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Issue 29.5 of the Review for Religious, 1970. ; EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITOR Everett A. Diederich, S.J. ASSISTANT EDITOR John L. Treloar, S.J. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS EDITOR Joseph F. Gailen, S.J. Correspondence with the editor, the associate editors, and the assistant editor, as well as books for review, should be sent to R~vxEw FOR l~mcxous; 6t2 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63to3. Questions for amwering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 32i Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania tgx06. + + + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Edited with ecclesiastical approval by faculty members of the School of Divinity of Saint Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Owned by the Missouri Province Edu-cational Institute. Published bimonthly and copyright ~) 1970 by REVIEW FOR R~LlCIOU. at 428 East Preston Street; Baltimore, MaC/- land 21202. Printed in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at Baltimore, Maryland and at addiuonal mailing offices. Single copies: $1.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $5.00 a year, $9.00 for two yeats; other countries: $5.50 a year, $10.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be ¯ accompanied by check or money order paya-ble tO RZVXEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Renewals and new subscriptions, where ex¢ora. partied by a remittance, should be sent to R£vI~w FOR RELIGIOUS; P. O. ~OX 671; Baltimore, Maryland 21203. Changes of address, busine~ correspondence, and orders not a¢¢ompanid by a remittance should be sent to REvll~W l~Ol~ RELIGIOUS ; 428 East Preston Street; Baltimort, Maryland 21202. Manuscripts, editorial cor-respondence, and books for review should be sent to REVIEW ~OR RF.LIOIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building ; 539 North Grand Boulevard: Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to the address of the Questions and Answers editor. SEPTEMBER 1970 VOLUME 29 NUMBER 5 ,!111; JOHN W. O'MALLEY, S.J. History, the Reformation, and Religious Renewal: Pluralistic Present and New Past Even the most cautious historian would probably be willing to subscribe to the sweeping generalization that Roman Catholicism has changed more radically in the past four years than it had in the previous four hundred. A sense of uprooting and upheaval is inevitable under such circumstances, and we should not be surprised that the resulting tension has been felt most acutely in religious communities. These communities presumably" are the places of keenest religious sensibilities and, at least until recently, the places where the traditions of the past were professedly cultivated. But the changes have often shattered these traditions and have inter-rupted the sense of continuity with the 'past. The conse-quent confusion has forced religious to turn, sometimes somewhat desperately, to any quarter which promises rescue. Somewhat paradoxically, religious even turn to history, in the hope that the long narrative of the Church's pilgrimage will throw light on the present crisis. Often the specific focus of their interest is that other era of history well known .for its religious tension and tt~rmoil, the age of the Reformation. This focus is at least in part due also to the !fact that the theology and spirituality of the Reformation era had been protracted in the Church to the very eve of Vatican II. In studying the sixteenth century many religious were to some extent ~tudying themselves. The present author, as a practicing historian of the Reformation, has frequently been asked by religious in 4- ¯ Fr. John W. O'Malley, S.J., is as-sociate professor in the department of history; University of Detroit; Detroit, Michigan 48221; . VOLUME 29, ~.970 ÷ ÷ ÷ 1. W. O'Malley, $.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 636 the past several years to answer the following question: Is not the present upheaval in the Church very similar to .the upheaval of the Reformation era? The following pages will attempt to answer that question and to use it as a focus to explore the unprecedented nature of the aggiornamento we are experiencing today. It is to be hoped that such an exploration will be helpful to reli-gious in trying to understand their present situation in history and in describing to them the drastic creativity which is required of them in the renewal of their own communities. "Is not the present upheaval in the Church very simi-lar ~o the upheaval of the Reformation era?" The ques-tion begs for an affarmative answer, and such an answer is indeed suggested by many obvious similarities between the sixteenth century and the twentieth century. Both centuries,, for example, experienced a challenge to papal authority; both centuries tried to revise the forms of religious life, saw large numbers of men and women leaving religious life, and so forth. However, in spite of the many similarities and in spite of the measure of consolation which an affirmative answer might bestow, the fundamental reply to the question has to be a re-sounding negative. The present upheaval is radically different from the upheaval of the sixteenth century. It is important for us to see just how it is radically different, for only then can we cope with the practical repercus-sions which such a difference has on our own lives. In order to explore this topic we must first expose two assumptions which are the basis of the discussion which is to follow. These assumptions are simple and familiar to us all, but they bear repetition because they are so fundamental. First of all, behind every action there is an idea. Ideas are power. They are dynamic in character and even the most abstract of them tends eventually to issue in action and to influence conduct. Therefore, to study an idea is to study the energetics of social change. Secondly, behind every idea there is a culture, a fabric of thought and feeling of which any given idea is a partial expression and reflection. The idea may even have been created by the culture in question, for ideas are not eternal. They are born at some particular time and in some particular place. Or if the idea was merely inherited fxom an older culture, it is modified and changed by the new culture as the new culture accepts it as its own. In the study of the history of ideas, sensitivity to the total cultural context is an absolute prerequisite for discerning an idea's birth, de-velopment, and even total transformation, in the course of its history. The idea towards which we shall direct our attention is the idea of Christian reform :or renewal. As an idea it has its own history, which is a reflection and expression of the various cultures where it was and is a vital force. This history until recently was not much investigated by historians, but it is now receiving more adequate atten-tion. We shall try to trace this history very briefly, with special emphasis on the Reformation era, in the con-viction that such an endeavor will be enlightening and helpful for us in our present crisis. In particular, we shall contrast the cultural framework which undergirded the idea of reform in the age ,of the Reformation with that which undergirds aggiornamento today. Recent studies on the origin and early development of the idea of reform in Scripture and the fathers of the Church have shown that in those early'centuTies reform meant the transformation of the individual Christian into God's image and likeness. It had not as yet occurred to Christians in any very c6herent fashion that the Church as an institution--or rather that institutions in the Church--might be subject to reform and revision. The idea of institutional reform surfaced for the first time during the so-called Gregorian Reform or Investi-ture Controversy of the eleventh century. During this period the functions and allegiances of the episcopacy were at the center of the bitter contest between pope and emperor, and it was the papacy which wanted to change the status quo by returning to what it felt was an older and sounder tradition before bishops had become sub-servient instruments of royal and imperial policy. With the Gregorian Reform the idea was inserted into the Western ecclesiastical tradition that the Church it-self was subject to reform. The impact of this idea upon later history is incalculable. From the eleventh century forward the idea would never again be absent from the story of the Church; and at some times, as in the early sixteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries, it would come to dominate and profoundly disturb that story. By the early years of the sixteentll century we can honestly say that a reform hysteria had set in. Reform had become the common preoccupation, almost obsession, of the age. What is to be said about [ireform in the sixteenth century? Perhaps the first thihg which strikes our at-tention is the almost limitles~ variety of reform ideas and reform programs. We see stretched before us a chaotic panorama in which it is hard to find order, progression, or consistency. The figure of Luther, of course, dominates the scene, and he to some degree influenced, at least by way of reaction, all reforms in the century: But we are really hard pressed to find a very obvious intellectual affinity between him and a refbrmer like Michael Servetus, who denied the Trinity and ÷ ÷ VOLUME: 29,' 1970 6:~7 I. w. O,M,a~y, S.I. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 638 who taught that the corruption of Christ's doctrine, which began with the Apostles and which was furthered by the fathers and scholastics, was brought to inglorious constimmation by contemporary ~eformers like Luther. And what direct relationship was there between an Anabaptist quietist like Conrad Grebel and an Ana-baptist visionary like John of Leyden, who made polyg-amy obligatory at Mfinster and maintained himself there in voluptuous, polygamous opulence? Even within Catholicism a great gap separates Gasparo Contarini, the conciliatory Venetian nobleman and friend of St. Ignatius, from the fierce and rigid Gian Pietro Carafa, at .whose election to the papal throne even Ignatius blanched. The more we learn about the sixteenth cen-tury the more clearly we see how complex and variegated it was. Generalization seems impossible. And the at-tempt to compare it with the twentieth century seems even more impossible, for we are all keenly aware of the variety and even contradiction which characterizes contemporary ideas of reform and aggiornamento. We have set ourselves an impossible task. ¯ On the other hand, if what we said earlier about cul-tural patterns is true, all of these reform phenomena should be able to be studied as manifestations of a common culture. There should be somewhere, if we dig deeply enough, elements manifestative of a common intellectual and emotional experience. These elements, though distinguishable from one another, also com-penetrate one another, so that in speaking of one of them we to some extent are also speaking of the others, since all are facets of the same cultural reality. We are justified, therefore, in our undertaking, especially if we keep clearly in mind how precarious it is and how subject to exception is almost every generalization. In our comparison of the sixteenth with the twentieth century we shall concentrate on two elements or phe-nomena which are particularly significant for out topic and particularly revelatory of the character of the two cultures. The first of these phenomena we shall designate as the cultural parochialism of the sixteenth century and the cultural pluralism of the twentieth. The cul-ture of the sixteenth century was a parochial culture. The great controversies of that century were carried on within what we now see to be the narrow confines of the Western intellectual tradition. One reason why the sixteenth century was an exciting century in which to live was that it initiated through its voyages of dis-covery the new age of world consciodsness which we experience today. But only the faintest glimmers of. this world consciousness had penetrated to Europe by 1517. It is true. that in the Italian Renaissance, which to some extent was contemporaneous with the Reforma-tion, there was a greater awareness of cultural diversity. Moreover, there was an attempt to come to terms with it. Both Nicholas of Cusa and Marsilio Ficino speak of the splendor which comes to religion from the diversity of rite and ritual which God permits throughout the world. But such tolerance and breadth of vision was not characteristic of the European intellectual scene as a whole. Indeed, even where these virtues were. operative they eventually tended to be snuffed out by the harsh polemics of the religious controversies. The very dictum "Scripture alone," which we associate with the Protes-tant reformers, is symptomatic of what was happen-ing. No matter what is to be said of this dictum as an expression of theological principle, from the cultural point of view it suggests narrowness and constriction of vision. The Catholic formula, "Scripture and tradi-tion," is broader and suggests an urbane and mature consciousness of complexity, but it, too, implies more restriction than the ideas of Cusa and Ficino. The re-formers--- Protestant and Catholic--railed against what they felt were the paganizing tendencies' of the Renais-sance, and we often echo their judgments even today. But much of this so-called paganizing can be more be-nignly and more accurately .interpreted as a serious at-tempt to broaden the cultural base of Christianity. The cultural parochialism of which we have been speaking was made possible and even fostered by the slow and inadequate means of communication which the sixteenth century had at its disposal. More im-portant, these slow and inadequate means made it possible for sects to develop and for governments to impose a particular and rigid religious style on whole populations. In other words, it was still possible to ex-clude those factors which would tend to develop re-ligious and cultural pluralism or to operate for a more broadly based unity. German Lutheranism, Dutch Calvinism, Spanish Catholicism could continue to perdure as distinct and seemingly relentless cultural .phenomena only because they were protected from fac-ing the challenge of cultural and religious diversity. We today have no such protection, and we cannot construct barriers to keep out what we find offensive and disturbing. In the modern world pluralism is the very air we breathe, and it is one of the most signifi-cant factors influencing us and marking us off from all men who have ever preceded us on this globe. Modern means of communication have introduced the otherwise-minded into our very homes, and we have no instrument to muffle them. We must come to terms with diversity. ÷ :÷ VOLUME 29, 1970 639 4. I. w. o'Mo~, s.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 640 Our: Christianity, therefore, and our style of renewal must come to terms with it. Ecumenism, for instance, is not simply an accidental adoi:nment to our religious and intellectual style. It is not simply a good idea that we concocted and then tried to thrust down the throat of an unwilling Church. We perhaps cannot describe it as inevitable, but we cer-tainly can describe it as symptomatic of the culture in which we live and urgently required by it if we genuinely believe in truth and honesty. Our experience of pluralism has forced us all to admit the possibility of different, complementary, con-trasting, and at times almost contradictory insights into the same data. It has forced us to realize that each of these, insights may have some validity and that no set of categories can capture any reality in all its splendor and multiplicity. This realization, has not made us gkeptics, but it has made us cautious in our judgments and aware of how relative our insights might be. Our experience of pluralism has thrust upon us a new epistemology. In the sixtbenth century the assumption which under-lay religious discussion was that truth was one and that orthodoxy was clear--clear either from Scripture or from the teaching of the Church. Cultural parochialism fostered this assumption. It allowed beliefs to perdure untested by confrontation with different beliefs. The epistemology of the sixteenth century, parochial and rigid with the academic rigidity of the scholastic de-bates, made little allowance for the possibility of plural-ism of insight. It insisted upon the exclusive validity of a single insight, with a consequent insistence upon the exclusive validity of particular categories and concepts. Truth in such a system is not multifaceted and ever some-what beyond our grasp, but monolithic and subject to our despotic contro!. It is de jure intolerant. Its particular formulations are so many weapons for use in battle ¯ against other equally parochial formulations. Polemic, therefore, is its appropriate literary style. The theology of the sixteenth century is quite cor-rectly described as polemical and controversialist theol-ogy. We perhaps fail to realize how appropriate such a style of theology was to the cultural experience and epistemological presuppositions of that century. To an intolerant truth corresponds an intolerant literary form. No other form would be honest. The only possible explanation for a person's refusal to accept the true and orthodox insight must be moral perversity. Hence, orthodoxy and virtue, heterodoxy and vice were the two sets of inseparable twins. Significantly enough, the characteristic literary form of the Italian Renaissance was the dialogue, the form which implies an awareness of diversity and a willing-ness to live with it. It was an awareness too delicate to be able to contain the religous resentments which ex-ploded in 1517. But it is not too delicate today. Dialogue is the literary form required by our epistemology, which has been conditioned by our experience of cultural pluralism. Dialogue and rapprochement are not arbi-trary creations of the ecumenist. They are necessary corollaries to being intellectually honest in the latter half of the twentieth century. Our style of renewal, therefore, cannot be apodictic, autocratic, intolerant, or suffused with old-time single-minded zeal. Our culture--that is to say, WE, as prod-ucts and creators of that culture--require something else. Our style is radically different. It is groping and tentative. It is experimental and participati~ve. It is even somewhat double-minded, for it realizes that even re-ligious reform must keep an eye on secular realities precisely as potential for religious values. The second phenomenon manifestative of the cul-tural divergence of the sixteenth century from the twentieth century is perhaps more important: the sense of history operative in the two centuries. Here, es-pecially, we must beware of giving the impression that each individual in the sixteenth or twentieth century thinks about his past in precisely the same way. In the sixteenth century, in fact, historical thought ranged from the subtle understandings of persons like Fran-cesco Guicciardini and Desiderius Erasmus to the crudest forms of apocalyptic. However, we can say that, by and large, sixteenth-century thinkers discerned some consistent and coherent pattern in the historical process, and they saw this process as directly under the divine influence. They usually arrived at their formulations of such a pattern by a very arbitrary fusion of historical fact with metahistorical speculation which they drew from Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The result was often a hodge-podge of myth, metaphysics, and unsub-stantiated historical data. From this was constructed a pattern of expansion or decline or cycle or cataclysm or culmination which was presented to the reader as God's design. Thus the author was able to rise above history's mystery and to protect himself from history's terror. There was one very important consequence of this approach to history: it tended in some fashion to absolutize the past. The religious thinkers of the six-teenth century all tended to see past events, especially religious events, as issuing from God's hand and as under His direct influence. They were not particularly Renewa/ VOLUME 29, 1970 641 ~. W. O'Mall~, S.~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 642 concerned with the singular, contingent, concrete hu-man causes which produced particular phenomena. They were concerned rather to see them as products of di-vine providence, as r~eflections of the divinity, as neces-sary elements in a predetermined pattern. They thus tended to endow them with an absolute value which defied reconciliation with the contingent historical cir-cumstances under which they had come into being. The contrast of this style of historical thinking with our own is dramatic. We all have acquired to a greater or lesser degree some measure of historical conscious-ness ~s defined in terms of modern historical method and hermeneutics. What this means is that we approach the past as a human phenomenon which is to be under-stood in terms of human thought and feeling. Each person, event, doctrine, and document of the past is the product of contingent causes and subject to modification by the culture in which it exists. Everything in the human past is culturally conditioned, which is just another way of saying that it is culturally limited. Such awareness of cultural conditioning distinguishes modern historical consciousness from that which pre-ceded it, and it is an awareness which has been growing ever more acute since the nineteenth century. The text of Luke's Gospel could have been produced only by first-century Judaic-Hellenistic Christianity. Fifteenth-century humanism would have created a completely different text, different in concept as well as in language. Awareness of such cultural differentiation helps make Scripture scholars today much more keenly conscious of how Scripture is the word of man than they are of how it is the word of God. Until quite recently the very opposite was the case. What modern historical consciousness enables us to understand more clearly than it was eve~ understood before, therefore, is that every person, event, doctrine, and document of the past is the product of very specific and unrepeatable contingencies. By refusing to consider them as products of providence or as inevitable links in an ineluctable chain, it deprives them of all absolute character. It demythologizes them. It "de-providential-izes" them. It relativizes them. The importance of such relativization is clear when we consider the alternative. If a reality of the past is not culturally relative, it is culturally absolute. It is sacred and humanly unconditioned. There is no possibility of a critical review of it which would release the present from its authoritative grasp. For one reason or another an individual might.reject a particular institution or set of values as not representing the authentic tradition of the past. But. there is no way to reject the past as such. There is no way to get rid of history. The two styles of historical thinking which we have just been describing radically condition the idea of re-form. If we were to describe in a word the funda-mental assumption which underlay the idea of reform in the sixteenth century, it would be that reform was to be effected by a return to the more authentic religion of a bygone era. Somewhere in the past there was a Golden Age untarnished by the smutty hand of man, an age when doctrine was pure, morals were upright, and institutions were holy. It was this doctrine, these morals, and these institutions which reform was to restore or continue. According to this style of thinking Christ somehow or other became the sanctifier and sanctioner of some existing or pre-existing order, and that order was thus imbued with transcendent and inviolable validity. For centuries many Christians thought that such an order was the Roman Empire, and that is why the myth of the Empire's providential mission and its duration to the end of the world perdured many centuries after the Empire ceased to be an effective reality. According to this style of thinking all the presumptions favor obedi-ence and conformity. Protest and dissent can only rarely, if ever, be justified. There is no way to see Christ as contradicting the present and rejecting the past. Such a style of thinking is foreign to our own. Even though as Christians we attribute a transcendent mean-ing to the person of Jesus and therefore attribute a special primacy to those documents which resulted from the most immediate contact with him, we cannot see the first Christian generation as a Golden Age. Scoiologi-cally speaking, it was the charismatic generation. His-torically speaking, it was a generation like all others-- human, contingent, imperfect, relative. The formula-tions of Christian doctrine in the great early councils must be subjected to the same radical criticism. We do not easily find in them a harvest of eternal and immu-table truth. Intellectually, therefore, we repudiate the sixteenth-century's historical style. Emotionally, however, we find a certain satisfaction in it of which it is difficult to divest ourselves. What satisfies us in this style is its fufidamental premise that somewhere in the past there is an answer to our questions and a solution to our prob-lems. If we could only get back to the ':true mind" of somebody or other, how easy it then would be to im-plement our reform. How easy it then would be to save ourselves from the risk of having to answer our own VOL:UME" 29, 1970 643 ~. W. O'Mallt'y, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ¯ 6,t4 questions and solve our own problems. This is the emotional consolation which such a style of historical thinking provides. We neatly fit ourselves, for instance, into a preconceived pattern of homogeneous develop-ment, and then we dip into the Golden Past to discover how to behave as the pattern unfolds itself. We are secure. We have been saved from history's terror. No such salvation, however, is open to us of the twentieth century. Modern historical consciousness has relativized and demythologized the past, thus liberat-ing us from it. But we are liberated only to find our-selves on our own. The past has no answers for us, and we face the future without a ready-made master-plan. It is this fact which makes our style of renewal radically different from every reform which has ever preceded it. We are painfully conscious that if we are to have a master-plan we must create it ourselves. In spite of certain superficial similarities, therefore, the problems of the sixteenth-century Reformation are not those of twentieth-century aggiornamento. Underly-ing these two reforms are two radically different cul-. tural experiences, which have radically transformed the idea of reform. Our twentieth-century idea of reform has been conditioned by our experience of religious and intellectual pluralism, and this has transformed it from pronouncement to conversation. Our idea of reform has also been conditioned by our modern historical consciousness, and this has divested us of the consola-tion of a past which answers our questions and tells us what to do. The implications of the foregoing reflections for re-newal within religious communities should be obvious. First of all, our problems will not be solved from on high by some sort of autocratic decree. Before any reasonable decision is reached on any major question a certain amount of open discussion and communal dis-cernment is an absolute prerequisite. The exercise of "obedience" is thus so drastically changed that we can well wonder if the word, with all its connotations, is really an adequate expression of what we now mean. In any case, participation and tolerance of diversity of viewpoint are now such pervasive realities of the cul-ture in which we live that there will be no viable + solutions to any problems without taking them into ac- + ¯ count. ÷ Secondly, although we do want to get back to the "true mind" of our founders, we must realize that we are in a very different cultural context than the founders were. We have to be bold in interpreting their "mind," and we must realize that even they do not answer our questions in our terms. Keligious renewal today, for the first time in the history o[ the Church, is more con-scious o~ its break with the authentic past than it is of its continuity with it. This may not be a very consoling realization, but it is one which we must constantly be aware o~ as we try to face the ~uture. Indeed, we face a new future because to a large extent we have created ~or ourselves a new past. j. DOUGLAS McCONNELL Good Stewardship Is Management and Planning J. Douglas Mc- Connell is a mem-ber of the Stanford Research Imfitute; Menlo Park, Cali-fornia 94025. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Thank God for the courage and wisdom of the fathers of the Second Vatican Councill Their decree, Perfectae caritatis, charging all institutions and orders to under-take renewal, may have provided a means that will en-able the talents of both men and women religious to be developed more fully and utilized more effectively in serving the People of God. It may also be the means by which some (not all) orders will survive in the years ahead. There is no need here to discuss the declining numbers of[ novices, the increasing numbers not taking final vows or opting for exclaustration, the growing costs of retirement, and the trend in age distributions. These are symptoms, not causes, and their disappearance rests entirely on how the orders adapt themselves to this, the latter third of the twentieth century. Historically, the least practiced parable within the Catholic Church has to have been the parable of the talents, and this is particularly true insofar as orders of religious women have been concerned. They have truly been hand-maidens of the Church; they have occupied subservient roles and have been encouraged to remain in secondary roles--interpreting kindly the motives and action of others, shunning criticism, and avoiding evaluation of another's fitness for her work or position--yet they possess tremendous capabilities. For the better part of a decade Stanford Research In-stitute (SRI) has undertaken research projects in the area of corporate planning, and for many more years in the field of management. In that time, working with members of the Fortune 500 and numbers of relatively small businesses, SRI has developed a philosophy or a set of principles that underlies the physical tasks in the planning process and exercise of management functions. In the last three years we have been privileged to work with the following orders in assessing their present and future status: Sisters of the Holy Cross, Notre Dame, Indiana; the Sisters of Charity of Mount St. Joseph, Cincinati; and the Sisters of Charity of Mount St. Vincent, New York. The 'philosophy of corporate planning has proved to be as effective for religious orders as for corporations. We do not have "the answer," and we are the first to admit that our approach evolves a little with every study and improves; but we do have a system that is logical, comprehensive, participative, timely, and oriented toward results. The system SRI follows is outlined here because we believe it offers sound means of planning for. the future, of implementing change without chaos, and of exercising true collegiality and subsidiarity. A number of sisters have even called it "the key to survival." What Is Planning? All of us plan to some extent whenever we think ahead to select a course of action. But this is a weak way of defining planning. SRI prefers to define effective planning as a network of decisions that direct the intent, guide the preparation for change, and program action designed to produce specific results. Note that the emphasis is on goal-directed action. Ob-jectives can be determined and achieved if properly planned for. The network of decisions recognizes the in-terrelationships between internal and external factors and that earlier decisions may greatly influence later ones. On more than one occasion I have heard of a diocese "giving" a high school to an order. The deci-sion to accept, in at least two instances, has meant a considerable drain on the human and financial re-sources of the orders concerned and effectively com-mitted them to that apostolate for many years, irrespec-tive of the priorities of the sisters in the congregations. Throughout our private and corporate lives we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty; and we trust, with varying degrees of probability, that the outcomes will be as anticipated. The formal process of planning described briefly here does not guarantee success, how-ever that may be defined, but it considerably enhances the probability. SRI does not talk about short and long range planning as separate functions. Planning is the function that ex-tends into the future as far as is considered desirable. If a college operated by an order requires 50 percent of its faculty to be religious (so it can provide Christian wit- 4. 