Suchergebnisse

International audience ; En zone méditerranéenne languedocienne, les dynamiques d'étalement urbain qui accompagnent la croissance des villes sont particulièrement intenses. Le desserrement et la délocalisation des populations et des activités des villes-centres vers les périphéries se traduisent par l'accroissement et la dispersion des surfaces bâties aux dépens des espaces naturels et agricoles. Dans un contexte de forte attractivité démographique et de crise foncière, de nouveaux outils de planification territoriale émergent (SCOT, SRADDT). Depuis la loi SRU de 2000, les politiques d'aménagement s'orientent désormais vers des objectifs de durabilité des systèmes territoriaux. Le décret n°2006 -821 du 7 juillet 2006 (Loi sur le Développement des Territoires Ruraux) donne aux départements de nouveaux moyens pour développer une politique de protection et de mise en valeur des espaces agricoles, forestiers et périurbains (périmètres de protection, droit de préemption). Pour accompagner ces dispositifs d'actions les acteurs de l'aménagement ont besoins d'indicateurs sur l'état actuel de l'occupation des sols ainsi que sur les dynamiques de changements en termes qualitatif et quantitatif. A l'issue d'une étude méthodologique sur le suivi de l'artificialisation des terres agricoles commanditée par la DRAF Languedoc Roussillon, auprès de l'UMR TETIS (Cemagref) et de l'UMR LISAH (INRA), une série d'indicateurs spatiaux ont été développés. Cette communication présente la réflexion menée pour la production de ces indicateurs. Ceux-ci sont destinés à constituer une aide à la décision, à la communication et à la sensibilisation sur les problématiques de disparition du potentiel agronomique des sols. En effet, la possibilité de disposer d'outils et de méthodes apparaît pour les acteurs agricoles un enjeu fort dans leur implication "récente" à l'élaboration des documents d'urbanisme. L'objectif des travaux de recherches de la thèse, menée en parallèle de cette étude, sont d'évaluer la pertinence de ces indicateurs spatiaux à révéler les spécificités des dynamiques en ½uvre et ainsi à répondre aux enjeux de planification « durable » des espaces périurbains languedociens. / France set up new regional development and urbanism rules with national laws: Voynet Law (1999) which gives sustainable development tools like SRADDT (regional scheme for territorial planning and sustainable development) for the level of Regions, urban solidarity and renewal law (2000) which gives new planning tools like SCOT (scheme for territorial coherence) and PLU (Local Urbanism Plan) at the inter-communal cooperation level. A law on the Development of rural areas (2006) gives Departements new ways to develop a policy for the protection and enhancement of agricultural, forest and peri-urban spaces (protected area, pre-emptive right). These planning policies now move towards the principles of sustainable territorial systems. To accompany these policies, the actors of the local and regional development and planning need indicators about the state of land cover and dynamic changes in terms of quantity and quality. In the context of the Mediterranean area of Languedoc, urban sprawl dynamics are particularly intense with a massive population growth and land crisis. Increase and dispersion of built-up areas from city centre towards periphery are made at the expense of natural and agricultural spaces. To accompany these plans of action planning actors need indicators about the current state of land cover and about the dynamic changes in terms of quantity and quality. After a methodological study about monitoring of agricultural land urbanisation command by DRAF Languedoc Roussillon, to the UMR TETIS (Cemagref) and the UMR LISAH (INRA), a series of spatial indicators have been developed. The communication presents the thought which has been conduct for the production of these indicators. These are intended to provide a decision, communication and awareness help on issues of loss of the agricultural soil potential. Indeed, availability of adapted tools and methods is a very important stake for actors of the agricultural sector with the application of the local planning tools (PLU, SCOT). The main objective of this research is to evaluate the relevance of these spatial indicators to show explicitly specificities of current dynamics and to throw light on challenges of sustainable planning of the Mediterranean peri-urban spaces.

This paper reports on a novel microfluidic chip with polyelectrolytic gel electrodes (PGEs) used to rapidly count the number of red blood cells (RBCs) in diluted whole blood. The proposed microdevice is based on the principle that the impedance across a microchannel between two PGEs varies sensitively as RBCs pass through it. The number and amplitude of impedance peaks provide the information about the number and size of RBCs, respectively. This system features a low-voltage dc detection method and non-contact condition between cells and metal electrodes. Major advantages include stable detection under varying cellular flow rate and position in the microchannel, little chance of cell damage due to high electric field gradient and no surface fouling of the metal electrodes. The performance of this PGEs-based system was evaluated in three steps. First, in order to observe the size-only dependence of the impedance signal, three different sizes of fluorescent microbeads (7.2, 10.0, and 15.0 mu m; Bangs laboratories, USA) were used in the experiment. Second, the cell counting performance was evaluated by using 7.2 mu m fluorescent microbeads, similar in size to RBCs, in various concentrations and comparing the results with an animal hematoanalyzer (MS 9-5; Melet schloesing laboratories, France). Finally, in human blood sample tests, intravenously collected whole blood was just diluted in a PBS without centrifuge or other pretreatments. The PGE-based system produced almost identical number of RBCs in over 800-fold diluted samples to the results from a commercialized human hematoanalyzer (HST-N402XE; Sysmex, Japan). ; This research was supported by MKE (Ministry of Knowledge Economy), Korea under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center) support program supervised by the IITA (Institute of Information Technology Advancement) (IITA-2009- (C1090-0902-0002)). The authors also acknowledge the support by the Nano/Bio Science & Technology Program (M10536090001-05N3609-00110) of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) and the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) grant funded by the Korea government (MOST) (No. R11-2007-012-02002-0(2009)). ; Hong J, 2008, BIOCHIP J, V2, P12 ; Chun H, 2008, LAB CHIP, V8, P764, DOI 10.1039/b715229a ; Chung TD, 2007, ELECTROPHORESIS, V28, P4511, DOI 10.1002/elps.200700620 ; Zhe J, 2007, J MICROMECH MICROENG, V17, P304, DOI 10.1088/0960-1317/17/2/017 ; ANDREW JDM, 2007, J APPL PHYS, V101 ; Tang H, 2005, IEEE SENS J, V5, P1346, DOI 10.1109/JSEN.2005.859214 ; Lancaster C, 2005, METHODS, V37, P120, DOI 10.1016/j.ymeth.2005.07.003 ; Huh D, 2005, PHYSIOL MEAS, V26, pR73, DOI 10.1088/0967-3334/26/3/R02 ; Chun HG, 2005, ANAL CHEM, V77, P2490, DOI 10.1021/ac048535o ; Mogensen KB, 2004, ELECTROPHORESIS, V25, P3498, DOI 10.1002/elps.200406108 ; Gawad S, 2004, LAB CHIP, V4, P241, DOI 10.1039/b313761a ; McClain MA, 2003, ANAL CHEM, V75, P5646, DOI 10.1021/ac0346510 ; Kruger J, 2002, J MICROMECH MICROENG, V12, P486, DOI 10.1088/0960-1317/12/4/324 ; Norris PJ, 2002, J MOL MED-JMM, V80, P397, DOI 10.1007/s00109-002-0337-3 ; Fu AY, 2002, ANAL CHEM, V74, P2451, DOI 10.1021/ac0255330 ; Satake D, 2002, SENSOR ACTUAT B-CHEM, V83, P77 ; Saleh OA, 2001, REV SCI INSTRUM, V72, P4449, DOI 10.1063/1.1419224 ; Gawad S, 2001, LAB CHIP, V1, P76, DOI 10.1039/b103933b ; ORMEROD MG, 2000, FLOW CYTOMETRY PRACT ; Ayliffe HE, 1999, J MICROELECTROMECH S, V8, P50, DOI 10.1109/84.749402 ; Hanscheid T, 1999, CLIN LAB HAEMATOL, V21, P235 ; ROBERTS K, 1999, P IEEE, V3, P1668 ; BERTUCCO L, 1998, P IEEE, V1, P341 ; Nicholson JKA, 1997, CLIN DIAGN LAB IMMUN, V4, P309 ; ZIMMERMANN I, 1997, EUR J PHARM BIOPHARM, V43, P101 ; LARSEN U, 1997, TRANSDUCERS 97 CHICA, V2, P1319 ; NIELSEN LK, 1991, BIOTECHNOL PROGR, V7, P560 ; HENRY J, 1991, CLIN DIAGNOSIS MANAG, P553 ; GROSS WB, 1984, J AM VET MED ASSOC, V185, P343 ; 6

