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This paper examines the whistleblowing in the Italian legal system. In the lack ofproper rules on such a phenomenon (quite uncommon in the Italian social reality, also due to cultural reasons) except for the civil servants, the paper goes on analysing, on the one hand, the provision applicable to the civil servants (i.e. art. 54 of the Legislative Decree no. 165/2001), and on the other hand, the instruments provided for by the Italian legal system as general principles, which can be applied by the judge in order to protect the whistleblowers in the private sector (in particular the rules against retaliatory and discriminatory acts and mobbing). The Author stresses that the recalled protection, although effective (also after the so-called 'Monti's reform', id est the Law No. 92/2012), could be not sufficient both because of the allocation of the burden of proof, and because it is applicable to the employees and only partially (as the Author explains in the last paragraph) to the whistleblowing in the context of self-employment. Then the paper analyses the balancing performed by the Italian caselaw between the right to information and the right of criticism, on one side, and the right to secrecy set forth by law in respect of business facts and information, and the personality rights granted to the employer by the Constitution,on the other side. Finally the paper deals with the applicable procedures, introduced by disciplinary codes, also according to the Legislative Decree No. 231/2001, and the problems related to internal reporting systems, in particular the balancing between the needs for the whistleblower's protection and the positive law in the matter of protection of the privacy of the person to whom the complaint relates according to the Legislative Decree No. 196/2003.

The paper aims to explain a highly differentiated use of the law by two transnational collective actors, the European Women's Lobby (EWL) and the European Roma and Travellers Forum (ERTF), and this despite them belonging to the same domain of anti-discrimination policy at the EU level. It addresses the more general topic of the response of collective actors to policy change. Empirical data has been collected on the basis of a triangulation between secondary sources, documentary sources and semi-structured interviews and has been analysed in termsof process-tracing. In the first part we explore different strategies to promote human rights (the law as a reference and the law as a resource). Then we focus on the main factors behind the contrast studied : the role of groups' organizational resources and of collective identity frames. In the final section we discuss the relevance of iterative effects associated with interactions between groups and their positioning within the European system of governance. The most important result of the comparison shows that to respond to changes in governance arrangements, collective actors have had to adapt reflexively. To do so, they not only assess the available margins of manœuvre and incentives, but look deeply at their own composition, seeking organizational and strategic formulae able to cope with internal conflicts and at their competitive environment. ; Cet article part d'un premier constat, relatif à un usage très différencié des mobilisations juridiques par deux acteurs collectifs transnationaux, le Lobby européen des femmes (LEF) et le Forum européen des Roms et des gens du voyage (FERV) qui pourtant appartiennent au même secteur européen de la lutte contre les discriminations. Il a pour objectif d'expliquer les raisons de cet usage différencié, et de discuter les dimensions d'analyse pertinentes. Il s'inscrit dans la problématique plus générale de la réponse des acteurs collectifs au changement de l'action publique. Les données empiriques ont été recueillies sur la ...

Introduced in 1991, the right to free privatization of own's own housing favored a double transformation: of tenants into owners, and of collective housing into condominium buildings. Based on an ethnographic investigation in Moscow, this dissertation examines the implementation of the new Housing Code (2005). This legal shift led to a renewed governance of collective housing, now centered around the general meeting of owners. A contribution to post-communist social change, this research is also an investigation into the sociology of law. Based on a Weberian approach to the social practices of the law, it examines how the legal regime of joint ownership went from being abstract text to the status of social practices located.Drawing upon the sociology of the State, the study of mobilizations and researches on legal consciousness, the dissertations focuses on three groups of actors central to the construction of the new legal system. The first one consist of the lower-level agents of the Moscow administration, who resort to illegal practices in an attempt to locally implement the new legislation. The second includes local politicians, geared towards the dissemination of legal knowledge and literacy in an attempt to defend the rights of the inhabitants. The third one encompasses inhabitants particularly involved in the organization of their buildings' administration.The dissertation focuses on three mechanisms through which the new legal system came into being: legal offenses, controversies around the interpretation of the legislation, and layperson's appropriation of the law. The analysis sheds lights onto the making of these new was of inhabiting the space, as well as on the crafting of postcommunist subjectivities that reconfigure the relationships between the State and the market. ; Instauré en 1991, le droit à la privatisation gratuite de son logement a favorisé l'accession des anciens locataires soviétiques au statut de propriétaire, transformant du même coup les immeubles collectifs en copropriétés. Sur la ...