4- + Stewardship VOLUME 2% 1970 647 ]. D~ .McConnell REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS '648 ness and remain economically viable), the retirement pattern for the next six or seven years determines what type of graduate fellowships should be offered for both the coming academic year and the several that. follow. The awarding of fellowships in its turn requires that other decisions be made.This year's budget and deci-sions should be determined on the basis of their con-tribution to the long range objectives of the institution or order, and not be de facto determiners of the direc-tion the organization takes. The Genius Founder Our research studies and project work concerned with the nature of organizations, corporate development, and successful management have indicated that, in almost every case, successful organizations of all kinds have been the brainchild of a single person or, in rare instances, of two in partnership. Names such as Vincent de Paul, St. Ignatius Loyola, Elizabeth Seton, Catherine McAuley, St. Francis Xavier Cabrini, Baden Powell, General Booth, Henry Ford, Alfred Sloan-Charles Kettering, Gen-eral Wood, Hewlett-Packard, the Pilkinton Brothers, Andrew Carnegie, and H. J. Heinz come readily to mind. By analyzing the attributes and state of mind of the "genius founder" of the business enterprise, SRI devel-oped a framework of tasks designed to re-create the mental processes of the genius entrepreneur within the management team of the corporation. Let me explain further. As we see it, the success of the "genius founder" is in large measure caused by his un-swerving dedication to setting high goals and .to reach-ing for them. He has vision on which he bases his own objectives and sets his own goals. And he does this not simply on the basis of last year's results plus some growth factor or what has always been done, but on the basis of his own perception of his own capabilities and the drive to satisfy his own needs. These attributes of vision and ~ommitment in goal setting are most impor-tant. Other distinguishing attributes of our "genius founders" appear to us to be: oA willingness to assume risk oA sense of inquisitiveness or unceasing curiosity ~Insight into relationships between concepts, objec-tives, needs, and needs satisfaction; the ability to see implications or utility ~Ability to make sound value judgments as to what is central and peripheral to attaining his objectives ~Creativity, be it in the area of product, technology, or a new marketing approach oFeasibility judgment based on foresight, experience, and a problem-solving ability oAbility to marshall the resources needed to accom-plish his objectives and goals oAdministrative ability to organize the resources to accomplish his goals and satisfy his inner needs. Organized Entrepreneurship To translate the "genius founder" or "genius entre-preneur" concept to the complex organization, SRI de-veloped a methodological framework that we call "or-ganized entrepreneurship." This framework provides a process of planning that meets the criteria of compre-hensiveness, logic (including provision for retraceable logic), participation by the corporate membership, time-liness, generation of rapid understanding based on a common frame of reference, and an orientation toward results, that is, the decisions reached can be acted on and managed. Through a series of tasks it also repro-duces corporately the distinguishing attributes of the entrepreneur. Let us now briefly go through the planning steps with their various tasks to show you how they fit together in a logical pattern. Step 1: Determination of Corporate Objectives Many institutes and orders have approached the question of who they are and what they want to achieve in overly simplistic terms. Too often purpose is expressed only in broad conceptual statements such as "the glorification of the Lord," "mercy," and "charity" and in terms such as "care for the homeless, the sick, and the aged," and "Christian education." Motherhood statements of a broad nature serve a unifying purpose but tend to let the members of a congregation under-take any work whether it really fits the primary purposes of the order or not. What a congregation is and what it is about are com-plex issues, and definitional statements formulated must take into account the expectations of the several stake-holder groups, the corporate skills and resources, and environmental change. One implication of this is that objectives have to be reviewed periodically. The end result is a family of objectives or, as people like Grangerx and Boyd and Levy2 have termed it, a hierarchy of objectives. a Charles H. Granger, "The Hierarchy of Objectives," Harvard Business Review, May-June 1964, pp. 63-74. ~ Harper W. Boyd and Sidney J. Levy, "What Kind o£ Corporate Objectives?" Journal o] Marketing, October 1966, pp. 53-8. Stewaraship VOLUME 29, 1970 64:9 ÷ ÷ ÷ ]. D. McConnell REVIEW FOR'RELIGIOUS 650 When defining the broad purpose of an organization, one has to recognize the sometimes conflicting interests of the stakeholders, that is, the members, the diocese(s),. the suppliers, and the customers (parishes, students, pa-tients, and the like) and yet resolve the conflict. Be-neath this broad umbrella a hierarchy of objectives is formulated for each stakeholder group, apostolate area, and the generalate of the congregation. As one goes through the hierarchy, the objectives become more specific in their direction, their distance, and the rate at which they can be achieved. The specification of objec-tives also facilitates the development of key criteria for evaluating performance and, sociologically, it recognizes the reality of the situation. The refusal of many clergy to accept Pope Paul's ruling on birth control was really a move to realign those matters considered to be within the realm of individual conscience, those .considered to be within the realm of the clergy, and those considered to obe essential to the faith and therefore within the realm of the Holy See. The present thrust to clean up the environment is an expression of the expectations of the-community stakeholders whose objectives have not been accorded rightful emphasis in the past by a society that has acceded too often to the claims of industry. To develop this hierarchy of objectives it is necessary to undertake a series of analyses. Stakeholder .4 nalysis The typical stakeholders in a congregation of religious are the members, .the diocese(s), functional or apostolate groups, customers, suppliers, financial institutions, and the community within which it operates. For each stakeholder group the governing board at-tempts to answer the following broad questions: oWhat does this group want from the congregation? oWhat expectations does this group have for the con-gregation? ~To what extent are these expectations being met? ~To what extent can the congregation meet them, recognizing .that it is impossible to do everything? Expectations will relate to such items as number and quality of services provided, fees charged, availability, citizqnship, jobs provided, behavior, ethics, and morality. The analyses should take into account the present balance and reconciliation of stakeholder interests, rec-ognizing conflicting interest and expectations as well as attempting to assess what is changing that will affect future expectations. A realistic stakeholder analysis within most dioceses would reveal the extent to which the expectations of local parish priests are being met at the expense of sacrificing the interests of the other stakeholders--the students, the parents, and lthe teachers (lay and religious) staffing the schools. An~ interesting commercial example is the Unilever Company in Africa, which made realistxc stakeholder analyses and surwved the nationalistic fervor of transition fromI colonies to countries by becoming a manufacturer rather than a trader, an economic developer of local resources rather than an extractor, and a partner rather tha~n an oppo-nent. Today, Unilever has a stronger position than ever in African markets. Special studies are almost mandatory because the senior corporate managementI group can hardly be expected to know the basic underlying factors determlmng expectations and perceptions of the stake-holder groups. The provisional stakeholder analysis for ~any commu-nity would include such factors as the percentage of families directly employed by the ~nstxtut,e; the con-gregation's contribution to and percentage of local taxes, if any; the number of members in religiohs teaching, social, civic, and political jobs (full and pa~t time); the annual contributions by the congregation Ito area or-ganizations; sponsorship of local groups; pol~itical action (lobbying, testifying regardxng leg~slatxon) at all levels; and local community attitudes toward the institutions of the congregation. In overseas operations it should also include studies of such factors as ~he political climate, stability of government, acceptan~ce, cultural variables, and attitudes toward overseas-based congrega-tions. Customer analysis will vary by type of apostolate. An orphanage would have different criteria froth those of a college or a retreat center, for example. Nevertheless, all analyses should include estimates for each class of serv-ice, the total potential "customers," the actual numbers served, the "market" share by value and volume, and an evaluation of quality of service as perceivec.lI by custom-ers. As is readily apparent, data on stakeholtler expecta-tions have to be gathered from a wide variety of sources: internally within the congregation, from independent appraisers, and from those actually served. Determining Corporate Potential The final component of this first task of ~tetermining corporate objectives is the establishment of a level of ~ . aspiration in the form of the corporate potentxal. Henry Ford estimated his potential as prowd~ng e~,ery Ameri-can family with an automobile. William Hesketh Lever wanted to make cleanliness commonplace in an era when Queen Victoria took a bath "once a week, whether she ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 29, 1970 651 4. 4. 4. ~. D. McConnell REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS needed it or not." Our genius entrepreneurs have al-ways reached high, and this has been true of religious like Saint Vincent de Paul or Martin Luther King. The SRI approach is to treat potential as an expres-sion of the governing board's attitude to the congrega-tion's future. Potential can be expressed both in Ford's and Lever's conceptual terminology and also in more pragmatic terms such as the amount of patient care pro-vided, number of students educated, social work case loads, financial soundness, professional hours contrib-uted, and average Sunday morning attendance at Mass. Corporate potential is based on all key-planning issues derived from studying the social and economic outlook, the apostolate areas in which the company is interested, the opportunities for more effective resource utilization, the likely effects of important stakeholder expectations, and a congregation's own conclusions about its level of ambition and strength of commitment. As we see it, the determination of potential stimu-late~, motivates, and enables speculation about its attain-ability. Projected results are not predictions in the com-monly accepted sense but are simply estimates of what could happen when the assumptions made turn out to be valid. The concept aims at stimulating the setting of ambitious congregational and apostolic goals. The result of this phase of the planning process is the setting of a hierarchy of corporate objectives, including a set of ambitious yet realistic human resources and financial objectives. For an order of women religious today to expect to maintain a membership of 1,500 highly qualified professionals by recruiting 50 to 60 novices a year is totally unrealistic. Sound corporate ob-jectiv. es, together with a clear concept of what religious life is all about, should enable a congregation, however, to arrest and then reverse the currently familiar down-ward trend. Step 2: The Assembling o[ In[ormation The assembling of information consists of four main tasks: An in-depth evaluation of what is being done now, an analysis of the skills and resources of the con-gregation, an evaluation of environmental change, and an appraisal of planning issues. The goals and objectives of the congregation and its apostolate areas are explicated to obtain sets of criteria for the evaluations that have to .be undertaken. Once the criteria are established, it is relatively simple (1) to de-ten- nine what information is needed and the data sources necessary for an objective in-depth analysis and evaluation, (2) to develop instruments to collect data not already in existence, and (3) to put all these to-gether. Analysis of the skills and resources of the organization requires three studies: one of government, one of human resources, and one of financial resources. SKI suggests the development of a computerized personnel inventory. This enables detailed analysis and projections to be un-dertaken, as well as aiding in matching skills and in-terests to apostolic needs. Studies of environmental change can and should be obtained from a number of sources. They may be as broad as Kahn and Wiener's ,Economics to the Year 2018/' .~ or as specialized as a local city planning com-mission's forecasts of school population. Most congrega-tions are largely unaware of the amount of information on environmental change that is available just for the asking. In planning the future staffing for elementary schools in a diocese, one order learned that a school would disappear completely within fi~e years because the city planned a freeway through the area, which would mean the razing of almost all homes in the parish. The trends in the age distxibution of an area may indicate the development of different needs in future health care (less obstetric and more geriatric and cardiac care, for instance) and types of social services offered. Undertaking environmental analysis is one thing; ensuring its acceptance and use by management is an-other. One large sophisticated American company un-dertook a test market study in Japan to see if a market existed for a type of convenience snack food. The cor-porate management were ethnocentric about this prod-uct to the point that they refused to believe unfavora-ble test market results the first and second times around and insisted the study be replicated a third time. Busi-ness has no monopoly on this form of myopia, and much of the Church's attitudes toward parochial education appears analogous. The final task in the assembling of information, the appraisal of planning issues, is undertaken by the planning group. Following house or apostolate briefings, planning issues are solicited from those judged to have "management perspective"; to contact all members of the congregation has been our rule to date. Each mem-ber submits as many issues as he desires on a standard-ized form. In the first planning cycle the issues tend to be highly oriented to the present, but experience shows that in subsequent cycles the time horizon expands con-siderably. Typically, the submitted issues identify the 8 Herman Kahn and Arthur J. Wiener, Economics to the Fear 2018 (New York: Macmillan. 1967). 4- 4- St~ardship VOLUME 29, 1970 1. D. Mc~onne// REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 654 ~functionM point of impact on the institution or con-gregation, the nature of the impact, whatever supporting evidence exists, and suggested ranges of possible action. Issues are then grouped into families of issues that have common causes, that yield to a common solution, or that can be assigned to a single responsible person. You may ask: "Why solicit planning issues from mem-bers as a major basic input to the planning process?" The underlying assumptions are that people will do only what they see is of interest and importance to them and that each individual's perception is his reality. Members of a congregation cannot be expected to devote time and energy to matters they do not consider relevant to them as religious. The system also provides government with an excel-lent upwards channel of communication and, by per-mitting every member to participate and contribute ac-tively, enhances the probabilities of acceptance of the plan and a commitment to achieve it. This participative philosophy is touched on again later in this article. Step 3: Development of Planning Actions The major superior and the members of the governing board then read through each family of planning issues, screening out those where action has already been taken or is imminent, or where incorrect perception is in-volved. In these cases executive action is indicated. Each family of issues is then reviewed in the light of the corporate objectives, special studies' highlights, the analysis of resources, and the "real" message indicated by the issues. The members of the governing group then take each family of issues and identify the kind of action it suggests, what is at stake in terms of costs and benefits, the costs (both out of pocket and opportunity) of taking action, the degree of urgency, the first and second order implications of the kind of action sug-gested, and the management personnel who should at-tend to it. These individual efforts in translating issues to responses are then reviewed by the whole of the ex-ecutive group whose discussions strive to combine re-lated actions into broader, more fundamental actions and to identify important actions still missing. Use of a task force to assist in this process may be helpful. Suggested actions emerging from this review should then be tested by whatever means deemed appropriate. Feasible actions are then grouped by three or more levels of priority. Step 4: Preparation of the Provisional Plan In this s~ep of the planning process the proposals for action are translated into specific action assignments that, when completed in detail, provide the goals, action, and controls portion of the provisional plan. This provi-sional plan corresponds with the marshaling ability of our "genius entrepreneur." We suggest the use of a specific form that, when ap-proved by the assignment group and accepted by the action assignee, represents an authorization to proceed and a cohtract to perform the specified action in the terms stated. One important set of Form 3s, as we call them, relate to the continuance of present operations and thus ensure that all aspects of the congregation's activities form part of the plan. Before final approval the Form 3s flows through the finance and planning offices, where calculations of total costs and benefits are made for each priority level and are compared with total resources available. This pro-vides the governing board with a means to decide how many and which tasks can be undertaken within the planning period. The actions, tasks, or projects selected are then built into estimates of benefits and costs to see the effects on congregational performance and where the plan will posit the congregation with respect to its current per-formance, intermediate goals, and movement toward at-tainment of the longer range objectives. At this point the planning group updates the special studies' highlights; assembles the draft statements on corporate objectives and key assumptions; and produces summaries of the action programs in terms of timing, pro forma financial statements (operating statement, balance sheet, cash flow), and resource requirements (manpower, equipment, facilities, and capital)--broken down by organizational units, priorities, and whether they are current or developmental operations. The natural advocate of each action proposed then describes it and leads discussion within the governing board to double-check the plan in terms of the realism of goals, schedules, and cost/benefit estimates, of agreed-on performance standards (that is, the rules of the game), of interdependence among organizational units, of effects of unrealistic goals on the rest of the congregation, and of whether each action proposed is justified in terms of the congregation's objectives. This may sound like a detailed process that takes a lot of central government's time, and it does. But it ensures that: oThe government group understands all aspects of the proposed plan. oWithin the context of the emerging corporate pur-pose and strategy there is a review of program con-÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 29, 1970 655 ÷ ÷ ÷ ]. D. M~mme~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 656 tent, a rank ordering of programs, and anallocation of resources in accordance with priorities. oAn appraisal of various program combinations oc-curs, highlighting the relative emphasis on continu-ing present activities and developing new ones, the magnitude of effort required to reach each poten-tial, and the timing and sequence of interrelated programs. oAfter final decisions and allocations are made, the provisional plan is put in final form and presented by the major superior to the board for approval, and then approved programs are channeled to ac-tion assignees. The first year o£ the plan is the congregation's budget. The congregation is now at the point of managing by plan, which parallels the "genius entrepreneur" charac-teristic of administrative ability. It has succeeded in rep-licating the characteristics of the "genius entrepreneur" in a corporate framework. In subsequent periods the congregation recycles through the planning process, and the family of plans is updated and reissued. The first year of the plan as up-dated becomes the operating budget and the final year of the plan is extended. Here perhaps a word of warning is in order. Remember that lead time is an absolute necessity. It takes three to five years before major moves have a real impact on a corporation, and SRI believes that the same will hold true for congregations of religious. Maior in-depth evaluations are probably required only about every five years. In the interim period the special studies, updating of stakeholder analyses, and solicitation of planning issues from members are all that is likely to be required. Conclusion Our experience has been that the organized entre-preneurship model works. In the five years (this is the sixth) that SRI has been conducting executive seminars in business planning, more than 600 executives from over 300 companies representing every continent of the globe have participated. Many corporations, such as Coca-Cola, Owens-Corning Fiberglas, Lockheed, Merck, and Cyanamid, have been using one or more variations of the model with considerable success. The model de-scribed here is the adaptation that has been developed for congregations of religious despite the difficulties of measuring benefits and some kinds of costs when non-financial criteria are applicable. It is too early to say to what degree the orders SRI has assisted with planning have benefited, but there is every reason to believe that they are adapting with the times and will continue to be dynamic forces in the Church and wider society in the years ahead. Highly idealistic, yet realistic, spiritual and temporal goals and objectives have been determined. Honest objective evaluations have been undertaken, recommendations have been made, plans for their implementation have been drawn up, and these are being put into effect. Government has been democratized and strengthened. Management sys-tems have been introduced. And all of this has been done by directly involving some 250 members of each order in task forces and less directly involving all mem-bers through solicitation of information, opinions, at-titudes, and issues important to them. The final plan is theirs and they are committed to it. This motivation alone enhances the probabilities of success. In addition, the management skills of these congregations have been added to greatly. The sense of community has been en-hanced by the reaffirmation of congregational goals and objectives, the open realization of the pluralism inherent in any large group of people, and the translation from concept to action of both subsidiarity and collegiality. Another vital factor that enhances the probabilities of the orders strengthening themselves as a result of the introduction of modern management techniques and planning as part of their renewal is the quality of .their leadership. It takes strong, forward-looking leaders to see the benefits from and to commit their members to a major planning project such as this and then see that it reaches fruition. Good management is good stewardship of resources to attain goals and objectives and to provide the greatest benefits for all stakeholders with the resources available. One essential component of good management is plan-ning. ÷ ÷ ÷ S~ardshi~ VOLUME 29, 1970 657 LOUIS G. MILLER, C.Ss.R. The Social Responsibility of Religious Louis G. Miller, (~,Ss.R., is on the staff of Liguori Publication in Li-guori, Mo. 65057. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 658 It is in the temper of our times that religious who take the vow of poverty are under close scrutiny. The youthful generation has a sharp eye for phoniness, and they are quick to draw attention to the gap that seems to exist between professing a vow of poverty and the actual living of a poor life. The matter concerns the individual religious and it also concerns the religious order or congregation as a whole. The following reflections have to do with one aspect of the problem which, in my opinion, religious communities have, generally speaking, neglected in the past. I mean the responsibility of devoting some part of the community funds to investment in projects designed to help relieve the most pressing social problem of our time: the widening gulf between the haves and the have nots in our society. Before developing my theme, let me state that I am well aware of the self-sacrificing work being done by religious in their parishes and in teaching and nursing programs for the poor and deprived. When a parish staffed by members of a religious order goes through the inevitable cycle and changes from middle-class to low-income parishioners, the people stationed there pitch in, ordinarily, and try to adapt to the new situation that is thrust upon them with energetic zeal. What we are concerned with in this article is social consciousness on the provincial level. In the ordinary course of development, a province will accumulate funds, and it will seek ways to invest these funds. The interest from these investments goes to the support of educational institutions and missionary projects. There are two ways of doing this. A religious community can invest its funds under the single motivating principle that the investments be safe and that they bring the highest possible return. This is the course followed by many a conscientious bursar or procurator, and in the past, few questioned it. Another way of going about .the matter of investing funds would be to look for ways and means of applying them to the alleviation of the pressing social crisis of our time. No one can be unaware that such a crisis exists. It finds expression in the widening gulf between rich and poor, the increasing bitterness in the racial confrontation, and the alienation between generations that seems to result from the other factors. In Vatican II's Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of Religious Life there is a very apt expression of community responsibility in this regard. After noting that "poverty voluntarily embraced in imitation of Christ provides a witness which is highly esteemed, especially today," the Decree goes on to say: Depending on the circumstances of their location, communi-ties as such should aim at giving a kind of corporate witness to their own poverty. Let them willingly contribute something from their own resources to the other needs otr the Church, and to the support of the poor, whom religious should love with the tenderness of Christ (Number 13). As we well know, the young appear to find it.difficult to put their faith and trust in any kind of "establish-ment" today. They only too readily suppose that an institution of its very nature is so hamstrung by long-standing traditions that it cannot move in the direction of new and imaginative ventures. Over and above the tremendous work being done by religious in, for example, inner city projects; over and above occasional cash donations to worthy causes, I believe we need something in the nature of a symbolic gesture on the level of capital fund investment. I believe this would serve as a large factor in winning the confidence of young people that we are indeed willing to back up our words with our deeds, and that as an institution we can take a forward step. The heart of the social crisis today, most authorities agree, is the housing problem. The United States Commission on Civil Rights calls this the "most ubiquitous and deeply rooted civil rights problem in America." The Koerner Report agrees and makes it clear that its dimensions are so great that if a solution is not found within a few years, the resultant pressures could produce riots far more terrible than those our country experienced two or three years ago. The plain fact of the matter is that while each year 1.5 million new family homes are built in the United States, nearly all of them are on a de facto segregated basis. Since World War II the FHA and VA have financed $120,000,000 in new housing. According to a ÷ ÷ Social l~sponsibitity VOL~bl~ 2% k970 .I. + L. G. MC.iSllse.Rr,. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 6~0 survey made two years ago by the American Friends' Service Commission, less than two percent of this housing has been available, kealistically available, to non-whites. Each year we get larger white belts in our suburbs and more compressed black cores in our cities. The black core is continually compressed inward upon itself. Recently in St. Louis representatives of the president's Commission on Civil Rights, under the chairmanship of Father Theodore Hesburgh, after long hearings on the situation there, issued a depressing report that, although legally integrated housing is in force, de facto segregation in the great majority of suburbs is still very much the order of the day. He was quoted as saying: "Everybody we interviewed admitted that we have a grave problem; but nobody knows what to do about it." I propose that we direct some of our provincial invest-ments, perhaps a tithe of 10 percent, to the alleviation of this de facto discrimination in housing. In doing so, we would not of course be pioneers among church groups. There are available for study a number of interesting examples of what can be done and has been done. In Akron, Ohio, there is a nonprofit interfaith organization, organized in 1964, called INPOST, spon-sored by local Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches. INPOST has directed several million dollars of investment into a complex of 108 units of low-cost housing, 72 units of high-rise housing, and 28 town houses. It is hoped that this complex will become a model for similar developments across the country. The diocese of Peoria for the next three years will advance $35,000 annually toward urban renewal and poverty programs in their area, with special emphasis on housing projects. We have noticed in the news recently that the Chicago Jesuit province recently made available $100,000 to be used as bond money to try to keep black families from being evicted from their homes. These are families with no equity in their homes even years after purchase at inflated prices, and legally able to be evicted on missing one payment. The Franciscan Sisters of Wheaton, Illinois, have announced an $8,000,000 plan to build and operate as nonprofit sponsors a residential complex for senior citizens and middle-income families in that area. The diocese of Detroit has been a leader in approving at least one $74,000 loan as seed money for testing the feasibility of having houses prefabricated by the hard-core unem-ployed for erection in the inner city. There is a national organization,, with headquarters in Washington, D. C., called SOHI, or "Sponsors of Open House Investment." Congressman Donald M. Frazer is its chairman, and numbered in its long list of sponsors is a host of distinguished Americans of all creeds and a variety of professional competences. It seeks to promote investment by individuals or by non-profit institutions of about 10 percent of their available investment capital in housing that is open to all. The organization does not itself invest. But it alerts indi-viduals and nonprofit groups to investment opportuni-ties in equal housing. It seeks to bring together investors of good will and housing professionals who are com-mitted to open occupancy. It operates on the principle that if a person cannot do anything himself to help solve the housing problem, his funds, if he has money to invest, can be an eloquent voice to help in the terrible silence of the decent in facing up to the housing problem that exists in our Country today. Under the slogan "National Neighbors" it seeks to build bridges of understanding between people, whatever their race or color. The Headquarters of SOHI is located at 1914 Connecticut Ave., N. W., Washington, D. C. 20009. Objection to these proposals can be made, of course, on the grounds that there is a smaller interest rate on such investments, and they are not as safe as blue chip stocks. Also, the objector might continue, the religious community needs all the money it can scrape together in these difficult times to support the various projects already in operation. But I submit that this does not absolve us from our social responsibility. If things are tough for us, they are much tougher for a great many people in the have-not group. They are a lot tougher even for people who have the money, but who can't buy a home in a decent neighborhood because their skin is black. If the social problem in our country is not met and dealt with, the most gilt edged investments will not be of much use or solace in the turmoil and violence that may follow. ÷ ÷ ÷ so~d VOLUME 29, 1970 661 SISTER M. RITA FLAHERTY, R.S.M. Psychological Needs of CeBbates and Others ÷ ÷ ÷ Sister Rita is chairman of the Department of Psy-chology; C~rlow College; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 662 Today when the value of celibacy--to which so many thousands of priests and religious are committed--is being questioned, it seems important that every facet of the problem be examined. The questioning seems to be the result of: (1) Vatican II's emphasis on the true value of marriage as a way of life that can lead to the highest sanctity and spiritual fulfillment, (9) the research of Biblical schoIars which raises questions about the time, place, circumstances, and even authenticity of those words of Christ which were formerly quoted in defense of celibacy, (3) the difficulty of practicing celi-bacy in a culture that places a high premium on sexual pleasure, and (4) the emotional difficulties that can arise as a result of deprivation of this important physical and psychological need. While all aspects of this problem deserve close study, it is with the last aspect that this paper will be concerned. In spite of all these problems and new discoveries, there are many religious and priests who cannot ignore what they believe is the prompting of the Spirit to live a celibate life. These people who choose to live in the unmarried state are entitled, it would seem, to have this freedom and also to have any help from psychologists or others who can aid them in solving some of the problems that may arise as a result of that choice. Although this study is directed toward the needs of celibates, actually much of the material is applicable to both married and unmarried alike. Basic psychological needs are to a great extent universal, differing only in emphasis and means of satisfaction from one cultural group to another. In studying the behavior of humans, psychologists in general would conclude that all behavior is motivated, that is, it arises from some need within man. Behavior, as defined by psychologists, is an attempt to provide satisfaction for a need. What is a need? What happens when a need is experienced? A need is a state o[ tension or disequilib-rium that results from some lack within the person. When this need is felt, it causes the person to become tense and restless; it activates him to perform some action in order to relieve the need--to get rid of the tension and to achieve a state of ~atisfaction or equilib-rium. A man who is watching a television 'show may not be conscious of his need for food, but he does become restless while watching and jumps up at the commercial and goes to the refrigerator to find something to eat. This behavior is directed towards a goal that will relieve the tension from hunger. Hunger is classified as a physical need, along with thirst, need for sleep, for oxygen, for elimination, for sex, and for many other activities that help to maintain a state of physical satisfaction. Each of these physical needs is tied in with a biological system within the body which in most cases depends on satisfaction of the physical need for survival. One cannot imagine a man being deprived of oxygen for more than eight minutes or deprived of water for more than a week or of food for much more than a month, without dying. Therefore when the person becomes aware of the lack of oxygen, water, or food he becomes agitated and rest-less and gradually filled with tension until he finds a suitable object to satisfy his need. And so it is with all the other physical needs, .including sex, except that the need for sex seems to be the only one which is not necessary for the individual's preservation of life--it is, however, very important in the preservation of the race. For this reason celibates need not worry about endangering their lives, but they must expect a certain amount of frustration and tension resulting from the deprivation of this basic physiological drive which in man is also part of his whole personality. However, physical needs comprise only one of three categories that may be termed human needs. One must also consider psychological and spiritual needs in studying human behavior. Although many psychologists discuss a large variety of psychological needs the five most com-monly mentioned include: affection, security, achieve-ment, independence, and status. Since these needs are more subtle and do not usually lead to loss of life, people are often unaware of the tension created by them. Yet the tension can become very strong and even lead in some individuals to a complete disorganization of personality which could be termed a kind of psy-chological "death." ÷ ÷ Sister Rita REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS TiLe need for affection implies the need to give and receive love. This is very important throughout life, but seems most important during infancy and early childhood, in studies done by Ribble, Spitz and others young infants deprived of mothering, that is, fondling, petting, and other signs of affection have in some cases gradually wasted away in a disease called maras-mus. Older children and adults may not die from lack of affection but they may develop some severe person-ality deviations. The second psychological need mentioned is that of security which Karen Homey defines as the need to feel safe from the dangers of a hostile and threatening world. Physical security is not the important element here as was demonstrated by the children who ex-perienced the terrors of the London bombings during the Second World War. It was found after the war that those who were separated from their parents and sent to places of safety in the country showed more psychological disturbance and insecurity than those who lived through the raids in the city of London while staying with their parents. Evidently the presence of people who love you makes one feel more secure than any amount of physical safety in the presence of strangers. As adults, we experience insecurity when we fear that no one loves us or that those people who are present in a situation we perceive as threatening do not really know us or understand us. The next psychological need is achievement or the feeling that one has accomplished something worthwhile. The individual must be convinced himself of his achievement. Another person telling him that his work is good is not sufficient if he himself is dissatisfied with the outcome. Therefore when one reaches a personal goal, a feeling of real achievement can be experienced-- but often p~ople who are deprived of affection or feel insecure cannot feel a satisfying experience of achieve-ment. The anxiety that is generated by deprivation of these other psychological needs may either paralyze their efforts so they cannot achieve, or if they do achieve, the results are rendered personally unsatis-fying. Once a person can achieve, however, he usually wants to become independent. The need for independ-ence involves the ability to make decisions and take responsibility for one's own actions. During adolescence this need gets very strong and continues throughout life. One can never be considered a mature adult until he has achieved an independence of "though.t, decision, and action. Finally the need for status or a feeling of self-worth must be considered as probably the most improtant psychological need found in humans. The need for status includes the desire to be a worthwhile person-- to be a good person. Everyone has this very basic need to see himself as a person who is worthwhile. Anyone who views himself as bad, inferior, or inadequ.ate does not satisfy his need for status. More Americans are visiting clinical psychologists today because they "hate" themselves, than for any other reason. If this need for self-worth is not fulfilled the person cannot be really happy. A final category of human needs is not usually men-tioned in psychology books but should be noted here, that is, spiritual needs. These include a need to believe, love, and worship an absolute Being--someone outside of man who is infinitely good and powerful. Spiritual needs also include the need to "live for others," to go out to others, to have a meaning for one's life. Depriva-tion of needs in the spiritual area are less perceptible, that is, many people can seemingly go for years without showing tension over these needs. However, because these needs are most subtle does not mean they do not exist or that they are less important. Since psychology is a relatively new science it is understandable that very little investigation has been conducted in this intimate but obscure area of man's personality. Victor Frankl and other psychotherapists are writing more often these days about existential neurosis, which is a frustration and anxiety caused by a lack of purpose in one's life. Those individuals who see no purpose in life or reason for living may very often be suffering from a deprivation of spiritual needs. Now in considering the problems brought on by these needs one must remember that they can be operating on a conscious or an unconscious level. A man may be aware that he is hungry and go in search of food, or sometimes he may be unaware that the frus-tration, tension, and even depression he experiences could be eased by eating a good meal and perhaps getting a good night's sleep. So, while most physical needs are consciously felt, sometimes needs for food, sex, sleep, and so forth may be causing tension for which we cannot account. The psychological needs are much more likely to operate on an unconscious level, perhaps because many people would be loathe to admit their needs for affection, approval, status, and so forth. It is possible for a person to be aware that he needs to be loved or esteemed by others, but it is more likely that he would repress this, thereby causing the need to operate on the unconscious level. Finally, spiritual needs are most likely to be 4- 4- 4- Need~ o] Celibates VOLUME 29, 1970 665 Sister Rita REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 666 repressed and many people go through life not realizing that they have a human need for God--a need to depend on an all-powerful Being for love and help. One might ask how a discussion of these needs js involved in the problems of celibates. It is the thesis of this paper that many celibates can stand the frustration involved in a deprivation of the sex need if other needs are adequately met. For religious it is likely that the physical and spiritual needs are satisfied more often than the psychological ones. Because of faulty training in the areas of friendship, detachment, and obedience a number of celibates ex-perience extreme frustration in areas of at~ection, security, and independence. Because of a fear of engendering pride or a false concept of humility many religious practices have also deprived individuals of a feeling of self-worth. Rarely in the past was praise given for work well-done, and it is the unusual person who can satisfy his need for self-esteem unless he sees others regarding him as a good person. In the past some celibates ma~ have been able to maintain some feeling of worth and goodness based solely on the assumption that celibacy was a "higher" form of life than marriage. Now, postconcilar writers are emphasizing that all states of life can lead to sanctity and that all Christians are called to lead a life of perfection. By thus equalizing the various states, the only prop that some celibates had for a feeling of self-worth (admittedly it was a poor onel) has been pulled away from them. Also in the past the People of God tended to look to those leading a celibate life as somehow being better than non-celibate Christians. Now there is a tendency in Catholic books, articles, and newspapers to question the value of celibacy. This questioning accompanied some-times with a kind of ridicule and cynicism may even-tually cause some celibates to become skeptical about the celibate commitment they have made. Those religious and priests who are abandoning the state of celibacy and seeking dispensations to marry are not necessarily suffering primarily from the deprivation of the sex need. It may be that a person who feels lonely, unloved, and unappreciated may seek in the marriage state the companionship, love, and appreciation that could legitimately have been given him in a loving Christian community. On the other hand, it must be admitted that some celibates may feel it necessary to invest their love in one person of the opposite sex, and thus realize that marriage is the only solution for them. In a recent study cited in the International Herald Tribune (March 10, 1970) the results of a Harvard study conducted by James Gill, S.J., showed that in the case of the 2500 priests leaving the United States priest-hood each year, celibacy does not seem to be the major causal factor. Father Gill indicates that he finds that the priests who are leaving and marrying are very often depressed. The priest dropout was most often a man who found himself taken for granted in a crowded system that sometimes denies the human need for approval. This discovery has caused some of the Church's most dedicated and talented priests to become sad, lonely, disillusioned, and resentful. As one examines these findings of Gill, one is reminded of a similar syndrome that psychiatrists have found in many young business executives--men who find themselves caught up in a structure filled with activity but which leaves the individual disillusioned with a system that deperson-alizes him. It is likely, then, that the American culture is a big factor in the working structui~e of the Church in the United States and that the same conditions that operate in the society to dehumanize the individual are also operating in the Church structure. In a personality analysis, Gill found that many of the priest dropouts were task-oriented men, who were raised by their parents in such a way that the achieve-ment of goals, particularly difficult ones, appealed strongly to them. They tended to go about their work in a compulsive, perfectionistic way, not seeking or enjoying pleasure from it, but aiming unconsciously at the recognition and approval they would gain from those they served. Father Gill goes on to show that when this recognition and approval are not experienced, the priest is in deep emotional trouble. It takes between five and fifteen years for a priest like this to experience the disillusion-ment that will eventually lead to some kind of a crisis. The priest then begins to feel that he is being taken for granted, that nobody seems to care how hard he has worked. Usually priests like this have so consistently performed in a better than average manner that bishops and religious superiors simply expect that they will do a good job. Since applause and approval come less frequently with the passing years the priest gradually feels more and more dissatisfied with himself, with his role in the church, and with his requirement of celibacy, At this point in his life, he becomes an easy prey to emotional involvement with the first sensitive woman who comes into his life. It is evident from Gill's study and those of others that celibacy or deprivation of the sex need is not necessarily the principal problem. Many priests and VOLUME 29, '1970 religious who leave to marry are probably seeking satis-faction for basic psychological needs that could legiti-mately and rightly have been satisfied in a celibate community, or a group of Christians Who practice charity by looking out for the needs of their fellow-man. Celibates must be capable of interacting on a deep personal level with at least a few people. Through. these friendships they will be able to love and appreciate themselves, which in turn enables them to love others. ~In the past, authority figures were looked to for approval and recognition which would lead to some psychological satisfaction and a feeling of self-worth in the celibate. In the light of the findings cited above, it would seem advisable to educate all members of the celibate community (and eventually all the People of God) to a clear understanding of these emotional needs. Only in this way will it be possible for the celibate to receive from some of his peers th~ affection, approval, and sense of self-worth which is so necessary if he is to sustain the frustrations of living in a celibate en-vironment. New ideas about love, friendship, and obedience must be given to all sectors of the community, young and old alike, if the celibate is to survive psychologically. Also the value of the celibate life must be rediscovered, not as a "higher" kind of life, but as a life that can lead to a rich, happy existence as one spends it living for others and thereby living for God. ÷ ÷ ÷ Sister Rita REVIEW FOR" REI;IGIOUS 668 THOMAS A. KROSNICKI, S.V.DI The Early.Practice of Communion in the Hand Travel in the United States and Europe has reen-forced my impression that the practice of Communion reception in the hand has already become quite com-mon. Understandably, the reaction that it causes is quite varied. On the one hand, it is labeled another liberal innovation; on the other, it is seen as the. result of an honest endeavor to make the reception of the Eucharist an authentic sign. In any case, and this is the purpose of the present article, we should realize that this practice, now officially permitted in. Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland, is not an. unprec-edented development in the liturgy of the Church.1 Synoptic Considerations The Synoptic accounts record the institution narra-tive as taking place in the setting of a meal which was almost certainly the Passover meal.~ The bread that Jesus used at the Lord's Supper would have been the unleavened bread (matzoth) of the Jewish Passover rite. It is interesting to note, however, that by the time the evangelists set about to record the institution event, they simply used the Greek word "artos," or leavened bread. This is understandable since it is generally accepted by Scripture scholars that the words of institution in the Gospels present the tradition concerning the Lord's Sup-per as preserved in the very celebration of the Eucharist in the early Christian communities. It seems, therefore, that when the Eucharist was celebrated outside the Thomas A. Kros-nicld is a member of Collegio del Verbo Divino; Ca-sella ~.Postale" 5080; Rome, Italy. VOLUME 2% 1970 See "Taking Communion," Worship, v. 43 (1969), p. ~440. Mt 26:26; Mk 14:22-3; Lk 22:19. 669 ÷ T. A. Kromicki, $.V.D. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Passover week, leavened bread was commonly used by the early Church) We should also note in this context the word used to describe the distribution of the eucharistized bread. Jesus simply gave it to those who were present. "Take and eat," Jesus said to his apostles. The verb used is the Greek Xa~/3~vo~ which is a generic verb indicating the simple act of taking (with the hand) as is seen from the use of the same verb in Luke 22:19 where Jesus "took the leavened bread." (K~d Xo~v &prov). Frbm these considerations, though no direct proof is established, two points can be asserted. In the Apostolic Church the Eucharist was leavened bread and was dis-tributed in the ordinary manner of giving. A few selected texts ~om the writings of the Church fathers will clearly demonstrate that hand reception of the Eucharist was practiced in the first centuries. Tertullian to Cyril of Jerusalem We would not expect to find in the writings of the fathers an exact account of the mode of Communion reception that was common at their time. There was no reason for them to explain such practices. The most that one can find in searching through their works are oc-casional references to the practice. These indications point to hand reception. The oldest witness we have that the faithful received the Eucharist outside of the solemn liturgy and, in fact, in their homes, is Tertullian (d. 220). At the same time he is an implicit witness for the early practice of hand communion: A whole day the zeal of faith will direct its pleading to this quarter: bewailing that a Christian should come .from idols into the Church; should come from an adversary workshop into the house of God; should raise to God the Father hands which are the mothers of idols; should pray to God with the hands which, out of doors, are prayed to in opposition to God; should apply to the Lord's body those hands which confer bodies on demons. Nor is this sufficient. Grant that it be a small matter, if from other hands they received what they contaminate; but even those very hands deliver to others what they have con-taminated. Idol-artificers are chosen even into the ecclesiastical order. Oh wickednessl Once did the Jews lay hands on Christ; these mangle His body daily. Oh hands to be cut offl Now let the saying, 'If thy hand make thee to do evil, amputate it,' (Mt. 18.8) see to it whether it were uttered by way of similitude (merely). What hands more to be amputated than those in which scandal is done to the Lord's body? * ~ Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Bible (New York: 1963), pp. 697- 702; Joseph M. Powers, Eucharistic Theology (London: 1968), pp. 60-1. ~ Tertullian, On Idolatry (PL, v. 1, col. 744C-745A; trans.: Ante- Nicene Fathers, v. 11 [Edinburgh: 1869], p. 149). In Tertullian's To His Wife which discusses the dangers incurred by a Christian wife even with a "tolerant" pagan husband, we read: Do you think to escape notice when you make the Sign of the Cross on your bed or on your body? Or when you blow away, with a puff of your breath, some unclean thing? Or when you get up, as you do even at night, to say your prayers? In all this will it not seem that you observe some magical ritual? Will not your husband know what it is you take in secret before eating any other food? If he recognizes it as bread, will he not believe it to be what it is rumored to be? Even if he has not heard these rumors, will he be so ingenuous as to accept the explana-tion which you give, without protest, without wondering whether it is really bread and not some magic charm?" The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome (d. 235) goes into even more detail when giving prudential advice about home (and understandably hand) reception of the Eucharist: Every believer, before tasting other food, is to take care to receive the Eucharist. For if he receives it with faith, even if afterwards he is given something poisonous, it will not be able to do him harm. Everyone is to take care that no unbeliever, no mouse or other animal eats of the Eucharist, and that no particle of the Eucharist falls on the ground or is lost. For it is the Body of the Lord that the faithful eat and it is not to be treated care-lessly. o Cyprian's (d. 258) exhortation to the martyrs en-courages them to arm their right hands with the sword of the Spirit because it is the hand which "receives the Body of the Lord": And let us arm with the sword of the Spirit the right hand that it may bravely reject the deadly sacrifices that the hand which, mindful of the Eucharist, receives the Body of the Lord, may embrace Him afterwards to receive from the Lord the reward of the heavenly crown.~ When the same author speaks of the lapsed Christians, he says: On his back and wounded, he threatens those who stand and are sound, and because he does not immediately receive the Lord's Body in his sullied hands or drink of the Lord's blood with a polluted mouth, he rages sacrilegiously against the priests? ~ Tertullian, To His Wife (PL, v. 1, col. 1408AB; trans.: Ancient Christian Writers, v. 13 [Westminster: 1951], p. 30). ' 6 Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition, cc. 36-7 (Bernard Botte, ed., La Tradition apostolique de saint Hippolyte [Miinster: 1963], pp. 82-5; trans.: Lucien Deiss, Early Sources o] the Liturgy [Staten Island: 1967], p. 68). ~ Cyprian, Letter 56 (PL, v. 4, col. 367AB; trans.: The Fathers o] the Church [hereafter = FC], v. 51 [Washington: 1964], p. 170 where the letter appears as Letter 58). 8 Cyprian, The Lapsed (PL, v. 4, col. 498B; trans.: FC, v. 36 [1958], pp. 76-7). ÷ ÷ ÷ 2". A. KrosM¢~, $.V~D. REVIEW FOR RELI@IOUS Moreover, Cyprian gives us two accounts of persons who were not worthy to receive the Eucharist in their hands. He writes: And when a certain woman tried with unclean hands to open her box in which was the holy Body of the Lord, there-upon she was deterred by rising fire from daring to touch it. And another man who, himself defiled, after celebration of the sacrifice dared to take a part with the rest, was unable to eat or handle the holy Body of the Lord, and found when he opened his hands that he was carrying a cinder.D Hand Communion reception was certainly practiced in the time of persecution as we know from Cyprian, but Basil (d. 379) is our best witness to this fact: Now, to receive the Communion daily, thus to partake of the holy Body of Christ, is an excellent and advantageous practice; for Christ Himself says clearly: 'He who eats my flesh and drinks my blood has life everlasting.' Who doubts that to share continually in the life is nothing else than to have a manifold life? We ourselves, of course, receive Communion four times a week, on Sundays, Wednesdays, Fridays,. and Saturdays; also on other days, if there is a commemoration of some saint. As to the question concerning a person being compelled to receive Communion by his own hand in times of persecution, when there is no priest or minister present, it is superfluous to show that the act is in no way offensive, since long-continued custom has confirmed this practice because of circumstances themselves. In fact, all the monks in the solitudes, where there is no priest, preserve Communion in their house and receive it .from their own hands. In Alexandria and in Egypt, each person, even of those belonging to the laity, has Communion in his own home, and, when he wishes, he receives with his own hands. For, when the priest has once and for all com-pleted the sacrifice and has given Communion, he who has once received it as a whole, when he partakes of it daily, ought reasonably to believe that he is partaking and receiving from him who has given it. Even in the Church the priest gives the particle, and the recipient holds it completely in his power and so brings it into his mouth with his own hand. Accordingly, it is virtually the same whether he receives one particle from the priest or many particles at one time?° There is reference here to more than hand commun-ion. Since no priest or deacon was present, in this case the persons communicated themselves. This was not, however, limited to times of persecution, as Basil points out. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386) gives us the clearest ac-count of the manner of hand communion common at his time. In his Mystagogic Catecheses addressed to his D Cyprian, The Lapsed (PL, v. 4, col. 500B-501A; trans.: FC, v. 36 [1958], pp. 79-80). Cyprian notes the practice of taking the Eucharist home and the reception of communion outside of the liturgical celebration. The Eucharist was in this ease reserved in some sort of a box. ~ Basil, Letter 93 (PG, v. 32, col. 484B-485B; trans.: FC, v. 13 [1951], pp. 208--9). catechumens we read: When you approach, do not go stretching out your open hands or having your fingers spread out, but make the left hand into a throne for the right which shall receive the King, and then cup your open hand and take the Body of Christ, reciting the Amen. Then sanctify with all care your eyes by touching the Sacred Body, and receive It. But be careful that no particles fall, for what you lose would be to you as if you had lost some of your members. Tell me, if anybody had given you gold dust, would you not hold fast to it with all care, and watch lest some of it fall /and be lost to you? Must you not then' be even more careful with that which is more precious than gold or diamonds, so that no particles are lost? u Augustine and the Early Middle Ages As we see from the above excerpts, the method of Communion reception up to the time o[ Augustine at least, indicates the practice of hand reception. With Augustine (d. 430) two innovations become apparent for the first time. The men are told to wash their hands; the women are instructed to receive the Eucharist on a white cloth, commonly called the "dominicale]" laid over their hands.1~ In Sermon 229 he writes: All the men, when intending to approach the alt~r, wash their hands, and all the women bring with them clean linen cloths upon which to receive, the body of Christ, thus they should have a clean body and pure heart so that they may re-ceive the sacrament of Christ with a good conscience.~ The same practice is mentioned in the Sermons of Caesarius of Arles.14 The first witness that this author was able to find, giving an explicit example of mouth reception of the Eucharist, was Gregory the Great (d. 604). The case in question is the reception of the Eucharist by an invalid from the hand of Pope Agapitus (535-536): While he [Agapitus] was passing through Greece, an invalid who could neither speak nor stand up was brought to him to be cured. While the weeping relatives set him down before the man of God he asked them with great concern whether they truly believed it possible for the man to be cured. They an-swered that their confident hope in his cure was based on the ~a Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogic Catecheses (PG, v. 33, col. l124B- 1125A; trans.: Joseph A. Jungmann, The Mass o[ the Roman Rite [London: 1959], pp. 508-9). ~ In 578 the Council of Auxerre stated the same in Canons 36 and 42 (Mansi, v. 9, p. 915). Canon ~6: "A woman is not to receive com-munion on the bare hand." Canon 42: "That every woman when communicating should have her 'dominicale.' If she does not have it, she should not communicate until the following Sunday." ~Augustine, Sermon 229 (PL, v. 39, col. 2168A). The sermon is probably by St. Maximus of Turin (Sth century). x~ Caesarius of Aries, Sermon 227 (Corpus Christianorum, v. 14, pp. 899-900; trans.: Andr~ Hamman, The Mass: Ancient Liturgies and Patristic Texts [Staten Island: 1967], pp. 242-3). ÷ ÷ ÷ Communion VOLUME 29~ 1970 673 4. 4. T. A. Krosnicki, $.V.D. REVIEW FOR ~ELIGIOUS power of God and the authority of Peter. Agapitus turned im-mediately to prayer, and so began the celebration of Mass, offering the holy Sacrifice to almighty God. As he left the altar after the Mass, he took the lame man by the hand and, in the presence of a large crowd of onlookers, raised him from the ground till he stood erect. When he placed the Lord's Body in his mouth, the tongue which had so long been speechless was loosed.