The 'juste retour' attitude, namely each EU member state's priority for securing the best possible individual net financial position vis-à-vis the community budget over any other consideration concerning the community budget is stronger than ever. The differences across member states in terms of net financial positions are indeed remarkable. In the period 1997-2006 the group of major net payer countries (the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden and Austria) had an average 'deficit' vis-à-vis the EU budget amounting to 0.35% of the GNI. For the group of minor net payers (Denmark, France, Finland and Italy) the respective indicator was 0.08% only. The UK with its rebate stood closer to the second group. The full impact of the 2004/2007 enlargement will be felt in 2013, after the 'phasing in' process will have been nearly completed. Estimated net financial positions for 2013 show that major net payers' financial positions will not change significantly but those of the minor payers' will deteriorate to a large extent. The net beneficiary member states will typically get substantially less (net) EU transfers than the cohesion countries had received in the 1990s. Several reform proposals envisage the introduction of a European tax. Various candidates for this tax were tested in the paper for fulfilling the requirement for proportionality of contributions to the EU budget with economic strength of the member states. The results show that a couple of member states would contribute substantially more or less to the community budget than their share is in the aggregate EU GNI, thus these taxes would open up a new battlefield for ¿juste retour¿ discussions. On the expenditure side of the EU budget conditions of eligibility for support have emerged over decades in the framework of various, with one another unrelated, EU policies. This led to a strong differentiation in the extent of financial support by member states, decoupled from their relative prosperity. Germany and the UK were overall 'losers' as in each main policy areas their share was substantially lower than in the aggregate EU GNI in 1997-2006. The Netherlands joined the club of overall 'losers' from 2003 on. The results of an estimation for 2013 hint at increasing polarization. 8 member states will be 'losers' both in agricultural and cohesion expenditures while 13 member states 'winners' in both areas, and only 6 of the 27 will have mixed position. The final chapter of the paper presents a comprehensive reform proposal which faces the juste retour problem frontally instead of negating or circumventing it. The corner stone of the proposed system is the EU 27 average per capita GNI, at official exchange rate. Each member state would receive annually a transfer from the EU budget that corresponds to 1% of the EU average per capita GNI multiplied by the number of inhabitants in the member state concerned. The revenues of the EU budget would be secured through contributions from member states, which would amount to 1% of the member state GNI. Member states with higher than EU average per capita GNI would be thus net payers, those with lower than the average per capita GNI of the EU would be net beneficiaries. Net contributions and receipts, respectively, would clearly reflect the difference in relative prosperity of the member states. This proposition is supplemented by recommendations for reform both on the revenues and expenditures sides of the EU budget. Comparing the estimated financial position of net payer member states in 2013 under the prevailing and the reformed system, respectively, show that each net payer would come off better, though to varying extent, under the new regime. Further enlargements, even with Turkey, would create an average net financial position for this group of member states matching that had been prevailing in 1997-2006. The same comparison for the net beneficiary member states, however, indicates less gains under the new regime. Clear rules for the post-2013 years, smaller, but safely secured and for the long run foreseeable transfers from the EU budget, further significantly increased flexibility in utilization of the EU resources may win the net beneficiary member states for the reforms proposed.

Defence date: 21 November 2008 ; Examining Board: Prof. Doutor Jacques Ziller, Instituto Universitário Europeu; Prof. Doutor Pedro Bacelar Vasconcelos, Universidade do Minho; Prof. Doutor Rui Moura Ramos, Universidade de Coimbra; Prof. Doutor Francesco Francioni, Instituto Universitário Europeu. ; First made available online 14 January 2015. ; Portugal is a very good illustration of the current identity quests that are pursued by communities of all shapes and sizes – local, national, supranational, international, civilizational – in response to old urges and new threats posed in a globalised, but also "glocalised", world. Torn between its European body and its atlantic/lusophone "soul", Portugal tries to strike a balance between the two dimensions of its identity as a polity and, in the process, claims a special role as mediator between north and south, Europe and the African continent. Although fully committed to the European immigration policy, with its restrictive dimensions and its focus on integration, Portugal purports to articulate the European demands with the special solidarity bonds that exist with the Portuguese speaking countries. It has been so for a number of years, but the recent developments in both the Portuguese nationality and immigration laws show that the fears expressed by many that Schengen would surpass the lusophone ties were well founded and that, no matter how well intended the Portuguese policies are in these matters, the result will be detrimental to the so-called lusophone citizens. They do enjoy a special status – encompassing voting rights and access to public office that is generally forbidden to all foreigners (a status unparalleled in the two other European countries under scrutiny, France and the United Kingdom) – but their access to the Portuguese territory has been curtailed. Even more than Portugal, which until recently was the last of the European "nation states" and only now faces visible cultural diversity in its society, the European Union and the Community of the Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP) struggle with the definition of their respective identities and sense of purpose, seeking to win the hearts and minds of their peoples. Commonly considered a natural spontaneous community, due to the existence of a common language, the CPLP faces the difficulties posed by mutual distrust and old grudges and the fear, by many, that it is only an expression of imperial nostalgia on the part of Portugal. Its member states show only a mild commitment, engaged as they all are in other regional communities of their own, as can be seen in the discussions on citizenship and free movement within the lusophone area. There are many similarities between the legal systems of the CPLP member states, which can be explained by the cooperation between lawyers and academics specially in Africa and East Timor, but some of those similarities are merely formal, with little correspondence in the law in action, and coexist with relevant differences due mostly to different levels of socio-economic development and political will. For the European Union the purpose of fostering a feeling of belonging and solidarity between the peoples of Europe is an ongoing struggle for legitimacy which has suffered major setbacks in recent years. After the constitutional momentum, the Union has adopted a more modest stance, but has by no means given up winning the support of the European citizens. One of the fields in which its intervention is demanded is directly linked with the identity quest in progress – border definition and control, policies towards illegal and legal aliens. Stressing the need to integrate the third country nationals who are legal residents and adopting the mantra of intercultural dialogue, the EU presents itself as a guardian for human rights and a fighter against racism, at the same time as it tries to keep Europe for the Europeans as much as possible. Its member states are willing, for European or domestic reasons, to go along and easily drop old preferences for extra-community bonds of solidarity. Portugal may again be the last of the empires, keeping a special status for the foreigners of lusophone origin, but it nevertheless keeps with the times when it comes to admission to its territory.

