Author's introductionThe media landscape has changed dramatically in recent decades, from one predominated by traditional mass communication formats to today's more personalized communications environment. Mobile telephony plays a central role in this transition, with adoption rates that surpass even those of the Internet. This article attempts to situate the role of mobile communication technology in the changing media environment by examining key areas of social change associated with its widespread diffusion and use. These areas include symbolic meaning of technology, new forms of coordination and social networking, personalization of public spaces, and the mobile youth culture. Drawing from these areas of change, we advance the argument that mobile telephony is iconic of a larger socio‐technological shift toward a new 'personal communication society.'Author recommendsRheingold, Howard 2002. Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.From Tokyo to Helsinki, Manhattan to Manila, Howard Rheingold takes us on a journey around the world for a preview of the next techno‐cultural shift – a shift he predicts will be as dramatic as the widespread adoption of the PC in the 1980s and the Internet in the 1990s. The coming wave, says Rheingold, is the result of super‐efficient mobile communications – cellular phones, personal digital assistants, and wireless‐paging and Internet‐access devices that will allow us to connect with anyone, anywhere, anytime. From the amusing ('Lovegetty' devices in Japan that light up when a person with the right date‐potential characteristics appears in the vicinity) to the extraordinary (the overthrow of a repressive regime in the Philippines by political activists who mobilized by forwarding text messages via cell phones), Rheingold gives examples of the fundamentally new ways in which people are already engaging in group or collective action. He also considers the dark side of this phenomenon, such as the coordination of terrorist cells, threats to privacy, and the ability to incite violent behavior. Applying insights from sociology, artificial intelligence, engineering, and anthropology, Rheingold offers a penetrating perspective on the brave new convergence of pop culture, cutting‐edge technology, and social activism. At the same time, he reminds us that, as with other technological revolutions, the real impact of mobile communications will come not from the technology itself but from how people use it, resist it, adapt to it, and ultimately use it to transform themselves, their communities, and their institutions.Katz, James E. and Mark A. Aakhus (eds.) 2002. Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.This edited volume contains a landmark collection of chapters from researchers all over the world. The book offers a multi‐national perspective on some of the key themes that were identified at the outset of the emergent new field of mobile communication studies, ranging from the private sphere of interpersonal relations to the public performance of social groups and structures. In their conclusion, the editors advance the theoretical orientation of Apparatgeist (translation: 'spirit of the machine') to explain cross‐cultural consistencies in how people conceptualize and use personal communication technologies such as the mobile phone.Ling, Rich 2004. The Mobile Connection: The Cell Phone's Impact on Society. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.This book, based on worldwide research involving tens of thousands of interviews and contextual observations, looks into the impact of the mobile communication on our daily lives. Areas of impact include accessibility, safety and security, coordination of social and business activities, use of public places, and the social emancipation of youth.Ito, Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe, and Misa Matsuda (eds.) 2005. Personal, Portable, Pedestrian: Mobile Phones in Japanese Life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This edited volume explores how Japan's enthusiastic engagement with mobile technology has become part of its trendsetting popular culture. The chapters document the emergence, incorporation, and domestication of mobile communications in a wide range of social practices and institutions. The book first considers the social, cultural, and historical context of keitai (i.e., mobile phone) development in Japan, including its beginnings in youth pager use in the early 1990s. It then discusses the virtually seamless integration of keitai use into everyday life, contrasting it to the more escapist character of Internet use on the PC. Other essays suggest that the use of mobile communication reinforces ties between close friends and family, producing 'tele‐cocooning' by tight‐knit social groups. The book also discusses mobile phone manners and examines keitai use by copier technicians, multitasking housewives, and school children.Castells, Manuel, Mireia Fernandez‐Ardevol, Jack Linchuan Qiu and Araba Sey 2007. Mobile Communication and Society: A Global Perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This book looks at how the possibility of multimodal communication from anywhere to anywhere at any time affects everyday life at home, at work, and at school, and raises broader concerns about politics and culture both global and local. Drawing on data gathered from around the world, the authors explore who has access to wireless technology, and why, and analyze the patterns of social differentiation seen in unequal access. They explore the social effects of wireless communication – what it means for family life, for example, when everyone is constantly in touch, or for the idea of an office when workers can work anywhere. The authors consider the rise of a mobile youth culture based on peer‐to‐peer networks, with its own language of texting, and its own values. They examine the phenomenon of flash mobs, and the possible political implications. And they look at the relationship between communication and development and the possibility that developing countries could 'leapfrog' directly to wireless and satellite technology. Drawing from a global body of research, the book helps answer the key questions about our transformation into a 'mobile network society'.Ling, Rich 2008. New Tech, New Ties: How Mobile Communication Reshapes Social Cohesion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.In New Tech, New Ties, Rich Ling examines how the mobile telephone affects both mobile‐mediated and face to face interactions. Ling finds that through the use of various social rituals the mobile telephone strengthens social ties within the circle of friends and family – sometimes at the expense of interaction with those who are physically present – and creates what he calls 'bounded solidarity'. Ling argues that mobile communication helps to engender and develop social cohesion within the family and the peer group. Drawing on the work of Emile Durkheim, Erving Goffman, and Randall Collins, Ling shows that ritual interaction is a catalyst for the development of social bonding. From this perspective, he examines how mobile communication affects face‐to‐face ritual situations and how ritual is used in interaction mediated by mobile communication. He looks at the evidence, including interviews and observations from around the world, which documents the effect of mobile communication on social bonding and also examines some of the other possibly problematic issues raised by tighter social cohesion in small groups.Katz, James E. (ed.) 2008. Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This edited volume offers a comprehensive view of the cultural, family, and interpersonal consequences of mobile communication across the globe. Leading scholars analyze the effect of mobile communication on all parts of life, from the relationship between literacy and the textual features of mobile phones to the use of ringtones as a form of social exchange, from the 'aspirational consumption' of middle class families in India to the belief in parts of Africa and Asia that mobile phones can communicate with the dead. The contributors explore the ways mobile communication profoundly affects the tempo, structure, and process of daily life around the world. They discuss the impact of mobile communication on social networks, other communication strategies, traditional forms of social organization, and political activities. They consider how quickly miraculous technologies come to seem ordinary and even necessary – and how ordinary technology comes to seem mysterious and even miraculous. The chapters cut across social issues and geographical regions; they highlight use by the elite and the masses, utilitarian and expressive functions, and political and operational consequences. Taken together, the chapters demonstrate how mobile communication has affected the quality of life in both exotic and humdrum settings, and how it increasingly occupies center stage in people's lives around the world.Ling, Rich and Scott W. Campbell (eds.) Forthcoming in Fall/Winter 2008. The Reconstruction of Space and Time: Mobile Communication Practices. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Mobile communication enables us to call specific individuals, not general places. This advancement had changed, and continues to change, human interaction. It also alters the ways people experience both space and time. This edited volume explores these changes through a collection of studies from some of the top mobile communication researchers from around the world. Collectively, the contributions highlight nuanced changes in coordination and cohesion across space and time, the ways people manage mobile communication and mobility in new spatio‐temporal realms, and how individuals relate to their co‐present surroundings while using mobile communication technology.Online materials Resource Center for Mobile Communication Studies http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/ci/cmcs/ The Center for Mobile Communication Studies is the world's first academic unit to focus solely on social aspects of mobile communication. Established in June 2004 at Rutgers University's School of Communication, Information and Library Studies, the Center has become an international focal point for research, teaching, and service on the social, psychological, and organizational consequences of the burgeoning mobile communication revolution. International Journal of Mobile Communication Studies https://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=40 The International Journal of Mobile Communication (IJMC), a fully refereed journal, publishes articles that present current practice and theory of mobile communications, mobile technology, and mobile commerce applications. The objectives of the IJMC are to develop, promote, and coordinate the development and practice of mobile communications. The IJMC aims to help professionals working in the field, academic educators, and policy makers to contribute, to disseminate knowledge, and to learn from each other's work. The international dimension is emphasised in order to overcome cultural and national barriers and to meet the needs of accelerating technological change and changes in the global economy. IJMC is an outstanding outlet that can shape a significant body of research in the field of mobile communications and in which results can be shared across institutions, governments, researchers, and students, and also industry. Wi: The Journal of Mobile Media http://wi‐not.ca/ Wi publishes the latest in Canadian mobilities research, encompassing disciplines such as design, engineering, computer science, communications, and media studies. MobileActive.org http://mobileactive.org/ MobileActive.org is an all‐volunteer community of people and organizations using mobile phones for social impact. They are committed to increasing the effectiveness of NGOs around the world who recognize that the 3.5 billion mobile phones provide unprecedented opportunities for organizing, communications, and service and information delivery. They work together to create the resources NGOs need to effectively use mobile phones in their work: locally relevant content and services, support and learning opportunities, and networks that help MobileActives connect to each other. With these things on hand, tens of thousands of NGOs will be in a better position to enrich and serve their communities. The MobileActive.org community includes grassroots activists, NGO staff, intermediary organizations, content and service providers, and organizations who fund mobile technology projects. Mobile Society http://www.mobilesociety.net/ Mobile Society is an academic research website focusing on social aspects of the mobile phone. The site includes links and information about news, events, publications, and other related sites pertaining to the social consequences of mobile communication. SmartMobs: The Next Social Revolution http://www.smartmobs.com/ A Website and Weblog about topics and issues discussed in the book 'Smart Mobs' by Howard Rheingold.Select sample syllabus topics and readings for course on 'the social consequences of mobile communication' History and adoption of the mobile phone
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 1: Introduction. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 1: The Diffusion of Wireless Communication in the World.
Theoretical perspectives on the relationship between technology and society: Part 1, social and technological determinism
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 2: Making Sense of Mobile Telephone Adoption. Campbell, Scott W. and Tracy C. Russo 2003. The Social Construction of Mobile Telephony. Communication Monographs 70: 317–34.
Theoretical perspectives on the relationship between technology and society: Part 2, the 'network' perspective
Castells, Manuel. 2000. 'The Rise of Network Society' Opening Chapter: The Network is the Message. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 5: The Space of Flows, Timeless Time, and Mobile Networks.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 1, safety and security
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 3: Safety and Security.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 2: new forms of coordination
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 4: The Coordination of Everyday Life.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 3: new social networking practices
Ling, Rich and Birgitte Yttri. 2002. 'Hyper‐coordination via Mobile Phones in Norway' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact. Licoppe, Christian. 2003. 'Two Modes of Maintaining Interpersonal Relations through Telephone: From the Domestic to the Mobile Phone' in J. Katz (ed.) Machines that Become Us. Campbell, Scott. W. and Michael Kelley. 2006. Mobile phone use in AA networks: An exploratory study. Journal of Applied Communication Research 34: 191–208.
Apparatgeist: 'Spirit of the machine' and the fashion and function of the mobile phone
Katz, James E. and Mark Aakhus. 2002. 'Conclusion: Making meaning of mobiles – a theory of Apparatgeist' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact. Campbell, Scott W. 2008. 'Mobile Technology and the Body: Apparatgeist, Fashion and Function' in J. Katz (eds.) Handbook of Mobile Communication.
SMS and the language of wireless communication
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 7: Texting and the Growth of Asynchronous Discourse. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society, Chapter 6: The Language of Wireless Communication.
Use of mobile technology in public settings
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 6: The Intrusive Nature of Mobile Technology. Okabe, Daisuke and Ito, Mizuko. 2005. 'Keitai in public transportation' in Ito, Okabe, & Matsuda (eds.) Personal, Portable, Pedestrian. Ito, Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe and Ken Anderson 2008. 'Portable Objects in Three Global Cities: The Personalization of Urban Places' in Ling & Campbell (eds.) Reconstruction of Space and Time: Mobile Communication Practices. Campbell, Scott W. 2006. Perceptions of mobile phones in college classrooms: Ringing, cheating, and classroom policies. Communication Education 55: 280–294.
M 10/22 Use of the technology around co‐present others and the challenge of 'absent presence'
Cumiskey, Kathleen. 2007. 'Hidden meanings: Understanding the social‐psychological impact of mobile phone use through storytelling' in Goggin & Hjorth (eds.) Mobile Media Proceedings. Gergen, Kenneth. 2002. 'The challenge of absent presence' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact.
The mobile youth culture
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 5: The Mobile Telephone and Teens. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 4: The Mobile Youth Culture.
Mobile communication in the socio‐political sphere
Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society Chapter 7: The Mobile Civil Society: Social Movements, Political Power, and Communication Networks. Rheingold, Howard. 2002. 'Smart Mobs' Chapter 7: Smart Mobs – The Power of the Mobile Many. Campbell, Scott W. and Nojin Kwak. 2008, May. Mobile communication and the public sphere: Linking patterns of use to civic and political engagement. Paper presented at the ICA pre‐conference, The Global and Globalizing Dimensions of Mobile Communication: Developing or Developed?, Montreal.
W 11/7 Mobile communication in the developing world
Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 8: Wireless Communication and Global Development: New Issues, New Strategies. Donner, Jonathan. 2008. Research approaches to mobile use in the developing world: A review of the literature. The Information Society 24: 140–159. Donner, Jonathan. 2008. The rules of beeping: Exchanging messages via intentional 'missed calls' on mobile phones. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 13(1). Available: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/donner.html.
M 11/12 Mobile communication and work
Andriessen, Erick and Mattai Vartianen. 2006. Emerging Mobile Virtual Work in Andriessen & Vartianen (eds.) Mobile Virtual Work: A New Paradigm? Perry, Mark and Jackie Brodie. 2006. Virtually Connected, Practically Mobile in Andriessen & Vartianen (eds.) Mobile Virtual Work: A New Paradigm? Chesley, Noelle. 2005. Blurring boundaries? Linking technology use, spillover, individual distress, and family satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family 67: 1237–1248.
OptionalFocus questions
To what extent does mobile communication lead to changes in family dynamics? On the one hand, mobile communication empowers youth to carry out their social relations 'under the radar' of parental supervision. In the 'old days', kids had to share a domestic landline phone and had less privacy, or had to shut themselves up in their room when on the phone to get privacy. The mobile phone is anytime/anywhere and it a personal object (not shared), so users have much more control over their private relations. Text messaging is an especially effective way of having private communication. Because of all this, young people have more autonomy to live out their social lives as they see fit. On the other hand, the mobile phone also gives parents more control by being able to better keep tabs on their kids and their kids' whereabouts. In some respects, it can actually be considered as an 'umbilical cord' keeping kids accountable to their parents. This is an interesting dichotomy for discussion. To what extent and how does the mobile phone support 'perpetual contact' among social ties? There seems to be a continual flow of communication now, which some refer to as 'perpetual contact'. Follow‐up questions could be: how is this a good thing? Are there negative aspects of perpetual contact? How is the mobile phone used for boundary management (i.e., demarcating in‐group members from out‐group members)? This can be seen in names kept in contact lists, who people text with, whose calls they screen, and even the style or brand of a phone ... some groups of friends get the same types of phones. What are the effects of taking/placing a phone call when interacting with physically co‐present others? What are norms for doing this? How can people mitigate the intrusion? On a related note to the questions above ... to what extent does the mobile phone lead to 'absent presence?' The notion of absent presence refers to being physically present, but socially absent. To what extent is this problematic? To what extent might mobile communication lead to 'tele‐cocooning?' Some are concerned that people are getting so wrapped up in their tight little social networks now, that they are less engaged with others who are weak social ties. If this is true, then it begs the question about whether there are benefits to having weak social ties. Most feel there are benefits, like being exposed to a diversity of perspectives and ideas. With regard to the changing media landscape, where else do we see increased 'personalization' in our uses of traditional mass media? In this sense, 'personalization' can refer to personalized content, interactivity, control, etc.
Research project idea (note this approach can be taken with any of the topics recommended above)Description of the paperMobile communication technology has become a common artifact in public settings, offering a means for social connection for its users and unsolicited melodies, chirps, and half conversations for co‐present others. Because social norms for behavior around others often conflict with those for phone conversations, mobile communication can present as many challenges as it does opportunities for maintaining social order. In class, we will discuss numerous perspectives on this topic, such as absent presence, symbolic fences, front stage‐back‐stage dynamics, and cocooning through mobile media. The purpose of this paper is to conduct an original investigation of the use of mobile communication technology around others. Each student will select a particular aspect of this phenomenon to explore in depth by collecting data first‐hand, analyzing those data, and drawing conclusions to shed new light on this topic. Students may choose to examine mobile communication in a particular setting, compare mobile communication in different social contexts or across different users, examine or compare the use of certain types of mobile technologies, observe reactions of and effects on non‐users of the technology, or select some other such 'angle' for the project that sheds light on this topic.Paper guidelinesYour paper should contain the following sections: (1) An introduction that justifies the importance of your topic and provides a clear explanation of the purpose of the paper, (2) a review of relevant literature/theory/key concepts to frame your particular project followed by specific research questions, (3) a method section explaining how you collected data (observation, interviews, questionnaires, and/or otherwise) and how you analyzed your data, and (4) a discussion section that develops conclusions based on the findings. Each paper should have at least 10 scholarly citations, of which at least half should come from readings other than those assigned for class. Use American Psychological Association (5th edition) to format citations and reference list. Papers should be about 10 pages in length, double‐spaced. In addition to meeting these guidelines, the writing should be clearly organized within each section and (of course) well‐written. Students will present their papers in class at the end of the semester.
