 días al año y posibilidad de consultas en línea. Programa informático en PHP de libre Versión 5.3, sobre Database MySQL y motor información Apache Web Server, accesible desde cualquier ordenador o sistema móvil. Se compararon resultados de 223 empresas ecuatorianas que se habían auto auditado y posteriormente auditado por expertos del IESS. Se realizaron encuestas para conocer el grado de aceptación con el proceso de auditoría. Resultados: Los países de la Comunidad Andina han desarrollado sus sistemas de gestión de seguridad y salud basados en las directrices de la OIT y en el Sistema Andino. Ecuador es el primer país que lo ha implementado y automatizado, Colombia en enero 2016 y Perú en breve, siendo Bolivia el único país en el que se desconoce. El sistema Andino es idóneo para los países de la Comunidad Andina, por cumplir con su legislación, con las directrices del sistema de gestión sugerido por la OIT, disponer de elementos y subelementos que lo hacen el más completo frente a los otros sistemas referentes, y podría convertirse en un instrumentó de unión en el marco de la seguridad y salud en los países andinos, por cuanto presenta una correspondencia entre ellos que supera el 70%. Tiene fortalezas en la gestión técnica, talento humano y procesos operativos básicos, dando importancia a la parte técnica de evaluación y al control de riesgos, al desarrollo de competencias en la formación, relacionando la actividad laboral con la vigilancia de la salud, y profundizando en los procesos operativos adaptándolos a las particularidades de cada organización. El proceso de auto auditoría es una herramienta sistemática, secuencial de fácil uso, flexible,adaptable, compatible con otros sistemas de seguridad y salud o calidad, ambiente, responsabilidad social o seguridad física; su estructura modular permite su aplicación en todo tipo de empresa, de cualquier actividad, complejidad y número de trabajadores, demostrado por alto porcentaje de participación, superior al 70% de las empresas que representa el 56% de la población laboral cotizante del país. El nivel de implantación o índice de eficacia medio del sistema de gestión en las empresas ecuatorianas, medido mediante las auto auditorías, apenas alcanzó el 48,26% y el de las auditorías externas el 29,2%, a gran distancia del 80% que se considera mínimo para que se considere aceptable, sirviendo para que las organizaciones tomaran conciencia de la necesidad de mejorarlo. En las grandes empresas el resultado de las auto auditorías sobrevaloró en mucho al de las auditorías externas respecto a la gestión administrativa, gestión técnica, del talento humano e índice global de eficacia. La gestión de los procesos productivos básicos no experimentó gran diferencia entre las auto auditorías y las auditorías externas. Estas diferencias no se produjeron en las PYMES en ninguno de los sistemas de gestión. La valoración del proceso de auditoría fue muy positiva, que ayuda a mejorar los procesos de seguridad y salud, conocer los fallos en el sistema, a iniciar acciones para mejorar el índice de eficacia, y los auditados están de acuerdo con el valor obtenido por la auditoría externa. Conclusiones: El uso de herramientas informáticas sin duda constituyó un aporte positivo e innovador y las auto auditorías convirtieron al empresario en sujeto activo, fomentando su participación y facilitando su nivel de conocimiento de las exigencias técnicas y legales. La estructura sencilla, fácil acceso, gratuita, respuesta inmediata y disponibilidad permanente, ayudó a su difusión entre las empresas, aportando un indicador más preventivo que los indicadores que miden la siniestralidad laboral. Los encuestados afirmaron que el proceso de auditoría debía mantenerse y extenderse a todas las empresas de Ecuador. ; Objetives: Comparative analysis of the main health and safety management systems taking as reference the Andean Community. Develop a self automated audits and compare their results with external audits performed by experts of the Ecuadorian Social Security Institute (IESS) and determine the degree of acceptance of employers and workers system audits. Methodology: The Andean current system was compared in the countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, on the axles of the comparative analysis the four constituent elements: administrative, technical, human resource and core operating processes, with their respective sub elements, and by correlation tables with the ILO 2001-2011 and OHSAS 18001. A self automated audits, uploaded to the website of the IESS, employers access, 24 hours and 365 days a year and the possibility of online consultations was prepared . PHP software Free Version 5.3 on MySQL Database engine and Apache Web Server information, accessible from any computer or mobile system. 223 results Ecuadorian auto companies were audited and subsequently audited by experts compared IESS. Surveys were conducted to determine the degree of acceptance in the audit process. Results: The countries of the Andean Community have developed their safety management systems and based on the guidelines of the ILO and the Andean Health System. Ecuador is the first country to have implemented automated, Colombia in January 2016 and soon Peru, Bolivia being the only country where it is unknown. The system is ideal for Andean countries of the Andean Community to fulfill its legislation with the guidelines of the management system suggested by the ILO, have elements and sub-elements that make it the most complete compared to other systems concerning, and it could become a binding instrument under safety and health in the Andean countries, by displaying a correspondence between them exceeds 70%. Has strengths in technical management, human talent and core business processes, giving importance to the technical evaluation and control of risks, the development of skills training, work activity relating to health monitoring, and deepening operational processes adapted to the particularities of each organization. The self-audit process is a sequential user-friendly, flexible, adaptable, supports automatic tool with other safety and health or quality, environment, social responsibility or physical security; its modular design allows implementation in all types of business, any activity, complexity and number of employees, demonstrated by high participation rate, over 70% of companies representing 56% of the working population of the country contributor. The level of implementation or effectiveness index means management system in the Ecuadorian companies, measured by self audits, barely it reached 48.26% and external audits of 29.2%, far ahead of the 80% that it is considered minimal to be considered acceptable, serving for organizations to become aware of the need to improve it. In larger companies the outcome of audits overestimated self much to external audits regarding the administrative, technical, human talent and overall effectiveness index. The management of production processes experienced no basic difference between self audits and external audits. These differences did not occur in small and medium enterprises in any of the management systems. The assessment audit process was very positive, which helps improve the safety and health processes, meet failures in the system, to initiate action to improve employee efficiency, and audited agree with the value obtained by the external audit. Conclusions: The use of tools is undoubtedly a positive and innovative contribution and self audits became the entrepreneur in perpetrator, encouraging their participation and facilitating their level of knowledge of the technical and legal requirements. The simple structure, easy access, free of charge, immediate response and continuous availability, helped its dissemination among enterprises, providing a more proactive indicators that measure workplace accidents indicator. Respondents stated that the audit process should be maintained and extended to all companies in Ecuador.