ÖZETAvrupa kimliği tarih boyunca bir inşa sürecindedir. 1950'lerde başlayan Avrupa entegrasyon süreciyle birlikte inşa süreci ilk kez bir kurumsal çerçeve içerisinde devam etmektedir. AB, hem üye devletler, hem de vatandaşları arasında yakın ve yoğun bir etkileşim ortamı sağlamaktadır, bu da üye devletlerin ve vatandaşlarının kimliklerini etkilemektedir. Avrupa kimliği inşa sürecinde, kültürel ve yurttaşlıkla ilgili referanslar, ayrıca faydacı yaklaşım farklı dönemlerde kullanılmıştır. Siyasi entegrasyon sürecinin 1990'larda hızlanması, özellikle Maastrict Antlaşması ile, AB'nin meşruiyeti ile yakından bağlantılı olan Avrupa kimliğine karşı artan bir ilgi ortaya çıkmıştır.AB siyasi elitleri ve AB kurumlarının, özellikle de Komisyon ve Avrupa Parlamentosu'nun Avrupa kimliğinin inşa sürecinde çok önemli rolleri olmuştur. AB'nin eğitim, kültür ve işitsel-görsel politikaları Avrupa kimliğinin inşa sürecinde etkili olmuştur ama bu etki sınırlıdır, çünkü bu politikalar temel olarak ulusal hükümetlerin kontrolü altındadır. AB, Avrupa halklarının AB'ye olan bağlılıklarını arttırmak için AB bayrağı gibi bazı semboller kullanmıştır. Maastrict Atlaşması'yla AB vatandaşlığı ortaya çıkmıştır, fakat üye devlet vatandaşlığına bağlıdır. Anayasal Antlaşma hazırlanmış, fakat Fransa ve Hollanda'daki referandumlarda reddedilmiştir.Ulus inşa süreci ve Avrupa kimliğinin inşası farklı şartlarda ortaya çıkmışlardır ve farklı özellikleri vardır, ama Avrupa kimliğinin inşa sürecinde AB'nin meşruluğunu sağlamak ve siyasi entegrasyon sürecine devam edebilmek için, ulus inşasının araçlarına benzer bazı araçlar kullanılmıştır. Avrupa kimliği, ulusal ve bölgesel kimliklerle etkileşim halindedir. Bu etkileşim hem Avrupa kimliğinin inşa sürecini, hem de AB içindeki ulusal ve bölgesel kimlikleri etkilemektedir. Türkler ve Avrupalılar yüzyıllar boyunca etkileşim halindedir ve birbirlerinin kimlik inşa süreçlerini etkilemişlerdir. Özellikle Türkiye'ye Aralık 1999'daki Helsinki Zirvesi'nde AB tarafından resmi adaylık statüsü verildiğinden beri daha yakın ve yoğun bir etkileşim içindedirler. Avrupa kimliğinin AB içindeki inşa süreci Türkiye ile olan etkileşiminden, özellikle de Türkiye'nin üyeliğinin Avrupalılığı açısından tartışılmasından da etkilenmektedir.ABSTRACTEuropean identity has been in a construction process throughout history. This process has been still ongoing, but for the first time this construction takes place within an institutional framework provided by the European integration process since the 1950s. The EU provides a close and intense environment for interaction among the Member States and their citizens which has affected the identities of the Member States and their citizens. During the construction process of European identity within the EU, both cultural and civic references and a utilitarian approach have been used at different time periods. With the acceleration of the political integration process in the 1990s, there has been an increasing concern with European identity which is closely related with legitimacy of the EU.The political elites of the EU and the EU institutions, especially the Commission and the EP have had crucial roles in the construction process of European identity within the EU. Education, cultural and audiovisual policies of the EU have been effective on the construction process of European identity, but to a limited extent, because they are mainly under the control of the national governments. The EU has used some symbols, such as the European flag in order to increase the feeling of belonging of the peoples of Europe to the EU. The EU citizenship was introduced with the Maastricht Treaty, but it is dependent on Member State citizenship. The Constitutional Treaty was prepared, but it was rejected in the referendums in France and Netherlands in 2005.Nation-building and construction of European identity emerged in different circumstances and have different characteristics, but during construction process of European identity within the EU, some similar instruments to those of nation-building have been used in order to establish legitimacy of the EU and to go on the political integration process. European identity has been in interaction with national and regional identities. These interactions have affected construction process of European identity, also national and regional identities in the EU. Turks and Europeans have been in interaction for centuries, thus, they have affected construction process of each others' identities. They have been in a closer interaction process, especially since Turkey was given an official candidate status at the Helsinki Summit in December 1999 by the EU. Construction process of European identity within the EU has been also affected by its interactions with Turkey, especially through questioning Turkey's membership in terms of its Europeanness.