The paper aims to articulate an "encounter" between Autonomist Marxism (AM) and World-Ecology (WE), that is, between two theoretical paradigms increasingly discussed at the global level, but so far never analyzed in close connection to one another. AM is a current of unorthodox Marxism that is characterized, methodologically, by the partiality of the point of view, the constitutive unity of thought and conflict, the ambivalence of the working-class condition (labor force / abstract labor within capital, working class / living labor against capital), and the centrality of class composition. Politically, AM proposes two main innovations: the practice of refusal of work, and the so-called Copernican revolution, according to which class struggle comes first and capitalist organization follows suit (instituting, therefore, a causal and incremental link between workers' unrest and capitalist development).WE can be defined as a global conversation that develops the analysis of the world-system along distinctively environmental lines: capitalism, therefore, does not have an ecological regime, but rather is an ecological regime, i.e. a specific way of organizing nature. Beyond any residue of Cartesian dualism, the concept of world-ecology refers to an original mixture of social dynamics and natural elements that make up the capitalist mode of production in its historical development, and in its tendency to become a world-market. In this framework, the capitalist theory of value imposes space as flat and geometric, time as homogeneous and linear, and nature as external, infinite, and free.The aim of this paper is to show that, although the two perspectives relate to the question of the (ecological) crisis in a very different way, they can be effectively integrated if juxtaposed on a different level - that of the historico-political analysis of the question concerning the environment. Both approaches originally rework Marx's crisis theory, but they do not completely avoid the polarization that marked its evolution: development vs. catastrophe.AM tends to renew the tradition that sees the crisis as a moment of development and historicizes it through original interpretations of the cycle of struggles 1968-1973, claiming its defeat was "peculiar" as it imposed a change in the structure of capitalist valorization in the direction of an expansion of its accumulation base. The causes of this transition are to be found in the intersection between the financialization of the economy, the cognitization of labor and, above all, the becoming-productive of the sphere of social reproduction. On the other hand, WE elaborates the so-called "breakdown" theory in unprecedented fashion. The starting point is a convincing reconstruction of the historical succession of long waves of economic cycles through an articulation of underproduction (of ecological surplus) and overproduction (of commodities). Thus, WE provides an instrumental ecological counterpoint to the socio-centric reading of AM through the fundamental notion of negative value — the most innovative analytical element with regard to the neoliberal form of crisis theory. However, the general discursive strategy follows that of every breakdown theory ever since the "classical" debate within the Second International. Therefore, it is aimed at showing that, although the crises of the twentieth century were developmental (that is, they fostered the capitalist restructuring at a higher level), the crisis we live through nowadays presents itself as epochal in that its result is deemed to be an inevitable collapse.The convergence between the two paradigms —which is actually a rather demanding theoretical exchange, and as such require some deep rethinking for both positions— can take place through a re-reading of the historical process of politicization of ecology. Although it is customary to date it between the mid-seventies and the following decade —i.e. after the great cycle of Fordist conflicts— in recent years a different hypothesis is being tested: that such politicization occurred not only a decade earlier, but also, and above all, because of rather than despite the struggles of the workers' movement (in close connection with the rise cycle of revolutionary feminism). With particular regard to the Italian context, the struggles against noxiousness, which multiplied between the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s, and often in opposition to the confederal unions, were the first to fiercely criticize the so-called monetization of risk; that is,the idea that wage increases and/or organizational benefits could "compensate" for exposure to pollutants, even hazardous ones. Although this criticism would never become common sense of trade union action, such occurrence does not deny that it was first of all the strength of organized workers that blew up the compensatory mechanism and (im)posed the ecological question as politically unavoidable. Only at a later stage will the environmental movement emerge along with a new post-materialist sensitivity among the urbanized intermediate strata.Against this background, the paper proposes an analysis of neoliberal green economy —i.e. the capitalist attempt to internalize the ecological limit, turning it from obstacle to valorization, through an innovative strategy of accumulation— as simultaneously assuming the form of development (in accordance with AM hypothesis) and of anti-development (in accordance with WE hypothesis). From this plausible "convergence" could then emerge a political interpretation of the contemporary ecological crisis, capable of questioning the relationship between capitalism and nature by avoiding both catastrophism and the elective affinity between the logic of profit and the logic of environmental protection.In this unprecedented context, WE can grasp the second aspect through the concept of negative value, which correctly conveys the message that climate change, health-related emergencies, and the narrowing of waste borders make the ecological crisis an unprecedented everyday reality in the history of capitalism. In fact, negative value implies an internal contradiction of the dynamics of capital and, above all, an ontological challenge to the valorization project, therefore to capitalist civilization tout court.On the other hand, AM is in a privileged position to make sense of the shift from the rhetoric of limits to growth, which somehow alluded to environmental noxiousness as a crisis of capitalism, to a rhetoric of growth of limits, which identifies these latter as drivers of accumulation, as "filters" that turn the ecological constraint into a crisis for capitalism. Furthermore, AM can now show that commodities traded on environmental markets contain value as they are produced by hybrid units of labor (reproductive / informational) and nature (financialized). However, the developmental potential of such green economy must also be relativized. In fact, the process of enhancing the "free" activity of nature seems, at least until now, to be unable both to "repair" the environmental damage already done and to provide widespread social protections potentially able to compensate for the class polarization that invariably accompanies the multiplication of financial dividends. What neoliberal capitalism lacks is an inclusive mechanism capable of (partially) socializing financial profits either through a decarbonization of the economy, or through the formation of a new middle class (or both). ; Este artículo pretende articular un encuentro entre el operaísmo y la ecología-mundo, es decir, un encuentro entre dos paradigmas teóricos cada vez más objeto de debate a nivel global, pero que, hasta el momento, no han sido analizados en estrecha relación. El operaísmo es una corriente del marxismo heterodoxo caracterizada por centrarse en la ambivalencia de la condición de la clase obrera (fuerza de trabajo/trabajo abstracto dentro del capital, clase obrera/trabajo vivo contra el capital) y la noción de la composición de clases sociales. La ecología-mundo puede definirse como un diálogo internacional que desarrolla el análisis del sistema-mundo desde una perspectiva ambiental: el capitalismo, por lo tanto, no tiene un régimen ecológico, sino que es un régimen ecológico, es decir, constituye un modo especifico de organizar la naturaleza. El objetivo de este artículo es demostrar que, a pesar de que las dos perspectivas se relacionan con la cuestión de la crisis (ecológica) de forma muy distinta, ellas pueden integrarse eficazmente si son yuxtapuestas a otro nivel: el del análisis histórico-político de la cuestión medioambiental. En su origen, ambos planteamientos revisan la teoría de la crisis de Marx, pero no eluden la polarización que caracteriza su evolución: mientras que el operaísmo tiende a reafirmar la tradición que considera la crisis como un momento de desarrollo, la ecología-mundo desarrolla la teoría de la brecha metabólica de un modo bastante inaudito. La convergencia entre estos dos paradigmas —lo que, en realidad, constituye un exigente intercambio teórico y que, por lo tanto, requiere una intensa reflexión por parte de ambas posiciones— puede producirse a través de una relectura del proceso histórico de la politización de la ecología. Aunque se suele situarlo entre mediados de los años setenta y la siguiente década —tras el gran ciclo de conflictos fordistas—, en los últimos años se está comprobando una hipótesis distinta: esta politización no sólo ocurrió una década antes, pero también, y, sobre todo, sucedió debido a, y no a pesar de, las luchas del movimiento obrero (en estrecha relación con el surgimiento del feminismo revolucionario). En ese contexto, la economía verde neoliberal —es decir, el intento capitalista de internalizar el límite ecológico, transformándolo de un obstáculo a la valorización a una estrategia innovadora de acumulación— asume simultáneamente la forma de desarrollo (en línea con la hipótesis postulada por el operaísmo) y la de antidesarrollo (en línea con la hipótesis defendida por la ecología-mundo). De esta "convergencia" plausible podría emerger entonces una interpretación política de la crisis ecológica contemporánea capaz de cuestionar la relación entre el capitalismo y la naturaleza, al evitar tanto el catastrofismo como la afinidad electiva entre la lógica del beneficio y la lógica de la protección medioambiental.
ServPPIN is a research project which focuses on the role of public and private services on growth and welfare and the particular role of public-private innovation networks (PPIN). Public-private innovation networks are considered to be an organisational platform in which public and private services can perform complementarities and synergies in many ways.The project analyses public and private services, and their impact on growth and welfare. In particular it focuses on service innovation and on public-private services, and their impact on growth and welfare. Specifically, the main objectives of ServPPIN are: •To identify the linkages between services, economic and social growth, understanding the contribution of service innovations in the current economy and society and any differences that may exist between the public and private sectors. •To understand how public-private sector interactions function, and how they can be better managed by private and public sector policy-makers to increase performance and welfare. •To understand the characteristics of public-private service networks that induces innovation, growth, employment and welfare. ServPPIN has undertaken new theoretical and empirical fieldwork involving cross-country and cross-sector empirical analysis. New techniques are applied for impact analysis: both public and private services, comparing impacts on performance (productivity, competitiveness) with impacts on welfare (e.g., employment, service quality, 'universal' access to services). The project has been organised around nine working packages (WP). In order to define the service innovation and service public-private innovation networks (ServPPINs) concept, and to guide the interface between theory and empirical research, the project has developed an analytical framework for studying multi-institutional networks. The empirical research has followed a three-pronged approach:•A large-scale statistical analysis of public and private services in growth and welfare at the macroeconomic level. •A statistical analysis of the contributions ServPPINs to performance, growth and welfare at the meso and sectoral level.•Case studies covering major services types: health, transport and tourism and knowledge intensive services. The project has produced new knowledge and European added value through: •Knowledge creation on the service economy: growth factors, facilitators and impacts on productivity, employment, socioeconomic changes, and welfare.•New approach to service innovation from a multi-agent framework perspective.•Understanding of public-private interactions through the case of networks and related dynamics including the use of life cycle theory. •Drawing of functional and effective policy lines.ServPPIN tackles the key developments and impacts of public-private services provision and of public-private innovation networks (PPINs) at three levels of analysis: macro, meso and micro. At macro level the main outcomes of the project are related to new service developments, service innovation and the contribution to growth and welfare. The project studies the stylized facts on public, private and mixed services; their similarities and dissimilarities across the enlarged EU; the challenges of the EU service economy; the explanatory factors of services growth and assesses the performance and efficiency of services. At present, the ever-increasing and dynamic role of services in modern societies has led to increasing levels of interaction between public and private services and to the development of mixed forms. Moreover, across the enlarged EU, the dominant trend is towards the increasing participation of private services in total employment, although a diverse macro and meso mapping of service economies in close correlation with social and institutional models can also be found. Furthermore, the variety of service economies in the EU can be explained on the basis of the different roles played by factors such as the state, social changes, labour market institutions and previous developments in the evolution of public, private and mixed services. ServPPIN has also proven that although private and public services have made significant contributions to aggregated growth in the EU in recent years, their impacts should also be assessed on the basis of a multidimensional approach which takes into account outcomes and quality aspects.In addition, the project addresses the different dimensions of public and private service innovation and examines the impacts of innovation on productivity, growth and employment. Services, particularly the knowledge-based ones, are very active in terms of innovation in all developed countries. Besides technological innovations, non-technological or intangible forms of innovations play an important role in services despite not being comprehensively captured by statistics yet. Along with the problems related to the measurement of innovation, lies another one concerning performance. Thus, an innovation and a performance 'gap' are identified in contemporary advanced service economies. ServPPIN aligns with the integrative perpective of innovation in services, also studying service innovation specificities in the field of public services. Public and private innovation networks can be partly related to the 'open innovation' models and social innovation models which have the particularities of being cooperative and interactive. At meso level the main outcomes relate to theory developments under multi-institutional frameworks, the concept of innovation network life cycle and the study of the role played by evolutionary inefficiencies in the networks. The application of social network analysis allows acknowledging for the heterogeneity of actors in the network and their different roles. From this focus on networks, we derive a new rational of innovation policy that can be summarized under 'avoiding evolutionary inefficiencies'. This approach seeks to avoid situations which hamper the economic development. Such network inefficiencies concern the amount of existing links among the relevant actors, the size of the network, its structure, and the different roles that the individual actors play within the network. In this perspective, the structures and dynamics of innovation networks become the focus of attention as well as the starting point of action in innovation policy.At micro level, ServPPIN followed a case study approach. In 2008/2009, the project teams carried out 40 case studies in seven different countries in the following sectors: transport; health services and in knowledge-intensive services and tourism. Case studies provide a micro-perspective on the emergence of innovation networks over their life cycle and give insight as regards drivers, actor configurations, impacts and critical events of their evolution over time. The key role played by the third sector and entrepreneurship in many PPINs is stressed which is also closely connected with rising social innovation.Results have shown the importance of cooperation and interaction in innovative service networking between public and private agents -and civil third sector, allowing exploiting potential complementarities and synergies in areas such as credibility, dissemination, speeding up the process of agenda setting and decision making, more comprehensive view of the problems, legitimacy, resources, efficiency, flexibility, public research more efficient, learning capacity and knowledge transfer. ServPPINs are mainly organizational networks, often small, professional and goal oriented that can be partly considered social innovation in some cases, but they cannot be considered as social networks in full. The success of service innovation networks can derived from four main interrelated sources:a. The role of promoters and drivers -both internal and external- of ServPPINs is essential. Success factors require the definition and implementation of a joint business case, trust -fundamental in many of the case studies analyzed-, a good entrepreneurial fit, flexible structures, use of inputs from benchmarking exercises, and pro-innovation enterpreneurship and culture. Finance also play a role as well as the establishment of the right strategy between bottom-up or top-bottom set up that may vary depending on the particular service innovation to be developed and the institutional context. b.The integration of a particular individual innovation network within systemic and social network, what can be reflected in the role of the role of third sector, the integration in local community, and the different facilitators from institutions such as universities or public and policy administrations and, in general, society through social innovation networks. The muti-agent framework for service innovation has been tested and can be considered as a appropriate platform where different agents and interact to make a network innovative and successful. To some extent, successful ServPPINs can be considered the outcome of successful social innovation crystallized in a the small, professional and goal-oriented nature of most of them c.The overcoming of barriers to ServPPINs in areas such as the rigidity of public administrations, the mistrust and expectations mismatch, the existence of different interests and incentive systems, the problem of free riders and asymmetric information, networking competences and, in some cases, mainly knowledge-oriented services, appropriability problems.d.The reduction of evolutionary inefficiencies in the lice cycles of Servppin where networks are not efficient enough to adapt to the changing phases of their life and the different external and internal elements that can drastically affect their development, their expected functioning and impact and even their own nature and composition. At policy level three broad objectives of possible policy intervention are identified to overcome market and systemic failures, reduce evolutionary inefficiencies and increase the contribution of ServPPINs to growth and welfare: •Strengthening service-specific innovation and innovation capabilities of firms, users and other agents involved in innovation•Facilitating co-operation and networks involving service and social innovation•Empowering the public sector and the third sector for co-operation: role of civil society Moreover, the promotion of ServPPINs may be based on the enhancement and application of a full range of policies such as: R&D policies, innovation policies, public procurement, standards, regional policies, employment & skills, internal market, competition, health, transport, tourism, etc. In this sense, service-oriented innovation policy is not necessarily aimed at specific individual's service sector: in contrast, it can be seen as a predominantly horizontal policy, going across sectors, based on service innovation being considered as a systemic dimension useful for any kind of economic activity, thus, encouraging the development of public-private innovative networks.