Рассмотрены направления оптимизации отдельных видов наказаний за преступления на современном этапе противодействия преступности. Проведен исторический и уголовно-правовой анализ отечественного уголовного законодательства. Вносятся предложения по оптимизации законодательства в контексте повышения эффективности уголовной ответственности. Указано, что многие аспекты, в т. ч. понятие наказания, его содержание, реализация отдельных видов и их эффективность, так и не нашли единообразного толкования в отечественной уголовно-правовой доктрине. Еще меньше ясности по проблеме основания, критериев эффективности, форм и видов, направлений их дальнейшего законодательного совершенствования. Представлены действующие нормы Общей части УК РФ, регламентирующие уголовно-правовые последствия для лиц, совершивших преступления. Рассмотрено основание наказания, его формирование, а также взаимодействие уголовно-правовых отношений и уголовной ответственности в механизме правового регулирования. Предложены проекты уголовно-правовых норм относительно реализации наказания, повышения эффективности его отдельных видов, их оптимизации и направления законодательного совершенствования в целях предупреждения преступности. ; The directions of optimization of certain types of punishments for crimes at the present stage of crime struggle are considered. The historical and criminal legal analysis of domestic criminal law is conducted. Proposals are made to optimize the legislation in the context of improving the efficiency of criminal responsibility. It is noted that many aspects, including the concept of punishment, its content, implementation of individual species and their effectiveness have not found a uniform interpretation in domestic criminal law doctrine. Even there is less the clarity on the issue of base performance criteria, forms and types, directions of further legislative improvements. The current rules of the General Part of the Criminal Code regulating the penal consequences for the perpetrators of crimes are presented. The foundation of punishment, its formation, as well as the interaction of criminal legal relations and criminal responsibility in the mechanism of regulation is considered. The projects of criminal law norms concerning the implementation of punishment, efficiency of its individual species, their optimization and improvement of legislative direction in order to prevent crime are offered.

The paper aims to explain a highly differentiated use of the law by two transnational collective actors, the European Women's Lobby (EWL) and the European Roma and Travellers Forum (ERTF), and this despite them belonging to the same domain of anti-discrimination policy at the EU level. It addresses the more general topic of the response of collective actors to policy change. Empirical data has been collected on the basis of a triangulation between secondary sources, documentary sources and semi-structured interviews and has been analysed in termsof process-tracing. In the first part we explore different strategies to promote human rights (the law as a reference and the law as a resource). Then we focus on the main factors behind the contrast studied : the role of groups' organizational resources and of collective identity frames. In the final section we discuss the relevance of iterative effects associated with interactions between groups and their positioning within the European system of governance. The most important result of the comparison shows that to respond to changes in governance arrangements, collective actors have had to adapt reflexively. To do so, they not only assess the available margins of manœuvre and incentives, but look deeply at their own composition, seeking organizational and strategic formulae able to cope with internal conflicts and at their competitive environment. ; Cet article part d'un premier constat, relatif à un usage très différencié des mobilisations juridiques par deux acteurs collectifs transnationaux, le Lobby européen des femmes (LEF) et le Forum européen des Roms et des gens du voyage (FERV) qui pourtant appartiennent au même secteur européen de la lutte contre les discriminations. Il a pour objectif d'expliquer les raisons de cet usage différencié, et de discuter les dimensions d'analyse pertinentes. Il s'inscrit dans la problématique plus générale de la réponse des acteurs collectifs au changement de l'action publique. Les données empiriques ont été recueillies sur la ...