= It would be difficult to conclude from this one example that this was the common practice of the time, for it is known that on occasion the Eucharist was applied to parts of the body as a form of sanctification of the senses or as a cure.an Agapitus might have preferred in this incident to place the Eucharist on the tongue of the invalid since, as Gregory relates, the man Was mute. Gregory also notes: "When he placed the Lord's Body in his mouth, the tongue which had for so long been speechless was loosed." In the eighth century writings of Bede (d. 735) we come across another example of hand reception of communion. Describing the death of a brother, he writes in his Ecclesiastical History: When they had lain down there, and had been conversing happily and pleasantly for some time with those that were in the house before, and it was now past midnight, he asked them, whether they had the Eucharist within? They answered, 'What need of the Eucharist? For you are not yet appointed to die, since you talk so merrily with us, as if you were in good health.' 'Nevertheless,' said he, 'bring me the Eucharist.' Having re-ceived It into his hand, he asked whether they were all in charity with him, and had no complaint against him, nor any quarrel or grudge. They answered, that they were all in perfect charity with him, and free from all anger; and in their turn they asked him to be of the same mind towards them?' Periods'of Transition The transition from the reception of the Eucharist in the hand to that of the mouth as we know it today, seems to have begun at the end of the, eighth century and is allied to the change from leavened to unleavened bread. Alcuin of York (d. 804), the learned friend and counselor of Charles the Great, seems to have been the first to indicate the use of unleavened bread,is But even then, it is unclear whether he intended to state that the bread should be unleavened or merely indicates its usage. He does, however, clearly show that unleavened ~ Gregory the Great, Dialogue 3 (PL, v. 77, col. 224B; trans.: FC, v. 39, pp. 116-117. la Plus PARSCn, The Liturgy o[ the Mass (London: 1957), p. 23. 1T Bede, Ecclesiastical History of England IV, 24 (PL, v. 95, col. 214C-215A; trans.: A. M. Sellar, Bede's Ecclesiastical History o[ England [London: 1912], pp. 280-1). ~ R. Woolley, The Bread o/the Eucharist (London: 1913), p. 18. bread was used. Along with this change to unleavened bread came the introduction of the small round wafers which no longer required breaking or chewing.19 It seems that this fact influenced the change to mouth reception of the Eucharist as well. The use of the un-leavened bread with its capability of being more easily preserved became a matter of greater convenience. The Councils of Toledo and Chelsea show that there must have been some common irreverefices on the part of the clergy when using ordinary bread for the Eucharist. The best way to obviate such disrespect was to require a special bread, other than the everyday domestic type, for the celebration of the Eucharist3° Another reason for the change to unleavened bread was to forestall any confusion between the Eucharist and the common bread of the household. The change to mouth reception became a matter not only of practicality but also as the result of the misun-derstanding of the sacrality of the individual Christian. Due to the thinking of the times, the Christian was no longer considered worthy to touch the Body of the Lord with his hands.~1 With exaggerated sentiments of humility and unworthiness, the faithful received the Eucharist on their tongues. The eucharistic practice had also been influenced by the overemphasis on the divinity of Christ to the almost exclusion of his humanity. The mortal, sinful man dare not touch with his hands the all-holy, powerful God. All of this led to the point where by the ninth century hand Communion was no longer the practice. The Council of Rouen (878) explicitly condemns hand Communion reception on the part of the lalty.~ The tenth Ordo romanus, dating from the ninth century, describes mouth reception of communion not only for the laity but even for the subdeacon. Priests and deacons, after kissing the bishop, should receive the body of Christ from him in their hands, and communicate themselves at the left side of the altar. Subdeacons, however, after kissing the hand of the bishop, receive the body of Christ from him in the mouth.~ The eighth and the ninth centuries were then the 19James Megivern, Concomitance and Communion (Fribourg: 1963), p. 29. ~0 WOOLt.EY, The Bread, p. 21. ~a See K. Bihlmeyer and H. Tiichle, Kirchengeschichte, v. 2 (Pader-born: 1958), p. 120: "In this period [the Middle Ages] in order to avoid irreverences as much as possible, in place of bread to be broken, small wafers ('hostia,' 'oblata') were introduced. For the same reason the holy food was no longer placed in the hand of the faithful but directly into the mouth." m Council of Rouen (Mansi, v. 10, pp. 1199-1200). ~Andrieu, Les Ordines romani du Haut M~yen Age, v. 2 (Lou-vain: 1948) p. 361. ÷ ÷ ÷ Communion VOLUME 2% 1970 675 periods of transition from the hand to the mouth recep-tion of the Eucharist. For a time both methods must have been in use. Once again, we find ourselves in a similar period of transition. The mouth form of recep-tion is still the more common practice but no one can deny that the practice of hand reception is becoming even more common especially among smaller groups and at Masses celebrated for special occasions. From this brief and admittedly sketchy glance at his-tory, it can be readily seen that hand Communion is not really an innovation for .it seems to have been the ordinary manner of reception of the Eucharist for al-most eight hundred years. + ÷ ÷ T. A. Krosnlcki, S.V.D. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS EDWARD J. FARRELL Penance: Return of the Heart The theological literature on penance has been en-riched by writers of the stature of Karl Rahner, Bernard H~iring, and Charles Curran; and we have, as a result, an enlarged understanding of its significance for our own day. I do not propose to speak so much of theology as of experiences and to invite you to reflect with me and to think into the mystery of penance. I speak to you as an expert to my fellow experts, as an authority among fellow authorities, because each one of us is an authority on penance. We have long lived it and we cannot have lived so long and celebrated the mystery so frequently without in some way becoming experts, authorities, or at least persons with much experience. Living itself is an experience of penance. One thing is certain; penance is alive, and anything alive changes. One of our deepest hopes is that we cim change, be-cause penance is concerned with change--not the kind of change which we sometimes call spontaneous, which we can so easily speak of in words, but a change in a much deeper level of being and action. The sacrament of penance, or penance itself which we are experiencing today, has an aura of Spring about it. There are certain seasons, certain times, certain patterns to the Christian life even as there were in Christ's life; and we follow those patterns. Christ was buried. He arose. And the truths of Christ will not be unlike Himself. There are forgotten truths in our faith, in our life experiences which have been laid aside and buried. We can become so familiar with particular realities that we forget the language. Even our relationship with Christ can be diminished. But there is always a resur-rection, always a rising. They are like bulbs which lie bur.led and forgotten in winter's chill grip, but still are there, waiting, until, mysteriously, Spring comes and we discover them. There is an expectancy about Spring. ÷ ÷ ÷ i~.dwa~d J. Fartell is a stuff membe~ o~ 8a~ed ~ea~ 8emi-n~ y; 2701 Chicago Boulevard; Detroit; Mi~igan 48206. VOLUME 29, 1970 ÷ 4. l~. ]. Farrel~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 678 There is an expectancy about penance. It is a new dis-covery for each of us, something which we have not wholly experienced before and it is important that we understand the why of thii. Penance is ancient, yet ever new. There is a "today" even though we have had a "yesterday." There is in us always a newness and an aliveness. When we were young, when we were very small, we saw things in a particular way. Then we grew, grew up, de.veloped in many areas. There is, however, a certain stabilization that takes place; and if our growth did not in some way level out, we would be sixty, eighty, perhaps one hundred feet tall. Imagine the problems of the environment thenl In our early years we thought that when our physical growth had leveled off and stabilized that our growth was finished. Yet it had only begun. When we grew to a certain size perhaps we returned to the school where we once attended kindergarten and the first primary grades. The old neighborhood looked almost quaint. It looked so small because we had grown so large. This physical growth is a true growth; yet it is after we have achieved it that the real growth takes place, the growth of mind and heart and soul, by which we are led into and beyond the senses, into the arts, literature, history, philosophy, and faith. Even in our day of specialization, as one follows ever more deeply his specialization it becomes in some strange, little un-derstood way, narrower and narrower until at a mys-terious moment it opens into a wholly new horizon. At such a moment one is made aware that this universe is too vast for the mind to grasp. It is, then, in this experience that man slowly and painfully becomes little. It is then that he begins to acquire real knowledge, real humility, that he moves toward maturity. I think that we are on the edge of this kind of growth. No longer do we need the pride and arrogance of adolescence. This humility, or perhaps humiliation, has touched all of us. We become aware of an unsureness, the unsureness of maturity; we begin at last to know that we do not know and perhaps will never know all that we so much desire to know. A pro-found transformation, a growth, an evolution now takes place in us. Now we begin to discover truths which we really had never known, yet were there awaiting our discovery, our awakening to their being. We never knew them at all, we never saw them; they were there but we did not see them. We have heard about these ideas, con-cepts, truths, perhaps even talked about them. Now, however, in this new experience we have no word, no thought, no concept, perhaps not even a theology. Now we become much more people of experienced awareness and all must be initialed with our initial and be ours in our unique w~y; otherwise, we belong to no one, nor do the truths belong to us. We begin to know ourselves in a new context of spiritual knowledge. I think this experience is true especially of the mysteries of Christ, the mystery of the Church-~which is essentially mystery--the mystery of penance, the mystery of celi-bacy; and the mystery of human action, the mystery of your act and of my act. When we do something, it is irreversible. We never can step back and undo it. .There is an act which we call a promise and that act nails down the future. It is an absurdity because who can speak for his future; and yet a promise is possible and is perhaps the most significant act a person makes; for we know, even as we make the act, that it is unpredictable; even beyond that, any act has an ano-nymity in its effect. We do not know what effect it will have, how long it will endure, what changes it will create. Humanly speaking, the past, the future, even the present are so much not in our grasp. Yet in all of our acts the mystery of Christ speaks to each one of these realities. He speaks to tile events of the past, reversing what we have done in the act of forgiveness and of penance, in the act of promise in the future which is involved in the penance, the metanoia, the change that we are seeking. The Gospel very simply summarizes Christ's begin-ning: "The time is fulfilled, the kingdom is at hand. Repent, believe in the gospel." How ancient those words are and how new; yet who has heard them? Who has heard them and put them to life? This says something about the mystery of Christ to us and the mystery of His Church which can never be separated from Him. To think of the Church without Christ is to miss the mystery of both. So we move in this deep awareness into the inwardness of Christian mystery, into a knowing, into, finally, a .meaning of penance. And penance, what is it? It is a hunger, a hunger for change; it is a hunger for newness, a hunger for life, for growth; it is a hunger for wholeness and holiness; it is a hunger for experience. Most of all, I think, it is a hunger for being with and to and for. It is a relation-ship that is being sought. It is a togetherness. It is profoundly significant that the command of Christ was: "Repent." Why did He not begin with Eucharist? Is the Eucharist not enough? Was it enough for Christ? He began with: "Repent"; He concluded with Eucha-rist. It is interesting to recall the briefly recorded con-versations of Christ with His Disciples. One day our ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 29, 1970 6'79 ÷ ÷ ÷ ~. ]. Farrell REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 680 Lord asked them: "Who do you say I am?" They are always interesting, both the questions of Christ and the commands of Christ, because they are so personal, be-cause they are asked directly of us throughout the whole of our life, and because these are the call He gives to us. He asked: "Who do you say I am?" To answer for the whole group, one volunteered--Peter, and he called back who he was. At the end of our Lord's mission, after the resurrection, He spoke to Peter again but this time He spoke his name: "Simon Peter, do you love me?"--not once, not twice, but three times. By name, He called him out by namel "Simon Peter, do you love me?" and as a consequence of Peter's answer, He gave another command. He said: "Feed, feed my sheep"- strengthen your brethren. Long ago you all made profession and how many times have you made confession since? What is the re-lationship between profession--confession? You cannot find it in the dictionary, but I think there is a very necessary correlation between profession and confes-sion. Peter's profession of faith and Peter's confession of love--this is what penance is all about. Really, sin is a very secondary thing.'Sin is unimportant to Christ. Penance is about a change, a change in our capacity to love. You made your final profession in words and we are all moving toward our final confession. Each one of us has his own history of penance. Just imagine trying to go over your confessions the last year or five years or ten years; imagine forty years of confessions, and how many confessions have yet to be made? Confession: we know the confessions of Jeremiah in the Old Testament, about the mirabilia Dei, the wonder-ful things of God; the confessions of St. Augustine have disappointed many a reader who was looking for true confessions and there is so little there---eating a few pears, an illegitimate child. Really all he is talking about is the first extraordinary discovery and the ongoing discovery of the love of God for him and the power it effected in him. This is why we can speak of his con-fessions. Penance is first of all a confession, a song of praise to God. How unfortunate we are. We so often have said and perhaps still do say: "I cannot find any-thing to confess." Well, even if we did, it would be merely a partial confession because the first thing about penance is to find something, to find the love that one has received, to sing about it, to confess it. Penance is first of all an act of prayer and of worship, of thanks-giving, a recognition, a discovering of the wonderful love of God for us. But that is only part of it because it is only in the strength of this love that there can be sin. If one has not yet tasted or seen or felt something of the love of God, then he cannot sin because sin is cor-relative to love, and there cannot be any sin except in the context of love because sin does not exist except in the non-response to love. Penance is a discovery of what love is and what it is to love. A sister once commented: "In our community there are so many, almost everyone, who are ready to forgive. There is so much forgiveness but there is no one who can confess her need for forgiveness." It is so easy to forgive. Did anyone ever confront you with the words: "I forgive you"? Have you ever been forgiven by another person, a second or third or fourth or twentieth time. The words, "I forgive," do not make any difference. You can come to me and tell me you are sorry and I can say I am sorry, too--about the book you lost or about the car that got dented, but that does not change. You can tell me you are sorry about the way you got angry and what you called me, and I can say, "I forgive you," but what happens when we say that word? Can we forgive? When we say, "I forgive," we are not talking about the action of God, we are not talking about the grace of Christ or the word of the Church; we are saying: "I am trying not to respond to you as you deserve." That is what we ordinarily mean, and implicitly, there is a warning, "Do not let it happen again," because when it does happen again, we remind them: "How many times?" Forgiveness? There are not many of us who are capable of forgiveness. There is no one of us who is capable of forgiveness in the sense that God forgives and Christ forgives, because when Christ forgives, He is not saying He is not going to respond to us as we de-serve but He reaches into us, to the very roots of that which makes us the irascible persons we are. He does something if we let Him, if we are ready to be healed, to be touched, and to be cured. No person can forgive sin. We can empathize with people, we can say we are sorry that they are the miserable creatures they are, but we cannot change them unless we have the capacity to love them with the love of Christ. Otherwise they are untouched by our forgiveness and this is why there is a need and a hunger to be freed from our incapacity to love and not simply to be excused and accepted and remain unchanged. In the great mystery of Christ's death and resurrection it is the sacrament of penance that enables us in some way to get in touch with Him because without getting in touch with Him we cannot do His work. There is a strange misunderstanding in those who feel that the Eucharist is enough, that they can ignore our Lord's call to repent and forget our Lord's suffering and death. It is as if in some way I can forgive myself, can just ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 29, 1970 681 4. 4. E. ]. Farreli REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 682 tell Him I am sorry or we can tell one another: "I forgive you, forget about it." In our non-response to love, our inability to love we experience the fact that we cannot heal, that we do not cnre. As someone said, it is not so much that the community or Church' has hurt them, but it has not healed them and that is why they can no longer suffer in this way. It is a partial truth, perhaps, but it is a truth. So often w~ cannot put this need for healing into words but we do expect, we do expect something. Some of our older brethren in Christ are not, I think, too far off in their intuition about the relationship between penance and Eucharist, pen-ance and community; and I think I would say that there is a correlation between the diminishment irl the cele-bration and experience of penance and the diminish-merit in community. The sacrament, the life of penance which is but the life of Christ lived out continually, is the most personal of all the sacraments, the most intense and, therefore, the most difficult. Perhaps it is the last sacrament we are ready for because it demands so much of us; it demands such maturity, it demands such a capacity to suffer, the most terrible kind of suffering, to really learn who we are, and we will do anything to escape that kind of suffering, that kind of anguish. Who of us is really ready to face the living God? There is so much we do in our life to prevent this happening. We talk a good faith, we even have many theologies, b~t who of us really wants to know himself as the Lord knows him? We do not have many temptations. It is the saints who are the primary witnesses to faith, not the theologians who are the primary witnesses--the saints, unlettered, undoctoral but primary witnesses to love. We do not get tempted too often to express our sorrow in the dramatic gesture perhaps of a Mary Magdalen. We do not to6 often weep over our sins, prostrate our-selves before the Eucharist or the Christian community and confess what we are. We have forgotten and per-haps at times we do not even have the capacity any longer because it has been so underexercised. Yet the life of Christ and the reality of man speak out, and we find an extraordinary emergence today from beyond those who are called to give public witness to the mystery of Christ. We find the phenomena of penance and confession and public confession in those "outside." We see it in Alcoholics Anonymous, we see it in Syna-non groups, in sensitivity groups, encounter groups, where the first thing persofis do is to repent, to bare their souls on the guts level and expose who they are. It is an extraordinary experience to experience our poverty and our honesty and in so many ways our nothingness and it gives a kind kind of game can ever give us. It who are or who have been in a there are no games left any more real. We see this, and perhaps l-IS. of freedom which no is something like those mental hospital where and all they can be is it say~ something to The Lord does not accuse us, the Lord does not call to mind our sins: we are the only ones that remember them. The Lord simply asks us again and again: "Do you love me?" Today one is often questioned on the frequency of confession. Should religious go every week to confession?. I think it is very important to see the sacrament of penance in terms of the totality of the Christian life; it is not something that can have its significance only in isolation and only in terms of sin. There was a valid aspect, I think, to the intuition and practice of the Church in encouraging and calling her priests and re-ligious to confession regularly and I am sure it was not so much in terms of their need for absolution from sin but more in terms of confession of the praise of God, and for a deeper understanding of how priests and religious in a special way are the most highly visible embodiment of the Body of Christ. There was an extraordinary article in Time maga-zine in February on environment and I would certainly commend it to your spiritual reading. In this article some experts say that we have so interfered with the ecological system of the world that it is irreversible and human life cannot continue on this planet beyond 200 years. This was just a small portion of the article but it drove home" the reality that the smallest atom has a history, has an effect that goes so far beyond itself that it is almost incalculable what any act of ours can do. I think it speaks so strongly, about the mystery of human community and how we affect one another not only for a moment but have an ongoing effect; and that nothing is really lost. It speaks so strongly to the awareness we must carry within ourselves of the responsibility Christ took upon Himself for the whole world and for the sin and inability and absence of love in so many. It speaks to the fact that to follow Christ's likeness we, too, must be totally concerned with the conversion and transformation of people and where there is not love, to put love. When religious or priests go to confession, they go first of all to recognize that they are sinners and no one of us gets beyond that basic fact--that we are sinners even though saved. The remarkable thing in the testimony and history of the saints is that the more one grows in his experience of the love of Christ, the more ÷ ÷ ÷ Penance VOLUME 29, 1970 ÷ ÷ E. ]. Farrell REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 684 he realizes how much this love is absent in himself and he is drawn to the sacrament of penance out of his life experience; not from some external "you ought to" or "you should," but because it becomes more and more a need. There is a hunger for it which cannot be satisfied by anything less except being plunged into this mystery of Christ. St. Catherine of Siena spoke so deeply of this mystery in words that sound strange and rather strong to us-- "Being washed in the blood of Christ." But at the same time, these are words that are deeply Scriptural--Isaian --the Suffering Servant--the mystery of the blood of Christ. We need to be. deeply penetrated with them. We need to be aware that when we go to confession, which is a profession of faith, a confession of love, and a deep experience of a need to be touched by Christ and to be transformed by Him, sgmething takes place even though there is no way of validating it in terms of a pragmatic principle. It does not make a difference. ~¥hy bother? We cannot measure it on the yday to day level just as life cannot be measured on that particular level. There are movements within ourselves that per-haps take a long time before they can make their mani-festation in our nervous system, on the tip of our fingers. When we go to confession we need to be aware that a whole community is involved, not just a par-ticular house but everyone who is in our lives. We can pick up the paper and read about the crime and the violence, especially to the young and the old, and the helpless, the war, and unemployment, and we can read it and so what? It does not seem to enter into the very life that we are living. We are called to be that Suffering Servant and to make up in ourselves what is lacking in others, to in some way experience what Paul experienced. When someone was tempted, he, himself, felt the fire o{ it; when someone was sick, he, himself, experienced it--that deep interpenetration of all these people involved in Christ. So, when one goes to the sacrament of penance, it is for one's own sins-- the incapacity, the inability to love, missing the mark so often, but it is also in terms of the sins of others. Christ's whole life was this life of penance. Religious living is and has to be a following in this life of penance, this ongoing change, this ongoing conversion. One of the problems of frequent confession is the confessor. I think we are all caught .in this together. Our theology is usually behind our experience, and there are many priests who have had great difficulty in finding confessors themselves. I do not think there is more than one in thirty priests who has a confessor, has a spiritual director; and there has been a great impoverishment because we have not recognized nor developed this charism. I do think there is a special apostolate that the Christian and especially the relig

The main aim of this paper is to examine the problem of the crisis of liberal democracy in the modern world, referring to the phenomenon of a loss of balance between social and personal good in a pluralistic society. There are several concepts of democracy in political science, including the classic liberal concept, which sees its core priorities collide with recent global challenges. Thus, the relevance of this problem refers to the recent disappointment in the idea of liberal democracy, which shows disillusionment in democracy as such. In response to this trend, some hybrid regimes offer an alternative in the form of so-called democracies with illiberal approaches. From the other side, the liberal democratic platforms are used by populist political forces, which results in dividing democratic societies about the questions hard to finally solve. The Brexit problem – the process of British exit from the European Union – shows recent examples of long-lasting social effects derived from the crisis of liberal democratic concept. The author of the article has come to the conclusion that when it comes to modern democratic processes, classic liberal approach brings the populism threat back to the table. When there is no balance between the totally free civil society with its direct democratic influences and the state structure with formal procedures aimed at total good of beneficial functioning, the liberal instruments would be used by populists. Populism can create severe divisions within liberal democratic societies providing dilemmas, such as Brexit, which are difficult to solve with the same liberal democratic procedures. This means that liberal democratic approach undermines itself with the very fact of the existing tendency to lose balance between the ideal personal freedom (that includes satisfying every citizen's choice) and public good. ; Головною метою статті є дослідження проблеми кризи ліберальної демократії в сучасному світі з огляду на втрату рівноваги між суспільним та особистим благом у плюралістичному суспільстві. У політичній науці існує кілька концепцій демократії, включаючи класичну ліберальну концепцію, чиї ключові пріоритети стикаються з сучасними глобальними проблемами. Таким чином, актуальність цього дослідження виходить з проблеми сучасного розчарування в ідеї ліберальної демократії, що також визначається розчаруванням в демократії в цілому. У відповідь на цю тенденцію деякі гібридні режими пропонують альтернативу у вигляді так званих демократій з неліберальними підходами. З іншого боку, ліберально-демократичні платформи використовуються популістськими політичними силами, що призводить до поділу демократичного суспільства з питань, які важко вирішити остаточно. Проблема Brexit - процес виходу Великобританії з Європейського Союзу – демонструє новий приклад довготривалих соціальних наслідків, що походять від кризи ліберально- демократичної концепції. Автор дослідження приходить до висновку, що коли йдеться про сучасні демократичні процеси, класичний ліберальний підхід повертає загрозу популізму. Коли немає рівноваги між абсолютно вільним громадянським суспільством з його прямими демократичними впливами та державною структурою з офіційними процедурами, спрямованими на суспільне благо через успішне управління, ліберальні інструменти використовуються популістами. Популізм може створити серйозний розкол в ліберально-демократичних суспільствах, який призводить до таких дилем, як Brexit, що важко вирішити за допомогою власне ліберально- демократичних процедур. Це означає, що ліберально-демократичний підхід підриває сам факт свого існування через втрату рівноваги між ідеальною особистою свободою (що включає задоволення вибору кожного громадянина) та суспільним благом. ; Головною метою статті є дослідження проблеми кризи ліберальної демократії в сучасному світі з огляду на втрату рівноваги між суспільним та особистим благом у плюралістичному суспільстві. У політичній науці існує кілька концепцій демократії, включаючи класичну ліберальну концепцію, чиї ключові пріоритети стикаються з сучасними глобальними проблемами. Таким чином, актуальність цього дослідження виходить з проблеми сучасного розчарування в ідеї ліберальної демократії, що також визначається розчаруванням в демократії в цілому. У відповідь на цю тенденцію деякі гібридні режими пропонують альтернативу у вигляді так званих демократій з неліберальними підходами. З іншого боку, ліберально-демократичні платформи використовуються популістськими політичними силами, що призводить до поділу демократичного суспільства з питань, які важко вирішити остаточно. Проблема Brexit - процес виходу Великобританії з Європейського Союзу – демонструє новий приклад довготривалих соціальних наслідків, що походять від кризи ліберально- демократичної концепції. Автор дослідження приходить до висновку, що коли йдеться про сучасні демократичні процеси, класичний ліберальний підхід повертає загрозу популізму. Коли немає рівноваги між абсолютно вільним громадянським суспільством з його прямими демократичними впливами та державною структурою з офіційними процедурами, спрямованими на суспільне благо через успішне управління, ліберальні інструменти використовуються популістами. Популізм може створити серйозний розкол в ліберально-демократичних суспільствах, який призводить до таких дилем, як Brexit, що важко вирішити за допомогою власне ліберально- демократичних процедур. Це означає, що ліберально-демократичний підхід підриває сам факт свого існування через втрату рівноваги між ідеальною особистою свободою (що включає задоволення вибору кожного громадянина) та суспільним благом.