Inhaltsangabe:Abstract: This working paper shall investigate the trade integration between Turkey and the EU. The plan of this book is as follows. At first the historical background of the development concerning the trade relations between the two parties is conveyed. This includes the period from first association to implementing a customs union (CU) between Turkey and the European Union (EU) and to deeper integration abolishing barriers of trade until today. Subsequently an evaluation of the influence of the customs union follows in chapter 3 which constitutes the main part of the paper. Hereby the analysis is divided into the short-term static and long-term dynamic effects of the CU with the EU that Turkey entered on 1st January 1996. To analyze the static effects this paper adopts Viner's traditional approach, by comparing the trade creation effects with the trade diversion effects resulting from the removal of trade restrictions for Turkey and the EU as a whole. Thus, the predominant economical theory applied in this paper is the neoclassical customs union theory. This theory was chosen because it still is the predominant and widely recognized theory in analyzing trade data providing a variety of tools. Within the neoclassical theory Ricardo as well as Heckscher-Ohlin play an important role as a tool of analysis. In the relevant passages in the text the most important theoretical principles will be explained with the help of the Turkish example. At the limits of the neoclassical theories the new trade theory is supposed to help out especially where the assumptions of the neoclassical theory limit further analysis. It is the purpose of this paper to analyze the question how the trade liberalization in form of the CU between Turkey and the EU influences the development of Turkish welfare, specialization in different sectors, economies of scale, competitiveness, technological transfer and direct foreign investment. In some parts of the paper the analysis also refers to some effects for the EU, but main emphasis shall clearly be laid upon the effects on the Turkish economy. For the analysis foreign trade data is used which was compiled by the Turkish Undersecretariat of the Prime Ministry for Foreign Trade, the Prime Ministry Undersecretariat of Treasury, the Turkish Statistical Institute and Eurostat. Finding the adequate data created difficulties because of different time spans available and data from different sources being not comparable. This is why the time spans observed are sometimes not optimal. Therefore the analysis concentrates on the development within the last years, because not many studies were written in the 21st century or using data from this period. Thus, where long time spans were not available, the findings from old studies are compared with the new findings based on data from the last years. Especially within chapter 3.3 dealing with the dynamic effects this approach is reasonable since it shows the long term effects of the CU. The last subitem within chapter 3 allows a glance at the possibility of further integration taking monetary integration as an example. Last but not least chapter 4 will summarize the findings of the previous sections which will lead to a final estimation of the effects of the CU on Turkey and the EU.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSIII LIST OF FIGURESIV APPENDICES INDEXV 1.INTRODUCTION1 2.HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ABOUT THE RELATIONS BETWEEN TURKEY AND THE EU2 2.1GENERAL OVERVIEW2 2.2FROM THE ASSOCIATION AGREEMENT UNTIL TODAY THE HISTORY OF THE CU3 2.3FROM PROTECTIONISM TO MORE TRADE LIBERALISATION6 2.4THE ABOLITION OF BARRIERS TO TRADE8 2.4.1Tariff barriers8 2.4.2Non-tariff barriers9 3.THE CUSTOMS UNION AS A FORM OF TRADE INTEGRATION - IMPLICATIONS FOR TURKEY AND THE EU13 3.1GENERAL ANALYSIS13 3.2THE STATIC EFFECTS OF THE CUSTOMS UNION18 3.3DYNAMIC EFFECTS25 3.3.1The specialization effect25 3.3.1.1Inter-industry trade25 3.3.1.1.1Theoretical background Neoclassic25 3.3.1.1.2Turkey's comparative advantage27 3.3.1.2Intra-industry trade32 3.3.2Economies of scale35 3.3.3Competitiveness38 3.3.4Technological transfer40 3.3.5Direct foreign investment44 3.3.5.1Theoretic implementation44 3.3.5.2Direct foreign investment inflows by countries46 3.3.5.3Direct foreign investment volume47 3.3.5.4Direct foreign investment by sectors48 3.3.5.5Prospects50 3.4EXCHANGE RATES EXCURSUS: FREE FLOATING OR PEGGING TO THE EURO52 3.4.1Gains and losses from pegging to the euro52 3.4.2Recommendation55 4.CONCLUSIONS59 BIBLIOGRAPHY62 INTERNET SOURCES67 APPENDICES71Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.3.4 Technological transfer: According to the theory of catching up underdeveloped countries may close a technology gap by free trade. The more a country's productivity and technology is backward the higher is its growth potential and its growth rates in case of free trade. Trade also causes a technology transfer, and underdeveloped nations may use new technologies without spending a lot on invention. This is also connected with the product cycle hypothesis. The high developed industrial countries are the producers of new products realising export monopolies at the beginning of the product cycle. If the product reaches its maturing stage less developed countries may foster development through imitation. In the standardization period, it is possible to produce with standardised techniques and low-qualified labour, which makes it possible for developing countries to specialise on these goods due to their lower costs of production and low wage rates. This is also often thanks to direct foreign investment (DFI), giving the ability to develop competitive products. Rising commercial contacts between countries causes an accumulation of knowledge. This leads to a catching-up, while producing low technology goods under protection causes falling behind. Producing standardised low-technology goods may end in the so called Heckscher-Ohlin trap. That means that there is no remarkable technical progress because of lacking human capital accumulation in the production. There is no significant technology transfer because DFI is also going into branches with less human capital. Without technical progress the country will fall behind. Low-technology goods in the exporting sector will suffer from rising competition in the world market. Convergence is evoked mainly by the 2 factors technological progress and capital accumulation. Faster implementation of technological innovations can lead to a higher rate of technological change. As an industrializing country, Turkey needs advanced technologies to speed up its industrialization process. There is a natural alliance between the new trade theory, with its emphasis on increasing returns and imperfect competition, and the view that technological change is a key factor driving international specialization. Technological development is normally an increasing returns process carried out in imperfectly competitive industries, and the most important sources of increasing returns in practice probably lie in dynamic economies of learning and research and development. If bigger sales markets and increased competition initiate innovations and growth processes, which excite technologic dynamics, then those positive effects can be carried over to other companies or even to other sectors by spill-over effects, learning effects and income effects. Technological gaps are also explainable with the traditional trade theory. The H–O model would predict that technologically advanced countries have a comparative advantage in technology-intensive goods. Innovation, by increasing the range of products, represents an increase in real world productivity. Technology transfer then since it is allowing a wider range of goods in Turkey, also represents a gain from a global point of view. Innovation as well as technology transfer increase world output. Hereby innovation disproportionately benefits the EU, the more innovative area, while technological transfer supports Turkey. The high protection rates of the Turkish industry before the CU lead to a relatively underdeveloped level of technology in its production. It shall be considered how this situation changed under the CU. The whole level of technology itself is not measurable; however technology-input can be measured with the expenses for education, research and development or the employment of scientists and engineers. The following graphic gives an overview about the employment of research and development (RD) personnel including scientists and technicians. As it can be seen the number of people employed within RD increased significantly during the regarded period. The comparison between Turkey and other chosen countries in Appendix N with respect to the education expenses as a percentage of GDP confirms Turkey's high technology input. In 2002 Turkey spend 7.26% on education being 1.36 percentage points higher than the OECD average. Unfortunately there are no time series evidences available in this matter. Yet, the different factors indicating Turkey's technology input show positive results. Technology-output is measured by the number of patent applications. If this number increases within the time period of the CU it can be interpreted as a positive sign for the catching-up process of Turkey. Alternatively the percentage of innovative firms can give an impression about the technology output. In the following graphic the development during the years 1997-2004 is shown. The percentage of innovative firms increased being a sign on the one hand of more investment in RD and on the other hand of possible spillover effects due to the closer integration with Europe. The overall estimation for Turkey's technology change is a positive one although Turkey still needs to increase its transfer of technology to overcome the shortcomings of their trade balance. Another possibility would be to attract more DFI which is the topic of the next chapter. Direct foreign investment: Positive growth effects can occur when the CU leads to an increase in investments. Reasons like high competition plead for such a positive relation. The CU had influence on the location and volume of real investment which is analysed in more detail in this chapter. Theoretic implementation: "Direct foreign investment is defined as an investment in which the investor acquires a substantial controlling interest in a foreign firm or sets up a subsidiary in a foreign country. DFI involves ownership or control of a business enterprise abroad." Thus the distinctive feature of DFI is that it involves not only a transfer of resources but also the acquisition of control. The subsidiary is part of the same organizational structure. In case of a plant the transfer of resources and production capabilities, and therefore DFI, contribute to the industrial base of the host country Turkey. DFI is one important pillar of convergence theories, in which it is assumed that capital flows into the region with lower wages and higher interest rates. In the "catching up" theory it is the source of technology and know-how because every investment from developed countries will cause a technology transfer, and the production will have external effects via learning-by-doing and spill-over to other industries. Increasing intra-industry trade is a sign of catching up while DFI flows may be an indicator of technology transfer. The growth in investments is one important requirement to catch up with the development level of the EU. There are a lot of factors determining investment decisions, among others: In developing countries there often exists a lack of savings and capital accumulation which is needed to realize additional profitable investments. Hence investment opportunities which promise high profits are realised by foreign entrepreneurs especially if the domestic demand in the invested sector offers good growth prospects. Another advantage is the relatively cheap quality and surplus of the labour force in developing countries. By shifting the assembly industries to these countries they can reduce their costs and increase their ability to compete in the world market. Moreover the geographical position of the country and suitable connections to different foreign markets are a determining factor for choosing the country of investment. In this way Turkey could be used as an export base to the Middle Eastern and Islamic countries. Susanne Voigt, Studium an der Berufsakademie Berlin in der Fachrichtung Bank, Abschluss 2004 als Diplom-Betriebswirtin (BA), Aufbaustudium an der Europa Universität Viadrina in Frankfurt/Oder, Abschluss 2007 als Master of Arts (European Studies).
Summary of Doctoral Dissertation Assessment of Innovation Effects of Mergers The adequate consideration of innovation effects of mergers in merger review was ; and still is ; one of the most controversially discussed issues between antitrust scholars. In this connection the question has been raised whether the traditional categories in competition law are sufficiently suitable for dealing with innovation aspects or whether new concepts for the assessment of innovation effects of mergers are needed. This argument relates to the question whether the firms who compete in regard to existing products necessarily play a role in regard to innovation competition. Or ; by asking the opposite question ; whether there are perhaps additional firms (by also accounting for firms outside the current product market) that actually compete with one another in the sphere of innovation. Thus ; although the assessment of product markets as a device to identify the relevant competitors is a well-founded step to protect static price and non-price competition ; the sole assessment of the respective product market will probably not reflect the true situation regarding innovation competition. Accordingly ; each of the five articles of this thesis builds on the idea that the relevant competitors in terms of innovation do not necessarily correspond to the relevant competitors on existing product markets. From an economic perspective the definition of "markets" was always only a vehicle for identifying the set of relevant competing firms. In a concept of static competition ; it was logical to use the set of current products ; and analyze their substitutability conditions from the demand and the supply side in order to determine the set of relevant competitors. However ; the attempt to stick to the product market concept for defining the relevant competitors for innovation is theoretically deeply flawed. Since the production and sale of products does not require the same resources and capabilities as the generation of innovations ; a general assumption of such an identity cannot be defended. This discussion led to the development of the so-called "Innovation Market Analysis" (IMA) ; an innovation-specific assessment approach ; in the 1990s. Even though the IMA was also applied to a significant number of U.S. merger cases in the years thereafter ; it was heavily criticized by many lawyers and economists. Hence ; it is still not clear how antitrust agencies should deal with innovation aspects in the review process of mergers. This research project assesses how and to what extent the U.S. antitrust authorities in their case practice investigated mergers on possible negative effects on innovation and whether the investigation concepts are appropriate or need to be developed. Particular relevant questions which arise in this connection are: (1) how the firms ; which compete with one another in the sphere of innovation ; should be identified. This raises the question whether the identification of the relevant competitors should be carried out by relying on the traditional product market concept ; or whether there is a need to use/develop alternative approaches ; such as the "Innovation Market Analysis". (2) In this connection it is also necessary to consider the theory of harm behind the claimed negative effects of mergers on innovation. Should competition authorities rely predominantly on well-established arguments about innovation incentives ; provided by the neoclassical industrial organization literature ; or is it instead advisable to also include the insights provided by other strains of literature ; e.g. the evolutionary economics literature? (3) How should an adequate assessment framework ; which would help competition authorities to deal with innovation effects of mergers look like? How can it account for the complex and often divergent effects between competition and innovation while providing legal guidance at the same time? These research questions are addressed by this dissertation ; both from a theoretical/conceptual (articles 1-3) ; as well as from an empirical perspective (articles 4-5). It is remarkable ; that the data set which was generated in connection with the empirical part of the present work is unique and provides the basis for the only econometric analysis of the U.S. merger control practice with respect to the consideration of innovation aspects which exists so far. The first article deals with the question of how the firms which compete with one another in the sphere of innovation should be identified and whether these mergers should be assessed under the theory of Innovation Markets ; Future Markets or Potential Competition. Traditionally ; competition authorities tend to focus on the assessment of competition on relevant product markets. Hereby ; the relevant firms that compete with one another are identified ; and possible anticompetitive effects are revealed. But ; in contrast to competition concerning prices ; quantities ; or product quality ; competition in the sphere of innovation is not necessarily tied to existing product markets. The same holds true for the counterexample. Competition authorities might find that a certain product market is highly concentrated. However ; by also accounting for innovation competitors outside the current product market (e.g. ; firms that are well situated to undertake R&D in a particular field or firms that are already undertaking R&D) ; the merger could appear less anticompetitive ; at least in respect to innovation. Hence ; this first article reviews the (existing) approaches that can generally be used for the assessment of anticompetitive innovation effects in merger control and explores these approaches through exemplary merger cases. In this connection the paper develops six case groups of merger cases in which innovation aspects play a role. Based on these case groups ; the paper demonstrates that the traditional approaches of 'potential competition' and 'future markets' cannot account for all aspects of innovation competition. In addition ; the article also shows that it is furthermore questionable whether the 'future market' concept can capture innovation competition to its full extent ; even in those merger cases in which it can generally be applied. However ; the 'Innovation Market Analysis' ; the only tool especially designed to account for innovation competition so far ; also has several shortcomings. Hence ; at present there is no clear-cut approach which the antitrust agencies in the U.S. as well as in the E.U. could utilize as reference for an intervention aimed at the protection of innovation competition. The development of a revised approach for the assessment of potential anticompetitive innovation effects in merger reviews is therefore required. Nevertheless ; the 'IMA' might still serve as a good starting point for the development of such a revised framework. Specifically ; the framework should incorporate the concept of assessing relevant innovation competitors independently of their role on current product markets – a breakthrough idea that was introduced in the 'IMA'. The second article builds on the results of the first article. Hereby the paper aims to develop the basic outlines for an assessment framework which could help competition authorities to deal with innovation effects of mergers and which could furthermore provide legal guidance. In addition ; this contribution will specially cater for the implications which result from the separate consideration of innovation competition from actual product markets for the relationship between competition ; concentration and innovation. These implications arise from the fact that the differentiation into product market competition on the one hand and innovation competition on the other ; does not only have consequences for the identification of the relevant competitors ; but is also crucial for assessing the anticompetitive effects of mergers on innovation. Consider for instance a merger which takes place between firms that compete with one another only in terms of innovation (leaving product market competition unaffected). This would imply that only a fraction of the insights ; provided by the vast array of theoretical models ; matters in this concrete merger review. Hence ; these types of mergers require focusing on different models in order to gain insights for the assessment of possible anticompetitive innovation effects ; than a merger taking place between two firms that do also compete with one another on pre-innovation product markets. As a consequence ; since mergers of firms that compete with one another in the sphere of innovation could leave product market concentration unaffected ; it is very questionable whether the findings about the ambiguous interrelationship between product market competition and innovation can be transferred one-to-one to the assessment of those mergers. Therefore ; this paper analyzes the model-theoretic industrial organization literature and its findings about competition and the incentives to invest in product innovation oriented R&D against the background of this distinction into innovation competition on the one hand and product market competition on the other. For this purpose ; we firstly reviewed the broad range of theoretical models ; provided by the industrial organization literature. Hereby we particularly examined the underlying mechanisms of the models with respect to the question whether they rely on pre-innovation product market competition ; or not. As a consequence ; we received two distinct groups of potential innovation effects of mergers. The first group consists of effects which hinge on a change of current product market concentration ; while the second group encompasses those kinds of effect which come into play even though pre-innovation product market competition is unaffected. Consequently ; the effects of the first group are only relevant ; if pre-innovation product market structure is affected by a certain merger ; while the effects of the second group have to be considered even in those situations in which mergers do only affect innovation competition. Due to the fact that not every innovation effect is always relevant and since these innovation effects can furthermore have different impacts due to prevailing industry- and competition characteristics ; it is helpful to assess the effects of mergers on innovation within certain case groups. However ; in order to build these case groups ; it is necessary to find the appropriate differentiation criteria. For this purpose ; this article aims at identifying the relevant determinants ; which are decisive for how a certain effect (e.g. the escape competition effect or the replacement effect) acts on the incentives to innovate. The identification and categorization of the innovation effects and relevant determinants thereby provides (1) a checklist of assessment criteria which antitrust authorities should take into account when analyzing innovation effects of mergers. (2) Besides this ; this paper furthermore demonstrates how the development of such a decision theoretic assessment framework could be achieved. Such an assessment approach would allow combining the objective of a case-specific analysis with the requirement that this analysis is carried out in a consistent and transparent manner. It would therefore be in the spirit of a rule-based competition policy which is ; from a law and economics perspective ; ought to reduce error costs ; give legal guidance and reduce legal uncertainty. Apart from that ; the paper aims to demonstrate that the link between competition and the incentives to undertake product innovation oriented R&D ; which can be derived from the industrial organization literature ; is not always that unclear as it seems on the first sight. Especially with respect to mergers between firms that compete with one another in terms of innovation ; absent/detached from actual product markets ; the relationship appears to be far less cloudy. The third article then focuses on the question about the appropriate theory of harm behind the claimed negative effects of mergers on innovation. Traditionally ; the discussion about anticompetitive innovation effects of mergers focused on the question whether a more or rather a less concentrated market structure (mostly narrowed to product market structure) is beneficial to innovation. However ; until to date ; theoretical as well as empirical contributions delivered rather contradictory results in the sense that they support the proposition that highly competitive just as much as more concentrated markets can basically spur innovation. Hence ; from this perspective ; it is not clear whether a merger ; which leads to a higher market concentration ; is detrimental or maybe even beneficial to innovation. However ; while mainstream economics focuses almost exclusively on the likely effects of a change of market structure on the firms' incentives to invest in R&D and their ability to innovate ; a change of the market structure can also have an additional effect on innovation. This effect originates from the fact that a merger ; which causes a reduction of the number of innovation competitors ; can also harm innovation because it reduces the variety of heterogeneous entities which are currently undertaking R&D or which are well situated to undertake R&D in a certain field. Assuming that companies differ not only with respect to their cost functions ; but also in terms of their resources ; organizational structure ; corporate culture ; as well as with respect to their expectations about promising areas of business and research projects ; then the reduction of the number of competitors may already be detrimental to the overall innovativeness of an industry. Against this background ; "diversity" can be considered as another dimension of the process of innovation competition - a dimension which ; in addition to the firms' incentives and capabilities to innovate ; might be worth protecting. However ; this property of competition is much less recognized in the respective antitrust literature. One explanation for this phenomenon might be the fact that mainstream economics and especially the modern industrial organization literature have fundamental difficulties to capture this dimension of competition ; which Joseph Farrell therefore called vividly "the dark matter of competition". Apart from that it is also argued that ; if "diversity" indeed has a noticeable effect on innovation ; a merged entity should have an incentive to preserve such a fruitful environment in-house. Hence ; a reduction of "diversity" among different firms ("inter-firm diversity") might get balanced by an increase of the diversity within the remaining firms ("intra-firm diversity") by itself. As a consequence ; if one had to expect such an effect ; antitrust authorities would have no reason to further consider this issue. By assessing the management and organizational science literature ; this first article aims to bring to light whether and how firms consider the preservation of "diversity" ; (1) either as a consequence of a newly created "intra-firm diversity" ; or (2) because of a direct maintenance of an acquired firm's autonomy ; after a merger. For this purpose this contribution firstly investigates the "Corporate Entrepreneurship" (CE) literature which highlights the creation of independent subunits and spinoffs within a corporation. It is thereby demonstrated that the idea of a creation of independent entities in-house is indeed considered as an important determinant for the innovativeness and general performance of firms. However ; it is also shown that firms ; pursuing a CE strategy ; will most likely face several grave implementation problems and trade-offs. The same holds true for a direct maintenance of "diversity" after a merger. Although the examined literature on post-merger integration presents strong arguments in favor of securing an acquired firm's independence and autonomy in order to keep its innovation capacity ; it also indicates that there will emerge a trade-off between this objective and the realization of efficiency gains through integration. Hence ; on the one hand ; the extensive management and organizational science literature suggests that considerations about the preservation of "diversity" in merger review might be exaggerated because firms should indeed have a strong incentive to preserve "diversity" in-house. On the other hand the analysis also shows that antitrust authorities cannot trust in the creation/maintenance of such an "intra-firm diversity" after a merger ; since the merged entity will most likely face grave implementation problems and trade-offs. Whilst the first three articles focus on theoretical/conceptual questions ; the forth article analyses empirically how the applied U.S. antitrust dealt with these issues in connection with the assessment of innovation effects in merger reviews. The decision to analyse the U.S. merger control practice stems from the fact that the U.S. authorities have examined a far greater number of mergers also towards innovation effects ; than the European Commission. In this respect the paper analyzes the "complaints" and "decision and orders" in the course of an exhaustive survey from all 399 mergers ; challenged by the DOJ or FTC in the period between 1995 and 2008. By using probit techniques ; the econometric study tackles the question of how and to what extent the U.S. agencies have assessed innovation effects of mergers. Additionally ; it is also asked whether the two agencies have used the same or different approaches in regard to innovation effects of mergers ; and whether we can observe developments during this period 1995 until 2008 in regard to these assessments. Important questions in that regard were (1) whether the U.S. authorities used predominantly a traditional assessment approach based upon the product market concept or whether they also used more innovation-specific assessment approaches ; e.g. the "Innovation Market Analysis". (2) In addition ; it is important what theory of harm was brought forward in connection with the claimed anticompetitive innovation effects. Overall ; the results about the practice of the assessment of innovation effects of mergers by the two U.S. antitrust authorities are very mixed and ambivalent. It is shown ; that the agencies had innovation concerns in 135 mergers and that both agencies did consider for innovation effects in a third of all cases. However ; on the basis of the 323 relevant markets with innovation aspects ; the study also reveals that the two agencies did not have a clear and consistent assessment approach ; and that both of them differed significantly also in regard to the question whether a more traditional product market approach should be used (mainly the DOJ) or whether a more innovation-specific approach should be applied ; in which innovation is already considered in the market definition. A problematic outcome of our investigation is that in most cases the agencies gave no specific reasoning why the merger should lead to negative effects on innovation. Only in a minority of cases innovation incentive arguments and in some cases diversity arguments were mentioned. Another surprising and puzzling result is that the agencies increasingly have claimed simultaneously negative innovation and static price effects which can be interpreted as a sign of insecurity of the agencies ; leading them to backing up their innovation concerns with more traditional and well-established claims about price effects. As a result ; the article demonstrates that ; on the one hand ; assessing innovation effects is a well-established practice in U.S. merger policy ; but ; on the other hand ; there are also a lot of inconsistencies and open conceptual questions in regard to the assessment approach ; which also have not diminished over time. The fifth and last paper of the dissertation builds mainly on the empirical results of the forth paper and aims to put the observations into a wider picture by also incorporating the findings of the three theoretical/conceptual articles. For this purpose ; the paper starts with reviewing the rich theoretical and empirical literature on competition and innovation. Hereby the theoretical models and reasonings get examined against the background of the differentiation into models which rely solely on innovation competition and those which do also incorporate current product market competition ; proposed in the second paper of this dissertation. This structured overview is followed by an investigation of the vast array of the empirical studies on industry structure and innovation ; market structure and innovation ; and mergers and innovation. After introducing the existing assessment concepts for innovation effects of mergers ; the empirical results of the forth article are introduced and subsequently assessed from a high-level competition policy perspective. Besides this ; the article also provides a qualitative analysis of important merger cases after 2008 as well as an analysis of the U.S. Merger Policy under the Obama Administration and the reform discussion leading to the revision of the Horizontal Merger Guidelines in 2010. Hereby it is shown (1) that the cautious approach of assessing innovation effects has not changed under the Obama Administration ; and (2) that despite the general consensus about the importance of innovation effects ; the U.S. discussion is still very critical to more innovation-specific approaches in merger reviews. This can also be seen in the revised U.S. Horizontal Merger Guidelines ; which stick entirely to the traditional product market approach. In that respect ; the guidelines also do not seem to reflect the already well-established practice of the U.S. antitrust agencies of using innovation-specific assessment approaches to a considerable extent. Instead ; the results provided by the empirical analysis of the fourth paper of this dissertation offer good reasons to assume that this reluctance to consider innovation effects in the Guidelines lies to a large extent in the uncertainty about how competition authorities should assess the impact of a merger on innovation. This uncertainty appears to be the consequence of the disagreement about how competition authorities should grasp and assess the innovation effects of mergers properly. Finally the article concludes by proposing different perspectives for future research. In this connection it is proposed to (1) base the theory of harm regarding mergers and innovation not exclusively on neoclassical economics ; but to also include the evolutionary economics literature which is generally more suited to deal with dynamic innovation effects. (2) Besides this ; future research should focus on the question of how the relevant innovation competitors should be identified most reliable. The first article of this dissertation showed that the "Innovation Market Analysis" started to ask the right questions about "overlapping R&D" and about the existence of "specialized assets" ; which can be interpreted as barriers to entry into innovation competition. (3) Last but not least ; this paper establishes reference to the second article of this dissertation which already discussed the necessity of developing a structured investigation and assessment approach ; capable of dealing with the problem that the innovation effects of mergers might be very different under different circumstances.