This contribution reflects on the contributory role of environmental law and policy in the successful conservation interventions on behalf of the rare Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila Adalberti), with the aim of gaining insights that may be more universally applicable, including in jurisdictions such as South Africa. An overview of applicable international, European and Spanish laws and policies is given, and the role played by these instruments is considered together with successes attained with diverse conservation goals in respect of the Spanish Imperial Eagle. The exceptionally comprehensive character of the legal protection of the Spanish Imperial Eagle is highlighted, in conjunction with some extra-legal factors that have contributed to successful outcomes. While quantification of the role of the law in the conservation of a species remains elusive, it is probably safe to conclude that environmental law and policy have played a vital and central role in the improvement of the conservation status of the Spanish Imperial Eagle. It is submitted that the conservation interventions on behalf of the Spanish Imperial Eagle show that concerted legal and other conservation interventions can effectively halt and reverse the decline of an endangered species. However, such interventions are onerous and expensive and ideally, effective conservation measures should be in place before populations have declined to a critical level. Birds of prey face similar threats in South Africa and Spain, and a number of South African raptor species will soon be classified as endangered. While South African biodiversity laws and policy are similar to the European and Spanish laws in general import and methodology, the South African laws and policy are more restricted in scope, less detailed and less prescriptive. When comparing the use of Spanish and South African legislation in the conservation of birds of prey, sight must not be lost of the varying conservation needs of different species and the unequal resources available to different jurisdictions.

This article analyses the application of the 1972 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Convention (the WHC) in the context of the armed conflicts that have taken place in the Virunga National Park (the Park), a natural world heritage site in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the DRC). Instead of addressing wartime environmental damage under the law of armed conflict, this article seeks to establish how such damage can be addressed using multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). MEAs often consist of general principles and vague obligations and their relevance or applicability during situations of armed conflict may be questioned. However, a number of MEAs, including the WHC, authorise their convention bodies to develop detailed and substantive obligations applicable to their parties. Thus, the decisions and recommendations adopted by the World Heritage Committee, a body established under the WHC, provide substantive content to the provisions of the WHC. These decisions and recommendations may, however, run counter to the requirements of military necessity thereby affecting the application of the law of armed conflict. While the position adopted by the World Heritage Committee does not inevitably imply a clash between the obligations in the WHC and the law of armed conflict, it does raise the question of whether the outstanding values of world heritage should trump the rules of military necessity and other pressing concerns during armed conflict. On an informal basis, the World Heritage Committee and the UN peacekeeping forces deployed in the DRC have agreed to perform operations that jointly address the interconnected concerns of security and conservation of natural resources in the region of the Park. This cooperative 'green-keeping' operation represents a useful approach to regime interaction and the harmonisation of obligations set out in different legal regimes that are applicable to the same subject matter.

Se presentan rankings por disciplinas de las revistas científicas españolas de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas según Google Scholar (GS) para el periodo 2002-2011. Se ordenan de acuerdo con el índice h que es el indicador bibliométrico adoptado por Google. Se pretende con este trabajo comprobar la amplitud en la cobertura que posee Google Scholar de las revistas científicas españolas de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas y comparar las diferencias arrojadas respecto al período 2001-2010. Las búsquedas bibliográficas se efectuaron en el mes de marzo de 2013. Se calcula el índice h de 1038 revistas, de las que 251 son de Derecho, 157 de Educación, 137 de Economía, 109 de Psicología, 87 de Sociología, 56 de Ciencia Política, 54 de Geografía, 46 son de Antropología, 42 de Ciencias del Deporte, 39 de Urbanismo, 36 de Documentación y 24 de Comunicación. ; Rankings are presented by disciplines of Spanish scientific journals of social sciences and law according to Google Scholar (GS) for the period 2002-2011. They are sorted according to the h-index which is the Bibliometric indicator adopted by Google. Intends this work check the breadth in coverage that has Google Scholar of Spanish scientific journals of social sciences and law and compare the differences over the period 2001-2010. Bibliographic searches were conducted in the month of March 2013. H-index is calculated from 1038 journals, of which 251 are Law, 157 education, 137 economy, 109 psychology, 87 sociology, 56 political science, 54 geography, 46 anthropology, 42 sports science, 39 urban, 36 library and information science and 24 communication. ; EC3: Evaluación de la Ciencia y de la Comunicación Científica ; Trabajo financiado con cargo al proyecto HAR2011- 30383-C02-02 de la Dirección General de Investigación y Gestión del Plan Nacional de I+D+I. Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad.