Description du secteur de la pêche Avec la Mauritanie, le Sénégal est de loin le plus grand producteur de produits de pêche de la sous région. Avec 718 km de cote et un territoire maritime de 198km2, 15 745 km2 de superficie fluviale, 2 estuaires, des mangroves et un lac de 350km2, le Sénégal possède tous les atouts des plus grands producteurs de pêche. Le potentiel annuel de captures s'élève à 500 000 tonnes. Le secteur a subi une croissance spectaculaire ces trente dernières années : les débarquements sont passés 50 000 tonnes en 1965 à plus de 450 000 en 1997. Le secteur se compose principalement de deux sous-secteurs : la pêche industrielle et la pêche traditionnelle ou artisanale. Cette dernière, vielle de plusieurs siècles a su s'adapter et se moderniser au cours des dernières décennies. La flotte de pêche artisanale est dynamique et diversifiée ; selon les estimations, en 2005 il y avait plus de 13 000 pirogues. La pêche artisanale se concentre dans sept régions maritimes et fluviales du pays: Dakar, Thiès, Saint Louis, Fatick, Zinguinchor, Louga et Kaolack. Le port de Kayar dans la région de Thiès correspond à la principale zone de débarquement de la pêche artisanale avec environ 70% des débarquements. Dans le secteur industriel, les pêcheurs travaillent à bord d'une flottille de petits sardiniers, de 143 chalutiers destinés à la pêche d'espèces demersales, de 3 sardiniers et de 42 thoniers. Alors que le Sénégal domine largement le sous-secteur demersale avec 70% des chalutiers opérants, le pays ne possède que 6 thoniers contre 38 étrangers, dont une partie seulement des captures est débarquée au Sénégal. La pêche industrielle est concentrée autour de la capitale dans le Port autonome de Dakar et des ports secondaires de Saint Louis, Kaolack et Ziguinchor. Aujourd'hui, le secteur de la pêche sénégalaise est largement dominé par la pêche artisanale, qui constituait 90% des cargaisons totales des produits de la mer en 2006 avec 350 000 tonnes. Plus de 60% des produits de la pêche artisanale sont destinés à l'exportation et la transformation. En 2006, le secteur dans son ensemble représentait 9% du PIB du secteur primaire, 1.5% du PIB total, et 1/3 des devises étrangères (250 millions de dollars par an). Plus importante que le poids économique du secteur, est son poids social : la pêche génère indirectement 600 000 emplois, dont 67% au sein du secteur artisanal. En outre, les produits de la pêche comblent les besoins en protéines animales de la population sénégalaise à hauteur de 75%1. La pêche a connu une expansion spectaculaire au cours des dernières décennies grâce à l'impulsion de politiques publiques de développement basées sur une logique sectorielle productiviste. Une flotte nationale artisanale et industrielle a été progressivement mise en place ainsi que de fortes capacités de transformation industrielle. Cet engagement de l'Etat a ensuite connu un net ralentissement du fait, entre autre, des politiques d'ajustement structurel. Le renchérissement des coûts de production subséquents à la dévaluation du franc CFA en 1994 a lourdement affecté les pêcheurs. Parallèlement, avec la forte demande en produits halieutiques et en l'absence de politiques adéquates et cohérentes de gestion durable des ressources exploitables, une situation de surexploitation des ressources halieutiques s'est installée. En conséquence de la raréfaction des ressources halieutiques, la pêche sénégalaise traverse une crise sans précédent, dont les effets commencent à se faire sentir à tous les niveaux : appauvrissement des communautés de pêcheurs, menace de l'approvisionnement en poisson des populations, baisse des captures à haute valeur ajoutée, baisse des exportations, baisse de la rentabilité et des revenus des unités de pêche. Par ailleurs, de plus en plus d'établissements de transformation industrielle ferment (23 entreprises entre 1999 et 2006). ; Ministerio de Medio Ambiente Y Medio Rural y Marino ; Pablo Manuel Xandri Royo CTP Proyecto (INT/07/16M/SPA) Este trabajo se ha realizado en el marco del Convenio de Colaboración entre el actual Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino de España y la Organización Internacional del Trabajo de 28 de diciembre de 2007 ; Published ; environnement; socio-économie; pêche; capture; débarquement; engin de pêche; femme; pêcheur; convention internationale; réglementation

The article considers the key factors of increasing international migration of experts and students, the basic trends, evaluation of socio-economical consequences of migration of "brains" and classification of state policy measures in this area. The key factors determining the increase of migration of "brains" include: emergence of knowledge-based economies, development of globalization trends in higher education and research and development area, widening application of information and communication technologies (ICT) in these areas. The article says that sci-tech human resources from all over the world are still brain-drained by the richest states, first of all, the USA, Canada, Australia and Great Britain, though the last decades saw experts' massive return to their homelands. Foreign scholars are fully engaged in innovative businesses, including transnational ones, and widely employed with research and educational centers. The records show an increase of foreign nationals among the researches working for the developed countries. Besides the scientific scope, they greatly contribute to high technology areas of economy and social infrastructure, shaping the basic trends in social development, mainly, in ICT and healthcare system. An increase of educational internationalization and providing educational services facilitates an upsurge in student migration, which is considered to be the most rapidly growing one in human migration. The last thirty years witnessed a number of foreign students in the world increasing by 4.5 times and reaching the amount of 2.73 million by 2005. The developed countries, such as the USA, Great Britain, Germany, France and Australia are the basic destinations of student migration. These countries show a great number of foreign students, study ing natural and technical sciences, including agriculture and engineering. The vast majority of foreign students study general theoretic courses in universities and higher education institutions. However, a considerable number of foreign students do postgraduate studies, particularly, for the scarce professions in host countries, such as agriculture, engineering, mathematics and computer science. Despite their relatively small amount in overall migration flows, the influx of qualified experts and students makes valuable contribution to science and innovative potential development of the host countries, an increase in their hi-tech sectors and knowledge-intensive service industries, such as education, healthcare, communications etc. and economy on the whole. The significant contribution of foreigners in sci-tech development of the USA is clearly indicated by a great number of award winners, including the Nobel Prize, among European and Asian scholars. Generally, foreign researches are characterized by higher capacity, as compared to their local colleagues, which manifests itself in a greater number of academic publications, completed theses and thesis defenses, and quite often foreign scholars earn a higher wages. Income derived from providing educational services is an important part of the services exported by the developed countries. Foreign students are not only the source of extra financing for higher education institutions, but also facilitate their structural modernization and development, emergence of new curricula, trends and departments. If the consequences of foreign experts and students admission are unambiguously beneficial, then the profits of the sending countries are not that clear. However, the recent researches, registering a high percentage of returning migrants, emphasize a beneficial impact of brain drain on donor states. There is a real competitive struggle for certain groups of students and experts began in the world. Universities, research centers and sci-tech companies located in the USA, Canada and Great Britain struggle more desperately to gain the most gifted foreigners. In order to attract foreign brains, incite experts and students going abroad for education to come back, and stop brain drain the majority of governments are striving to make their living conditions more attractive and professional advancement more promising within their territories. And to achieve the desirable goals the governments, first of all, pursue certain migration, sci-tech development and education policies.