Caldas y Manizales requieren para su desarrollo una zona franca pensada para la sociedad del conocimiento y no para la sociedad industrial de ayer, en la que se centren los esfuerzos mancomunados de empresarios, gobierno y academia, para aprovechar las ventajas naturales y culturales de la Ecorregión y la Ciudad, en la construcción de sinergias entre la nueva economía de las TIC y la economía verde, con la economía del conocimiento

THE NEW SERIES OF RESEARCH OF THE FACULTY If there is any way in which the university can give back to society what it deposits in it, it is the scientific elaboration of knowledge, which as such is important for any community. This Magazine, for example, confirms these efforts that are published every semester. And in this sense, our faculty of Law has taken up the even more difficult task of preparing and organizing a bibliographic series of advances or results of research, that is, books of our faculty researchers in the different branches of law and disciplines that adjoin the legal. For this purpose, since the month of April has counted on the editorial advice of Lizardo Carvajal, surpassed in the region in this type of process, to start with a seminar that has been called as "Drafting Table" where every afternoon of Wednesday during two months the main guidelines for the structuring of an academic text were provided. This space has served so that lawyers have approached the phenomenon of interdisciplinarity, and one more opportunity to put ourselves in line with the new academic-editorial requirements, especially those of the Administrative Department of Science and Technology (COLCIENCIAS). The results, being modest, could not have been better. Indeed, there are 16 titles that will be ready to be published, works that were submitted to a careful and demanding work of reviewing originals, reports on aspects of semantics, syntax, style and spelling. Regarding the cataloging on the web, under the basic criteria for the publication and accreditation of university books resulting from scientific research, compliance with the general requirements is met, in the sense of guiding the authors and editors in the publication work and thus it counted on the revision of academic pairs constituting a form of publicity of the documents produced in the undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the series, there has been a vast production in criminal law and related, which is not free since the Master of Criminal Law and the Master of Criminalistics and Forensic Sciences have led and made a presence in the editorial process. There are two titles that show the 80 researches coming from the theses of the aforementioned masters where indexes, authors, key words, juries and thesis presidents are indexed, and a brief review of the content of each thesis is made. Also in criminal matters, there is the Principle of Opportunity of Enrique Arteaga, trying to establish the impact that this institute has had against the new oral accusatory penal system. Maribel Lagos compiles five essays by ten researchers from the Research Group "Penitentiary and Prison Systems" with the title "Penitentiaries and Prisons" in diverse contexts. Theory of the crime is the contribution of Hernando Ordoñez to approach thematic like the social control, the imputability and inimputabilidad, the amplifying devices of the penal type, the punishability and the responsibility. On the other hand, María Inés Muriel, specialist in criminalistics, compiles essays in two papers: Criminalistics and forensic sciences in the Colombian accusatory system and the expert evidence in the Colombian accusatory criminal process. In the same criminalistics, Luis Guillermo González compiles research products in the Human Identification. The homicides in series of Iván Valencia, now in the key of criminology, realizes a theoretical foundation on the assassins in series and soon it describes the characteristics of two Colombian serial assassins. Already in co-authorship, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán, and Herman Gómez, contribute with their legal essays in Approaches to the current Colombian law; as well as those already named Hernando Ordoñez and María Inés Muriel, and Lilia Cortés and Maribel Lagos who took on the task of compiling works, the first with Exclusion of evidence in the Colombian accusatory system, and the second with La pena. Beyond the criminal, we find the political participation, education and responsibility of the Colombian State where the academic coordinator of our undergraduate compiles 6 essays on these topics. On her side, Lilia Cortés reflects on the academic educational strategies of the academic Ken Bain in university education. In the civil procedural law, Jaime Mendoza and Villa Angelly clarify whether the payment process as a procedural mechanism will serve to reduce the judicial default, an issue raised in the payment process, chimera or legal reality? Finally, moving away from the purely legal, and entering political science, we have the text Latin American Political Philosophy in which Ángelo Mauricio Victoria works as author and compiler of a series of essays about the notion of "good living" and its development in the Colombian, Ecuadorian, Mexican and Venezuelan context. As we can see, our efforts are aimed at enriching the science of law, and hence the right to sustain the high quality accreditation that we are seeking to ratify with the re-accreditation that we expect soon. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali ; Si existe alguna forma en que la universidad puede retribuir a la sociedad lo que ésta deposita en ella, es la elaboración científica del conocimiento, que en calidad de tal es importante para cualquier comunidad. Esta Revista, por ejemplo, constata estos esfuerzos que cada semestre salen a luz pública. Y en este sentido, nuestra facultad de Derecho se ha dado a la tarea más dispendiosa aún, de elaborar y organizar una serie bibliográfica de avances o resultados de investigación, esto es, libros de nuestros docentes investigadores en las distintas ramas del derecho y disciplinas que colindan con lo jurídico. Para este cometido, se ha contado desde el mes de abril con la asesoría editorial de Lizardo Carvajal, aventajado en la región en este tipo de procesos, para iniciar con un seminario que se ha dado por llamar como "Mesa de Redacción" donde cada tarde de miércoles durante dos meses se brindaron las principales pautas para la estructuración de un texto académico. Este espacio ha servido para que los abogados se hayan acercado al fenómeno de la interdisciplinariedad, y una oportunidad más para ponernos en la línea de las nuevas exigencias académico-editoriales, especialmente las del Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia y Tecnología (COLCIENCIAS). Los resultados, siendo modestos, no han podido ser mejores. Efectivamente, son 16 títulos los que estarán prestos a ser publicados, obras que se sometieron a un cuidadoso y exigente trabajo de revisión de originales, reportes en aspectos de semántica, sintaxis, estilo y ortografía. Respecto a la catalogación en la web, bajo los criterios básicos para la publicación y acreditación de libros universitarios resultado de investigación científica, se da cumplimiento a los requerimientos generales, en el sentido de orientar a los autores y editores en la labor de publicación y así contó con la revisión de pares académicos constituyendo una forma de publicidad de los documentos producidos en el programa de pregrado y los de posgrado. En la serie, ha habido una vasta producción en el derecho penal y afines, lo cual no es gratuito dado que la Maestría en Derecho Penal y la Maestría en Criminalística y Ciencias Forenses han liderado y hecho presencia en el proceso editorial. Hay dos títulos que muestran las 80 investigaciones provenientes de tesis de las maestrías mencionadas donde se indiza los títulos, los autores, las palabras claves, jurados y presidentes de tesis, y se hace una breve reseña del contenido de cada tesis. También en lo penal, está el Principio de oportunidad de Enrique Arteaga tratándose de establecer el impacto que este instituto ha tenido frente al nuevo sistema penal acusatorio de corte oral. Maribel Lagos compila cinco ensayos de diez investigadores del Grupo de Investigación "Sistemas penitenciarios y carcelarios" con el título Lo penitenciarios y carcelario en contextos diversos. Teoría del delito es el aporte de Hernando Ordoñez para abordar temáticas como el control social, la imputabilidad e inimputabilidad, los dispositivos amplificadores del tipo penal, la punibilidad y la responsabilidad. Por su parte, María Inés Muriel, especialista en criminalística, compila ensayos en dos trabajos: Criminalística y ciencias forenses en el sistema acusatorio colombiano y La prueba pericial en el proceso penal acusatorio colombiano. En la misma criminalística, Luis Guillermo González compila productos de investigación en la Identificación Humana. Los Homicidios en serie de Iván Valencia, ahora en clave de criminología, realiza una fundamentación teórica sobre los asesinos en serie y luego describe las características de dos asesinos seriales colombianos. Ya en coautoría, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán, y Herman Gómez, aportan con sus ensayos jurídicos en Aproximaciones al derecho colombiano actual; igual que los ya nombrados Hernando Ordoñez y María Inés Muriel, y Lilia Cortés y Maribel Lagos que se dieron a la tarea de compilar trabajos, los primeros con Exclusión de evidencias en el sistema acusatorio colombiano, y las segundas con La pena. Más allá de lo penal, encontramos La participación política, educación y responsabilidad del Estado colombiano donde la coordinadora académica de nuestro pregrado compila 6 ensayos sobre estos temas. De su lado, Lilia Cortés reflexiona sobre las estrategias educativas universitarias del académico Ken Bain en La educación universitaria. En el derecho procesal civil, Jaime Mendoza y Angelly Villa dilucidan si el proceso monitorio como mecanismo procesal servirá para disminuir la mora judicial, cuestión que se plantean en El proceso monitorio, ¿quimera o realidad jurídica? Finalmente, alejándose de lo meramente jurídico, e incursionando en la ciencia política, tenemos el texto Filosofía Política Latinoamericana en el que Ángelo Mauricio Victoria obra como autor y compilador de una serie de ensayos acerca de la noción del "buen vivir" y su desarrollo en el contexto colombiano, ecuatoriano, mexicano y venezolano. Como vemos, nuestros esfuerzos se encaminan a enriquecer la ciencia del derecho, y por ahí derecho a sostener la acreditación de alta calidad que estamos en pos de ratificar con la re-acreditación que pronto esperamos. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali ; A publicação da nova Série de Pesquisa de Faculdade Se houver alguma maneira pela qual a Universidade possa devolver à sociedade o que está depositado nela, é a elaboração científica do conhecimento que, como tal, é importante para qualquer comunidade. Esta Revista, por exemplo, confirma esses esforços cada semestre vêm à luz pública. Nesse sentido, nossa Faculdade de Direito assumiu a tarefa, ainda mais dispendiosa, de preparar e organizar uma série bibliográfica de avanços ou resultados de pesquisa. Isto é, livros de nossos professores pesquisadores nos diferentes ramos do direito e disciplinas que se aproximam do jurídico. Para este propósito, se conta a partir do mes de abril com o conselho editorial de Lizardo Carvajal, destacado na região neste tipo de processos, para começar com um seminário chamado "mesa de redação", onde cada tarde da Quarta-feira, se forneceram as principais diretrizes para a estruturação de textos acadêmicos e científicos. Este espaço serviu para que os advogados tenham abordado o fenômeno da interdisciplinaridade e mais uma oportunidade de nos alinhar com os novos requisitos acadêmicos e editoriais, especialmente os do Departamento Administrativo de Ciência e Tecnologia (Colciencias). Os resultados, sendo modestos, não poderiam ser melhores. Na verdade, existem 16 títulos que estarão prontos para serem publicados, trabalhos submetidos a um trabalho cuidadoso e exigente de revisão de originais, relatórios sobre aspectos de semântica, sintaxe, estilo e ortografia. Além da publicação no clássico e tradicional meio em papel, a Série será publicada na Web. Um site, que nos contatará com o mundo inteiro. Especialmente desenhado para consulta através deste meio e na Internet, colocará nossos autores e nossos livros em relacionamento com os estudiosos de todo o mundo. O conhecimento que surgiu da pesquisa básica aplicada ao desenvolvimento experimental em nossos grupos de pesquisa ou da academia, transcenderão por esse meio, os corredores e salas de aula, estarão disponíveis em todo o mundo, especialmente no de fala española. Com rigorosos protocolos para acreditação documental. Respeito à publicação e catalogação, de acordo com os critérios básicos de acreditação de livros universitários resultantes da pesquisa científica, é dado cumprimento aos requisitos gerais da comunidade acadêmica e das instituições do estado. Nesse sentido, orienta-se os autores e editores no trabalho de publicação, contando com a revisão por pares, sendo uma tarefa essencial no processo de validação, publicação e divulgação da produção acadêmica e científica da Faculdade e seus programas de pós-graduação. A Série contém produção intelectual em Direito Penal e Criminalística. Daí o nome: Coleção Direito Penal, Criminalística e Ciências Forenses. Isso não é gratuito, já que o Mestrado em Direito Penal e o Mestrado em Criminalística e Ciências Forenses lideraram e fizeram presença no processo de pesquisa e no editorial. O conteúdo da coleção. existem dois títulos que catalogam as 80 pesquisas provenientes das teses dos mestrados mencionados. Nestes dois livros de consulta e de referência, indexan-se os autores, palavras-chave, jurados e presidentes de tese. É feita uma revisão técnica do conteúdo de cada tese. Está disponível assim, uma verdadeira coleção documental e um catálogo de produção intelectual decorrente dos mestrados acima mencionados. Sua utilidade e bom uso resultarão no desenvolvimento da pesquisa nessas áreas pela nossa Faculdade. Também no penal está o livro O Princípio da oportunidade de Enrique Arteaga Córdoba. Neste trabalho, trata-se de estabelecer o impacto que este instituto teve contra o novo sistema penal acusatório de tribunal oral. Maribel Lagos Enríquez compila cinco ensaios de dez pesquisadores do Grupo de Pesquisa "Sistemas penitenciários e prisionais". Seu título, penitenciários e prisionais em diversos contextos. A teoria do crime é a contribuição de Hernando Ordoñez Ramírez para abordar questões como controle social, imputabilidade e inimputabilidade, amplificação de dispositivos de tipo penal, punibilidade e responsabilidade. Por outro lado, María Inés Muriel Puerto, especialista em criminalística, compila ensaios em dois trabalhos: Criminalística e ciências forenses no sistema acusatório colombiano y A prova pericial no processo penal acusatório colombiano. Na mesma linha criminalística, Luis Guillermo González compila produtos de pesquisa no livro identificação humana. Os homicídios em série de Iván Valencia, agora em chave da criminologia, realizam uma fundamentação teórica sobre os assassinos em série e logo descreve as características de dois assassinos em série colombianos. Já em co-autoria, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán e Herman Gómez, contribuem com seus ensaios jurídicos em aproximações ao direito colombiano atual; bem como aqueles nomeados Hernando Ordoñez e María Inés Muriel, e Lilia Cortés e Maribel Lagos que assumiram a tarefa de compilar trabalhos, os primeiros com Exclusão de evidências no sistema acusatorio colombiano, e os segundos com a pena. Além do penal, encontramos a participação política, a educação e a responsabilidade do Estado colombiano, onde a coordenadora acadêmica da nossa graduação compila seis ensaios sobre esses temas. Por sua parte, Lilia Cortés reflete sobre as estratégias educacionais acadêmicas do acadêmico Ken Bain na educação universitária. No direito do Processo Civil, Jaime Mendoza e Angelly Villa, esclarecem se o Processo de Monitoramento, como mecanismo processual, servirá para diminuir o incumprimento judicial, uma questão que é levantada no processo de pagamento, "quimera" ou realidade jurídica? Finalmente, afastando-se do puramente jurídico e incursionando na Ciência Política, temos o texto de Filosofia Política Latino-Americana em que Ángelo Mauricio Victoria atua como autor e compilador de uma série de ensaios sobre a noção de "bom viver" e seu desenvolvimento no Contexto colombiano, equatoriano, mexicano e venezuelano. Como vemos, nossos esforços visam enriquecer a disciplina do direito, para sustentar com fatos a re-acreditação de alta qualidade, que estamos no interesse de ratificar com o (re)credenciamento que esperamos em breve. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali

THE NEW SERIES OF RESEARCH OF THE FACULTY If there is any way in which the university can give back to society what it deposits in it, it is the scientific elaboration of knowledge, which as such is important for any community. This Magazine, for example, confirms these efforts that are published every semester. And in this sense, our faculty of Law has taken up the even more difficult task of preparing and organizing a bibliographic series of advances or results of research, that is, books of our faculty researchers in the different branches of law and disciplines that adjoin the legal. For this purpose, since the month of April has counted on the editorial advice of Lizardo Carvajal, surpassed in the region in this type of process, to start with a seminar that has been called as "Drafting Table" where every afternoon of Wednesday during two months the main guidelines for the structuring of an academic text were provided. This space has served so that lawyers have approached the phenomenon of interdisciplinarity, and one more opportunity to put ourselves in line with the new academic-editorial requirements, especially those of the Administrative Department of Science and Technology (COLCIENCIAS). The results, being modest, could not have been better. Indeed, there are 16 titles that will be ready to be published, works that were submitted to a careful and demanding work of reviewing originals, reports on aspects of semantics, syntax, style and spelling. Regarding the cataloging on the web, under the basic criteria for the publication and accreditation of university books resulting from scientific research, compliance with the general requirements is met, in the sense of guiding the authors and editors in the publication work and thus it counted on the revision of academic pairs constituting a form of publicity of the documents produced in the undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the series, there has been a vast production in criminal law and related, which is not free since the Master of Criminal Law and the Master of Criminalistics and Forensic Sciences have led and made a presence in the editorial process. There are two titles that show the 80 researches coming from the theses of the aforementioned masters where indexes, authors, key words, juries and thesis presidents are indexed, and a brief review of the content of each thesis is made. Also in criminal matters, there is the Principle of Opportunity of Enrique Arteaga, trying to establish the impact that this institute has had against the new oral accusatory penal system. Maribel Lagos compiles five essays by ten researchers from the Research Group "Penitentiary and Prison Systems" with the title "Penitentiaries and Prisons" in diverse contexts. Theory of the crime is the contribution of Hernando Ordoñez to approach thematic like the social control, the imputability and inimputabilidad, the amplifying devices of the penal type, the punishability and the responsibility. On the other hand, María Inés Muriel, specialist in criminalistics, compiles essays in two papers: Criminalistics and forensic sciences in the Colombian accusatory system and the expert evidence in the Colombian accusatory criminal process. In the same criminalistics, Luis Guillermo González compiles research products in the Human Identification. The homicides in series of Iván Valencia, now in the key of criminology, realizes a theoretical foundation on the assassins in series and soon it describes the characteristics of two Colombian serial assassins. Already in co-authorship, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán, and Herman Gómez, contribute with their legal essays in Approaches to the current Colombian law; as well as those already named Hernando Ordoñez and María Inés Muriel, and Lilia Cortés and Maribel Lagos who took on the task of compiling works, the first with Exclusion of evidence in the Colombian accusatory system, and the second with La pena. Beyond the criminal, we find the political participation, education and responsibility of the Colombian State where the academic coordinator of our undergraduate compiles 6 essays on these topics. On her side, Lilia Cortés reflects on the academic educational strategies of the academic Ken Bain in university education. In the civil procedural law, Jaime Mendoza and Villa Angelly clarify whether the payment process as a procedural mechanism will serve to reduce the judicial default, an issue raised in the payment process, chimera or legal reality? Finally, moving away from the purely legal, and entering political science, we have the text Latin American Political Philosophy in which Ángelo Mauricio Victoria works as author and compiler of a series of essays about the notion of "good living" and its development in the Colombian, Ecuadorian, Mexican and Venezuelan context. As we can see, our efforts are aimed at enriching the science of law, and hence the right to sustain the high quality accreditation that we are seeking to ratify with the re-accreditation that we expect soon. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali ; Si existe alguna forma en que la universidad puede retribuir a la sociedad lo que ésta deposita en ella, es la elaboración científica del conocimiento, que en calidad de tal es importante para cualquier comunidad. Esta Revista, por ejemplo, constata estos esfuerzos que cada semestre salen a luz pública. Y en este sentido, nuestra facultad de Derecho se ha dado a la tarea más dispendiosa aún, de elaborar y organizar una serie bibliográfica de avances o resultados de investigación, esto es, libros de nuestros docentes investigadores en las distintas ramas del derecho y disciplinas que colindan con lo jurídico. Para este cometido, se ha contado desde el mes de abril con la asesoría editorial de Lizardo Carvajal, aventajado en la región en este tipo de procesos, para iniciar con un seminario que se ha dado por llamar como "Mesa de Redacción" donde cada tarde de miércoles durante dos meses se brindaron las principales pautas para la estructuración de un texto académico. Este espacio ha servido para que los abogados se hayan acercado al fenómeno de la interdisciplinariedad, y una oportunidad más para ponernos en la línea de las nuevas exigencias académico-editoriales, especialmente las del Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia y Tecnología (COLCIENCIAS). Los resultados, siendo modestos, no han podido ser mejores. Efectivamente, son 16 títulos los que estarán prestos a ser publicados, obras que se sometieron a un cuidadoso y exigente trabajo de revisión de originales, reportes en aspectos de semántica, sintaxis, estilo y ortografía. Respecto a la catalogación en la web, bajo los criterios básicos para la publicación y acreditación de libros universitarios resultado de investigación científica, se da cumplimiento a los requerimientos generales, en el sentido de orientar a los autores y editores en la labor de publicación y así contó con la revisión de pares académicos constituyendo una forma de publicidad de los documentos producidos en el programa de pregrado y los de posgrado. En la serie, ha habido una vasta producción en el derecho penal y afines, lo cual no es gratuito dado que la Maestría en Derecho Penal y la Maestría en Criminalística y Ciencias Forenses han liderado y hecho presencia en el proceso editorial. Hay dos títulos que muestran las 80 investigaciones provenientes de tesis de las maestrías mencionadas donde se indiza los títulos, los autores, las palabras claves, jurados y presidentes de tesis, y se hace una breve reseña del contenido de cada tesis. También en lo penal, está el Principio de oportunidad de Enrique Arteaga tratándose de establecer el impacto que este instituto ha tenido frente al nuevo sistema penal acusatorio de corte oral. Maribel Lagos compila cinco ensayos de diez investigadores del Grupo de Investigación "Sistemas penitenciarios y carcelarios" con el título Lo penitenciarios y carcelario en contextos diversos. Teoría del delito es el aporte de Hernando Ordoñez para abordar temáticas como el control social, la imputabilidad e inimputabilidad, los dispositivos amplificadores del tipo penal, la punibilidad y la responsabilidad. Por su parte, María Inés Muriel, especialista en criminalística, compila ensayos en dos trabajos: Criminalística y ciencias forenses en el sistema acusatorio colombiano y La prueba pericial en el proceso penal acusatorio colombiano. En la misma criminalística, Luis Guillermo González compila productos de investigación en la Identificación Humana. Los Homicidios en serie de Iván Valencia, ahora en clave de criminología, realiza una fundamentación teórica sobre los asesinos en serie y luego describe las características de dos asesinos seriales colombianos. Ya en coautoría, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán, y Herman Gómez, aportan con sus ensayos jurídicos en Aproximaciones al derecho colombiano actual; igual que los ya nombrados Hernando Ordoñez y María Inés Muriel, y Lilia Cortés y Maribel Lagos que se dieron a la tarea de compilar trabajos, los primeros con Exclusión de evidencias en el sistema acusatorio colombiano, y las segundas con La pena. Más allá de lo penal, encontramos La participación política, educación y responsabilidad del Estado colombiano donde la coordinadora académica de nuestro pregrado compila 6 ensayos sobre estos temas. De su lado, Lilia Cortés reflexiona sobre las estrategias educativas universitarias del académico Ken Bain en La educación universitaria. En el derecho procesal civil, Jaime Mendoza y Angelly Villa dilucidan si el proceso monitorio como mecanismo procesal servirá para disminuir la mora judicial, cuestión que se plantean en El proceso monitorio, ¿quimera o realidad jurídica? Finalmente, alejándose de lo meramente jurídico, e incursionando en la ciencia política, tenemos el texto Filosofía Política Latinoamericana en el que Ángelo Mauricio Victoria obra como autor y compilador de una serie de ensayos acerca de la noción del "buen vivir" y su desarrollo en el contexto colombiano, ecuatoriano, mexicano y venezolano. Como vemos, nuestros esfuerzos se encaminan a enriquecer la ciencia del derecho, y por ahí derecho a sostener la acreditación de alta calidad que estamos en pos de ratificar con la re-acreditación que pronto esperamos. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali ; A publicação da nova Série de Pesquisa de Faculdade Se houver alguma maneira pela qual a Universidade possa devolver à sociedade o que está depositado nela, é a elaboração científica do conhecimento que, como tal, é importante para qualquer comunidade. Esta Revista, por exemplo, confirma esses esforços cada semestre vêm à luz pública. Nesse sentido, nossa Faculdade de Direito assumiu a tarefa, ainda mais dispendiosa, de preparar e organizar uma série bibliográfica de avanços ou resultados de pesquisa. Isto é, livros de nossos professores pesquisadores nos diferentes ramos do direito e disciplinas que se aproximam do jurídico. Para este propósito, se conta a partir do mes de abril com o conselho editorial de Lizardo Carvajal, destacado na região neste tipo de processos, para começar com um seminário chamado "mesa de redação", onde cada tarde da Quarta-feira, se forneceram as principais diretrizes para a estruturação de textos acadêmicos e científicos. Este espaço serviu para que os advogados tenham abordado o fenômeno da interdisciplinaridade e mais uma oportunidade de nos alinhar com os novos requisitos acadêmicos e editoriais, especialmente os do Departamento Administrativo de Ciência e Tecnologia (Colciencias). Os resultados, sendo modestos, não poderiam ser melhores. Na verdade, existem 16 títulos que estarão prontos para serem publicados, trabalhos submetidos a um trabalho cuidadoso e exigente de revisão de originais, relatórios sobre aspectos de semântica, sintaxe, estilo e ortografia. Além da publicação no clássico e tradicional meio em papel, a Série será publicada na Web. Um site, que nos contatará com o mundo inteiro. Especialmente desenhado para consulta através deste meio e na Internet, colocará nossos autores e nossos livros em relacionamento com os estudiosos de todo o mundo. O conhecimento que surgiu da pesquisa básica aplicada ao desenvolvimento experimental em nossos grupos de pesquisa ou da academia, transcenderão por esse meio, os corredores e salas de aula, estarão disponíveis em todo o mundo, especialmente no de fala española. Com rigorosos protocolos para acreditação documental. Respeito à publicação e catalogação, de acordo com os critérios básicos de acreditação de livros universitários resultantes da pesquisa científica, é dado cumprimento aos requisitos gerais da comunidade acadêmica e das instituições do estado. Nesse sentido, orienta-se os autores e editores no trabalho de publicação, contando com a revisão por pares, sendo uma tarefa essencial no processo de validação, publicação e divulgação da produção acadêmica e científica da Faculdade e seus programas de pós-graduação. A Série contém produção intelectual em Direito Penal e Criminalística. Daí o nome: Coleção Direito Penal, Criminalística e Ciências Forenses. Isso não é gratuito, já que o Mestrado em Direito Penal e o Mestrado em Criminalística e Ciências Forenses lideraram e fizeram presença no processo de pesquisa e no editorial. O conteúdo da coleção. existem dois títulos que catalogam as 80 pesquisas provenientes das teses dos mestrados mencionados. Nestes dois livros de consulta e de referência, indexan-se os autores, palavras-chave, jurados e presidentes de tese. É feita uma revisão técnica do conteúdo de cada tese. Está disponível assim, uma verdadeira coleção documental e um catálogo de produção intelectual decorrente dos mestrados acima mencionados. Sua utilidade e bom uso resultarão no desenvolvimento da pesquisa nessas áreas pela nossa Faculdade. Também no penal está o livro O Princípio da oportunidade de Enrique Arteaga Córdoba. Neste trabalho, trata-se de estabelecer o impacto que este instituto teve contra o novo sistema penal acusatório de tribunal oral. Maribel Lagos Enríquez compila cinco ensaios de dez pesquisadores do Grupo de Pesquisa "Sistemas penitenciários e prisionais". Seu título, penitenciários e prisionais em diversos contextos. A teoria do crime é a contribuição de Hernando Ordoñez Ramírez para abordar questões como controle social, imputabilidade e inimputabilidade, amplificação de dispositivos de tipo penal, punibilidade e responsabilidade. Por outro lado, María Inés Muriel Puerto, especialista em criminalística, compila ensaios em dois trabalhos: Criminalística e ciências forenses no sistema acusatório colombiano y A prova pericial no processo penal acusatório colombiano. Na mesma linha criminalística, Luis Guillermo González compila produtos de pesquisa no livro identificação humana. Os homicídios em série de Iván Valencia, agora em chave da criminologia, realizam uma fundamentação teórica sobre os assassinos em série e logo descreve as características de dois assassinos em série colombianos. Já em co-autoria, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán e Herman Gómez, contribuem com seus ensaios jurídicos em aproximações ao direito colombiano atual; bem como aqueles nomeados Hernando Ordoñez e María Inés Muriel, e Lilia Cortés e Maribel Lagos que assumiram a tarefa de compilar trabalhos, os primeiros com Exclusão de evidências no sistema acusatorio colombiano, e os segundos com a pena. Além do penal, encontramos a participação política, a educação e a responsabilidade do Estado colombiano, onde a coordenadora acadêmica da nossa graduação compila seis ensaios sobre esses temas. Por sua parte, Lilia Cortés reflete sobre as estratégias educacionais acadêmicas do acadêmico Ken Bain na educação universitária. No direito do Processo Civil, Jaime Mendoza e Angelly Villa, esclarecem se o Processo de Monitoramento, como mecanismo processual, servirá para diminuir o incumprimento judicial, uma questão que é levantada no processo de pagamento, "quimera" ou realidade jurídica? Finalmente, afastando-se do puramente jurídico e incursionando na Ciência Política, temos o texto de Filosofia Política Latino-Americana em que Ángelo Mauricio Victoria atua como autor e compilador de uma série de ensaios sobre a noção de "bom viver" e seu desenvolvimento no Contexto colombiano, equatoriano, mexicano e venezuelano. Como vemos, nossos esforços visam enriquecer a disciplina do direito, para sustentar com fatos a re-acreditação de alta qualidade, que estamos no interesse de ratificar com o (re)credenciamento que esperamos em breve. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali

W artykule przyglądam się temu, jaką edukację polityczną warto rozwijać we współczesnej polskiej szkole i wszędzie tam, gdzie buduje się w ludziach zdolność do wspólnej i niewyalienowanej pracy. Kierunek rozważań wyznaczyła konieczność ustosunkowania się myśli pedagogicznej – i równoległego dostosowania praktyk wychowawczych – do zmian w sposobie koordynacji społeczeństwa, które dokonują się w atmosferze groźby wybuchu wojny. Rozważania te buduję na dotychczasowych badaniach własnych z obszaru uczenia się w ruchach społecznych, analizując trzy porządki zapewniające koordynację społeczeństw (neoliberalizm, nacjonalizm, militaryzm) w kontekście wykluczanych przez nie wartości: dobra wspólnego, samorządu i pokoju. Rezultatem pracy jest matryca przyporządkowująca te kontrwartości różnym typom współpracy (koordynacji, kooperacji i kolaboracji). Matryca pozwala identyfikować specyfikę konkretnych przykładów mobilizacji społecznej, jak i rozpoznawać luki w kształceniu kolektywnych umiejętności współdziałania. Rezultaty analizy pozwalają zoperacjonalizować praktyki oporu pod kątem celów wychowania i stawiają w nowym świetle problemy powiązań i nawarstwiania się wrogich szkole ideologii neoliberalizmu, nacjonalizmu i militaryzmu. ; The paper analyses types of political education worth developing in contemporary Polish schools and in other places dedicated to building human capacity to work together in a non-alienated way. The analysis is based on my own research from the area of learning in social movements. I analyze three orders ensuring social coordination (neoliberalism, nationalism, and militarism) in the context of the values they exclude: the common good, self-government and peace. The result of the work is a matrix assigning these counter-values, accordingly, to coordination, cooperation and collaboration. The matrix allows for identification of the specificity of some examples of social mobilization, as well as identification of gaps in teaching collective interaction skills. The results of the analysis can be used to operationalize the practices of resistance in terms of educational goals. They also put in a new light the problems of connections between and building up of ideologies hostile to schools, that is, neoliberalism, nationalism and militarism. ; satkow@gmail.com ; Uniwersytet Gdański ; Amici, F., & Bietti, L.M. (2015). Coordination , collaboration and cooperation. Interdisciplinary perspectives. Interaction Studies, 16 (3), 7–12. ; Armingeon, K., & Guthmann, K. (2014). Democracy in crisis? The declining support for national democracy in European countries, 2007–2011. European Journal of Political Research, 53 (3), 423–442. ; Bajaj, M. (2014). Pedagogies of resistance and critical peace education praxis. Journal of Peace Education, 12 (2), 154–166. ; Bieler, A., & Jordan, J. 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Minority and community are concepts that have dominated the analysis of Christians in the Arab world, leading to a perception of Middle-Eastern societies as confessional or sectarian mosaics. This paradigm posits that religious and political identities and dynamics are closely intertwined in countries where the dominant culture is Islam, and that religious and ethnic groups live side by side, maintaining limited interactions while their immutable identities offer a strong potential for conflict. This work questions the paradigm of the mosaic by focusing on identity formation and interaction across religious boundaries over a period that extends from the later decades of Ottoman rule in Transjordan (1870) to present Jordan (1997). It asks whether confessionnal identities are by nature conflictual and if the 'minority' concept is the only relevant one to evaluate the degree of social, political and economic participation of non-Moslems in countries where Islam is the dominant culture. The approach is inductive and historical but mobilises concepts from the disciplines of social and political anthropology and political sociology. The dissertation comprises of 10 chapters set chronologically and covering the period 1870 to 1997. Taking a historical approach, it focuses on the modalities of exchanges, transactions, cooperation and communication (looking at kinship, mariage patterns, the role of women, economic cooperation, and various aspects of local and national politics) between Christians and Moslems and between several Christian denominations in Jordan (Orthodox and Roman Catholic, or Latin, in particular), more particularly in the town of Madaba however set within a broader national and international context. These broader contexts (that encompass the politics of states and of transnational Church actors over time) allow to bridge between the local and other levels to document how institutions regulate identity formation and cross-communal interactions. Over a century, Madaba provides the background, widely open to the rest of the country and the world, of a social, religious and political history of Arab Christian families. The work combines historical and anthropological approches and sources (in particular so far unexploited parish and Vatican archives, together with other archival sources). It questions the nature and the maintenance of the social and political link between Christians and Moslems in Madaba and in Jordan, and the changes that have affected identity boundaries between groups: both as Christians and Moslems, but equally as members of different Christian denominations, particularly in the context of missionary activities. The thesis defended here is that it is time to 'break the mosaic' so as to cast light from the inside on the societies and polities within which Christians in the Arab world are inserted. The title of the dissertation refers both to this paradigm and to the Byzantine mosaics that have made Madaba famous as an archaeological site. In place of the static image of the mosaic, the dissertation offers successive episodes of a moving picture where political powers, Churches (missionary or not), those local families that transfer their assets to Amman, the Jordanian capital, and the national arena, negotiate the organisation of local social interactions. One important contribution of the dissertation is to document how the tribe, over more than a century, remains a central social form to express identities, regulate economic and political interactions, and manage conflict both between Christians and between Christians and Moslems. Communal identities, however central they have become since the inception of the modern state, do not appear to threaten the cohesion of the society and the polity, either at the local or national levels. The maintenance of tribal identities is dealt with throughout the dissertation as a dynamic process in which both successive states, regimes, social actors at the national and local levels play a part, in particular in the historical context of the arrival of the Palestinians in Jordan and in the town of Madaba. At another level, the dissertation deals extensively with the institutional relations between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches and the Jordanian state, bringing a new insight into a previously under-studied domain. Finally, this work offers an argument about the relationships between state and society in contemporary Jordan by interrogating the changing nature of the social pact between the Hashemite regime and local constituencies, more specifically with non-Moslems but also with Transjordanians as opposed to Palestinians. This work is therefore not a mere monograph about Christians in the town of Madaba: looking at a 'marginal' and local phenomenon, it enlightens broader social, political and historical dynamics. ; En partant d'un phénomène observé 'à la marge' afin de mieux illustrer ce qui se passe au centre, ce travail aborde des questions fondamentales pour la compréhension des sociétés du Moyen-Orient en déconstruisant notamment la catégorie de 'minorité', en s'interrogeant sur la nature du lien social entre chrétiens et musulmans dans l'agglomération de Madaba et au-delà dans la Jordanie contemporaine et en analysant la construction des identités collectives sur plus d'un siècle (1870-1997). Sont proposés d'autres paradigmes que ceux des traditions orientaliste et développementaliste pour l'analyse des minorités en pays musulmans. Ces traditions postulent la primauté du facteur religieux dans la formation et l'expression des identités sociales et envisagent les sociétés arabes comme des 'mosaïques' formées de groupes ethnoconfessionnels homogènes, relativement hermétiques les uns aux autres et inscrits dans une hiérarchie de statuts. On s'est plutôt inspiré ici de l'approche sur les frontières et les interactions entre groupes ethniques proposée par F. Barth en lui adjoignant une certaine profondeur historique et en intégrant une analyse des rapports entre le pouvoir politique et les groupes sociaux. Il s'agit de poser les affiliation religieuses et confessionnelles comme des constructions sociales et historiques dont on peut étudier le développement, les méandres et les interactions avec d'autres types d'affiliation. S'inspirant de tous les travaux récents portant sur la construction des identités collectives, qu'il s'agisse de nations ou d'ethnies, l'approche choisie défend une conception plurielle et mouvante des identités décrites en termes de processus dynamiques et interactionnels en s'interrogeant sur les temporalités et les facteurs de continuité/changement et en montrant des continuité beaucoup plus longues que celles qui posent la période coloniale comme période charnière de fixation des identités collectives. En plus d'une méthodologie d'observation anthropologique du terrain et des acteurs, quatre types principaux de sources ont été exploités : la littérature des voyageurs occidentaux, les archives paroissiales et missionnaires (en particulier celles de la Propaganda Fide à Rome), les témoignages oraux, la littérature d'histoire locale produite à Madaba. On a adopté un plan chronologique découpé en trois périodes principales. A l'intérieur de chaque partie, l'analyse thématique a été privilégiée en suivant, dans l'agglomération de Madaba depuis sa fondation en 1880, les alliances matrimoniales, politiques et économiques entre chrétiens et musulmans et entre groupes de différents rites chrétiens (essentiellement orthodoxes et latins) afin de déterminer où passent les frontières de l'identité et comment elles changent. Une variété d'acteurs institutionnels et individuels, dont certains apparaissent à un moment historique donné, influent sur la forme de ces frontières : les administrations des États qui se succèdent et leur personnel, les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques, les prêtres, les Grandes Puissances occidentales et leurs représentants locaux, les intellectuels de formation moderne, les partis politiques, les notables traditionnels et modernes, les organisations de la société civile, les émigrés et les immigrés, les tribus et leurs membres. Centré sur l'agglomération de Kérak, dont sont issus les chrétiens qui fondent Madaba en 1880, le prologue fait apparaître que, dans la Syrie du Sud (Transjordanie) du milieu du XIXe siècle, les institutions ecclésiastiques (grecques orthodoxes) et impériales (ottomanes) n'ont que très peu d'influence sur ce territoire situé à l'extrême périphérie de l'empire. Minoritaires sur le plan démographique et dispersés sur le territoire, les chrétiens ne sont pas marginalisés du fait de leur appartenance religieuse car l'ordre tribal des relations sociales assure différents niveaux d'intégration sociale et de coopération politique et économique entre lignages chrétiens et musulmans en fonction d'autres critères que ceux de l'appartenance religieuse. Les chrétiens sont fragmentés en plusieurs clans et tribus sans que l'on puisse repérer de cohésion confessionnelle. Sur le plan de la pratique religieuse, c'est une forme de syncrétisme qui prévaut. L'impossibilité des échanges matrimoniaux entre chrétiens et musulmans n'est pas nécessairement perçue comme témoignant d'un frontière religieuse infranchissable mais s'inscrit dans le contexte plus vaste des règles qui régissent les alliances matrimoniales entre tribus. L'appartenance religieuse est avant tout un marqueur d'identité tribale. La première partie analyse comment l'ordre communautaire religieux apparaît dans les dernières décennies du XIXe siècle, sous l'action conjuguée des organisations missionnaires (protestantes et catholiques) et de l'administration alors que les Ottomans entreprennent de rétablir leur autorité sur la Syrie du Sud. Autour de la fondation du village de Madaba par des lignages chrétiens immigrés de Kérak sous l'impulsion des missionnaires latins, on montre comment de nouveaux acteurs religieux et civils entreprennent d'imposer un ordre communautaire des relations sociales à travers l'éducation missionnaire, le marquage d'espaces chrétiens, le contrôle des alliances matrimoniales, de nouvelles pratiques cultuelles, l'accès aux instances de représentation administratives et juridiques ottomanes. Les modalités d'insertion des tribus chrétiennes qui fondent Madaba dans leur environnement permettent de mettre en lumière les résistances à l'ordre communautaire par l'établissement de partenariats économiques et d'alliances politiques avec les tribus musulmanes du lieu selon des logiques lignagères persistantes où les acteurs instrumentalisent à leur profit les nouvelles ressources communautaires fournies par les Églises ou les consulats européens. Au cours du XXe siècle, la Transjordanie, d'abord sous mandat britannique, accède à l'indépendance. Malgré ce changement politique, le régime monarchique se perpétue sans que les modalités d'insertion sociale des chrétiens ne soient bouleversées au niveau du pays dans son ensemble ou au sein de l'agglomération de Madaba. La deuxième partie se penche alors sur la manière dont l'État hachémite et les Églises majoritaires (grecque orthodoxe et romaine catholique) négocient les frontières des espaces communautaires à travers la législation sur les communautés confessionnelles et leurs prérogatives religieuses, éducatives et caritatives. Le traitement différencié accordé par l'État aux différentes Église en présence ainsi que des relations diverses entre les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques et les laïcs des communautés sont deux dimensions qui contribuent à empêcher la cohésion des chrétiens pris comme un ensemble. Le statut politique des chrétiens est ensuite étudié non en isolation mais en parallèle avec celui d'autres groupes sociaux, Circassiens, bédouins, réfugiés palestiniens, familles musulmanes transjordaniennes du nord et du sud, etc. afin de poser question quant à la réalité d'un statut minoritaire et à l'existence d'une majorité politique dans le royaume hachémite. Il ressort que le régime octroie aux communautés chrétiennes et aux familles chrétiennes de notables (anciens ou modernes) un espace privilégié d'expression et de représentation qui leur permet d'occuper une place centrale, et non marginale, dans la société. Dans le même temps, il est difficile d'identifier une norme identitaire autre qu'hachémite et il apparaît qu'une des modalités d'exercice du pouvoir monarchique repose sur la cooptation d'individus et de familles appartenant à tous les groupes de la société. Dans un second temps, recentrer l'analyse sur l'agglomération de Madaba permet d'observer comment les acteurs locaux relaient les efforts de l'État qui visent à maintenir une fragmentation sociale selon des clivages communautaires et lignagers afin de résister à la formation d'identités politiques transversales qui mettraient en danger sa stabilité. La modernité politique et économique n'en engendre pas moins un système de relations multiples entre chrétiens et musulmans que l'on peut repérer à travers les alliances politiques lors d'épisodes électoraux, dans les mouvements associatifs, dans les partenariats économiques, dans les partis politiques ou lors d'épisodes de conflit aigus tels celui de Septembre noir. En parallèle, les logiques tribales continuent à ordonner conflit et coopération entre groupes de religions différentes qui se définissent d'abord selon leur affiliation lignagère. C'est le cas, en particulier, dans les domaines de l'économie agricole et pastorale traditionnelle, dans les épisodes de règlement de conflits de sang ou d'honneur où prévaut encore le droit coutumier, parfois à l'encontre des prescription du droit musulman. La fragmentation des chrétiens en groupes lignagers est ainsi préservée sans que ne s'effectue une communautarisation incluant une dimension politique. De même, les valeurs qui permettent aux chrétiens de participer pleinement à l'échange social, telles l'honneur individuel ou collectif, le prestige familial, la limitation de l'autonomie des femmes, ne sont pas menacées par l'imposition de normes islamiques. A partir des années 1970, la polarisation de la population du royaume hachémite entre Jordaniens 'de souche' et Jordaniens 'd'origine palestinienne' amène un processus de différenciation identitaire dans lequel l'organisation tribale en vient à symboliser l'identité jordanienne. Dans le même temps, les islamistes deviennent la principale force d'opposition que le régime tente d'endiguer en réaffirmant son propre caractère musulman et en islamisant de nouveaux espaces de la vie publique. Ces changements de paradigmes de la société politique jordanienne touchent Madaba, ville mixte où cohabitent Jordaniens des tribus et Palestiniens réfugiés, chrétiens et musulmans. De plus, les équilibres démographiques et politiques de la ville penchent de plus en plus en faveur des musulmans. Les chrétiens, autrefois majoritaires, entreprennent alors de défendre leur position de prééminence dans la ville. Les stratégies qu'ils mettent en place pour combattre une double logique de minorisation (en tant que chrétiens et Jordaniens 'de souche') font l'objet de la dernière partie de ce travail. On montre tout d'abord comment les chrétiens résistent sur le terrain à un recul de la neutralité religieuse de l'espace public et à leur mise en minorité démographique et politique (conseil municipal) dans l'agglomération et comment ils se redéploient dans l'espace urbain, créent des réseaux de soutien financier avec les immigrés, amorcent un rapprochement entre Églises, compensent dans le champ politique national la perte de leur hégémonie locale. Dans un second temps, on se penche sur la littérature d'histoire locale que produisent les chrétiens de Madaba afin d'analyser comment ces derniers, en reformulant leur histoire ancienne et récente, se construisent à la fois des identités confessionnelles, ethniques et lignagères et comment elles sont rendues compatibles afin de lutter contre une marginalisation symbolique. Le dernier chapitre se penche sur les élections législatives de 1997 afin d'illustrer la manière dont les chrétiens utilisent leurs imaginaires identitaires comme vecteurs de mobilisation politique à l'occasion des élections législatives, nouvelle arène de compétition depuis la libéralisation de la vie politique intervenue en 1989. Malgré l'existence d'un siège chrétien réservé pour la circonscription de Madaba, ce n'est pas la mobilisation communautaire qui apparaît comme efficace mais bien plutôt le discours des solidarités tribales, éventuellement (mais non nécessairement) en conjonction avec l'appartenance partisane ou confessionnelle. On peut alors avancer que les chrétiens participent pleinement aux dynamiques de la société dans son ensemble. Tout au long de la période étudiée, la parenté joue un rôle central comme vecteur essentiel de l'identification des groupes, que ceux ci soient dans un espace rural ou urbain. Les chrétiens de Madaba mobilisent les mêmes ressources symboliques que les autres groupes avec lesquels ils sont en contact. Comme l'ensemble de la société, les chrétiens participent à une multitude d'échanges et d'interactions et se positionnent en fonction de ces interactions. Au-delà de l'étude de cas qui s'ancre dans une ville moyenne de la Jordanie centrale, ce travail s'interroge en conclusion sur le système politique jordanien et sur les modes de légitimation de sa monarchie. Les analyses en termes de construction nationale sont critiquées, le terme de 'minorité' est mis en question tout comme le présupposé classique d'une imbrication nécessairement étroite du religieux et du politique dans les pays dits, ou qui se disent, musulmans.