International audience ; The present article aims to examine a set of creativity-related concepts, dimensions, patterns, different ways and techniques of generating ideas, developing talents, funding opportunities as well as protecting intellectual property rights, and, in particular, how all these factors affect the economy and sustainable business. To continue, there is the importance of intercultural dialogue analysed while opening cooperation and partnership opportunities in various regions, mobility opportunities among artists as well as developing skills, creativity, innovations, and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship emerges as an important factor in a rapidly changing world of business and transforming creative ideas into a value-added. There is a significant number of university studies, creative businesses and/ or entrepreneurship programs tackled via presenting programs at universities, while the symbiosis 'Business-Arts' brings new colours to the image of creativity: investments in human resources, trainings, researches, lifelong learning and entrepreneurship open up new opportunities of merging arts and business and concentrating a wide range of artistic and business talents in one area (incubators and/ or clusters of arts) where arts and business complement each other. Thus, the research question: how does the creativity affect a sustainable business performance in Lithuania? A solid Global Entrepreneurship Monitor methodology and data mainly for the year of 2011 (including some newest trends for 2012) were used in order to light up the main problems and trends of enhancing the creativity in Lithuanian companies while creating a higher value-added and competitive advantage.
La cooperativa agraria de comercialización se presenta como una de las alternativas organizativas a disposición de los agricultores para operar en los mercados agrarios. Se trata de una organización particular, con un grado de integración intermedio entre la empresa productora-comercializadora (mayor grado de integración) y la venta directa en el mercado a través, por ejemplo, de alhóndigas (ningún tipo de integración). En esta fórmula, los socios son propietarios y controlan, una característica de la jerarquía, pero también son proveedores de producto, lo que otorga a la relación una característica de mercado. Así, la cooperativa agraria se aprovisiona casi en su totalidad de las producciones de sus socios, los cuales además son sus propietarios, usuarios de sus servicios y supervisores de una organización que distribuye al beneficio de forma igualitaria sobre la base del uso o volumen comercializado por el socio. Estas características confieren al análisis de la relación socio-cooperativa un papel muy relevante en el estudio de las cooperativas. Las cooperativas agrarias tienen que competir con otras formas de organización en unos mercados cada vez más competitivos, globales y desregulados, con frecuentes cambios legislativos, avances tecnológicos, y una demanda muy concentrada y con un gran poder de negociación. A esto se le unen los cambios en la demandas de los consumidores, con mayores exigencias en cuanto a calidad, seguridad, variedad y conveniencia. En este entorno, la capacidad para adaptarse a los nuevos cambios se presenta como un elemento capital para la supervivencia de cualquier operador, también los que se sitúan en el origen de la cadena, como es el caso de las cooperativas agrarias. Sin embargo, la cooperativa es en ocasiones criticada desde el plano teórico por su ineficiencia a la hora de conseguir recursos para financiar inversiones, recursos que tienen que provenir fundamentalmente de los socios. Se argumenta desde esta corriente teórica que las cooperativas son ineficientes dado que los propietarios (los socios) tienen los derechos sobre la propiedad vagamente definidos. Por ello, esta forma de gobierno presenta mayores dificultades a la hora de afrontar estrategias de cambio y adaptación para competir en el mercado. Por otro lado, en las cooperativas la heterogeneidad de los intereses de los miembros parece haber aumentado. En tanto que las cooperativas se orientan más hacia los consumidores, pasando de ser productores independientes de commodities hacia productores de productos específicos, necesitan de importantes inversiones, las cuales no favorecen por igual a todos sus miembros. La heterogeneidad de objetivos puede llevar a conflictos en los procesos de decisión, mermar la capacidad de coordinación y reducir el compromiso de los miembros y, con ello, su disposición a invertir en la cooperativa. Esta heterogeneidad se va también amplificada como consecuencia de los procesos de concentración empresarial que han tenido lugar en los últimos años. En nuestro país las instituciones también han hecho hincapié en la necesidad que tienen las cooperativas de alcanzar el tamaño necesario para contrarrestar la concentración de la demanda y adquirir una dimensión competitiva. Como respuesta a estas iniciativas, el sector cooperativo ha experimentado un proceso de concentración empresarial a través de fusiones, adquisiciones, formación de grupos, integración en cooperativas de segundo grado, etc. que ha tenido como resultado la existencia de un menor número de cooperativas, pero de mayor dimensión. Un problema asociado a estos procesos es que llevan aparejado un aumento de la heterogeneidad de la base social de las cooperativas, lo que hace aumentar los conflictos ya comentados asociados a las mismas. A pesar de que las cooperativas agrarias se enfrentan a los nuevos retos del mercado, a su supuesta ineficiencia para conseguir financiación y la heterogeneidad de sus bases sociales, éstas siguen operando en un número considerable y son muchos los ejemplos de éxito empresarial. Nos planteamos así como tesis del trabajo la existencia de factores en el ámbito de las relaciones de la cooperativa con su base social que contrarrestan estos problemas, factores pueden explicar la disposición de los socios a invertir y, en última instancia, el desempeño de la organización cooperativa. Objetivos Con todo ello, el objetivo principal de este trabajo es el de analizar los factores de la relación socio-cooperativa que influyen en la disposición a invertir de sus socios y el desempeño final de la cooperativa. En particular, nos planteamos como objetivos específicos los siguientes: • Analizar cómo influyen los problemas de los derechos de propiedad en la disposición a invertir de los miembros de la cooperativa. • Comprobar cómo la orientación al mercado de la base social explica su disposición a invertir y cómo su efecto puede estar moderado por la existencia de los problemas asociados a los derechos de propiedad. • Descubrir qué papel juega la heterogeneidad de los socios en su disposición a invertir en la cooperativa. • Estudiar cómo explica el oportunismo de los socios la disposición a invertir de los mismos y el desempeño de la cooperativa. • Determinar cómo influyen los mecanismos de gobierno de la relación socio-cooperativa sobre el oportunismo de los socios y el desempeño de la cooperativa. • Estudiar la influencia de la disposición a invertir de los socios en el desempeño de la cooperativa. Metodología Sobre una muestra de 249 cooperativas obtenida mediante encuestas online son testadas las hipótesis de investigación planteadas mediante regresiones lineales jerárquicas y análisis de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Resultados Los resultados permiten por un lado subrayar el efecto positivo que la orientación al mercado ejerce sobre la disposición a invertir de sus miembros y la moderación que ejercen los problemas de propiedad de las cooperativas limitando este efecto. Igualmente destacar el efecto de la heterogeneidad en la base social ejerce sobre esta disposición a invertir de los socios en su cooperativa, y el papel mediador y directo que desempeña también el oportunismo sobre ella. Y por otro lado, los resultados reconocen la bondad de varios mecanismos de gobierno para controlar el oportunismo y explicar el desempeño de la cooperativa. ABSTRACT Marketing cooperative's typology represents a moderate level of integration because farmers are in fact the owners of these organisations created to bargain for better prices and to handle, process, and sell their members' produce. Marketing cooperatives constitute a special type of vertical integration for farmers because the integration of their businesses, which still maintain their independence, is only partial, with a market element (the transaction relationship) and a hierarchical element (the control relationship). Additionally, unlike in other governance modes, farmers are not only owners but also users and controllers of a business that distributes benefits equitably based on use or patronage. Therefore, the economic literature has approached agricultural cooperatives as a form of vertical integration ('extension of the farm'), as an independent firm ('cooperative as a firm'), as a coalition of firms that act in a collective or collaborative manner ('the coalition approach'), or as a nexus of contracts. All of these perspectives, albeit treating the phenomenon under different lenses, share a common position on the analysis of the relationship established between the farmer or member firm and the marketing cooperative firm as a key matter of interest. These firms operate at different stages of the production and distribution chain, where market exchange is substituted by internal exchanges within the boundaries of the cooperative firm. Agricultural marketing cooperatives operate in the origin of the fresh fruit and vegetables supply chain. They have to compete against other alternative organizational forms in markets characterized by great demand's pressure caused by the high levels of the distributors' bargaining power and the increasing number of competition because of deregulation and the globalisation of the sources of supply for many of these products. These factors, along with the greater consumer's demands of variety, convenience and quality, as well as the changes on institutional and economic environment, face agricultural cooperatives to new challenges that force them to address adjustments and changing processes, whether they might be functional or organizational with the aim of increasing vertical coordination among all participants. Thus, the cooperative's innovation capabilities constitute a fundamental mean to achieve it. Nonetheless, some researchers question the efficiency of cooperatives and argue that cooperatives suffer from a host of problems unique to this specific form of governance. They are referred mainly to the relational dimension between the farmer-user-owner and the cooperative itself. This thesis is focused on this relational dimension. About this relationship, based primarily on the Property Rights Theory postulates, some authors have stressed the cooperatives' difficulties for raising equity, concluding that cooperatives are inefficient by nature. A further issue of interest is related to the issue of heterogeneity of the agricultural marketing cooperatives membership and their implications on the cooperatives' performance. Such an argument is used as another claim against the cooperatives ability to compete in nowadays markets. In particular, heterogeneity of cooperative's memberships has increased lately. In Spain, there has been a process of business concentration (less cooperatives, but bigger ones) in order to face the concentration of distributors and obtaining a competitive dimension. This has taken place through mergers, internal growth, acquisitions, groups' formation and adhesion to second-order cooperatives. These processes have resulted in a blending of different memberships (fusions, mergers and acquisitions) or the incorporation of new members (internal growth). In any case, the increase in members' heterogeneity might be causing conflicts, especially those related to gathering funds from members for equity raisings. Nevertheless, even though agricultural marketing cooperatives are faced to these new market challenges, its theoretical inefficiency and heterogeneity problems, they still coexists with investor owned firms, they hold a relevant share in agricultural markets, they have played an active role for a very long time, and they still appear as an alternative with a future. Objectives Consequently, we consider as thesis of this dissertation the existence of factors within the cooperatives relational environment established between the cooperative and its farmer-members that can offset these problems and explain the members' willingness to invest in the cooperative and, finally, the cooperatives' performance. In particular our specific objectives are: • To analyse how property rights problems affects to members' willingness to invest in the cooperative. • To check how the members' market orientation explains their willingness to invest and the impact of property rights problems on this relationship. • To find out how heterogeneity is affecting members' willingness to invest in the cooperative. • To study how perceptions about the membership general levels of opportunism explains the each member willingness to invest in the cooperative and the cooperative's performance. • To determine how governance mechanisms that rules the relationships between members and cooperative influence members' willingness to invest and cooperative's performance. • To study the effect of members' willingness to invest on cooperative's performance. Methodology We obtained data from 249 Spanish marketing agricultural cooperatives through an online survey. Several hierarchical regressions models and structural equation models were conducted in order to test the research hypotheses. Results The results have proven how certain factors inherent to the relationship between cooperatives and their members explain the members' willingness to invest and cooperative's performance. On one hand, we proved the positive effects of the membership market orientation on their willingness to invest. We have also observed the negative influence of the problems of property rights on the membership willingness to invest in the cooperative. Likewise, results showed that members' perception of opportunistic behaviours and some kinds of heterogeneity affect their willingness to invest. On the other hand, the results also showed that selection and socialisation governance mechanisms have power to control opportunism, which itself affects negatively to cooperative's performance. Likewise, selection mechanism and hostages in the form of specific investments have shown a direct effect on cooperative's performance.