As Germany took over the rotating presidency of the EU in the first half of 2007 one of its primary tasks was to redirect and reform EU's Central Asia policy before the Council's adoption of a new Strategy Paper for Central Asia in June. As Germany's Presidency Program explicitly states: "The Presidency will pay particular attention to the strategically significant region of Central Asia. The EU plans to adopt a strategy on Central Asia defining its interests and objectives." Moreover, following a meeting with MEPs on 23 January, 2007, Germany's Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier announced that Germany would launch a new "Central Asia Initiative" which would bundle together energy and security, the two overarching interests of the EU in the region, into a single coherent strategy. It is still, as of May 2007, unclear if this initiative will complement the Regional Strategy Paper or be integrated into it. Nevertheless, the urgency of a redirection of policy could scarcely be understated considering that Europe's substantial interests in Central Asia rarely have been more evident while the absence of strategy seldom has been clearer. According to the draft Regional Strategy Paper for Central Asia 2007-2013 the EU's strategic objectives are: 1) To ensure the stability and the security of the countries of the region; 2) To help eradicate poverty and increase living standards in the context of the Millennium Development Goals; 3) To facilitate/promote closer regional cooperation both within Central Asia and between Central Asia and the EU, particularly in the energy, transport, higher education and environmental sectors. Let it be acknowledged that the EU has launched some well-received initiatives among which the Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS) perhaps is the primary one. Let it also be acknowledged that 366m Euro has been spent since 1991 (although this is only a fraction of the size of U.S. assistance) and that Central Asia has received an upswing in attention since 9/11. Still, there are some major shortcomings in the EU's strategy which Germany will need to correct in order to realize the strategic objectives above. These flaws generally relate to the EU's past policies being reactive in nature rather than proactive. This reactivism is seen in relation to Afghanistan's new role after Operation Enduring Freedom, failure to recognize the potentials in continental trade (including energy), and the tendency to disengage from the Central Asian leadership. In the words of the German FM: "As far as our common European past is concerned I can't see any stage where people were strongly interested in this region." In contrast to Europe's past disengagement, Germany seems to have harbored serious intentions in Central Asia as it took over the presidency. Good news is also that Germany is particularly well-positioned to undertake these reforms. Angela Merkel's Germany is currently the strong power in Europe during a time when both France and the U.K. are changing leaderships. Germany is also the largest European donor to Central Asia. In contrast to the EU's draft strategy for 2007-2013 barely mentioning Afghanistan while downplaying the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, German FM Steinmeier has recently and repeatedly stated that these two issues coupled with energy will be the essential components in Germany's proposed strategy toward Central Asia. Energy security has also profiled big during Germany's presidency, since the adoption of the EU constitution has procrastinated. Finally, Germany has also advocated a lifting of the sanctions imposed on Uzbekistan which so far has done little but strengthened the influence of China and Russia on the Uzbek regime in the vacuum left behind by the EU's and the U.S.' disengagement after the violence in Andijan in 2005. This awkward yet necessary dialog is something which is urgently needed, since a stable and accommodative Uzbekistan is one of the most important factors for a stable and prosperous Central Asia.

Reseñascríticas: Monitoring sweatshops: Workers, consumers, and the global apparel industry. Por Jill ESBENSHADEReseñascríticas: Globalization and cross‐border labor solidarity in the Americas: The anti‐sweatshop movement and the struggle for social justice. Por Ralph ARMBRUSTER‐SANDOVALLibros recientes: IUSLabor (Barcelona). Revista electrónica trimestral publicada por la Universidad Pompeu Fabra de BarcelonaLibros recientes: Cuadernos de Relaciones Laborales. Revista semestral publicada por la Universidad Complutense de MadridLibros recientes: Revista del Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales (Madrid)Libros recientes: Les chantiers de l'économie sociale et solidaire. Obra dirigida por Alain AMINTAS, Annie GOUZIEN y Pascal PERROTLibros recientes: Mobility, labour migration and border controls in Asia. Obra dirigida por Amarjit KAUR y Ian METCALFELibros recientes: Les mutations de l'emploi en France. Obra colectiva del Institut de recherches économiques et sociales (IRES)Libros recientes: Nurses on the move: Migration and the global health care economy. Por Mireille KINGMALibros recientes: Primer centenario de la inspección de trabajo y seguridad social. Publicación conmemorativaLibros recientes: Recueil d'écrits de Pierre Laroque.Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Anuario de Estadísticas del Trabajo, 2005. 64.a ediciónNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 2005 (64.a edición) y Sources and methods: Labour statistics (vols. 1–10)Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Aplicación de las normas internacionales del trabajo, 2006 (I). Informe de la Comisión de Expertos en Aplicación de Convenios y RecomendacionesNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Inspección del trabajo. Conferencia Internacional del Trabajo, 95.a reunión (2006)Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Aplicación de las normas internacionales del trabajo, 2006 (II). Documento informativo sobre ratificaciones y actividades normativas. Conferencia Internacional del Trabajo, 95.a reunión (2006)Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Competing for global talent. Obra dirigida por Christiane KUPTSCH y Eng Fong PANG. Ginebra, Instituto Internacional de Estudios Laborales de la OIT y Centro Wee Kim Wee, 2006Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Decent work: objectives and strategies. Obra dirigida por Dharam GHAI. Ginebra, Instituto Internacional de Estudios Laborales de la OIT, 2006. xiii + 224 págsNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Directrices sobre la inspección del trabajo en la silvicultura.Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: La eliminación del trabajo infantil: un objetivo a nuestro alcance. Informe global con arreglo al seguimiento de la Declaración de la OIT relativa a los principios y derechos fundamentales en el trabajoNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: L'essentiel sur les salaires minimums dans le monde. François EYRAUD y Catherine SAGET. París, La Documentation française, y OIT, 2005. 122 págsNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Manuel d'ergonomie pratique en 128 points. Solutions pratiques et faciles à mettre en ouvre pour améliorer la sécurité et la santé au travail et les conditions de travailNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Maternity at work: A review of national legislation. Findings from the ILO's Condition of work and Employment Database. Por Ida ÖUN y Gloria PARDO TRUJILLONuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Promover una globalización justa en el sector de los textiles y el vestido tras la expiración del Acuerdo Multifibras. Documento TMTC‐PMFA/2005 del Programa de Actividades Sectoriales de la OITNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: La reforma laboral en América Latina: 15 años después. Un análisis comparado. Por María Luz Vega RuizNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Restructuring for corporate success. A socially sensitive approach. Obra dirigida por Nikolai ROGOVSKYNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Trabajo. Revista semestral publicada por el Centro de Análisis del Trabajo de la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, con el patrocinio de la OIT y de la Universidad de Castilla‐La Mancha. México D.F., Plaza y Valdés EditoresNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Trabajo decente en las Américas: una agenda hemisférica, 2006–2015. Informe del Director General a la XVI Reunión Regional AmericanaNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Actividades de la OIT en las Américas, 2003–2006. Informe del Director General a la XVI Reunión Regional AmericanaNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Vocational education and training institutions. A management handbook and CD‐ROM. Obra dirigida por Vladimir GASSKOV