Educational Leadership in Independent Muslim Schools: A Methodological Proposal Author(s):Henrik Nilsson (presenting) Conference:ECER 2016, Leading Education: The Distinct Contributions of Educational Research and Researchers Network:26. Educational Leadership Format:01. Continuing Professional Development: Learning for Individuals, Leaders, and Organisations Session Information 26 SES 04 C, Perspectives on Leadership in Denmark, Australia and Swedish Muslim Schools Paper Session Time:2016-08-24 09:00-10:30 Room:OB-H1.12 Chair:David Gurr Contribution Educational Leadership in Independent Muslim Schools: A Methodological Proposal The phenomena of Muslim independent schools in Sweden is mainly discussed as an issue of social and cultural integration. This discourse have to been understood in the light of the transformation of Swedish school system has underwent. Meanings about the necessary of keeping religious influence and secularised education apart (Englund, 1996) are still strong. The state and municipals is looked up as warrants of this divide. At the same time 6 % of 134 000 pupils in independent schools attend confessionals schools in Sweden. The number of Islamic profiled school are increasing as the immigration from countries where the larger part of the population affirm themselves as Muslims. The Central Bureau of Statistics (2014) in Sweden predict that 20 % of the Swedish population either are immigrants or the children of immigrants in year 2020. A larger part of those immigrants will probably be Muslims with a wish to maintain their faith identity and recognized as Muslims (Thobani, 2011). To understand the context of leadership you need to have knowledge about the discourses about Islam and Muslims. The aim of this paper is to discuss methodology to do research on educational leadership in Muslim schools. An empirical touchdown from my dissertation (Nilsson, 2015) will serve as a back-drop to do this. The academic discourse about the outcomes of Muslim profiled schools education is divided (Nilsson, 2015). Either are Muslim Schools comprehended to maintain self-assurance and cultural recognition (Gerle, 1997) or as means of segregating children with different backgrounds from each other (Englund, 2010) and/or to reproduce patriarchy circumscribing democracy (Ali, 2009). The representation of Muslims and Muslim school in mass media and the civil sphere often held the later opinion to be true (Shadid & Koningsveld, 2002). Especially when it comes to the establishment of a new school, prejudice are common among the members of the majority. An increasing Islamophobia in Europe is emerging and parents therefore chose Muslim profiled schools because they think they are safe. However Shah (Shah, 2015, p 140) argues that the interest in Islamic schools is reflecting a desire to make education not just a mean for developing and strengthening their faith identity but also as a vehicle for social mobility". According to Durkheim, education is about transmitting knowledge and values to the next generation (Durkheim, 1956) and this process can in a social perspective bring about reproduction of social position (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990) but also producing cultural meanings and crossing boarders of culture (Giroux, 2005). But how does cultural boarder crossing happens? My suggestion is to look up on educational leadership as a possible cultural boarder crossing. I understand the boarder crossing as a social performance which aims to re-fuse already de-fused meanings (Alexander, 2006). A social performance can be successful if it re-fuses meaning and change the audiences'' landscapes of meaning (Reed, 2011) and change the way of social life in the direction that the actor intend. This direction has in a normative perspective not be wanted. That's why, from a sociological point of view, I suggest that the social performance also is a question about content in aspects about whose cultural meanings getting re-fused or remains de-fused. The different content of the de-fusion/re- fusion is therefore understood as different modes of incorporation: assimilation, hyphenation and multicultural incorporation (Alexander, 2006). Integration in this perspective is about on-going internal social and cultural processes. Method Under scrutinity is social performance and incorporation; ways of managing the future lives of the children. When performed, the curriculum consist of particular values, attitudes and dispositions. The curriculum taught "shapes perceptions of ethnic identity.struggles over ethnicity and curriculum" (Sleeter, 2015, p 231). The action of educational leaders are "set in motion by discursive and organizational conflicts over incorporation" (Alexander, 2001, s. 246) i.e. cultural meanings. The practises are tied to particular times and places located in a web of practice (politic, economic, cultural, language, family.) The educational leader breaks off certain aspects of other practices to motivate and legitimize pedagogies and therefore also construct different discourses of pathways to incorporation. From a sociological point of view the educational outcomes describes modes of incorporaton: i) assimilative ii) hyphenated iii) multicultural (Alexander, 2001). In an assimilative mode of incorporation the particular identity is expected to be hidden in public places. It is not appreciated e.g. if you talk your native language during breaks or wear the hijab in school. This mode of incorporetation reminds of what McLaren (1994, p 49) defines conservative (or corporate) multiculturalism. The goal is to assimilate everyone into the culture of the majority and the coregroup. A prinicipal that perform an assimilative educational leadership tries to persuade and get his audience to embrace standards of achievment that assimalte students of minorities "into skills, concepts, language, and values of the dominant society" (Sleeter, 2015). How and if it happens depends on the success or failure of the performance in a local context. In the hyphenated mode different identities are highlighted when it suits and benefits the majority (Banks, 1999).The third mode of incorporation is understood as multicultural. In this mode the particular identities and the majoritys' is seen as equal good, righteous, democratic and so are the institutions they represent (Alexander, 2006). According to (Banks, 1999, p 31) the mode is a "transformative approach, which changes 'the canon, paradigms, and basic assumptions of the curriculum and enables students to view concepts, issues, themes, and problems from different perspectives and points of view". Expected Outcomes I expect that the theory of social performance and incorporation can add important perspective on leadership, it means social performance and it's ends incorporation. Traditionally, educational leadership in multicultural school is understood as reproducing structures: symbolic, cultural and economic capital which constitute an assimilative mode of incorporation. In control of material elements such as structures and institutions e. g. means of symbolic productions: television and mass media, the chances for a successful assimilation of course increases. But it's not sufficient to re-fuse meanings with those performative elements. Even if you own and/or access means of symbolic production the others elements of the social performance e. g. authenticity of actor, the actual performance on the scene and the script has to be interpreted as true, real and natural. If the actor fails in these regards so does the re-fusion of meanings and it doesn't matter how much material recourses you use. The initial re-analyse of the ethnographic observation indicates that in the particular case the principal have to balance between different modes of incorporation. That's because different social groups have different normative hopes and beliefs about education, both within school and with external stakeholders, such as worried neighbours in connection with the establishment of the school. The principal explain how Islam, and the way Muslims use Islam, and be interpreted. Sometimes he criticises Islam and it's practising representatives, but above all he tries to reshape the characteristics society attributes to Muslim and Islam. The principal dedicates himself to talk about problems and solutions in a way that he identifies as Swedish. In this and other ways he attributes the Swedish society positive values at the same time as he weaves together the picture of himself and his work with a dominant narrative about the Swedish pragmatic society. References Alexander, J. (2006). The civil sphere. New York: Oxford University Press. Ali, A. H. (2009). Därför måste demokratin försvara sig mot islamismen. Banks, J. A. (1999). An Introduction to Multicultural Education: MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1990). Reproduction in education, society and culture (2. ed.). London: Sage. Durkheim, É. (1956). Education and sociology. New York: Free Press. Englund, T. (1996). Utbildningspolitiskt systemskifte? Stockholm: HLS. Englund, T. (2010). The general school system as a universal or a particular institution and its role in the formation of social capital. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1(53), 17 - 33. Gerle, E. (1997). Muslimska friskolor i Sverige. Pedagogisk Forskning i Sverige, 2 (3), 182-204. Giroux, H. A. (2005). Border crossings : cultural workers and the politics of education (2. ed.). New York: Routledge. Gustafsson, K. (2004). Muslimsk skola, svenska villkor: konflikt, identitet & förhandling. Umeå: Boréa. McLaren, P. (1994). 'White terror and oppositional agency: towards a critical multiculturalism'. In D. T. Goldberg (Ed.), Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader. (pp. 45–74.). Cambridge: MA: Blackwell. Nilsson, H. (2015). Kultur och utbildning – en tolkning av två grundskolors mångkulturella kontexter. Växjö. Reed, I. A. (2011). Interpretation and Social Knowledge. On the use of theory in the human sciences. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. Shadid, W., & Koningsveld, P. S. v. (2002). The Negative Image of Islam and Muslims in the West: Causes and Solutions. In W. Shadid & P. S. v. Koningsveld (Eds.), Religious Freedom and the Neutrality of the State: The Position of Islam in the European Union. (pp. 174-196). Leuven: Peeters. Shah, S. (2015). Education, Leadership and Islam: Theories, discourses and practices from an Islamic perspective. . London: Routledge. Sleeter, C. (2015). Ethnicity and the Curriculum. In D. Wyse, L. Hayward, & J. Pandya (Eds.), The Sage handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment SAGE Publications Ltd. Thobani, S. (2011). Pedagogic discourses and imagined communities: knowing Islam and being Muslim. Discourse: Studies In The Cultural Politics Of Education, 32(4), 531-545. Author Information Henrik Nilsson (presenting) Linneaus University Department of Education

Friday May 12 we had the annual Hoover monetary policy conference. Hoover twitter stream here.  Conference webpage and schedule here (update 5/24 now contains videos.) As before, the talks, panels, and comments will eventually be written and published. The Fed has experienced two dramatic institutional failures: Inflation peaking at 8%, and a rash of bank failures. There were panels focused on each, and much surrounding discussion.  We started with a little celebration of the 30th anniversary of Taylor (1993), which put the Taylor rule on the map. As Andy Levin pointed out in the discussion, academic immortality comes when they omit the number after your name. Rich Clarida, Volker Weiland and I quickly outlined some academic influence. John Lipsky added some very interesting commentary on how the Taylor rule was important on Wall Street, and specifically from his experience at Salomon Bros. The second panel on financial regulation was a smash. Anat Admati chaired, with presentations by Darrell Duffie, Randy Quarles, and Amit Seru. Duffie showed how online banking has taken over, and the combination of twitter and online banking makes runs happen much faster than before. You don't have to stand in line, you can all push "withdraw" at once. He also showed a glaring hole in liquidity regulations: A bank cannot count as liquidity its ability to use the discount window at the Fed. Seru covered some of his recent work, showing just how many banks have lost 10% or more of their asset value, and thus the value of their equity. (Nobody mentioned commercial real estate, the next shoe to drop.) They gently disagreed, Darrel viewing more liquidity and better liquidity rules as the main solution, and Amit more equity. All seemed to agree that the current regulatory mechanism is fundamentally broken. Randy gave a thoughtful, eloquent, and impassioned talk laying to rest the common notion that "deregulation" caused SVB to fail. It would have passed all the stress tests. This will be important to read when the papers are all available. I take the implication that the regulatory structure is, again, fundamentally broken. No, more of the current regulations would not have helped. But Randy didn't say that. Peter Henry next presented "Disinflation and the Stock Market: Third World Lessons for First World Monetary Policy" (a paper with Anusha Chari), discussed by Josh Rauh and Chaired by Bill Nelson. A key innovation, they use stock market reactions to measure whether disinflations are a success on a cost/benefit basis. Large inflations seem to end with stock market expansions. Moderate disinflations don't really do much for stock markets. Most disinflationary reforms fail.Over lunch, Haruhiko Kuroda, Former Governor, Bank of Japan updated us on the Japanese situation. He is confident 2% inflation will return soon. Niall Ferguson and Paul Schmelzing presented "The Safety Net: Central Bank Balance Sheets and Financial Crises 1587-2020," (with Martin Kornejew and Moritz Schularick), with Barry Eichengreen discussing and Michael Bordo chair. A taste: The paper concludes that lender of last resort operations do work, and also create moral hazard. Barry had an eloquent discussion, noting among other things that not all balance sheet expansions are the same. Look for those in the written versions. Next, Mickey Levy presented The Fed: Bad Forecasts and Misguided Monetary Policy, Steve Davis discussing and  Jim Wilcox chair. The Fed -- and most industry analysts -- completely missed 8% inflation, both ahead of time and as it was happening. Why? How can the Fed do better? (And why is the Fed not asking this question?) To me, it looks like the forecast is not much more than an AR(1) reversion to 2% inflation. The paper has a good summary of how Fed forecasts are made, along with recommendations for institutional improvement.  Steve Davis had an excellent discussion, pointing to a central incentive problem. The Fed uses forecasts to try to shape expectations. Like pubic health authorities, it can be afraid to reveal actual fears. I also see conceptual flaws -- not much attention to supply or fiscal policy, using the Phillips curve as a causal model and as a model in itself, too much attention to the one-period link from expected inflation to inflation, and too much attention to the forecast rather than risk management; what do we do if things come out differently. The conference day ended with the traditional policy panel, with Jim Bullard (talk here), Philip Jefferson (talk here), Jeff Lacker, and Charlie Plosser, Chaired by John Taylor. Bullard pointed to the huge fiscal stimulus as a source of inflation, warming my heart. He opined that this stimulus is fading, making him hopeful for a soft landing. He presented the following chart. This is a very interesting measure of how much "stimulus" is sitting out there in the economy. The government did write a lot of checks, that went straight to people's bank accounts, and eventually were spent, driving up inflation. On the other hand, I am still a bit shocked that we're running $1 trillion deficit despite beyond-full employment and output revving at every bit that the "supply" side of the economy can produce. What's your measure of fiscal stimulus? Which forecasts inflation? This is a very provocative and interesting idea. Jefferson gave a great talk. He has the measured cadence of a seasoned central banker, but speaks very clearly and directly.  He started by announcing his appointment as vice-chair, which got a well deserved ovation. He then jumped right in: The title of the conference "How to Get Back on Track: A Policy Conference" is potent. Its intent and ambiguity are striking. First, the title presupposes that U.S. monetary policy is currently on the wrong track. Second, the webpage for this conference advances a puzzling definition of the phrase "on track." How so? According to the Hoover webpage, "A key goal of the conference is to examine how to get back on track and, thereby, how to reduce the inflation rate without slowing down economic growth" (emphasis added).1 As this audience knows, there are macroeconomic models that permit disinflation with no slowdown in economic growth, but the assumptions underlying these models are very strong. It's not clear, at least to me, why such a strict metric would be used to assess real-world monetary policymaking....I loved this. It shows he took the time to read up on the conference, and I love seeing basic premises challenged. Later, this struck me as thoughtful: I want to share with you a few strategic principles that are important to me. First, policymakers should be ready to react to a wide range of economic conditions with respect to inflation, unemployment, economic growth, and financial stability. The unprecedented pandemic shock is a good reminder that under extraordinary circumstances it will be difficult to formulate precise forecasts in real time. Our dual mandate from the Congress is especially helpful here. It provides the foundation for all our policy decisions. Second, policymakers should clearly communicate monetary policy decisions to the public. Our commitment to transparency should be evident to the public, and monetary policy should be conducted in a way that anchors longer-term inflation expectations. Third—and this is where I am revealing my passion for econometrics—policymakers should continuously update their priors about how the economy works as new data become available. In other words, it is appropriate to change one's perspective as new facts emerge. In this sense, I am in favor of a Bayesian approach to information processing.The first point brings us back to the problem that the Fed has so far been too silent about: How did it miss 8% inflation? And how to operate when such huge misses are possible? The Fed seems to have been making a forecast, then announcing a policy path that works for the forecast, and then trying to stick to it. In this first principle you see a quite different view. Let's call it data-dependent rather than time-dependent. This is a conference about the Taylor rule. Should the Fed look at more than inflation and employment? Well, yes and no according to these comments. And when models are not certain, distrust and update.Plosser and Lacker previewed an upcoming paper on the Fed's deviation from rules. Stay tuned. The evening started with a delightful speech by Sebastian Edwards on Latin American inflation. Stay tuned for that too. Videos should be up soon, and written versions as fast as we can get authors to turn them in. This is just a teaser!  Update: Videos are now up, with some more commentary here.

Sustainable investment (SI) has a strong niche foothold in Sub-Saharan Africa, anchored in the region's largest investment market, South Africa. Yet more work is needed, at policy and portfolio levels, to grow this investment theme. This report recommends measures to expand SI in Sub-Saharan Africa. It forecasts that over the next five years there will be considerable growth of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) considerations applied to investment in South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria. While these three countries form the basis of the study, the lion's share of data and observations emerged from South Africa, which is home to the continent's most developed capital markets.

The White House is steering the United States into a budgetary ditch it may not be able to get out of.The Biden administration is supersizing the defense industry to meet foreign arms obligations instead of making tradeoffs essential to any effective budget. Its new National Defense Industrial Strategy lays out a plan to "catalyze generational change" of the defense industrial base and to "meet the strategic moment" — one rhetorically dominated by competition with China, but punctuated by U.S. support for Ukraine's fight against Russia and Israel's military campaign in Gaza.Instead of reevaluating its maximalist national security strategy, the Biden administration is doubling down. It is proposing a generation of investment to expand an arms industry that, overall, fails to meet cost, schedule, and performance standards. And if its strategy is any indication, the administration has no vision for how to eventually reduce U.S. military industrial capacity.When the Cold War ended, the national security budget shrank. Then-Secretary of Defense Les Aspin and deputy William Perry convened industry leaders to encourage their consolidation in a meeting that later became known as the "Last Supper." Arms makers were to join forces or go out of business. So they ended up downsizing from over 50 prime contractors to just five. And while contractors needed to pare down their industrial capacity, unchecked consolidation created the monopolistic defense sector we have now — one that depends heavily on government contracts and enjoys significant freedom to set prices.In the decades since, contractors have leveraged their growing economic power to pave inroads on Capitol Hill. They have solidified their economic influence to stave off the political potential for future national security cuts, regardless of their performance or the geopolitical environment.Growing the military industrial base over the course of a generation would only further empower arms makers in our economy, deepening the ditch the United States has dug itself into for decades by continually increasing national security spending — and by doling about half of it out to contractors. The U.S. spends more on national security than the next 10 countries combined, outpacing China alone by over 30%.Ironically, the administration acknowledges in the strategy that "America's economic security and national security are mutually reinforcing," stating that "the nation's military strength depends in part on our overall economic strength." The strategy further states that optimizing the nation's defense needs typically requires tradeoffs between "cost, speed, and scale." It doesn't mention quality of industrial output — arguably the biggest tradeoff the U.S. government has made in military procurement.Consider, for instance, the B-2 bomber, the F-35 fighter jet, the Littoral Combat Ship, the V-22 Osprey, and many other examples of acquisition failures that have spanned decades. More recently, the Government Accountability Office has reported that while the number of major defense acquisition programs has fallen, both costs and average delivery time have risen.So what is the military really getting from more and more national security spending? Less for more: Fewer weapons than it asked for, usually late and over budget, and, much of the time, dysfunctional. Acquisition failures are a major reason the Congressional Budget Office projects that operations and maintenance spending will significantly exceed the rate of inflation for the next decade — a considerable budgeting issue for a military that seemingly has no plans to reduce either its force structure or its industrial capacity. Quite the opposite, in fact.Biden's new National Defense Industrial Strategy specifically states there is a need for the U.S. to "move aggressively toward innovative, next-generation capabilities while continuing to upgrade and produce, in significant volumes, conventional weapons systems already in the force." Ironically, the military has spent over two decades developing the F-35, next-generation technology that the Pentagon still hasn't greenlit for full-rate production.Throwing more money at an industrial base comprised of businesses too big to fail won't increase the quantity or quality of its output. But that's exactly what the strategy urges. One of the priorities is to "institutionalize supply chain resilience." It's an important goal, but one the administration proposes the Pentagon tackle, in part by investing in "spare production capacity," what the strategy defines as "excess capacity a company or organization maintains beyond its current production needs."But building factories to sit empty is not supply chain resilience. It's wasting money on unnecessary infrastructure, creating a profit motive for arms makers to make more weapons. And for an industry constantly sounding the alarm about the need for consistent "demand signals" from Congress, the Pentagon's plans to invest a generation of U.S. taxpayer money in "spare production capacity" sounds a lot like throwing the demand-supply principle out the window. In that case, the U.S. might as well consider nationalizing the defense industry, which already lacks competition and relies almost entirely on the government. Why not eliminate the profit motive? It's not like making money drives contractors to produce quality products on time or within budget.Besides supply chain resilience, another priority laid out in this strategy is "flexible acquisition." The stated goal is to reduce costs and development times while increasing scalability. In pursuit of that goal, the administration proposes "a flexible requirements process" for multiyear contracts, and the expansion of multiyear contracting writ large. It reasons that as priorities shift in an "evolving threat environment," so too should contractors' deliverables. But pairing flexible requirements with an increasing number of multiyear contracts is a recipe for disaster.Before Russia attacked Ukraine, multiyear contracts were relatively rare — limited to major aircraft and ships. The Congressional Research Service notes that estimated savings on these programs have historically fallen within the range of 5% — 10%. But those are estimates, and they may not apply to other munitions now produced under multiyear contracts. The report also confirms that actual savings are "difficult to observe," in part because the Pentagon does not track the cost performance of multiyear contracts.Just because multiyear contracting is more common doesn't mean it's cheaper. And while the Pentagon argues that multiyear contracts give contractors the so-called demand signal they need to ramp up production, contractors don't usually spend their extra money on identifying efficiencies or making capital investments to increase output at a lower cost — and the Pentagon isn't checking.The strategy also proposes "aggressive expansion of production capacity." It notes that during peacetime, weapons acquisition tends to focus on "greater efficiency, cost effectiveness, transparency, and accountability." Taking caution not to assert that the United States is in wartime, the strategy contrasts peacetime acquisition policy with "today's threat environment," calling for "crisis period acquisition policy" that revitalizes the industrial base and shifts focus from efficiency and effectiveness to ensuring that military contractors are "better resourced." But contractors don't have a resource problem, and "crisis acquisition policy" puts the United States on a "permanent war footing."Lawmakers must challenge the administration's maximalist national security strategy by interrogating its push to expand military industrial capacity so drastically. It's critical that they do, not only because the U.S. is limited in what it can produce and provide to other countries but also because arms industry greed is boundless — and without off-ramps or constraints, the U.S. government may find in 20 or 30 years that it's in a ditch it can't get out of.