학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :사범대학 협동과정 글로벌교육협력전공,2020. 2. 유성상. ; 본 연구는 1966년부터 1991년까지 세계교회협의회(World Council of Churches, WCC) 개발국(Commission on the Churches' Participation in Development, CCPD 교회개발참여위원회)의 개발교육 사례를 조사하여 조직의 가치, 개발관, 개발교육 접근방식이 어떻게 형성되고 협상되었는지 보여준다. 그리고 개발교육에 관여하는 종교기반단체(faith-based organization, FBO)로서의 세계교회협의회의 관점을 연구하여 개발교육 분야와 개발교육에 관여하는 종교기반단체에 시사점을 준다. 연구 질문은 다음과 같다: 1966년과 1991년 사이에 세계교회협의회와 개발국은 어떻게 개발 및 개발교육을 개념화하였는가? 하위 질문은 다음과 같다. 세계교회협의회에서 비판적개발교육의 출현에 기여한 내외적 요인은 무엇인가? 어떤 요인이 개발 및 개발교육에 대한 관점의 시기적 변화를 초래했는가? 연구 분석의 개념적 틀을 구축하기 위해 비정부기구(NGO)와 종교기반단체 연구를 참고하였고 개발교육의 역사와 아놀드(1988)와 크라우스(2010의 분류 틀을 분석하여 세계교회협의회와 개발국의 사례에 적용할 개념적 틀을 형성하였다. 개발협력에 대한 관점은 자선(charity), 상호의존성(interdependence), 해방(liberation)으로 확립하였고, 개발교육에 대한 접근방식은 홍보 및 기금조성(promotion and fundraising), 인식 제고(awareness raising), 실천 동원(mobilization), 임파워먼트(empowerment)로 하였다. 이 분석틀을 기반으로 자금, 프로젝트, 정치적 입장, 파트너십, 교육에 관한 다섯 가지 핵심 질문을 도출하였다. 연구 방법으로는 세계교회협의회의 아카이브와 도서관에서 1차 및 2차 문헌 자료를 수집하여 분석하였다. 1966년부터 1970년까지의 1단계에서 세계교회협의회는 경제 성장이라는 개발협력 분야의 주류를 따랐다. 구조적 변화가 필요한 반면 선진국과 개발도상국간의 상호의존과 조화를 전제하였다. 세계교회협의회는 교회와 국가들에게 개발원조를 늘리고 예산의 일부를 기부할 것을 장려했다. 개발교육 사무국은 1968년 세계교회협의회에 결성되어 개발 이슈에 대한 인식을 높이고, 선진국 시민들을 정치적 캠페인에 참여시키고, 국제개발협력에 금전적 기여를 장려하였다. 1970년부터 1975년까지의 2단계에서는 개발도상국의 교회들이 사회정의, 자립, 경제성장의 원칙에 기초하여 선진국의 교회와 보다 동등한 파트너십을 요구하였고 세계교회협의회의 개발국이 결성되었다. 새롭게 회자되었던 종속 이론, 해방 신학, 그리고 파울로 프레이리의 비판적 페다고지의 영향을 받은 개발국은 곧 해방, 민중 운동, 의식화 원리를 바탕으로 네트워킹, 분권화, 실험 전략을 채택했다. 개발교육은 조화로운 상호의존성보다는 갈등이 불가피한 해방적 관점에 바탕을 두었다. 개발교육활동으로는 선진국의 교회 관련 개발협력단체의 개발교육분과 또는 정치 행동 집단과 협력하여 워크샵, 또는 캠페인을 개최하였고 이런 협력 단체에 개발교육 기금을 지원하였다. 1975년부터 1981년까지 3단계에서는 세계교회협의회와 개발국에서 개발 협력에 대한 신학 연구와 회원 교회와의 제휴에 초점을 맞추었다. 세계교회협의회는 "정의롭고, 참여가 보장되며, 지속가능한 사회"(Just, Participatory, and Sustainable Society, JPSS)의 비전을 세우고 냉전시기 비동맹국가들의 신국제경제질서를 지원하였다. 1970년대 후반 개발국의 "가난한 자들의 교회"연구는 교회의 발전 참여의 신학적 토대를 만들었다. 그러나 협의회의 교회들은 개발국과 협의회의 정치적 행동을 강조하는 개발협력과 개발교육에 반대했다. 또한 개발국은 선진국 시민들이 개발 이슈의 인식에서 개발을 위한 행동을 취하도록 장려하고, 글로벌 이슈와 지역적 관심사를 연결하며, 자선의식에 호소하지 않고 자금을 조달해야 하는 문제와도 씨름했다. 이러한 문제들은 개발국과 개발교육 협력단체들이 개발교육의 교육 과정을 성찰하여 기존 유형을 식별하고, 에큐메니컬 교육의 모델을 고안하도록 동기를 부여했다. 에큐메니컬 교육은 해방과 의식화의 비판적 모델과 문화 간 이해와 글로벌 인식의 유연한 모델을 통합했다. 그 시기에 예산 삭감, 조직적 중복, 그리고 개발교육을 기독교교육과 교차시키는 요구를 감안하여 1981년에 개발교육은 개발국과 교육국의 공동 사업으로 재정립되었다. 1981년부터 1991년 사이의 4단계에서는 세계적 흐름에 반응하여 개발교육이 새롭게 "정의, 평화, 창조세계의 보전(Justice, Peace, and Integrity of Creation, JPIC)를 위한 교육"으로 불렸다. 정의, 평화, 창조세계의 보전이라는 세계교회협의회의 중점 아젠다는 지역교회와 시민운동의 다양한 문화와 요구에 답하는 새로운 사회윤리적 비전이었다. 이 시기 개발국은 계속해서 활동가적 특성을 유지했지만 이 전 시기보다는 제도적인 교회를 통해 더 많은 일을 했다. 해방과 상호의존이라는 개념을 바탕으로 한 에큐메니컬 교육에 편입된 개발교육은 정의, 평화, 창조세계의 보전 지역 워크숍에서 대화를 통해 "억압하는 자"와 "억압받는 자"를 화해시키는 노력을 하였다. 개발교육을 통한 자금조달과 인지도를 높이는 노력과 비판적 분석을 통한 임파워먼트(empowerment)도 계속되었다. 세계교회협의회와 개발국의 사례는 기독교 에큐메니컬 단체가 어떻게 국제개발협력을 구상하고 개발교육을 촉진했는지 보여준다. 그 과정에서 개발과 개발교육의 원리를 타협하지 않으며 기금을 모으려 애썼다. 그리고 일시적인 봉사 프로젝트를 제공하기 보다는 개발도상국가 협력단체들과 네트워킹을 통해 교육과 시민 변호를 위한 역할을 맡았다. 또한 사회 정의와 구조적 변화를 위한 정치 교육과 행동을 장려했지만, 해방신학과 비판적 페다고지를 마르크스주의와 동일시하는 교회들의 저항에 부딪혔다. 개발국은 개발교육을 주로 추진했던 선진국 단체들과의 관계보다 개발도상국의 단체들의 입장에서 노력했다. 마지막으로 개발국이 강조했던 사회적행동은 점차 신학과 교육에 대한 성찰로 보완되었다. 개발교육은 결국 세계교회협의회의 다른 교육 분과와 결합하여 에큐메니컬 교육에 통합되었다. 이것은 교육학적인 성찰로서 개발교육의 진전이었지만 정치적 행동 요소와는 분리되는 결과를 낳았다. 에큐메니컬 교육에서 강조하는 화해는 가난하고 억압받는 자들의 고충을 충분히 듣고 해결하여 평화와 일치에 이르는 것이었으나 1980년대와 1990년대 전지구적 보수주의와 신자유주의가 대두되면서 에큐메니컬 교육은 갈등을 드러내는 비판적 모델 보다는 조화를 위한 교육이 되었다. 세계교회협의회와 개발국의 개발교육 경험은 몇 가지 함의를 가지고 있다. 오늘날 기금 모금은 계속해서 개발교육의 도구로 사용되고 있다. 개발교육의 도구로써 기금 모금은 투명하고 비판적으로 논의되어야 한다. 또한 개발교육은 비정부기구의 하나의 개발협력프로그램 뿐만 아니라 연대·상호학습의 파트너십을 규정하는 모드로써 단체의 중심적 요소가 되어야 한다. 비판적 개발교육은 또한 정치적 행동 차원을 포함해야 하며, 특히 비정부기구와 종교기반단체를 통한 비정규 교육 분야에서는 더욱 정치행동 차원을 강조해야 한다. 특히 기독교 종교기반단체에게 있어 행동과 성찰의 일치를 갖춘 비판적 개발교육은 이러한 사회 정치적 변혁을 위한 개발협력의 토대가 되며 교회의 개혁을 촉진한다. ; This study examines the case of development education by the World Council of Churches (WCC) primarily through the Commission on the Churches' Participation in Development (CCPD) between 1966 and 1991 to show how the organization's values, development perspectives, and development education approaches were shaped and negotiated through different phases. The WCC's place as an international faith-based development organization (FBO) involved in development education will be examined to find potential implications for both the development education sector and the faith-based organizations approaching development education. The main research question is formulated as follows: between 1966 and 1991, how did the WCC and its subunit CCPD conceptualize development and development education? Sub-questions include: What were some internal and external factors that contributed to the emergence of critical pedagogical development education in the WCC? What factors led to shifts in perspectives on development and development education through different phases? The research questions are answered by examining the history of the WCC and the CCPD and analyzing based on conceptual frameworks drawn from literature review on development education by non-government organizations (NGOs). Categorizations of practices in development education by Arnold (1988) and Krause (2010) were examined to form a conceptual framework with which to examine the WCC's development education. The perspectives on development cooperation were identified as charity, interdependence, and liberation, and the approaches to development education were identified as public relations and fundraising, awareness raising, mobilization, and empowerment. With the framework five key questions were also formulated to analyze the findings on issues of funding, service projects, political stance, partnership with the North and the South, and education as process and outcome. Archival documentary materials were gathered as primary and secondary sources to examine the organization's values based on theology and ecumenical social thought, along with its development perspectives and development education approaches in four different phases. The phases are contextualized through reviews of literature on development education by NGOs in those time periods. Internal and external factors that contributed to shifts in perspectives and approaches were considered. In the first phase from 1966 to 1970, the WCC followed the mainstream perception of development as economic growth. While structural change was necessary, it assumed a harmony of interests between the North and the South. The WCC called for churches and nations to increase development assistance and contribute a share of their budget. The development education secretariat was formed in the WCC in 1968 to raise awareness of development issues, and motivate Northern constituents to participate in political campaigns and encourage monetary contribution. In the second phase from 1970 to 1975, the CCPD was formed based on the requests by the churches in the South for a more equal development partnership with the churches in the North, based on the principles of social justice, self-reliance, and economic growth. Influenced by the emerging dependency theory, liberation theology, and critical pedagogy by Paulo Freire, the CCPD soon incorporated principles of liberation, people's movement, and conscientization, and adopted the strategy of networking, decentralization, and experimentation. Development education was based on a conflict perspective of liberation rather than harmonious interdependence, and was practiced by coordinating visitations, workshops, and consultations for development education partners and political action groups, primarily in the North. Fundraising in the North was to also serve as an instrument for development education. From 1975 to 1981 in the third phase, the WCC and the CCPD supplemented their actions with theological studies, and more specifically focused on partnering with member churches. Development education became even more essential to the CCPD's strategy to support the churches' own reflections. With a new formulation of an ideal society as just, participatory, and sustainable, the WCC sought to support the non-aligned nations in the Cold War global structure with their proposal for a new international economic order. Based on the perspective on development as liberation, the CCPD sought to assume a catalytic role within the WCC to challenge the Council and the churches to question the status quo. The CCPD study on "The Church of the Poor" became the foundational theological articulation on the churches' participation in development. But development education, along with the CCPD and the rest of the Council, encountered resistance from the member churches reluctant to take political action. It was also difficult to move the North's constituents from awareness to action, to connect global issues with their local concerns, and to raise funding without appealing to a sense of charity. These issues motivated the CCPD and its development education partners to reflect on the pedagogical process of development education and identify several existing models, and come up with a model of ecumenical education. Ecumenical education incorporated both the conflict model of liberation and conscientization, and the softer model of global awareness for intercultural understanding. Partly given budget cuts, organizational overlap, and the demands to cross-fertilize development education with Christian education, the desk was realigned as a joint venture between the CCPD and the Subunit on Education in 1981. The global context in the fourth phase between 1981 and 1991 changed the character of development education which was now called education for justice, peace, and integrity of creation. The WCC's priority was to facilitate the conciliar process of justice, peace, and the integrity of creation (JPIC) by responding to various contexts and cultures of the local and regional movements and church groups. The CCPD continued to be activist in character, but became less politically vocal and worked more through the institutional church channels than in the past decade. Development education that was incorporated into ecumenical education based on both the concept of liberation and interdependence was intended to reconcile the oppressor and the oppressed through dialogues in regional JPIC workshops. The fundraising and awareness raising components continued in the CCPD, along with empowerment through critical analysis, though the action component was less highlighted. The WCC and the CCPD's experience show how an international ecumenical organization conceived of international development cooperation and promoted critical development education. The Committee tried with difficulty to hold education and fundraising together without compromising on its values. And rather than providing temporary service projects, the Committee embraced its role in education and advocacy through networking with the partners in the South. It also promoted political education and action for social justice and systemic change, but encountered resistance from those reluctant to commit to political action or side with what they equated with Marxism. The CCPD also tried to prioritize participation and input from the marginalized South, but its relationship with various Northern partners with whom the Commission promoted development education was less clear. The CCPD's emphasis on action was also supplemented by its reflections on theology and pedagogy. Development education was eventually combined with other aspects of education in the WCC and was incorporated into ecumenical education. This advanced pedagogical reflections on development education but resulted in downplaying the critical political action component and separating education from development cooperation in the WCC. The final emphasis on reconciliation in ecumenical education tried to work toward peace and unity while giving due attention to tensions and grievances, but in the general global climate of conservatism and neoliberalism in the 1980s and the 1990s, and the churches' reluctance to address tensions, the WCC returned to the softer forms of development education. The WCC and the CCPD's experience with development education holds several implications. Today fundraising continues to be an instrument of development education. Ways to transparently and critically link both elements must be devised. Specifically, critical development education should also be an essential element in development cooperation and NGOs as not just a program thrust but as a mode that defines partnerships of solidarity and mutual learning. Critical development education should also include a political dimension, especially in the non-formal sectors through NGOs and FBOs. Especially for Christian FBOs, critical development education with its unity of action and reflection should be a foundation for its political activism. Such development education facilitates a way toward the churches and the ecumenical movement's own renewal. ; CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background and rationale 1 1.2 Purpose and research question 13 1.3 Research design and data collection 14 1.4 Overview of chapters 23 CHAPTER 2. DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION BY NGOS 25 2.1 Development education in NGOs and FBOs 26 2.2 NGO pedagogical issues 41 2.3 Types of development education 46 2.4 Conclusion 58 CHAPTER 3. ECUMENICAL SOCIAL THOUGHT IN WCC 60 3.1 Structure and social thought in the WCC 60 3.2 Organizational context of WCC 72 3.3 Conclusion 77 CHAPTER 4. DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION IN WCC AND CCPD 79 4.1 Phase one 1966-1970: Seeking a new kind of development 80 4.1.1 World Conference on Church and Society in Geneva, 1966 80 4.1.2 Cooperation with the Roman Catholic Church 84 4.1.3 WCC Assembly at Uppsala, 1968 88 4.1.4 Development education consultation in 1969 95 4.1.5 From charity to interdependence, with signs of liberation 96 4.2 Phase two 1970-1975: Beginning of CCPD and concretization of strategies 99 4.2.1 Development projects consultation in Montreux, 1970 100 4.2.2 Global situations and WCC affairs in the early 1970s 103 4.2.3 CCPD's development mandate and strategies 107 4.2.4 Development education strategies and programs 117 4.2.5 From interdependence to liberation 130 4.3 Phase three 1975-1981: Evaluation and realignment 134 4.3.1 WCC Assembly in Nairobi and JPSS in Unit II 134 4.3.2 Toward a church in solidarity with the poor 139 4.3.3 Tempering expectations by 1979 145 4.3.4 Reviewing a decade of development education 151 4.3.5 Toward critical reflections 160 4.4 Phase four 1981-1991: Development education joins ecumenical education 163 4.4.1 From Vancouver 1983 to Canberra 1991 163 4.4.2 CCPD in the 1980s 167 4.4.3 Development education as learning for JPIC 171 4.4.4 Back to interdependence 177 4.5 Shifts through phases 180 4.6 Conclusion 189 CHAPTER 5. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION 192 5.1 Conviction to hold together education and fundraising 193 5.2 Education as essential to CCPD 197 5.3 Commitment to political action 200 5.4 Emergence of Southern initiative 205 5.5 Transition from education for action to education as process 209 5.6 Conclusion 214 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION 217 6.1 Summary 217 6.2 A way forward 222 6.3 Limitations and suggestions for further studies 227 6.4 Conclusion 229 BIBLIOGRAPHY 231 APPENDIX 245 국문초록 269 ; Doctor
In: Decision analysis: a journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, INFORMS, Band 9, Heft 4, S. 373-379
ISSN: 1545-8504
Ali E. Abbas (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an associate professor in the Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He received an M.S. in electrical engineering (1998), an M.S. in engineering economic systems and operations research (2001), a Ph.D. in management science and engineering (2003), and a Ph.D. (minor) in electrical engineering, all from Stanford University. He worked as a lecturer in the Department of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford and worked in Schlumberger Oilfield Services, where he held several international positions in wireline logging, operations management, and international training. He has also worked on several consulting projects for mergers and acquisitions in California, and cotaught several executive seminars on decision analysis at Strategic Decisions Group in Menlo Park, California. His research interests include utility theory, decision making with incomplete information and preferences, dynamic programming, and information theory. Dr. Abbas is a senior member of the IEEE and a member of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). He is also an associate editor for the Decision Analysis and Operations Research journals of INFORMS. Email: aliabbas@illinois.edu . Kash Barker (" Decision Trees with Single and Multiple Interval-Valued Objectives ") is an assistant professor in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Oklahoma. He holds a Ph.D. in systems engineering from the University of Virginia, where he was a research assistant in the Center for Risk Management of Engineering Systems, and B.S. and M.S. degrees in industrial engineering from the University of Oklahoma. His primary research interests lie in modeling interdependent economic systems and decision making for large-scale system sustainment, with research funded by the National Science Foundation, the Federal Highway Administration, and the Army Research Office. Email: kashbarker@ou.edu . J. Eric Bickel (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus " and " A Simulation-Based Approach to Decision Making with Partial Information ") is an assistant professor in the Graduate Program in Operations Research (Department of Mechanical Engineering) at the University of Texas at Austin. In addition, Professor Bickel is a fellow in both the Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy (CIEEP) and the Center for Petroleum Asset Risk Management (CPARM). His research interests include the theory and practice of decision analysis and its application in the energy and climate-change arenas. His work has addressed the modeling of probabilistic dependence, value of information, scoring rules, calibration, risk preference, decision education, decision making in sports, and climate engineering as a response to climate change. Prior to returning to academia, Professor Bickel was a senior engagement manager for Strategic Decisions Group. He has consulted around the world in a range of industries, including oil and gas, electricity generation/transmission/delivery, energy trading and marketing, commodity and specialty chemicals, life sciences, financial services, and metals and mining. Professor Bickel is the vice president/president-elect of the Decision Analysis Society and an associate editor for Decision Analysis. He holds an M.S. and Ph.D. from the Department of Engineering–Economic Systems at Stanford University. Email: ebickel@mail.utexas.edu . Vicki M. Bier (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a full professor in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she is currently department chair and also directs the Center for Human Performance and Risk Analysis. She is also the past president of the Decision Analysis Society and is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. Her research interests include applications of operations research, risk analysis, and decision analysis to problems of homeland security and critical infrastructure protection. Email: bier@engr.wisc.edu . Samuel E. Bodily (" Multiplicative Utilities for Health and Consumption ") is the John Tyler Professor of Business Administration at the University of Virginia's Darden School. He has published textbooks and more than 40 articles in journals ranging from Harvard Business Review to Management Science. His publications relate to decision and risk analysis, multiattribute utility, forecasting, strategy modeling, revenue management, and eStrategy. Along with Casey Lichtendahl, he was runner-up for the 2012 Decision Analysis Publication Award. He has edited special issues of Interfaces on Decision and Risk Analysis, and Strategy Modeling and Analysis. Professor Bodily has published well over 120 cases, including a couple of the 10 best-selling cases at Darden. He received the Distinguished Casewriter Wachovia award from Darden in 2005 and three other best case or research Wachovia awards. Professor Bodily is faculty leader for the executive program Strategic Thinking and Action. He is the course-head of and teaches in a highly valued first-year M.B.A. course in decision analysis; has a successful second-year elective, Management Decision Models; and has taught eStrategy and Strategy. He is a past winner of the Decision Sciences International Instructional Award. He has served as chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. He has taught numerous executive education programs for Darden and private companies, has consulted widely for business and government entities, and has served as an expert witness. Professor Bodily was on the faculties of MIT Sloan School of Management and Boston University and has been a visiting professor at INSEAD Singapore, Stanford University, and the University of Washington. He has Ph.D. and S.M. degrees from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a B.S. in physics from Brigham Young University. Email: bodilys@virginia.edu . David V. Budescu (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is the Anne Anastasi Professor of Psychometrics and Quantitative Psychology at Fordham University. He held positions at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and the University of Haifa, and visiting positions at Carnegie Mellon University, University of Gothenburg, the Kellogg School at Northwestern University, the Hebrew University, and the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion). His research is in the areas of human judgment, individual and group decision making under uncertainty and with incomplete and vague information, and statistics for the behavioral and social sciences. He is on the editorial boards of Applied Psychological Measurement, Decision Analysis (associate editor), Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition (2000–2003), Multivariate Behavioral Research, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (1992–2002), and Psychological Methods (1996–2000). He is past president of the Society for Judgment and Decision Making (2000–2001), fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, and an elected member of the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychologists. Email: budescu@fordham.edu . John C. Butler (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a clinical associate professor of finance and the academic director of the Energy Management and Innovation Center in the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin, the outgoing secretary/treasurer of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society, and an associate editor for Decision Analysis. Professor Butler received his Ph.D. in management science and information systems from the University of Texas at Austin in 1998. His research interests involve the use of decision science models to support decision making, with a particular emphasis on decision and risk analysis models with multiple-performance criteria. Professor Butler has consulted with a number of organizations regarding the application of decision analysis tools to a variety of practical problems. Most of his consulting projects involve use of Visual Basic for Applications and Excel to implement complex decision science models in a user-friendly format. Email: john.butler2@mccombs.utexas.edu . Enrico Diecidue (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an associate professor of Decision Sciences at INSEAD (France) and holds a Ph.D. from the CentER (Center for Economic Research), Tilburg University, the Netherlands. Since 2001 he has been a resident faculty member at INSEAD, except for 2008–2009 when he was a visiting professor at Wharton and 2010–2011 when he was on sabbatical at the Erasmus School of Economics (the Netherlands). His main research interests are in individual decision making under