Ancêtre primitif de l'hebdomadaire qui affiche aujourd'hui encore le même titre, le journal la Patrie paraît pour la première fois le 24 février 1879, à Montréal. Propriété de son éditeur, Honoré Beaugrand, il est publié en une édition quotidienne et se vend un sou le numéro. Le comité de rédaction du journal se compose de deux personnes: Beaugrand et l'avocat Ernest Tremblay.
On trouve dans Rumilly quelques informations utiles sur le tempérament politique des deux rédacteurs. Tremblay, selon l'historien, est un démocrate au lyrisme échevelé; son expérience dans le journalisme se résume au seul titre d'ex-rédacteur du National, porte-parole officiel en français du parti libéral à Montréal, venant tout juste de disparaître après sept années de publication (officiellement abandonné pour insuffisance de fonds).
Quant à Beaugrand, on apprend ce qui suit: « Beaugrand, démocrate avancé [. . .] venait de passer plusieurs années en Nouvelle-Angleterre, où il avait publié un journal errant: la République. Il s'y proclamait disciple de Papineau et incroyant résolu. D'échec en échec, il avait transporté le siège de sa République de ville en ville, à Saint-Louis, à Lowell, à Boston, à Fall-River. En 1877, une polémique le mit aux prises avec Ferdinand Gagnon, qui défendait les bons principes dans le Travailleur, de Worcester. Beaugrand y perdit son crédit en Nouvelle-Angleterre et revint au Canada. Il ne changeait rien à ses idées, et laissait entendre, avec un petit air fanfaron, qu'il s'était affilié à la franc-maçonnerie. Beaugrand, peu robuste mais énergique, avait la franchise de ses idées. Beaucoup de libéraux, qui s'étaient tant défendus de l'alliance radicale, n'acceptèrent qu'à contre-coeur cet allié compromettant. »
Voilà le tandem qui guidera les destinées de la toute nouvelle Patrie, Dès le premier numéro du 24 février 1879, le lecteur est informé du statut officiel du journal et de sa mission sur le plan politique: « La Pairie parait aujourd'hui pour remplacer le National comme organe du parti réformiste dans le district de Montréal. Libéral en politique, le nouveau journal continuera la tradition du parti qui combat le gouvernement de sir John A. MacDonald à Ottawa et qui supporte l'administration Joly à Québec. »
La Patrie s'adresse d'abord aux partisans libéraux de la région de Montréal et à ceux des localités environnantes. Il est possible que plusieurs personnes de Trois-Rivières et de Québec reçoivent aussi le journal mais nous n'avons aucune indication précise sur ce point. Nous ne savons également rien sur le tirage initial du journal. Vers la fin de mars 1879, le lecteur est avisé que le tirage atteint alors 3,500 copies par jour et qu'il sera bientôt porté à 5,000 copies.
À ses débuts, la Patrie étale sa matière sur quatre pages de cinq colonnes. Mais le format s'agrandit par la suite, de sorte qu'en septembre 1879, chaque page du journal contient environ deux fois plus de texte qu'en février. À cette même date, la Patrie se vend en deux éditions quotidiennes, l'une à midi, l'autre à cinq heures. Voici un aperçu de la distribution typique du contenu du journal au cours de 1879 et 1880:
1 ° Sur la première page: des annonces et des extraits de divers journaux, soit canadiens, soit étrangers, sur des sujets plutôt neutres par rapport à la politique.
2° Sur la deuxième page: Un courrier; De brefs articles où l'on commente les problèmes de l'heure, surtout sur les plans politique et économique; Divers extraits soit de journaux canadiens soit de journaux étrangers, avec ou sans commentaires de la Patrie, où sont exposées des positions de principes, polémiques, controverses sur des problèmes d'actualité, des situations ou des individus; Quelquefois aussi on trouve une chronique parlementaire fédérale ou provinciale.
3° Sur la troisième page: des nouvelles locales et régionales, des annonces de tous genres.
4° Sur la quatrième page: un roman-feuilleton et des annonces.

Genetic engineering has the potential to become a key technology of the 21st century. However, the introduction of genetic engineering is socially controversial and is met with mistrust, concern and rejection from the population in a number of applications.
The research project consists of several parts. On the one hand, it is a media content analysis in which the thematization and framing of genetic engineering is examined in daily newspapers and television broadcasts. On the other hand, public opinion on genetic engineering is collected by means of standardised surveys (Eurobarometer). The data from this survey is available on FORSbase. These two methods are supplemented by in-depth qualitative procedures in focus groups through in-depth interviews. Finally, the results of the study are to be verified and diffused in round tables with key actors. By using several instruments - method triangulation - the complexity of the topic and the dynamics of public opinion formation can be taken into account. In addition, this sophisticated design makes it possible to develop methodical innovations at the intersections between the various components.
Switzerland is a particularly interesting field of research for such an investigation, since in this country there is an intensive public discussion of genetic engineering in international comparison. At the same time, intensive media coverage and a high level of public knowledge interact with a pronounced degree of ambivalence or scepticism towards genetic engineering. The project aims to examine the significant cultural differences between German and French-speaking Switzerland by consistently parallelizing the methods.
The project is conceived as a continuation and deepening of a European comparative, interdisciplinary project in which the applicants have already participated in a first phase (see project nr. 6332). The integration into this international framework guarantees the intercultural comparability of the data as well as a longitudinal perspective. This study can make an important contribution to basic research on processes of opinion- and confidence-building in the dynamic field of future technologies. In addition, this project aims to gain insights that will be of importance for the communicative practice of science and journalism, but also for politics and business in the field of risk communication via genetic engineering.
The representative surveys on the level of knowledge and the attitudes of the population towards genetic engineering were carried out analogously to the two so-called Eurobarometer surveys, which were carried out in a first wave in October/November 1996 and for the second time in the winter of 1999 in 15 European countries.
Unfortunately, for financial and logistical reasons, the field work in Switzerland could only be carried out six months later between 20 May and 10 June 1997 and the second time - three years later - between the end of May and mid-June 2000.
In contrast to the international Eurobarometer Survey, in the first Swiss survey the media coverage of the "Dolly" case, critical of genetic engineering, on the one hand, was noticeable. On the other hand, it played an important role that the Swiss population had to vote on the so-called "Gene Protection" initiative on June 7, 1998, and media coverage was therefore already very intensive a year earlier.
The situation before and during the second survey, on the other hand, was completely different, as the "gene protection" initiative had been rejected with a two-thirds majority a year earlier and genetic engineering was therefore only given a rather low priority by the media.
The Swiss Eurobarometer Surveys are a personal survey of two representative samples of approximately 1000 citizens aged 18 and over. Because of the three language regions, three questionnaire variants had to be used, but they were largely identical to the Eurobarometer questionnaires of Germany, France and Italy. In addition, however, some new questions were included in the Swiss questionnaire. The two surveys also differ in that in the second wave, in coordination with the international project, certain questions were asked anew and others from the first wave were no longer used.
FORS archives the data of both Eurobarometer surveys. This document refers to Eurobarometer 2000 and the data from the 1997 survey are archived and described under FORSbase nr. 6332.