Yritysten innovaatiotoiminnan merkitys talouden kehitykselle on kiistaton. Sen sijaan käsitykset tämän innovaatiotoiminnan luonteesta ja reunaehdoista ovat merkittäviä tutkimuskohteita. Erilaiset aluekehitysteoriat ovat tarkastelleet näitä kysymyksiä spatiaalisista lähtökohdista muutamia vuosikymmeniä. Tosin näiden teorioiden ja lähestymistapojen juuret ovat huomattavasti vanhemmissa havainnoissa, jotka käsittelevät esimerkiksi taloudellisen toiminnan maantieteellistä keskittymistä ja sen merkitystä tai organisaatioiden välisen vuorovaikutuksen luonnetta ja spatiaalisia vaikutuksia. Tässä tutkimuksessa kohteena ja analyysikehikkona on yksi nykyisin vaikuttavista innovaatiotoiminnan ja alueellisen kehityksen suhteita tarkastelevista lähestymistavoista, niin sanottu alueellisen innovaatiojärjestelmän malli. Malli lasketaan usein myös yhdeksi laajemman innovaatiojärjestelmätutkimuksen näkökulmista kansallisen, teknologisen tai toimialoittaisen näkökulman rinnalla. Näiden mallien merkitys myös käytännön politiikkatoimien perustana on ollut viimeisen kymmenen vuoden aikana suuri eri maissa ympäri maailmaa. Alueellisen innovaatiojärjestelmän mallin ytimessä on oletus, että innovaatiotoiminnassa on kyse vuorovaikutteisesta oppimisesta, johon ympäröivä yhteiskunnallinen viitekehys vaikuttaa monin tavoin, eikä innovaatiotoimintaa voida siten ymmärtää tuntematta monia rakenteellisia ja institutionaalisia tekijöitä. Yleisesti innovaatiojärjestelmän voidaan määritellä muodostuvan toimijoista, näiden välisistä suhteista sekä taloudellisesti käyttökelpoisen tiedon tuottamiseen, leviämiseen ja hyödyntämiseen liittyvistä prosesseista. Alueellisesta näkökulmasta korostetaan yleensä yhdistävän tai läheisen maantieteellisen sijainnin tuottamia etuja näissä prosesseissa (esimerkiksi teknologiset ylivuodot, erikoistuneet resurssit ja instituutiot). Samoin korostetaan hiljaisen tiedon paikallistunutta luonnetta ja sen siirtämisen ongelmallisuutta vastakohtana esimerkiksi koodatun informaation usein suhteellisen helpolle ja edulliselle siirtämiselle maasta toiseen. Yhtenä tutkimuksen lähtökohdista on näkemys, että tyypillinen alueellisen innovaatiojärjestelmätutkimuksen metodologinen lähestymistapa on painottunut liiaksi ylhäältä alas -näkökulmaan. Eri maissa ja eri alueilla toteutettavien tutkimusten välisen vertailun ja tutkimustiedon kumuloitumisen edistämiseksi tarvitaan myös alhaalta ylös -tyyppistä metodologiaa soveltavia tutkimuksia. Tähän tässä esiteltävä tutkimus pyrkii: se kehittää em. lähestymistavan perustalta viitekehystä, joka yritystasolla ottaa huomioon keskeisiä innovaatiotoimintaan ja sen spatiaalisiin sidoksiin liittyviä tekijöitä. Erityisen merkittävänä nähdään innovaatiotoimintaan liittyvä yritysten ulkoinen vuorovaikutus verkostomuotoisina yhteyksinä toisiin yrityksiin ja muihin organisaatioihin sekä tällaisen vuorovaikutuksen mahdollinen kasautuminen aluetasolla. Empiirisesti tutkimus rakentuu kahden toisiinsa liitoksissa olevan yritystasoisen tutkimusaineiston pohjalle. Toinen näistä aineistoista rakentuu 360 yrityksen ja toimipaikan palauttamasta kyselystä ja toinen 37 yritysjohtajan haastatteluista. Kohteena olevat yritykset edustavat teollisuutta ja yrityspalvelualoja ja sijaitsevat Pirkanmaalla ja Keski-Suomessa. Kvantitatiivisen ja kvalitatiivisen aineiston ja analyysin yhdistäminen tekee mahdolliseksi metodisen triangulaation, jolla pyritään varmistamaan tulosten monipuolisuus ja luotettavuus. Rakennetun viitekehyksen lisäksi tutkimus tuottaa empiiristä tietoa suomalaisten yritysten innovaatiotoiminnasta ja sen alueellisista, kansallisista ja kansainvälisistä kytkennöistä. Tutkimus päätyy muun muassa toteamaan, että varsinaisia aluetasolla rakentuvia laajoja innovaatiotoimintaan liittyviä yritysten välisiä systeemisiä kokonaisuuksia ei voida havaita. Tältä pohjalta esitetään johtopäätöksenä, että kyse on enemmänkin useilla tasoilla rakentuvista spatiaalisista innovaatiojärjestelmistä tai -ympäristöistä. Toisaalta tutkimus tuo esiin innovaatiotoiminnan monenlaiset merkittävät kytkennät aluetasolla, jotka perustuvat muun muassa alueellisiin työmarkkinoihin sekä yliopistoihin ja muuhun tiede- ja teknologiainfrastruktuuriin alueilla. Tutkimuksen pohjalta esitetään teoreettis-käsitteellisiä ja metodologisia tarpeita ja mahdollisuuksia alueellisen innovaatiojärjestelmämallin kehittämiseksi. Lopuksi tutkimuksessa esitetään normatiivisesti kolme erityyppistä alueellista innovaatioympäristöä, joiden piirteitä tutkimuksessa empiiriseen aineistoon perustuen havaittiin. ; The significance of innovation for economic development is very little debated today. Instead, debated are the characteristics and preconditions of innovation. In regional studies and regional science, several approaches and theories have evolved in the last decades to explore the spatial dimension of industrial innovation activities. These approaches, however, have their origins in much older observations dealing with, for example, geographical agglomeration of production and its effects or inter-organizational interaction and its dynamics in space. Serving as the subject and frame of analysis in the study, the regional innovation system (RIS) approach represents the present theorization on relationships between industrial innovation and regional development. This approach is often counted as one of the variants in the innovation system family, together with national, sector and technological variants. It is noteworthy that these models have had a remarkable impact on policy-making all over the world in the last ten years, underscoring also their social attractiveness. A core assumption in the regional innovation system approach is that innovation activities are based on interactive learning and are thus socially embedded processes which cannot be understood without taking into account their institutional and cultural contexts. A broad definition of an innovation system formulates that an innovation system is formed by actors, relationships and processes related to producing, distributing and using economically useful knowledge. From the regional perspective, it is usual to emphasize those advantages for innovation processes that are caused by co-localization or close geographical proximity among actors (e.g. technological spillovers, specialized resources and institutions). Those characteristics of tacit knowledge are also emphasized that make it highly localized and sticky contrary to codified information that may be relatively easy and cheap to transmit to another part of the globe by exploiting communication technologies, for example. One of the points of departure in this study was an assumption that a study conducted in the RIS fashion typically follows a top­down methodology, although also studies from the bottom-up perspective are needed in order to facilitate comparisons between different empirical studies and to ensure an effective cumulation of research knowledge. This is where the study aims to make its mark: based on the RIS approach, it pursues to develop a framework that takes into account firm-level core determinants of innovation activities and its spatial ties. Here firms external interaction related to innovation as network-type linkages to other firms and organizations as well as its potential concentration on the regional level are considered to be of particular interest. Empirically the study is based on two connected firm-level data-sets, one of which consists of a survey with 360 respondent firms and business units and the other of 35 firms based on 38 executive interviews. These firms represent manufacturing and business services industries and they are located in Tampere and Jyväskylä Regions in Finland. The regions, on the one hand, are comprised of institutionally fairly rich innovation environments but, on the other hand, include also some less-favoured sub-regions. Concerning the analysis of the study, a combination of the two data-sets enables methodical triangulation which aims at securing both the diversity and the reliability of the outcomes. In addition to the constructed framework, the study results in empirical information on the Finnish firms innovation activities and their regional, national and international linkages. The outcomes show, among other things, that there are no particular innovation-related systemic inter-firm entities formed at the regional level. Based on this, the conclusion is that innovation systems, or environments, are spatially multi-level. On the other hand, the study brings forward many of those regional-level ties and linkages that are important for innovation activities, such as regional labour markets, universities and other science and technology infrastructure in the regions. Based on the study, many prospects are pointed out and discussed to contribute to the theoretical and methodological advance of the regional innovation system approach. Finally, originating from the empirical observations, three normative models of distinctive regional innovation environments are presented.

Purpose The first major restriction for economic sustainability of Croatian tourism is its seasonality. If looking at the seasonality through the Gini coefficient in all aspects of accommodation, Croatia has the biggest seasonality in the Mediterranean countries. By determining the percentage of seasonality against Croatia's major competitors in hotels and similar accommodation units, then only Montenegro has larger percentage of dependence. The seasonality in period from 2013 to 2017 is not dropping but instead from June 1 to September 30 it brings very high 86% of yearly tourist revenue. Our competitors in the same period bring 43%(Malta), 51%(Spain), 59%(Cyprus) and 62%(Italy). The second major restriction of Croatian Tourism is huge disproportion between tourism revenue of Adriatic and Continental parts of the country. Even if the size percentage ratio is 56% versus 44% in favour of Continental part, if observed by the tourist accommodation revenue, the ratio is 95% versus 5% in favour of Adriatic part of Croatia. Further on, the availability of beds over 1 square km the ratio is 41.8 versus 3.5 beds in favour of Adriatic part. The restriction is connected with the rental model of development of low added value in Croatia, when growth of accommodation capacities in 6 years (2011-2016) is rising in favour of capacities of low added value 92% private accommodation took 82%, camps took 10% of total capacities while hotels took only 6%. All the mentioned restrictions are the cause for this research, how to decrease such a high seasonality which is not supporting economical sustainability of the tourist destination. This is the reason for decision to research the contribution of health tourism to economic sustainability of tourist destination. The principal purpose of this research is to point out the meaning and contribution of health tourism development in Croatia which as such is contributing to economic sustainability of the destination. Methodology Empirical investigation has been conducted in two directions. First is based on analyzing and processing secondary information which is presenting one very important segment of economic sustainability, addressed through seasonal effect, benchmarking analysis, availability of health tourism in Croatia, and especially through analysis of five indicators of tourist intensity and their influence on economic sustainability of destination through example of 97 cities and regions of Adriatic(72) and Continental(25) Croatia. Six variables have been analysed which were divided into two groups. First group is made of health institutions and organizations in tourist destinations which are further divided into six subgroups according to the health tourism development in analysed destinations. Second group is made out of five variables of economic sustainability of tourist intensity and statistical analysis was made out of a sample of 97 tourist destantions in Croatia. Second direction of investigation has been conducted through field research where questionnaire has been presented to 92 health tourism institutions in Croatia (from wellness hotels, special hospitals and Spa's to clinics and doctor's offices) of Adriatic and Continental part of the country. This served as a way to obtain primary information which have been processed through scientific method while explaining statistical methods and results. Primary data has been collected by conducting exploratory, unexperimental, questionarrie style of research which was done by utilizing feedback from 92 health tourism organizations and institutions. The questions were shaped by example of Likert scale while the entire questionairre has been put toghether by BSC (balance ScoreCard) method. The methods which were used for calculating the results: number of measurments (n), arithmetic mean (x), median (M), sample testing (Man-Whitney test), distribution normality test (Komogorov-Smirnov and Sahpiro-Wilk test), nonparametric methods: rank corellation (Kendall's Tau B Method; Spearman's rho method); nonparametric ANOVA (Kruskal Wallis test; Post-hoc analysis by Dunn). Findings In order to accomplish the purpose and goals of scientific research in this dissertation answers are provided (research results) to several questions which came from set hypothesis:  All analyzed factors which are referring to implementation of strategic regulation of tourism development of Republic of Croatia in health tourism institutions are contributing to economic sustainability of tourist destination, with detailed display of 52 factors and their influence on economic sustainability  Internal key factors of development of health tourism (market orientation; processes and activities; learning and growth; and financial perspective) have effect on the implementation of strategy of tourism development of Republic of Croatia, as well as on the opinions about strategic orientation in health tourism institutions.  Market orientation of health tourism institutions of Croatia is contributing the implementation of strategic development goals and economic sustainability of tourist destination. This contribution of market orientation would be even more significant if we would be to join the geographical clusters on regional and national level in order to achieve better market competitiveness.  The perspective of learning and growth in health tourism institutions described in all six parts of this dissertation is contributing to implementation of strategic development goals of their establishments, thus contributing economic sustainability of tourist destination.  With possibility of increasing the productivity on the level of competitiveness, high marks of all factors of financial perspective in health tourism institutions prove that financial perspective also contributes to implementation of strategic development goals of their establishments and institutions, thus contributing to economic sustainability of tourist destination.  Analysis on perspective and stability of health tourism in Republic of Croatia shows the largest development restrictions of health tourism which can be seen in: - Marketing of health tourism on a national level - Inadequate legal regulation which does not allow the health tourism development - Inadequate measures of economic politics which are not supporting the health tourism development - Health tourism in Croatia is still not recognized as product with high development priority - Joining regional and national clusters in Republic of Croatia is still not contributing to better positioning of health tourism institutions in the market  Perspective of health tourism development in Croatia shows maximum potential contribution of health tourism to economic sustainability of tourist destination. This potential contribution is primarily seen in: - Positive attitude that health tourism can secure better utilization of our hospitality capacities, year round income, elevated additional value of services and sustainable economic development of the country - Positive attitude that for health tourism development requires inter-disciplinary specialist education and level of knowledge, lifelong learning systems which can be developed in Republic of Croatia - Key perspective that health tourism can make a positive impact on reducing seasonal dependency and thus contribute to sustainability of tourist destinations in Croatia  The results of research, which are based on secondary information received from tourist destinations of Adriatic and Continental areas of Croatia, are also proving the primary scientific hypothesis (H0). For this reason the indicators of health tourism development in Croatian destinations have on the economic sustainability of tourism (97 destinations in Adriatic and Continental areas of Croatia) are researched. Results of statistical analysis of five different types of health tourism destinations (VAR1 from 0 to 5) are provided, after which is made analysis of all five indicators of economic sustainability of tourist destinations: VAR2 (ZTLG) – impact of tourism on local economy, VAR3 (TIR) – Percentage of tourist intensity, VAR4 (TPR) – Percentage of tourist flow, VAR5 (TDR) – Percentage of tourist density and VAR6 (CTF) – Coefficient of tourism functionality. All these proven facts are connected with the seasonality and economic unsustainability. The variable of seasonality is the most important reference of this dissertation and as such, it has the biggest impact on the economic sustainability of tourism. Tourism seasonality in Croatia has the biggest impact in private accommodation sector, and health tourism, despite the enormous potential of reducing this issue still has very limited effect on total economic sustainability. In addition, the secondary research has shown that current health tourism capacities are not very competitive with the products and services they offer. It is very visible that reason for this is a lack of proper competition and competitiveness. From the analysis of the parameters of tourist intensity by the way of statistical method of correlation of rank it is reached the second part of conclusion pertaining the proof of set hypothesis, which together with the first part of primary field research completed each other by proving the primary and all secondary hypothesis Originality of the research This research has its contribution in development of science in theoretical and practical sense. In theoretical part, scientific facts of the relevant area have been researched as well as all the relevant and available literature on the matter. Theoretical scientific facts are contributing to development of health tourism and sustainable development of touristic destination. Following this thought, this dissertation has proven the theoretical basis of health tourism and sustainable development; this is especially pertaining to overview of previous theoretical and empirical research connected with health tourism and economic sustainability of tourist destinations. In practical part, the research has shown the results from received feedback of questionnaires. The most relevant 92 institutions and organizations of health tourism in Adriatic and Continental part of the country provided this feedback. The model of contribution of health tourism has been tested and based on 97 destinations of Adriatic(72) and Continental(25) Croatia towards the economic sustainability of tourism destination by the example of 5 indicators of economic sustainability. The originality of research is represented through the completion of its goals which are:  development and explanation of model which is smart, inclusive and sustainable development of tourist destinations in Croatia which are basing their development on health tourism.  Inovations which in Strategey 'Europe 2020' take central spot, and 'smart specialization' needs to make it possible for countries and regions to specialize in those activities in with they hold comparitive advantage. For Croatia and croatian tourism the oportunity lies in development of health and wellness industry.  The unsustainability of seasonal tourist concept development has been proven and factors which are influencing the seasonal dependence of croatian tourism have been explained.  The possibilites of connecting health tourism into geographical clusters in order to facilitate sustainable and equal development have been established.  The concept of health industry and health tourism as a part of sustainable development, which furhter enables economic development has been explained.  Tourism has been identified as a phenomenon with strong inovation potential which was elaborated on example of health tourism. In addition, the health tourism development model which is necessary in order to succesfully manage such tourist destination has been suggested.

Resumen: Este trabajo docente se hizo con el objetivo de aplicar las herramientas TIC, en la construcción de videos complementarios para la configuración de un curso, además de acercar los, a la utilización de las tecnologías desarrolladas para construir elementos didácticos , aplicables a las diferentes áreas, la meta primordial es poder brindar un apoyo y soporte a los educadores que se encuentran en cualquier rincón del país, para que cuenten con una asesoría personalizada guiándose, en implementado sus cursos de aprendizaje, desde una plataforma virtual dado en este caso Moodle, de igual manera la idea es motivar al docente para que él mismo cree sus propios videos, orientando a sus estudiantes hacia el conocimiento de la ciencia y del medio que los rodea. Dicha implementación de esta estrategia, permite la familiarización con la aplicación adecuada y práctica, de las herramientas de libre acceso a sistemas operativos de código abierto, como lo son las construidas en el ambientes de Linux, (Fedora, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, OpenSUSE, Zorin entre otros). Además de permitir que cualquier institución del área pública pueda construir medios sofisticados de enseñanza, a bajo costo obteniendo entre otros grandes beneficios que apuntan hacia la calidad de la educación, generando en sus educandos competencias laborales, ciudadanas, científicas, sin olvidar el buen rendimiento académico que se debe obtener en pruebas externas. La propuesta surge para tratar de ayudar a solucionar en parte las dificultades de la educación moderna, en donde puede ser altamente provechoso, el ingreso al internet, en donde los estudiantes aprenden a su propio ritmo, con la orientación adecuada, todo desde la estrategia gubernamental de dotar a las instituciones de equipos de cómputo y de internet. En si es la aplicación práctica de los cursos TIC I y II de la Maestría en Enseñanza de las Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, a manera de retroalimentación y de compartir lo aprendido, con aquellos docentes que de cierta manera no pueden estar presentes en un aula especializada con guía de un tutor. Con este trabajo se busca que muchas personas accedan al mundo del aprendizaje por plataformas virtuales, adquieran apoyo para una mejor enseñanza y así mismo los estudiantes, gesten en sí un aprendizaje contextualizado en la modernidad y la exigencia de este mundo actual con herramientas innovadoras hacia el desarrollo de competencias básicas y científicas. Para la realización de este trabajo se utilizó un video blog y las diferentes herramientas de la plataforma Moodle para mostrar a los docentes y estudiantes la forma de configuración de cursos. Además de una ayuda oportuna de la multimedia, no solo en configuración, sino también la utilidad de estas herramientas que se adquieren en los centros de soporte de cada distribución de Linux. ; Abstract: This educational work was made aiming to apply to the TIC tools, in the development of complementary videos for the configuration of a course, besides approaching to the use of the developed technologies to design didactic elements applicable to different areas. the fundamental goal is to be able to offer support to the educators that are in any quier corner of the country, so that they count on a customized consultant's office guiding themselves and implementing their learning courses from a given virtual platform in this Moodle case, in the same way, the idea is to motivate th e educator so that he creates his own videos, orienting his students towards the knowledge of science and the means that surrounds them. This implementation of this strategy, allows the familiarisation with the suitable and practical application of the tools of free access to operating systems of opened code, as they are developed in atmospheres such as Linux, (fedora, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, OpenSUSE, Zorin among others). Besides allowing that any institution from the public sector is able to design sophisticated ways of education, at a very low cost obtaining among other great benefits that aim towards the quality of the education. Generating in its students laboural scientific and citizen competences without forgetting the good academic performance that must be obtained in external tests. the proposal arises to try to help to solve partly the difficulties of the modern education, in which it can be highly beneficial to have Access to the Internet, in where the students learn at their own rate, with the proper direction, everything from the governmental strategy to equip the institutions with equipment that responds tonecessities in terms of technology such as personal computers with the appropriate Access to the world wide web. In essence this is about the practical application of the courses tics I and II of the Masters in Education of Exact and Natural Sciences. As a feedback process and aiming to share what was learned, with those educators who in a certain way cannot be present in a specialized classroom with the guidance of a tutor. With this paper work what is intended is that lots of people have got the opportunity to access the world of the learning by virtual platforms. In addition they must acquire support for a better education and the students as well. In this way they will develop a contextualized learning in the modernity and the exigency of this current world with innovating tools towards the development of basic a scientific competitions. For the accomplishment of this paper work a video blog was used and the many different Tools of the platform Moodle to show both teachers and students the way of configuration of courses. Besides the proper and opportune help of the multimedia, not only in configuration, but also the utility of these tools that acquire in the centers of support of each distribution of Linux

The active presence of Iranian women in the public arena and their efforts to obtain equal rights date back to the early twentieth century, when the Constitutional Revolution took place in Iran. The Constitutional Revolution of 1906 was a liberal movement aimed at creating a Parliament, limiting the Shah's powers and enforcing constitutional laws. This article will explore the historical background of the women's movement in Iran, in order to identify all the means utilized to demand equality in order to trace the process of demanding equality and the obstacles that Iranian women have encountered in their efforts to achieve it. It looks at the transformation of women's rights movement in the context of socio-legal reforms in the country. The study will examine three distinct periods in the women's rights movement, with particular focus on the post-1979 Revolution era. The Qajar Dynasty, 1796-1921, where women were systematically and socio-culturally deprived of their basic economic, social and political rights. The Pahlavi era, 1925-79, where there was a period of some positive changes for women. Finally, post-1979 Revolution and the rise of the Islamic Republic, where women lost the rights they had previously obtained. This study will attempt to demonstrate that though legal equality has yet to be obtained by Iranian women, they continue to actively pursue it. In this pursuit, they have successfully challenged the gender bias of the Iranian legal system, and it has lost its legitimacy. More pertinently, the social context has been primed to accommodate equal rights for women ; La presencia activa de mujeres iraníes en la arena pública y sus esfuerzos por obtener la igualdad de derechos se remontan a principios del siglo XX, cuando tuvo lugar la Revolución Constitucional en Irán. La Revolución de 1906 fue un movimiento liberal destinado a crear un Parlamento, limitar los poderes del Sha y hacer cumplir las leyes constitucionales. Este artículo explorará los antecedes históricos del movimiento de mujeres en Irán, con el fin de identificar todos los medios utilizados para exigir la igualdad a fin de rastrear el proceso de exigencia de la igualdad y los obstáculos que encontrados en sus esfuerzos para lograrlo. Analiza la transformación del movimiento por los derechos de las mujeres en el contexto de las reformas socio-legales en el país. El estudio examinará tres períodos distintos en el movimiento por los derechos de las mujeres, con especial atención a la era de la Revolución posterior a 1979. La dinastía Qajar, 1796-1921, donde las mujeres fueron privadas sistemática y socioculturalmente de sus derechos económicos, sociales y políticos básicos. La era Pahlavi, 1925-79, donde hubo un período de algunos cambios para las mujeres. Finalmente, la Revolución posterior a 1979 y el surgimiento de la República Islámica, donde las mujeres perdieron los derechos que habían obtenido con anterioridad. Este estudio intentará demostrar que, aunque las mujeres iraníes aún no han logrado la igualdad legal, continúan persiguiéndola activamente. En esta búsqueda, han desafiado con éxito el sesgo de género del sistema legal iraní, el cual ha perdido en ello su legitimidad. De forma más relevante, el contexto social ha ido evolucionando a fin de dar cabida a la igualdad de derechos para las mujeres. ; La presència activa de dones iranianes en l'arena pública i els seus esforços per obtenir la igualtat de drets es remunten a principis del segle XX, quan va tenir lloc la Revolució Constitucional a l'Iran. La Revolució de 1906 va ser un moviment liberal destinat a crear un Parlament, limitar els poders del Xa i fer complir les lleis constitucionals. Aquest article explorarà els antecedents històrics del moviment de dones a l'Iran, per tal d'identificar tots els mitjans utilitzats per exigir la igualtat per tal de rastrejar el procés d'exigència de la igualtat i els obstacles que trobats en els seus esforços per aconseguir-ho. Analitza la transformació del moviment pels drets de les dones en el context de les reformoes socio-legals al país. L'estudi examinarà tres períodes diferents en el moviment pels drets de les dones, amb especial atenció a l'era de la Revolució posterior a 1979; la dinastia Qajar, 1796-1921, on les dones van ser privades sistemàtica i socioculturalment dels seus drets econòmics, socials i polítics bàsics, l'era Pahlavi, 1925-1979, on hi va haver un període d'alguns canvis positius per a les dones. Finalment, la Revolució posterior a 1979 i el sorgiment de la República Islàmica, on les dones van perdre els drets que havien obtingut amb anterioritat. Aquest estudi intentarà demostrar que, tot i que les dones iranianes encara no han aconseguit la igualtat legal, continuen perseguint activament. En aquesta recerca, les dones han desafiat amb èxit el biaix de gènere del sistema legal iranià, el qual ha perdut en això la seva legitimitat. De forma més rellevant, el context social ha anat evolucionant per tal de donar cauda a la igualtat de drets per a les dones.