uncertainty, health decisions, and experimental economics. He is interested in the role of regret, aspiration levels, and time in individual decisions. His current research is also addressing the role of groups in complex and ambiguous decisions. Professor Diecidue's research has appeared in leading journals in economics and management. He is on the editorial board of Journal of Risk and Uncertainty and is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. He teaches M.B.A., executive M.B.A., and executive participants on topics such as uncertainty, data and judgment, decision making under uncertainty, risk management, and management decision making. He has won teaching awards at INSEAD and Wharton. Email: enrico.diecidue@insead.edu . Robin L. Dillon-Merrill (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an associate professor in the McDonough School of Business at Georgetown University. Professor Dillon-Merrill seeks to understand and explain how and why people make the decisions that they do under conditions of uncertainty and risk. This research specifically examines critical decisions that people have made following near-miss events in situations with severe outcomes (i.e., hurricane evacuation, terrorism, NASA mission management, etc.). She has received research funding from the National Science Foundation, NASA, the Department of Defense, and the Department of Homeland Security through the University of Southern California's National Center for Risk and Economic Analysis for Terrorism Events. She has served as a risk analysis and project management expert on several National Academies Committees, including the review of the New Orleans regional hurricane protection projects and the application of risk-analysis techniques to securing the Department of Energy's special nuclear materials. She is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. Email: rld9@georgetown.edu . Raimo P. Hämäläinen (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a professor of operations research and director of the Systems Analysis Laboratory at Aalto University, Finland. He received his M.Sc. and Dr. Tech. degrees in systems theory and applied mathematics from the Helsinki University of Technology. His research interests include decision analysis, risk and game theory, and experimental economics, as well as dynamic optimization with aerospace applications. He is widely known for his work in environmental decision making and energy policy. He is the designer of widely used decision analysis software, including the first Web-based value tree software, Web-HIPRE; Smart-Swaps; and the Joint Gains negotiation support system. He has recently introduced the concept of Systems Intelligence, which opens a new perspective to organizational learning and personal growth. He is on the editorial board of a number of journals, including Decision Analysis (associate editor), European Journal of Operational Research, Journal of Group Decision and Negotiation, and EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Dr. Hämäläinen has received the Edgeworth-Pareto Award of the International Society for Multiple Criteria Decision Making. He is also the honorary president of the Finnish Operations Research Society. Email: raimo.hamalainen@aalto.fi . Ralph L. Keeney (" Value-Focused Brainstorming ") is a research professor emeritus at the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University. His education includes a B.S. in engineering from the University of California, Los Angeles, and a Ph.D. in operations research from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His research interests are in the areas of decision making and risk analysis. He has applied such work to important personal decisions and as a consultant for private and public organizations addressing corporate management problems, environmental and risk studies, and decisions involving life-threatening risks. Prior to joining the Duke faculty, Professor Keeney was a faculty member in Management and Engineering at MIT and at the University of Southern California, a research scholar at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Austria, and the founder of the decision and risk analysis group of a large geotechnical and environmental consulting firm. Professor Keeney is the author of many books and articles, including Value-Focused Thinking, Decisions with Multiple Objectives, coauthored with Howard Raiffa, and Smart Choices, coauthored with John S. Hammond and Howard Raiffa, which has been translated into 15 languages. Dr. Keeney was awarded the Ramsey Medal for distinguished contributions in decision analysis by the Decision Analysis Society and is a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. Email: keeney@duke.edu . L. Robin Keller (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a professor of operations and decision technologies in the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine. She received her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in management science and her B.A. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles. She has served as a program director for the Decision, Risk, and Management Science Program of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). Her research is on decision analysis and risk analysis for business and policy decisions and has been funded by NSF and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Her research interests cover multiple attribute decision making, riskiness, fairness, probability judgments, ambiguity of probabilities or outcomes, risk analysis (for terrorism, environmental, health, and safety risks), time preferences, problem structuring, cross-cultural decisions, and medical decision making. She is the outgoing Editor-in-Chief of Decision Analysis, published by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). She is a Fellow of INFORMS and has held numerous roles in INFORMS, including board member and chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. She is a recipient of the George F. Kimball Medal from INFORMS. She has served as the decision analyst on three National Academy of Sciences committees. She has been appointed to the editorial board of the new EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Email: lrkeller@uci.edu . Anton Kühberger (" Explaining Risk Attitude in Framing Tasks by Regulatory Focus: A Verbal Protocol Analysis and a Simulation Using Fuzzy Logic ") is a professor of psychology at the University of Salzburg, Department of Cognition and Development, and a member of the Center of Neurocognitive Research at the University of Salzburg. His research interests include the following areas: judgment and decision making, in particular framing, and the role of risk, ambiguity, and uncertainty in decision making; thinking and reasoning, in particular counterfactual thinking and the notion of rationality; and social cognition, in particular the foundation of the understanding of oneself and others either by a theory of mind or by simulation. In addition, he is interested in the development of scientific methods such as verbal protocol analysis and in understanding the role statistics for the accumulation of knowledge. He is a member of the editorial board of several scholarly journals and currently is vice-dean of the Faculty of Natural Sciences at the University of Salzburg. Email: anton.kuehberger@sbg.ac.at . Kenneth C. Lichtendahl Jr. (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus " and " Multiplicative Utilities for Health and Consumption ") is an assistant professor of business administration at the Darden School of Business at the University of Virginia. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. He received his Ph.D. in decision sciences from the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University. His research focuses on decision analysis, Bayesian statistics, game theory, and dynamic programming. Email: lichtendahlc@darden.virginia.edu . Jason R. W. Merrick (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a professor in the Department of Statistical Sciences and Operations Research at Virginia Commonwealth University. He has a D.Sc. in operations research from George Washington University. He teaches courses in decision analysis, risk analysis, and simulation. His research is primarily in the area of decision analysis and Bayesian statistics. He has worked on projects ranging from assessing maritime oil transportation and ferry system safety, the environmental health of watersheds, and optimal replacement policies for rail tracks and machine tools. He has received grants from the National Science Foundation, the Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard, the American Bureau of Shipping, British Petroleum, and Booz Allen Hamilton, among others. He has also performed training for Infineon Technologies, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, and Capital One Services. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis and the EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Email: jrmerric@vcu.edu . Luis Vicente Montiel (" A Simulation-Based Approach to Decision Making with Partial Information ") is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Texas at Austin. His main research interest is mathematical modeling for optimization under uncertainty, with a special interest in decision analysis and simulation learning for optimization. His current research is dedicated to providing a theoretical and practical framework for approximating joint distributions under partial information. Luis has a Ph.D. in operations research from the University of Texas, an M.S. in financial engineering from Columbia University, and an M.S. in management science and engineering from Stanford University. Email: lvmontiel@utexas.edu . Jay R. Simon (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an assistant professor in the Defense Resources Management Institute of the Naval Postgraduate School. He holds a Ph.D. in operations and decision technologies from the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine, an M.S. in management science and engineering, and a B.S. in mathematical and computational science from Stanford University. His primary research interest is multiattribute preference modeling, particularly involving outcomes that occur over time, space, or groups of people. His current and recent work includes a prostate cancer decision model, preference models for health decisions, preferences over geographical data, altruistic utility modeling, and multiattribute procurement. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis and is the webmaster and social media officer for the Decision Analysis Society of INFORMS. Email: jrsimon@nps.edu . Christian Wiener (" Explaining Risk Attitude in Framing Tasks by Regulatory Focus: A Verbal Protocol Analysis and a Simulation Using Fuzzy Logic ") received his doctorate from the University of Salzburg, Austria. His first research area was the application of the EEG in connection with dyslexia. Later he moved to the area of social cognition, where his research was focused on framing and especially the simulation of decision-making behavior using a fuzzy-logic expert system. Since the completion of his dissertation, he has been working as a clinical psychologist with developmentally delayed children. Email: christian.wiener@gmx.at . Kaycee J. Wilson (" Decision Trees with Single and Multiple Interval-Valued Objectives ") completed M.S. and B.S. degrees in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Oklahoma in 2012 and 2010, respectively. Her primary interests lie in healthcare operations and reliability-based decision making, and she holds a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. Email: kaycee.j.wilson-1@ou.edu . George Wu (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") has been on the faculty of the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business since September 1997. His degrees include an A.B. (applied mathematics, 1985), an S.M. (applied mathematics, 1987), and a Ph.D. (decision sciences, 1991), all from Harvard University. Prior to joining the faculty at the University of Chicago, Professor Wu was on the faculty at Harvard Business School. Professor Wu worked as a decision analyst at Procter & Gamble prior to starting graduate school. His research interests include descriptive and prescriptive aspects of decision making, in particular decision making involving risk; cognitive biases in bargaining and negotiation; and managerial and organizational decision making. Professor Wu is a coordinating editor for Theory and Decision, an advisory editor for Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, on the editorial boards of Decision Analysis (associate editor) and the Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, and a former department editor of Management Science. Email: wu@chicagobooth.edu .
Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; In agricoltura l'acqua è spesso un fattore produttivo limitante e soggetto a frequenti ed importanti periodi di scarsità, che incentiva una forte competizione per il suo impiego anche tra diversi settori, sia industriali che urbani. Avvalendosi del principio che l'uso familiare dell'acqua debba prevalere su quello produttivo, le Pubbliche Amministrazioni tendono a razionalizzarne l'utilizzo agricolo, attraverso consorzi per la gestione delle fonti d'acqua. Tuttavia, esiste ancora una forte necessità di calibrare la gestione delle risorse idriche a scopo irriguo, per perseguire obiettivi di natura economica e politica che riguardano la riduzione degli sprechi e l'allocazione efficiente. Il problema della gestione della risorsa idrica è reso ancora più rilevante e attuale dalle recenti osservazioni e teorie sul cambio climatico globale, che prospettano scenari futuri con una scarsità dell'acqua in aumento, accompagnata da modificazioni della variabilità degli eventi atmosferici che sono alla base della sua disponibilità. Una prima e importante difficoltà nasce dall'uso normativo del concetto di efficienza, in un'ottica di recupero dei costi. E' quindi d'interesse lo studio dei costi legati all'uso della risorsa idrica in agricoltura, per comprendere meglio in che direzione sarebbe opportuno spingere le politiche di gestione dell'acqua per il raggiungimento degli obiettivi comunitari e, più in generale, di traguardi di efficienza economica più sostenibili. Per una corretta e consapevole gestione delle risorse idriche, è necessaria un'analisi degli aspetti economici legati alla fornitura del servizio irriguo, per comprendere gli effetti che determinati interventi avranno sui benefici associati a tale servizio. E' sulla comprensione di questi aspetti della distribuzione dell'acqua a scopo irriguo che si incentra il lavoro di tesi. Per realizzare questo studio, è stata presa in esame l'area servita da un consorzio di bonifica e irrigazione in Sardegna. Tale scelta è da ritenersi interessante, giacché i sistemi di distribuzione dell'acqua irrigua e i metodi di tariffazione adottati da questo consorzio sono tra i più praticati in Italia e nell'area del Mediterraneo. Pertanto, le caratteristiche di questa area permettono di estendere le conclusioni del lavoro per considerazioni più generali. Attraverso un'approfondita ricostruzione delle tecnologie distributive e dei dati economici e tecnici, sono stati prodotti i dati per poter costruire un modello dei costi operativi della distribuzione irrigua. Il lavoro di raccolta dati ha permesso di comprendere come la realtà dei consorzi irrigui sia molto variegata e diversificata. A tal proposito, infatti, non va trascurato che nel corso degli anni le strutture consortili hanno operato delle ristrutturazioni, sia dal punto di vista organizzativo che tecnico. E' quindi auspicabile comprendere come queste ristrutturazioni hanno modificato le economie e le efficienze dei consorzi irrigui e quanto spazio può ancora sussistere per un ulteriore miglioramento di queste condizioni. All'interno dello stesso comprensorio, difatti, coesistono strutture molto diverse per la distribuzione dell'acqua irrigua che sono il risultato del processo di ammodernamento differenziato e disomogeneo dei vari distretti irrigui. L'approccio metodologico utilizzato è quello basato sulla funzione di costo logaritmica trascendente (translog), già ampiamente utilizzato in altre aree di studio dell'economia applicata, soprattutto nell'analisi dell'efficienza e nella valutazione del progresso tecnologico. In questo lavoro sono stati sviluppati 7 modelli econometrici con 3 diversi gradi di dettaglio nella specificazione della tecnologia. Questa differenzazione è stata utile per comprendere come alcuni aspetti peculiari dei diversi sistemi di distribuzione dell'acqua possano essere presi in considerazione nelle politiche di tariffazione dell'acqua irrigua. Esiste ancora una forte necessità di calibrare la gestione delle risorse idriche a scopo irriguo, per perseguire obiettivi di natura economica e politica che riguardano la riduzione degli sprechi e l'allocazione efficiente. Si è visto come il volume d'acqua fornito sia di fatto un elemento insufficiente per descrivere i costi operativi: la distribuzione dei volumi d'acqua su superfici più o meno estese ha impatti spesso più importanti dei volumi d'acqua in sé. Ciò è facilmente comprensibile, perché le strutture utilizzate nella distribuzione hanno dei costi anche di 'attivazione' e di mantenimento in funzione che sono più legati alla loro dimensione piuttosto che a loro livello operativo. Quando l'acqua viene distribuita per gravità si generano delle perdite di rete dovute a necessità tecnologiche e organizzative, che raggiungono anche il 30% dell'acqua immessa nei canali. Queste perdite non assumono alcun valore economico, tranne forse quando l'acqua deve essere pompata per brevi tratti collinari. Ciò è rilevante per la gestione del servizio irriguo, nel momento in cui si vuole regolare l'esternalità dello spreco di acqua generata dal consorzio attraverso la tariffazione. Dai risultati, emerge anche un sostanziale sotto utilizzo delle strutture che generano i costi fissi di fornitura: è importante specificare che l'implementazione del recupero costo pieno, richiesto dalla attuale normativa, non determini che in varie circostanze, gli agricoltori si trovino a pagare le inefficienze dei sistemi che gestiscono i servizi idrici. Certamente, la sola conoscenza dei costi di fornitura è incompleta per adottare un adeguato sistema di tariffazione. Lo studio dei costi operativi ha comunque dato un apporto significativo alla conoscenza sul funzionamento dei consorzi di bonifica e irrigazione ed i risultati ottenuti permettono di fare delle considerazioni sulle indicazioni di tariffazione introdotti dalla WFD. ; In agriculture the water is often a limiting factor and subject to frequent and important periods of scarcity, which encourages strong competition for its use even among different sectors, both industrial and urban areas. Using the principle that the family use of water should take precedence over the production, Public Administrations tend to rationalize the agricultural use, through consortia for the management of water sources. However, there is still a strong need to adjust the management of water resources for irrigation purposes, in pursuit of economic objectives and policy dealing with waste minimization and allocation efficiency. The management of water resources is made even more relevant and topical by recent observations and theories on global climate change, which envisage future scenarios with an increasing scarcity of water, accompanied by changes in the variability of atmospheric events that underlie the availability. A first and important difficulty arises from the use of the concept of regulatory efficiency, considering cost recovery. The study of the costs associated with the use of water resources in agriculture is therefore interesting to better understand in what direction we should push the water management policy for the achievement of EU objectives and, more generally, the goals of sustainable economic efficiency. For a correct and conscious management of water resources is necessary to analyze the economic aspects related to irrigation service supply, in order to understand the effects that certain actions will have on the benefits associated with such service. The thesis focuses on understanding of these aspects of water supply for irrigation purposes. In order to carry this study on, the area served by a consortium of drainage and irrigation in Sardinia has been examined. This choice can be considered interesting, since the irrigation water distribution systems and pricing methods adopted by this consortium are among the most practiced in Italy and the Mediterranean. Therefore, the characteristics of this area allow us to extend the conclusions of the work for more general interpretations. Through a detailed reconstruction of the distribution technologies and the economic and technical aspects, the data for constructing a model of the operational costs of the irrigation distribution have been produced. The work of data collection has made it clear that the reality of the consortium irrigation is very varied and diverse. In this regard, it should not be overlooked that over the years the facilities have operated consortium of restructuring, both organizationally and technically. It is therefore desirable to understand how these renovations have changed the economies and efficiencies of irrigation consortia and how much space can still exist for further improvement of these conditions. Within the same area, in fact, very different structures for irrigation water distribution coexist, and are the result of the variable and heterogeneous modernization process throughout the various irrigation districts. The methodological approach used is based on the transcendental logarithmic (Translog) cost function, already widely used in other areas of applied economics, particularly when analyzing and evaluating the efficiency of technological progress. In this work 7 econometric models were developed, with 3 different degrees of detail in the specification of the technology . This differentiation is helpful in understanding how certain distinctive features of different water distribution systems can be taken into account in the irrigation water pricing policies. There is still a strong need to balance the management of water resources for irrigation purposes, in pursuit of economic objectives and policy dealing with waste minimization and allocation efficiency. It is seen that the volume of water supplied is in fact inadequate to describe the operational costs: the distribution of volumes of water onto land is relevant when it is accounted for considering also the land on which it is distributed. This is easily understandable, because the structures used in the distribution have also costs for activation and continued operation that are more related to their size rather than their operational level. When the water is distributed by gravity, network losses appear, due to technological and organizational needs, which reach even 30% of the water distributed in the channels. These losses do not take any economic value, except perhaps when the water must be pumped over low hills. This is relevant for the management of irrigation service, when we want to adjust the externalities of waste water generated by the consortium through the pricing. The results also shows a substantial under use of the distribution facilities that generate the fixed costs of delivery. So it is important to specify that the implementation of full cost recovery required by current legislation determines that, in some circumstances, farmers are paying the inefficiencies of the systems that manage the water services. Certainly, the mere knowledge of supply costs is incomplete to adopt a proper system of charging. The study of operating costs has nevertheless made a significant contribution to knowledge on the functioning of the consortia of reclamation and irrigation, and the results obtained allow to make some considerations on the indications for pricing introduced by the WFD.