La communication proposée vise à présenter une réflexion sur la gestion spatiale des " externalités urbaines ", à partir d'un travail empirique sur la gestion des déchets ménagers et des boues d'épuration de l'agglomération de Tours. C'est l'organisation collective de la gestion de ces externalités qui est analysée, plus particulièrement sa dimension spatiale, et cela à l'aune des préceptes du développement durable qui promeuvent une maîtrise et une responsabilisation des centres urbains à l'égard de leurs émissions polluantes. Le terrain de recherche est constitué d'une agglomération moyenne (Tours, France) et de sa couronne périurbaine. Le cas de Tours est intéressant car le plan de gestion des déchets vient d'être réactualisé à l'occasion de la décision de construire de nouveaux équipements de traitement des déchets (incinérateurs, stations de traitement des eaux). Longtemps les ordures ménagères ainsi que les boues issues des systèmes d'assainissement ont été rejetées aux marges de la ville. Ces effluents étaient valorisés par l'agriculture , contribuant à la valorisation agricole mais également à une dévalorisation de ces espaces périphériques avec l'émergence de conflits sociaux orchestrés par des populations refusant la proximité d'installations traitant les " déchets des autres ". L'accroissement de la population urbaine a rendu ce problème encore plus aigu avec l'augmentation des volumes à traiter. Cependant, l'étalement urbain et les attentes croissantes à l'égard des espaces périurbains -comme lieux de résidence mais aussi de loisirs- font apparaître le risque de voir repousser toujours plus loin des équipements dont personne ne souhaite le voisinage. Apparaît également un risque de ségrégation spatiale entre différents espaces périurbains plus ou moins convoités. S'intéresser à ces émissions revient à prendre en considération les ressources naturelles en ce sens que celles-ci peuvent être affectées par diverses pollutions (de l'air, par les émanations de l'incinération des déchets, du sol et de l'eau lors de l'épandage des boues d'épuration), c'est donc bien la question de la gestion durable des ressources qui est posée. Nous aborderons l'évolution de la gestion spatiale de ces " externalités urbaines ", à partir d'une comparaison des échelles politiques et administratives de prise en compte des problèmes, et les espaces de " solutionnement ", qui correspondent à la localisation des équipements de traitement. Plus précisément, il s'agit de mesurer en quoi l'avènement de la notion de développement durable -tant dans les discours que dans les traductions pratiques- a contribué à un renouvellement de la prise en compte des externalités urbaines. En effet, les déclinaisons normatives de cette notion favorisent d'une part une maîtrise quant à la production de ces externalités, d'autre part une responsabilisation quant à leur gestion. Cette gestion intégrée et durable rejoint le précepte d'" équité sociale " du développement durable qui peut alors être décliné sous forme d'équité spatiale. Aussi ces politiques de gestion durable se traduiraient par une meilleure organisation de la complémentarité entre les espaces de production et les espaces de traitement, freinant ainsi les situations de complémentarité subie. Les outils de planification (Plans départementaux d'élimination des déchets ménagers et plans d'épandage des boues d'épuration) sont des instruments d'organisation de cette complémentarité entre espaces. D'autres outils, de nature économique, comme les compensations financières et matérielles, peuvent être des moyens d'organiser cette complémentarité. Références bibliographiques Berdoulay Vincent, Soubeyran Olivier, L'écologie urbaine et l'urbanisme. Aux fondements des enjeux actuels, Paris, La Découverte, 2002, 268 p. Caruso Geoffrey, La diversité des formes de la périurbanisation en Europe, in : Perrier-Cornet P. (sous la direction de), Repenser les campagnes, La Tour d'Aigues, Editions de l'Aube, 2002, pp. 67-99 Fouchier Vincent, Les densités urbaines et le développement durable, Edition du SGVN, La Documentation Française, 1997 Sauvez Marc, La ville et l'enjeu du "développement durable", Paris, La Découverte, Collection des rapports officiels, 2001, 436 p. Serrano José Theys Jacques, l'approche territoriale du " développement durable ", condition d'une prise en compte de sa dimension sociale, Revue développement durable et territoires, Dossier 1, 2002 Vallée Annie, Economie de l'environnement, Paris, Seuil, 2002, 344 p.

This project explored the impacts of national social and fiscal policies, and reforms to these policies, on poverty reduction. The project covered all 15 (pre-2004) Member States of the EU. It made use of the tax-benefit model, EUROMOD, which was updated and improved as part of the project. The model now operates with baseline policy rules for 2001 and, for 10 countries, 2003. The developing Social Agenda of the EU and the Social Inclusion process in particular, has provided the policy context and has shaped many of the project's activities. Highlights include: Which policies make a difference? We have demonstrated that an assessment of the relative redistributive and poverty-reducing effects of national tax-benefit systems depend on which components are included in the "system". Including the effect of taxes can be important, through the counting of tax concessions as quasi benefits or through accounting for the taxation of benefits. Whether public pensions are included as part of the transfer system, and contributions as part of the tax system can have a large impact on conclusions from cross-country comparisons. Policy learning across countries: Much can be learned from cross-country comparisons of the effects of common policies. Examination of pension reform scenarios under budgetary constraints in four countries shows that the variations in fiscal and distributive effects of a given reform can be very significant. The different starting points in terms of inequality among the elderly, the proportion of them below the national poverty lines, and existing pension arrangements, result in differential effects of some illustrative reform packages designed to protect the most vulnerable pensioners through a period of reform. Different paths for reform are necessary to achieve common objectives across countries. Taking account of changes in labour supply following the adoption of systems from other countries - in this case, Making Work Pay policies – shows that labour market conditions in one country may make the design of a policy from a country with different conditions quite inappropriate or indeed damaging. For example, in France or Germany, the application of the British Working Families Tax Credit would have a net negative impact on employment since the strong decrease in the participation of married women (with working partners) would not be offset by a positive effect on single parents. Replacing the minimal child-targeted social transfer systems of the countries of Southern Europe with child benefits "borrowed" from Northern European systems reduces child poverty significantly. While expensive if introduced on a universal basis, there is scope for designing nonmeanstested benefits – for example those targeted on young children or large families – that can be cost effective in terms of child poverty reduction. Macro changes and micro outcomes: Even when the rate is low, inflation can have a significant effect on both the equalising and revenue-generating properties of income tax and social contribution systems. More broadly, changes such as the level of unemployment, the extent of earnings inequality and the rate of real income growth can change the operation of tax-benefit systems and their effectiveness in reducing the risk of poverty. The size of the effect of such changes on relative poverty rates, and sometimes the direction of the effect varies across the 15 countries. If relative poverty rates are to be used as generally accepted indicators of the outcomes of policy, then it is important that these differential sensitivities are fully understood. Inequality and policy at the regional level: National tax-benefit systems appear particularly efficient at inequality reduction in the poorer regions in a country but much less so in the richer regions. Since some of the new forms of poverty are associated with richer and more urban regions, this calls for further intervention at the level of the regional governments. At the same time, "similar" regions in Europe in terms of economic performance and levels of original income inequality achieve quite different degrees of income inequality once the redistributive role of the national tax-benefit system is accounted for. This may provide an argument on equity grounds for EU intervention in the design of tax-benefit policies.