The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation of metrology as government regulated activity in France. The article has discussed the historical process of development of metrological activity in France. It was revealed that the history of metrology is considered as an auxiliary historical and ethnographic discipline from a social and philosophical point of view as the evolution of scientific approaches to the definition of individual units of physical quantities and branches of metrology. However, in the scientific literature, the little attention is paid to the process of a development of a centralized institutional metrology system that is the organizational basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. The article by Irena Grebtsova and Maryna Kovalska is devoted to the of the development of the source criticism's knowledge in the Imperial Novorossiya University which was founded in the second half of the XIX century in Odesa. Grounding on a large complex of general scientific methods, and a historical method and source criticism, the authors identified the stages of the formation of source criticism in the process of teaching historical disciplines at the university, what they based on an analysis of the teaching activities of professors and associate professors of the Faculty of History and Philology. In the article, the development of the foundations of source criticism is considered as a complex process, which in Western European and Russian science was the result of the development of the theory and practice of everyday dialogue between scientists and historical sources. This process had a great influence on the advancement of a historical education in university, which was one of the important factors in the formation of source studies as a scientific discipline. The article by Tetiana Malovichko is devoted to the study of what changes the course of the probability theory has undergone from the end of the 19th century to our time based on the analysis of The Theory of Probabilities textbook by VasylP.Ermakov published in 1878. The paper contains a comparative analysis of The Probability Theory textbook and modern educational literature. The birth of children after infertility treatment of married couples with the help of assisted reproductive technologies has become a reality after many years of basic research on the physiology of reproductive system, development of oocyte's in vitro fertilization methods and cultivation of embryos at pre-implantation stages. Given the widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies in modern medical practice and the great interest of society to this problem, the aim of the study authors from the Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine was to trace the main stages and key events of assisted reproductive technologies in the world and in Ukraine, as well as to highlight the activities of outstanding scientists of domestic and world science who were at the origins of the development of this area. As a result of the work, it has been shown that despite certain ethical and social biases, the discovery of individual predecessor scientists became the basis for the efforts of Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe to ensure birth of the world's first child, whose conception occurred outside the mother's body. There are also historical facts and unique photos from our own archive, which confirm the fact of the first successful oocyte in vitro fertilization and the birth of a child after the use of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine. In the next article, the authors tried to consider and structure the stages of development and creation of the "Yermak", the world's first Arctic icebreaker, and analyzed the stages of preparation and the results of its first expeditions to explore the Arctic. Systematic analysis of historical sources and biographical material allowed to separate and comprehensively consider the conditions and prehistory for the development and creation of "Yermak" icebreaker. Also, the authors gave an assessment to the role of Vice Admiral Stepan Osypovych Makarov in those events, and analyzed the role of Sergei Yulyevich Witte, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tian-Shansky in the preparation and implementation of the first Arctic expeditions of the "Yermak"icebreaker. The authors of the following article considered the historical aspects of construction and operation of train ferry routes. The article deals with the analysis and systematization of the data on the historical development of train ferry routes and describes the background for the construction of train ferry routes and their advantages over other combined transport types. It also deals with the basic features of the train ferries operating on the main international train ferry routes. The study is concerned with both sea routes and routes across rivers and lakes. The article shows the role of train ferry routes in the improvement of a national economy, and in the provision of the military defense. An analysis of numerous artefacts of the first third of the 20th century suggests that the production of many varieties of art-and-industrial ceramics developed in Halychyna, in particular architectural ceramic plastics, a variety of functional ceramics, decorative tiles, ceramic tiles, facing tiles, etc. The artistic features of Halychyna art ceramics, the richness of methods for decorating and shaping it, stylistic features, as well as numerous art societies, scientific and professional associations, groups, plants and factories specializing in the production of ceramics reflect the general development of this industry in the first half of the century and represent the prerequisites the emergence of the school of professional ceramics in Halychyna at the beginning of the 20th century. The purpose of the next paper is to analyze the formation and development of scientific and professional schools of art-and-industrial ceramics of Halychyna in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. During the environmental crisis, electric transport (e-transport) is becoming a matter for scientific inquiry, a subject of discussion in politics and among public figures. In the program for developing the municipal services of Ukraine, priorities are given to the development of the infrastructure of ecological transport: trolleybuses, electric buses, electric cars. The increased attention to e-transport on the part of the scientific community, politicians, and the public actualizes the study of its history, development, features of operation, etc. The aim of the next study is to highlight little-known facts of the history of production and operation of MAN trolleybuses in Ukrainian cities, as well as to introduce their technical characteristics into scientific circulation. The types, specific design solutions of the first MAN trolleybus generation and the prerequisites for their appearance in Chernivtsi have been determined. Particular attention has been paid to trolleybuses that were in operation in Germany and other Western European countries from the first half of the 1930s to the early 1950s. The paper traces the stages of operation of the MAN trolleybuses in Chernivtsi, where they worked during 1939–1944 and after the end of the Second World War, they were transferred to Kyiv. After two years of operation in the Ukrainian capital, the trolleybuses entered the routes in Dnipropetrovsk during 1947–1951. The purpose of the article by authors from the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies of Ukraine is to thoroughly analyze unpaved roads of the late 18th – early 19th century, as well as the project of the first wooden trackway as the forerunner of the Bukovyna railways. To achieve this purpose, the authors first reviewed how railways were constructed in the Austrian Empire during 1830s – 1850s. Then, in contrast with the first railway networks that emerged and developed in the Austrian Empire, the authors made an analysis of the condition and characteristics of unpaved roads in Bukovyna. In addition, the authors considered the first attempt to create a wooden trackway as a prototype and predecessor of the Bukovyna railway. ; The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation of metrology as government regulated activity in France. The article has discussed the historical process of development of metrological activity in France. It was revealed that the history of metrology is considered as an auxiliary historical and ethnographic discipline from a social and philosophical point of view as the evolution of scientific approaches to the definition of individual units of physical quantities and branches of metrology. However, in the scientific literature, the little attention is paid to the process of a development of a centralized institutional metrology system that is the organizational basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. The article by Irena Grebtsova and Maryna Kovalska is devoted to the of the development of the source criticism's knowledge in the Imperial Novorossiya University which was founded in the second half of the XIX century in Odesa. Grounding on a large complex of general scientific methods, and a historical method and source criticism, the authors identified the stages of the formation of source criticism in the process of teaching historical disciplines at the university, what they based on an analysis of the teaching activities of professors and associate professors of the Faculty of History and Philology. In the article, the development of the foundations of source criticism is considered as a complex process, which in Western European and Russian science was the result of the development of the theory and practice of everyday dialogue between scientists and historical sources. This process had a great influence on the advancement of a historical education in university, which was one of the important factors in the formation of source studies as a scientific discipline. The article by Tetiana Malovichko is devoted to the study of what changes the course of the probability theory has undergone from the end of the 19th century to our time based on the analysis of The Theory of Probabilities textbook by VasylP.Ermakov published in 1878. The paper contains a comparative analysis of The Probability Theory textbook and modern educational literature. The birth of children after infertility treatment of married couples with the help of assisted reproductive technologies has become a reality after many years of basic research on the physiology of reproductive system, development of oocyte's in vitro fertilization methods and cultivation of embryos at pre-implantation stages. Given the widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies in modern medical practice and the great interest of society to this problem, the aim of the study authors from the Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine was to trace the main stages and key events of assisted reproductive technologies in the world and in Ukraine, as well as to highlight the activities of outstanding scientists of domestic and world science who were at the origins of the development of this area. As a result of the work, it has been shown that despite certain ethical and social biases, the discovery of individual predecessor scientists became the basis for the efforts of Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe to ensure birth of the world's first child, whose conception occurred outside the mother's body. There are also historical facts and unique photos from our own archive, which confirm the fact of the first successful oocyte in vitro fertilization and the birth of a child after the use of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine. In the next article, the authors tried to consider and structure the stages of development and creation of the "Yermak", the world's first Arctic icebreaker, and analyzed the stages of preparation and the results of its first expeditions to explore the Arctic. Systematic analysis of historical sources and biographical material allowed to separate and comprehensively consider the conditions and prehistory for the development and creation of "Yermak" icebreaker. Also, the authors gave an assessment to the role of Vice Admiral Stepan Osypovych Makarov in those events, and analyzed the role of Sergei Yulyevich Witte, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tian-Shansky in the preparation and implementation of the first Arctic expeditions of the "Yermak"icebreaker. The authors of the following article considered the historical aspects of construction and operation of train ferry routes. The article deals with the analysis and systematization of the data on the historical development of train ferry routes and describes the background for the construction of train ferry routes and their advantages over other combined transport types. It also deals with the basic features of the train ferries operating on the main international train ferry routes. The study is concerned with both sea routes and routes across rivers and lakes. The article shows the role of train ferry routes in the improvement of a national economy, and in the provision of the military defense. An analysis of numerous artefacts of the first third of the 20th century suggests that the production of many varieties of art-and-industrial ceramics developed in Halychyna, in particular architectural ceramic plastics, a variety of functional ceramics, decorative tiles, ceramic tiles, facing tiles, etc. The artistic features of Halychyna art ceramics, the richness of methods for decorating and shaping it, stylistic features, as well as numerous art societies, scientific and professional associations, groups, plants and factories specializing in the production of ceramics reflect the general development of this industry in the first half of the century and represent the prerequisites the emergence of the school of professional ceramics in Halychyna at the beginning of the 20th century. The purpose of the next paper is to analyze the formation and development of scientific and professional schools of art-and-industrial ceramics of Halychyna in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. During the environmental crisis, electric transport (e-transport) is becoming a matter for scientific inquiry, a subject of discussion in politics and among public figures. In the program for developing the municipal services of Ukraine, priorities are given to the development of the infrastructure of ecological transport: trolleybuses, electric buses, electric cars. The increased attention to e-transport on the part of the scientific community, politicians, and the public actualizes the study of its history, development, features of operation, etc. The aim of the next study is to highlight little-known facts of the history of production and operation of MAN trolleybuses in Ukrainian cities, as well as to introduce their technical characteristics into scientific circulation. The types, specific design solutions of the first MAN trolleybus generation and the prerequisites for their appearance in Chernivtsi have been determined. Particular attention has been paid to trolleybuses that were in operation in Germany and other Western European countries from the first half of the 1930s to the early 1950s. The paper traces the stages of operation of the MAN trolleybuses in Chernivtsi, where they worked during 1939–1944 and after the end of the Second World War, they were transferred to Kyiv. After two years of operation in the Ukrainian capital, the trolleybuses entered the routes in Dnipropetrovsk during 1947–1951. The purpose of the article by authors from the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies of Ukraine is to thoroughly analyze unpaved roads of the late 18th – early 19th century, as well as the project of the first wooden trackway as the forerunner of the Bukovyna railways. To achieve this purpose, the authors first reviewed how railways were constructed in the Austrian Empire during 1830s – 1850s. Then, in contrast with the first railway networks that emerged and developed in the Austrian Empire, the authors made an analysis of the condition and characteristics of unpaved roads in Bukovyna. In addition, the authors considered the first attempt to create a wooden trackway as a prototype and predecessor of the Bukovyna railway. ; The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation of metrology as government regulated activity in France. The article has discussed the historical process of development of metrological activity in France. It was revealed that the history of metrology is considered as an auxiliary historical and ethnographic discipline from a social and philosophical point of view as the evolution of scientific approaches to the definition of individual units of physical quantities and branches of metrology. However, in the scientific literature, the little attention is paid to the process of a development of a centralized institutional metrology system that is the organizational basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. The article by Irena Grebtsova and Maryna Kovalska is devoted to the of the development of the source criticism's knowledge in the Imperial Novorossiya University which was founded in the second half of the XIX century in Odesa. Grounding on a large complex of general scientific methods, and a historical method and source criticism, the authors identified the stages of the formation of source criticism in the process of teaching historical disciplines at the university, what they based on an analysis of the teaching activities of professors and associate professors of the Faculty of History and Philology. In the article, the development of the foundations of source criticism is considered as a complex process, which in Western European and Russian science was the result of the development of the theory and practice of everyday dialogue between scientists and historical sources. This process had a great influence on the advancement of a historical education in university, which was one of the important factors in the formation of source studies as a scientific discipline. The article by Tetiana Malovichko is devoted to the study of what changes the course of the probability theory has undergone from the end of the 19th century to our time based on the analysis of The Theory of Probabilities textbook by VasylP.Ermakov published in 1878. The paper contains a comparative analysis of The Probability Theory textbook and modern educational literature. The birth of children after infertility treatment of married couples with the help of assisted reproductive technologies has become a reality after many years of basic research on the physiology of reproductive system, development of oocyte's in vitro fertilization methods and cultivation of embryos at pre-implantation stages. Given the widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies in modern medical practice and the great interest of society to this problem, the aim of the study authors from the Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine was to trace the main stages and key events of assisted reproductive technologies in the world and in Ukraine, as well as to highlight the activities of outstanding scientists of domestic and world science who were at the origins of the development of this area. As a result of the work, it has been shown that despite certain ethical and social biases, the discovery of individual predecessor scientists became the basis for the efforts of Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe to ensure birth of the world's first child, whose conception occurred outside the mother's body. There are also historical facts and unique photos from our own archive, which confirm the fact of the first successful oocyte in vitro fertilization and the birth of a child after the use of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine. In the next article, the authors tried to consider and structure the stages of development and creation of the "Yermak", the world's first Arctic icebreaker, and analyzed the stages of preparation and the results of its first expeditions to explore the Arctic. Systematic analysis of historical sources and biographical material allowed to separate and comprehensively consider the conditions and prehistory for the development and creation of "Yermak" icebreaker. Also, the authors gave an assessment to the role of Vice Admiral Stepan Osypovych Makarov in those events, and analyzed the role of Sergei Yulyevich Witte, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tian-Shansky in the preparation and implementation of the first Arctic expeditions of the "Yermak"icebreaker. The authors of the following article considered the historical aspects of construction and operation of train ferry routes. The article deals with the analysis and systematization of the data on the historical development of train ferry routes and describes the background for the construction of train ferry routes and their advantages over other combined transport types. It also deals with the basic features of the train ferries operating on the main international train ferry routes. The study is concerned with both sea routes and routes across rivers and lakes. The article shows the role of train ferry routes in the improvement of a national economy, and in the provision of the military defense. An analysis of numerous artefacts of the first third of the 20th century suggests that the production of many varieties of art-and-industrial ceramics developed in Halychyna, in particular architectural ceramic plastics, a variety of functional ceramics, decorative tiles, ceramic tiles, facing tiles, etc. The artistic features of Halychyna art ceramics, the richness of methods for decorating and shaping it, stylistic features, as well as numerous art societies, scientific and professional associations, groups, plants and factories specializing in the production of ceramics reflect the general development of this industry in the first half of the century and represent the prerequisites the emergence of the school of professional ceramics in Halychyna at the beginning of the 20th century. The purpose of the next paper is to analyze the formation and development of scientific and professional schools of art-and-industrial ceramics of Halychyna in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. During the environmental crisis, electric transport (e-transport) is becoming a matter for scientific inquiry, a subject of discussion in politics and among public figures. In the program for developing the municipal services of Ukraine, priorities are given to the development of the infrastructure of ecological transport: trolleybuses, electric buses, electric cars. The increased attention to e-transport on the part of the scientific community, politicians, and the public actualizes the study of its history, development, features of operation, etc. The aim of the next study is to highlight little-known facts of the history of production and operation of MAN trolleybuses in Ukrainian cities, as well as to introduce their technical characteristics into scientific circulation. The types, specific design solutions of the first MAN trolleybus generation and the prerequisites for their appearance in Chernivtsi have been determined. Particular attention has been paid to trolleybuses that were in operation in Germany and other Western European countries from the first half of the 1930s to the early 1950s. The paper traces the stages of operation of the MAN trolleybuses in Chernivtsi, where they worked during 1939–1944 and after the end of the Second World War, they were transferred to Kyiv. After two years of operation in the Ukrainian capital, the trolleybuses entered the routes in Dnipropetrovsk during 1947–1951. The purpose of the article by authors from the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies of Ukraine is to thoroughly analyze unpaved roads of the late 18th – early 19th century, as well as the project of the first wooden trackway as the forerunner of the Bukovyna railways. To achieve this purpose, the authors first reviewed how railways were constructed in the Austrian Empire during 1830s – 1850s. Then, in contrast with the first railway networks that emerged and developed in the Austrian Empire, the authors made an analysis of the condition and characteristics of unpaved roads in Bukovyna. In addition, the authors considered the first attempt to create a wooden trackway as a prototype and predecessor of the Bukovyna railway.
Farmers' and breeders' access to diverse cultivated and wild plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) is crucial for adapting crop production to climate, environmental, and socioeconomic changes and increasing food and nutrition security. This thesis comprises three separate but interrelated articles that contribute to the literature on PGRFA governance, seed security and seed systems, and seed politics and development. At the intersection of the national and international levels, the thesis aims to understand Ethiopia's PGRFA access governance and its implications for different users within and outside the country. At the intersection of the local and the national levels, it investigates farmers' seed preferences and uses and how different seed system actors, institutions, and policies affect farmers' seed security. Finally, crosscutting all levels, the thesis sheds light on the current Ethiopian seed system development politics by exploring how and why the Ethiopian government prioritized some seed system policies and excluded other policies under different political regimes since the 1950s. In the first article, focusing on genetic resource governance, we show that Ethiopia's PGRFA access governance since the early 1990s has shifted from a commons and free access regime to a sovereign ownership and control regime restricting access for international users. Drawing on commons theory, we identify three interlinked historical, political, and economic factors that can explain this development: the economic importance of agriculture, the national narratives about the value of PGRFA, and Ethiopian policy makers' participation in the heated 'seed wars' on the international scene. The second article focuses on farmers' seed preferences and uses at the farm level and relates this to local and national seed system governance. The farm-level research reports evidence of widespread seed insecurity in the study sites, apparent in discrepancies between the plant varieties and types of seeds farmers prefer and those they actually use. Other evidence includes limited availability of improved varieties and specially certified seeds, challenges with seed quality from some sources, and differentiated access to preferred seed and information according to sex, age, and wealth. Analysis of seed system governance shows that the interventions prioritized in Ethiopia's current pluralistic seed system development strategy (PSSDS) on paper address most of these identified seed insecurity issues and seed system dysfunctions, but implementation lags. The third and final article in the thesis provides a historical analysis of Ethiopia's seed policy over the last 70 years. Focusing on power and employing the lens of 'international seed regimes,' the article shows that Ethiopia has gone from almost non-participation in the first colonial seed regime to becoming the "pioneer" of the post-WWII second public seed regime in the horn of Africa and finally to resistance to the third corporate-based neoliberal seed regime. In the current conjuncture in the contemporary Ethiopian seed regime, four different approaches to PSSDS are competing: 1) government-led formalization, 2) private-led formalization, 3) farmer-based localization, and 4) community-based integrative seed system developments. Despite the overarching policies recognizing the need for a pluralistic approach to seed system development to respond to farmers' seed security challenges, government programs and practices continue to emphasize state-led seed system formalization rooted in the earlier second seed regime. The government's vision to modernize smallholder farmers and increase crop production and productivity and the focus on formal seed systems development as the primary pathway to achieve these have ignored opportunities to tap into the strength of other alternatives identified in Ethiopia's PSSDS. In conclusion, the research presented in this thesis shows that PSSDS is a comprehensive policy framework with the potential to deliver seed security for all farmers. However, this will require the government to take leadership and remove existing political, organizational, and economic barriers in order to implement a genuinely inclusive and equitable pluralistic seed system. ; Bønders og planteforedleres tilgang til mangfold av plantegenetiske ressurser for mat og landbruk (PGRFA) — både kulturplanter og deres ville slektninger — er avgjørende for å tilpasse planteproduksjon til miljømessige og sosioøkonomiske endringer, samt for mat- og ernæringssikkerhet. Denne avhandlingen består av tre uavhengig, men sammenkoblete artikler som bidrar til forskningslitteraturen innen PGRFA forvaltning, såfrøsikkerhet og såfrøpolitikk. I skjæringspunktet mellom det nasjonale og det internasjonale nivået, har avhandlingen som mål å forstå Etiopias politikk for tilgang til PGRFA og implikasjoner for ulike brukere i og utenfor landet. I skjæringspunktet mellom lokalt og nasjonalt nivå undersøkes bønders preferanser og bruk (behov) for såfrø og hvordan forskjellige såfrøsystemaktører, institusjoner og politikk påvirker såfrøsikkerhet. Til slutt, på tvers av nivåene, belyser avhandlingen den nåværende etiopiske såfrøsystemutviklingspolitikken ved å undersøke hvordan og hvorfor den etiopiske regjeringen har prioritert noen såfrøsystempolitikker og ekskluderte andre alternativer under forskjellige politiske regimer siden 1950-tallet. I den første artikkelen, med fokus på forvalting av genetiske ressurser, viser avhandlingen at Etiopia siden begynnelsen av 1990-tallet har skiftet sin politikk om tilgang til PGRFA fra et fellesgode- og fri-tilgangsregime til et suverent eierskap og kontrollregime som begrenser tilgang for internasjonale brukere. Basert på «commons» teori identifiserer vi tre historiske, politiske og økonomiske faktorer som kan forklare denne utviklingen. Disse inkluderer landbrukets økonomiske betydning for Etiopia, de nasjonale fortellingene om verdien av PGRFA og etiopiske beslutningstakeres deltakelse i de opphetede «såfrøkrigene» på den internasjonale scenen. Den andre artikkelen setter søkelys på bøndenes såfrøpreferanser og bruk på gårdsnivå og relaterer dette til lokal og nasjonal forvaltning av såfrøsystemer. Forskningen på gårdsnivå viser en utbredt såfrøusikkerhet i to studiedistrikter. Den viser tydelig avvik mellom hvilke plantesorter og såfrøtyper bønder foretrekker og de de faktisk bruker. Andre indikatorer på såfrøusikkerhet inkluderer begrenset tilgang på nye plantesorter, spesielt sertifiserte såfrø av disse, utfordringer knyttet til såfrøkvalitet fra noen kilder og differensiert tilgang til foretrukne plantesorter og såfrøtyper, samt informasjon etter kjønn, alder og rikdom. Analyse av såfrøsystemforvaltningen viser at tiltakene som er prioritert i Etiopias nåværende pluralistiske såfrøsystemutviklingsstrategi (på papir) tar for seg de fleste av disse identifiserte problemene med såfrøusikkerhet og dysfunksjonene i såfrøsystemet, men implementeringen mangler. Den tredje og siste artikkelen i avhandlingen gir en historisk analyse av Etiopias såfrøpolitikk over de siste 70 årene. Basert på maktanalyse og ved bruk av et historisk såfrøregime rammeverk, viser artikkelen at Etiopia har gått fra nesten ingen deltakelse i det første koloniale såfrøregimet til å bli en "pioner" for det offentlige såfrøregimet etter andre verdenskrig på Afrikas horn og avvisning av et tredje nyliberale såfrøregime. I det nåværende økonomiske klimaet i det moderne etiopiske såfrøregimet konkurrerer fire forskjellige tilnærminger til landets pluralistiske såfrøsystemutviklingsstrategi:1) Statsledet formalisering, 2) Privatledet formalisering, 3) Bondebasert lokalisering og 4) Lokalsamfunnsbaserte integrert såfrøsystemutvikling. Til tross for at den overordnede politikken anerkjenner behovet for en pluralistisk tilnærming til såfrøsystemutviklingen for å svare på bøndenes utfordringer med såfrøsikkerhet, dominerer den statsledet formaliseringen. Det legges vekt på offentlige programmer for nye plantesortsutvikling, såfrøproduksjon og distribusjon. Regjeringens visjon om å modernisere småbrukere og øke planteproduksjon og produktivitet prioriterer utvikling av formelle såfrøsystemer som den viktigste måten å oppnå disse og har ignorert muligheter for å utnytte styrken til de andre alternativer identifisert i landets pluralistiske såfrøsystemutviklingsstrategi. Avslutningsvis viser forskningen som presenteres i denne avhandlingen at strategien er et omfattende politisk rammeverk med potensial til å oppnå såfrøsikkerhet for alle bønder. Dette vil imidlertid kreve at regjeringen tar ledelsen og fjerner eksisterende politiske, organisatoriske og økonomiske barrierer for å iverksette et virkelig inkluderende og rettferdig pluralistisk såfrøsystem. ; publishedVersion
Prilagodba nacionalnog okvira za dijalog dionika poljoprivrednog sektora o pitanjima Zajedničke poljoprivredne politike prema standardu dijaloga koji se provodi na razini Europske unije važna je zbog kreiranja učinkovitih politika, a posebice sprječavanja netransparentnih političkih odluka. U istraživanju se polazi od pretpostavke kako nacionalni okvir za dijalog dionika o pitanjima ZPP-a nije strukturno prilagođen formalnom standardu EU-a te dionici poljoprivrednog sektora RH nisu koordinirani za dijalog o pitanjima ZPP-a prema protokolu komunikacije i standardu EU-a. Cilj ove disertacije bio je ustanoviti razlike između nacionalnog okvira za dijalog dionika o pitanjima ZPP-a i okvira EU-a. Nadalje, cilj je bio identificirati ključne nacionalne dionike i njihovu ulogu u dijalogu te odrediti mogućnosti prilagodbe nacionalnog dijaloga o pitanjima ZPP-a prema standardu EU-a. Istraživanje je provedeno u pet faza: (1) analiza okvira dijaloga, (2) dubinska analiza dionika poljoprivrednog sektora, (3) analiza stajališta 17 stručnjaka, (4) ispitivanje 31 poljoprivrednika putem fokus grupa (5) testiranje rezultata prethodnih faza istraživanja anketnim ispitivanjem 132 ispitanika. Rezultati istraživanja pokazali su kako nacionalni okvir za dijalog dionika o pitanjima ZPP-a nije strukturno prilagođen formalnom standardu EU-a te postoje razlike u dijelu analitičkih, organizacijskih i edukacijskih kapaciteta. Prema ispitanicima, nedostaje razmjena informacija i znanja koja je temelj za koordinaciju javnih politika. Predloženim istraživanjem metodološki su identificirani ključni dionici dijaloga te su znanstveno potvrđeni potreba i mogućnosti prilagodbe nacionalnog okvira dijaloga prema standardiziranom postupku EU-a. Predložena unaprjeđenja moguće je proceduralno primijeniti i na izradu poljoprivrednih politika za druge države koje su u postupcima pregovora za članstvo u EU-u. Istraživanje može poslužiti kao koncept za izradu nacionalnog okvira za transparentan i redovit dijalog u poljoprivrednom sektoru. ; The adjustment of the national stakeholder dialogue on questions of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) according to the EU-level dialogue standard is important for the creation of effective policies, in particular the prevention of non-transparent policy decisions. The research is based on the assumption that the national framework for stakeholder dialogue on CAP is not structurally adjusted to the formal EU standard and that national stakeholders are not sufficiently coordinated for dialogue on CAP questions. The aim of this dissertation was to find the differences between the national framework for stakeholder dialogue on CAP and the EU framework. Furthermore, the aim was to identify key national stakeholders and their role in the dialogue and to identify options for adapting the national dialogue on CAP to the EU standard. The research was conducted in five phases: (1) analysis of the dialogue framework, (2) in-depth analysis of the agricultural stakeholders, (3) analysis of the dialogue from 17 expert standpoints, (4) focus groups with 31 farmers on the dialogue framework and stakeholders, (5) questionnaire for 132 relevant stakeholders in order to test previous phases of the research. The proposed research methodologically identified key stakeholders in the dialogue and scientifically confirmed the need and possibilities to adapt the national dialogue framework to the EU standardized procedure. By analysing the documents, performing individual interviews with experts, examining the four focus groups and conducting a survey, H1 was confirmed, according to which the national framework for stakeholder dialogue on CAP issues is not structurally adjusted to the formal EU standard. The results showed that according to C1, there are differences between the national framework for stakeholder dialogue on CAP issues and the EU framework, especially in terms of analytical, organizational and educational capacities. It was confirmed that although there are a number of formal meetings, e-Consultations do not follow the tempo of the negotiations at EU level as well as standards related to the publicity of data from meetings, the openness of the information system and the time frame for presenting opinions. The general consultations on agricultural policies with public comments are partially covered through the e-Consultation portal. However, abstracts are necessary in order to facilitate the understanding of the documents under discussion, as well as longer time frames. The e-Consultation portal is not a tool that stakeholders can follow yet and additional consultations are needed. Furthermore, the paper confirms H2, in which the stakeholders of the agricultural sector of the Republic of Croatia are not coordinated for dialogue on CAP issues according to the information, communication and dialogue structure protocol. The results of the second phase survey through C2 and the identification of key national stakeholders and their role in the dialogue on CAP issues according to EU standards, the interviewing of experts and farmers through focus groups and the final survey showed that a large number of different associations, sometimes politically coloured, offer weak arguments during debates and institutions perceive them lightly. Also, the selection of stakeholders is not completely transparent. There is no public invitation to participate in the work of the committees and the selection takes place according to decisions of the officials or heads of the Ministry. There is a need for a transparency register, which could determine who is entitled to present views and be invited to meetings according to certain criteria. Associations initiate meetings themselves and they depend on the good will of the leaders. There is a high level of politicization, mistrust and division in large and small, which contributes to weaker cooperation among stakeholders compared to EU policies. According to the respondents, there is a need for an institution or a coordinating body that will profile the interests of farmers towards decision makers. The Croatian Chamber of Agriculture (HPK) is most often mentioned as a key institution that should connect the views of farmers and CAP decision makers. The exchange of information and knowledge, which are the basis for policy coordination, were assessed negatively by experts (third phase), farmers (fourth phase) and stakeholders participating in the negotiations (fifth phase). The component of an analytical approach to planning and joint organized action at the EU level through the linking of the CAP positions of national representatives in the Council, EU representatives and member associations at the EU level is missing. According to C3, the paper identifies the possibilities of adjusting the national dialogue on CAP issues according to the EU standard. The results showed the need for: •establishing a regular dialogue on CAP at the national level modelled on the CDG of the EC, •establishing a transparency register and clear criteria for selecting stakeholders, •producing summaries that will facilitate the understanding of the documents that are discussed and allow for longer time frames for consultations, •increasing the number of representatives of the real agricultural sector in the negotiation process, especially those for whom agriculture is of vital importance, •offering education and accreditation of the stakeholders who participate in CAP negotiations, •strengthening the overall AKIS (synergy of advisory service, science and farmers) system, bringing the CAP closer to stakeholders in the field with the help of an advisory service and local action groups, •public disclosure of data from meetings at the Ministry of Agriculture and feedback on the implementation of the agreed changes, •strengthening the human and financial capacities of associations participating in negotiations at the EU level, •facilitating the translation of documents that are in the process of negotiation and meetings that include civil society stakeholders. The proposed improvements can be procedurally applied to the development of agricultural policies and to other countries that are in negotiations for EU membership. The research can serve as a concept for developing a national framework for transparent and regular dialogue in the agricultural sector.
Tableau d'honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2018-2019 ; Prenant pour point de départ la controverse de 2006 qui touche au programme d'Histoire et éducation à la citoyenneté de deuxième cycle du secondaire, cette thèse porte sur les finalités et les enjeux associés à l'enseignement de l'histoire du Québec. Plus précisément, elle jette un regard sur les sources de controverses qui entourent les réformes des programmes d'histoire du Québec au secondaire depuis la mise sur pied de la Commission Parent (1961) jusqu'à la création du Comité Beauchemin-Fahmy-Eid (2013), et ce, en se penchant sur trois principales étapes, soit la consultation, l'élaboration de programme et les réactions et/ou l'évaluation. Notre analyse s'appuie sur dix-huit entrevues menées auprès d'acteurs-clefs et sur un corpus formé d'archives de fonds publics et privés, de mémoires déposés dans le cadre des consultations publiques, de documents officiels et d'articles de journaux. Pour analyser ce corpus, nous nous appuyons sur un modèle identifiant les principaux enjeux au cœur de la controverse de 2006, chacun au centre d'une confrontation entre deux référentiels globaux ou sectoriels. Ce modèle, de même que les cadres d'analyse qui permettent d'observer le jeu politique entourant l'élaboration de programmes, s'inscrivent dans le champ des approches cognitive et néo-institutionnaliste de l'analyse des politiques éducatives. Enfin, nos résultats permettent de penser que si certaines controverses entourant les programmes d'histoire du Québec au secondaire sont provoquées par un décalage entre les référentiels demandés par les acteurs intéressés à ce domaine et les référentiels qui sous-tendent les documents officiels, certaines découlent davantage de problèmes d'ordre organisationnel, structurel, professionnel et matériel, par exemple le nombre d'heures consacré à son enseignement. Cela nous conduit en dernier lieu vers une réflexion sur la source des changements de référentiels dans notre société. Mots-clefs : enjeux et finalités de l'enseignement de l'histoire ; cycle politique des programmes d'histoire ; analyse des politiques éducatives ; groupes d'intérêt ; opinion publique ; histoire de l'éducation ; Starting from the 2006 controversy about the History and Citizenship Education program at the senior high school level, this thesis focuses on the aims and issues associated with teaching the history of Quebec. More specifically, we examine the sources of the controversies surrounding the reforms of Quebec's high school history programs from the creation of the Parent Commission (1961) until the creation of the Beauchemin-Fahmy-Eid Committee (2013); by focusing on three main steps: consultation, program development, and feedback and/or evaluation. Our analysis is based on eighteen interviews with key stakeholders, public and private records, public consultation briefs, government documents and newspaper articles. To analyze this corpus, we applied a model to identify the main issues at the heart of the 2006 controversy, each at the center of a confrontation between two global or sectoral standards. This model, as well as analytical frameworks for observing the political game surrounding program development, falls within the field of cognitive and neo-institutionalist approaches to educational policy analysis. Lastly, our results suggest that while some of the controversies surrounding the reforms of Quebec's high school history programs are caused by a gap between the standards required by stakeholders in this field and the repositories that underlie official documents, some derive from more organizational, structural, professional and material problems, such as the compulsory nature of the program or the number of hours devoted to its teaching. This leads us ultimately to a reflection on the source of the changes of frames of reference in our society. Keywords: stakes and purposes of history teaching; political cycle of history programs; educational policy analysis; interest groups; public opinion; history of education ; Tomando como punto de partida la controversia de 2006 relativa al programa Historia y educación a la ciudadanía de segundo ciclo del secundario, esta tesis trata sobre las finalidades y los desafíos asociados a la enseñanza de la historia de Quebec. Más precisamente, ella examina las fuentes de las controversias alrededor de las reformas de los programas de historia de Quebec en el secundario, desde la implantación de la Comisión Parent (1961) hasta la creación del Comité Beauchemin-Fahmy-Eid (2013), apoyándose sobre tres principales etapas: la consulta, la elaboración de programa y las reacciones y/o la evaluación. Nuestro análisis se apoya en dieciocho entrevistas llevadas a cabo con actores clave y en un corpus de fuentes conformado de archivos públicos y privados, de escritos presentados en el marco de consultas públicas, de documentos oficiales y de artículos de periódicos. Para analizar dicho corpus, nos basamos en un modelo que identifica los principales desafíos de la controversia de 2006, cada uno en el centro de una confrontación entre dos estándares globales o sectoriales. Este modelo, así como los marcos de análisis que permiten observar el juego político que rodea la elaboración de programas, se inscribe en el campo de los enfoques cognitivo y neoinstitucionalista del análisis de las políticas educativas. Finalmente, nuestros resultados permiten pensar que, si ciertas controversias alrededor de los programas de historia de Quebec en el secundario son provocadas por una brecha entre los estándares solicitados por las partes interesadas en esta área y las normas que subyacen en los documentos oficiales, algunas derivan más de problemas organizativos, estructurales, profesionales y materiales, como por ejemplo el número de horas dedicadas a la enseñanza. Esto nos lleva, en ultima instancia, hacia una reflexión sobre la fuente de los cambios de los marcos de referencia en nuestra sociedad. Palabras clave: desafíos y finalidades de la enseñanza de la historia; ciclo político de los programas de historia; análisis de las políticas educativas; grupos de interés; opinión pública; historia de la educación ; Tomando como ponto de partida a controvérsia de 2006 sobre o programa de História e educação para a Cidadania, dos anos finais do ensino fundamental, esta tese trata das finalidades, dos propósitos e dos desafios associados ao ensino da história do Québec. De maneira mais específica, trata-se da análise das fontes de controvérsias em torno das reformas dos programas de história do Québec, do segundo ciclo do ensino fundamental, desde a criação da Comissão Parent (1961) até a criação do Comitê Beauchemin-Fahmy-Eid (2013). Para tanto, são examinadas três etapas principais : consulta, concepção do programa e reações e/ou avaliação. Nossa análise é baseada em dezoito entrevistas dadas por atores-chave e em um conjunto de documentos formado por arquivos públicos e privados, relatórios que resultaram de consultas públicas, documentos oficiais e artigos de jornais. Nesta análise, tomamos por base um modelo que identifica as principais questões da controvérsia de 2006, cada uma estando no centro de uma confrontação entre dois referenciais globais e setoriais. Este modelo, assim como as análises que permitem observar o jogo político em torno da concepção de programas, enquadra-se no campo das abordagens cognitiva e neoinstitucionalista da análise das políticas educativas. Os resultados parcem indicar que se certas controvérsias em torno dos programas de história do Québec do segundo ciclo do ensino fundamental são provocadas por uma discordância entre os referenciais solicitados pelos atores interessados nessa área e os referenciais que sustentam os documentos oficiais, algumas controvérsias decorrem muito mais de problemas organizacionais, estruturais, profissionais et materiais. Por exemplo, o número de horas consagradas ao ensino. Isto nos leva, em último lugar, a refletir sobre a fonte das mudanças de referenciais na sociedade quebequense. Palavras-chave : desafios e finalidades do ensino da história ; ciclo político dos programas de história ; análise das políticas educativas ; grupos de interesse ; opinião pública ; história da educação