La communication proposée vise à présenter une réflexion sur la gestion spatiale des " externalités urbaines ", à partir d'un travail empirique sur la gestion des déchets ménagers et des boues d'épuration de l'agglomération de Tours. C'est l'organisation collective de la gestion de ces externalités qui est analysée, plus particulièrement sa dimension spatiale, et cela à l'aune des préceptes du développement durable qui promeuvent une maîtrise et une responsabilisation des centres urbains à l'égard de leurs émissions polluantes. Le terrain de recherche est constitué d'une agglomération moyenne (Tours, France) et de sa couronne périurbaine. Le cas de Tours est intéressant car le plan de gestion des déchets vient d'être réactualisé à l'occasion de la décision de construire de nouveaux équipements de traitement des déchets (incinérateurs, stations de traitement des eaux). Longtemps les ordures ménagères ainsi que les boues issues des systèmes d'assainissement ont été rejetées aux marges de la ville. Ces effluents étaient valorisés par l'agriculture , contribuant à la valorisation agricole mais également à une dévalorisation de ces espaces périphériques avec l'émergence de conflits sociaux orchestrés par des populations refusant la proximité d'installations traitant les " déchets des autres ". L'accroissement de la population urbaine a rendu ce problème encore plus aigu avec l'augmentation des volumes à traiter. Cependant, l'étalement urbain et les attentes croissantes à l'égard des espaces périurbains -comme lieux de résidence mais aussi de loisirs- font apparaître le risque de voir repousser toujours plus loin des équipements dont personne ne souhaite le voisinage. Apparaît également un risque de ségrégation spatiale entre différents espaces périurbains plus ou moins convoités. S'intéresser à ces émissions revient à prendre en considération les ressources naturelles en ce sens que celles-ci peuvent être affectées par diverses pollutions (de l'air, par les émanations de l'incinération des déchets, du sol et de l'eau lors de l'épandage des boues d'épuration), c'est donc bien la question de la gestion durable des ressources qui est posée. Nous aborderons l'évolution de la gestion spatiale de ces " externalités urbaines ", à partir d'une comparaison des échelles politiques et administratives de prise en compte des problèmes, et les espaces de " solutionnement ", qui correspondent à la localisation des équipements de traitement. Plus précisément, il s'agit de mesurer en quoi l'avènement de la notion de développement durable -tant dans les discours que dans les traductions pratiques- a contribué à un renouvellement de la prise en compte des externalités urbaines. En effet, les déclinaisons normatives de cette notion favorisent d'une part une maîtrise quant à la production de ces externalités, d'autre part une responsabilisation quant à leur gestion. Cette gestion intégrée et durable rejoint le précepte d'" équité sociale " du développement durable qui peut alors être décliné sous forme d'équité spatiale. Aussi ces politiques de gestion durable se traduiraient par une meilleure organisation de la complémentarité entre les espaces de production et les espaces de traitement, freinant ainsi les situations de complémentarité subie. Les outils de planification (Plans départementaux d'élimination des déchets ménagers et plans d'épandage des boues d'épuration) sont des instruments d'organisation de cette complémentarité entre espaces. D'autres outils, de nature économique, comme les compensations financières et matérielles, peuvent être des moyens d'organiser cette complémentarité. Références bibliographiques Berdoulay Vincent, Soubeyran Olivier, L'écologie urbaine et l'urbanisme. Aux fondements des enjeux actuels, Paris, La Découverte, 2002, 268 p. Caruso Geoffrey, La diversité des formes de la périurbanisation en Europe, in : Perrier-Cornet P. (sous la direction de), Repenser les campagnes, La Tour d'Aigues, Editions de l'Aube, 2002, pp. 67-99 Fouchier Vincent, Les densités urbaines et le développement durable, Edition du SGVN, La Documentation Française, 1997 Sauvez Marc, La ville et l'enjeu du "développement durable", Paris, La Découverte, Collection des rapports officiels, 2001, 436 p. Serrano José Theys Jacques, l'approche territoriale du " développement durable ", condition d'une prise en compte de sa dimension sociale, Revue développement durable et territoires, Dossier 1, 2002 Vallée Annie, Economie de l'environnement, Paris, Seuil, 2002, 344 p.

La communication proposée vise à présenter une réflexion sur la gestion spatiale des " externalités urbaines ", à partir d'un travail empirique sur la gestion des déchets ménagers et des boues d'épuration de l'agglomération de Tours. C'est l'organisation collective de la gestion de ces externalités qui est analysée, plus particulièrement sa dimension spatiale, et cela à l'aune des préceptes du développement durable qui promeuvent une maîtrise et une responsabilisation des centres urbains à l'égard de leurs émissions polluantes. Le terrain de recherche est constitué d'une agglomération moyenne (Tours, France) et de sa couronne périurbaine. Le cas de Tours est intéressant car le plan de gestion des déchets vient d'être réactualisé à l'occasion de la décision de construire de nouveaux équipements de traitement des déchets (incinérateurs, stations de traitement des eaux). Longtemps les ordures ménagères ainsi que les boues issues des systèmes d'assainissement ont été rejetées aux marges de la ville. Ces effluents étaient valorisés par l'agriculture , contribuant à la valorisation agricole mais également à une dévalorisation de ces espaces périphériques avec l'émergence de conflits sociaux orchestrés par des populations refusant la proximité d'installations traitant les " déchets des autres ". L'accroissement de la population urbaine a rendu ce problème encore plus aigu avec l'augmentation des volumes à traiter. Cependant, l'étalement urbain et les attentes croissantes à l'égard des espaces périurbains -comme lieux de résidence mais aussi de loisirs- font apparaître le risque de voir repousser toujours plus loin des équipements dont personne ne souhaite le voisinage. Apparaît également un risque de ségrégation spatiale entre différents espaces périurbains plus ou moins convoités. S'intéresser à ces émissions revient à prendre en considération les ressources naturelles en ce sens que celles-ci peuvent être affectées par diverses pollutions (de l'air, par les émanations de l'incinération des déchets, du sol et de l'eau lors de l'épandage des boues d'épuration), c'est donc bien la question de la gestion durable des ressources qui est posée. Nous aborderons l'évolution de la gestion spatiale de ces " externalités urbaines ", à partir d'une comparaison des échelles politiques et administratives de prise en compte des problèmes, et les espaces de " solutionnement ", qui correspondent à la localisation des équipements de traitement. Plus précisément, il s'agit de mesurer en quoi l'avènement de la notion de développement durable -tant dans les discours que dans les traductions pratiques- a contribué à un renouvellement de la prise en compte des externalités urbaines. En effet, les déclinaisons normatives de cette notion favorisent d'une part une maîtrise quant à la production de ces externalités, d'autre part une responsabilisation quant à leur gestion. Cette gestion intégrée et durable rejoint le précepte d'" équité sociale " du développement durable qui peut alors être décliné sous forme d'équité spatiale. Aussi ces politiques de gestion durable se traduiraient par une meilleure organisation de la complémentarité entre les espaces de production et les espaces de traitement, freinant ainsi les situations de complémentarité subie. Les outils de planification (Plans départementaux d'élimination des déchets ménagers et plans d'épandage des boues d'épuration) sont des instruments d'organisation de cette complémentarité entre espaces. D'autres outils, de nature économique, comme les compensations financières et matérielles, peuvent être des moyens d'organiser cette complémentarité. Références bibliographiques Berdoulay Vincent, Soubeyran Olivier, L'écologie urbaine et l'urbanisme. Aux fondements des enjeux actuels, Paris, La Découverte, 2002, 268 p. Caruso Geoffrey, La diversité des formes de la périurbanisation en Europe, in : Perrier-Cornet P. (sous la direction de), Repenser les campagnes, La Tour d'Aigues, Editions de l'Aube, 2002, pp. 67-99 Fouchier Vincent, Les densités urbaines et le développement durable, Edition du SGVN, La Documentation Française, 1997 Sauvez Marc, La ville et l'enjeu du "développement durable", Paris, La Découverte, Collection des rapports officiels, 2001, 436 p. Serrano José Theys Jacques, l'approche territoriale du " développement durable ", condition d'une prise en compte de sa dimension sociale, Revue développement durable et territoires, Dossier 1, 2002 Vallée Annie, Economie de l'environnement, Paris, Seuil, 2002, 344 p.