Public freedoms are known and demanded by everyone, everywhere. They must be protected against any attack. The infringements of public freedoms are often by the administration. The first institution to guarantee public freedoms against the administration is the administrative judge, his regular judge. The administrative judge is the judge of the administration, he consider his action, rescind or conform its decisions and directed her orders. The administrative case law shows that the administrative judge often uses all the instruments at its disposal to protect public freedoms against violations by the administration. These instruments include the narrow interpretation of the cases of incompetence of the administrative judge in the matter, easing the admissibility of the action plan, the extensive application of the petition for freedom, the ability to complete the legislative gap that is to also broad and deliberate in administrative law, the creation of general principles of law, the most important being the principle of the exceptional character of limits on public freedoms and especially of the police measures and the principle of equality, the restrictive interpretation of laws unfavorable to public freedoms, the broad interpretation of laws favorable to public freedoms and the commitment of public responsibility in the service of public freedoms. ; Les libertés publiques sont connues et réclamées par tous et partout. Elles doivent être protégées contre toute atteinte. Les atteintes portées aux libertés publiques le sont souvent par l'administration. La première institution à garantir les libertés publiques contre l'administration est le juge administratif, son juge ordinaire. Le juge administratif est le juge de l'administration, il juge son action, annule ou confirme ses décisions et lui adresse même des injonctions. La jurisprudence administrative montre que le juge administratif utilise souvent tous les instruments dont il dispose pour protéger les libertés publiques contre les atteintes qui leur sont ...

The Swiss CO2 law runs out in 2012, together with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. Currently, the Swiss parliament is deciding on the successor of the law that aims to achieve a 20% reduction of CO2 emissions below 1990 levels by 2020. As a means to achieve this ambitious target, the current tax on stationary fuels at 36 CHF/t CO2 will be maintained, while transportation fuels will still be exempted from the carbon tax. Currently, the tax revenues are fully redistributed as a per-capita lump-sum payment via mandatory health insurance and to the employers proportional to their wage payments. This recycling scheme is likely to be prolonged. However, in the presence of the actual debate on the revision of the CO2 law, this paper reexamines the exemption of transportation fuels and the revenue recycling scheme under two points of view. First, I examine the effects on cost-effectiveness and second, I study their impact on equity. Using a static computable general equilibrium model of the Swiss economy incorporating 14 household groups, I find that tax exemptions increase the economy-wide costs of a carbon tax, yet fail to ease the effect on over-proportionally affected households. However, adjusting CO2 tax rates to correct for pre-existing fuel taxes that do not internalize any external effects may decrease the economy-wide cost of a green tax reform. On the other hand the choice of the recycling scheme has less of an effect on efficiency, but its impact on the distributional outcome of the tax reform has to be considered. Choosing an optimal, economy-wide tax will decrease overall costs considerably, while a lump-sum per-capita rebate will result in a progressive tax package at reasonable costs.

1War and Armed Conflict — Aggression — Prohibition of the unlawful use of force — Charter of the United Nations, Article 2(4) — Criteria for establishing whether use of force unlawful — Standard of proof — Self-defence — Armed attack — Whether actions of armed bands capable of constituting armed attack — Whether requirement of State responsibility — Proportionality — Consent to presence of foreign armed forces — Withdrawal of consent — Great Lakes region — Multiple conflicts — Lusaka Agreement — Duty of non-interventionWar and Armed Conflict — International humanitarian law — Relationship with international human rights law — Protection of civilians — Child soldiers — Responsibility of State for actions of armed forces in breach of humanitarian lawWar and Armed Conflict — Belligerent occupation — Criteria for determining whether territory occupied — Duties of belligerent occupant — Hague Regulations on Land Warfare, 1907 — Natural resources — Responsibility of occupant to prevent plunder and exploitation of natural resources of occupied territory — Duty of occupant to protect population of occupied territoryHuman Rights — Scope of application of human rights treaties — Application to acts of armed forces of a State outside its territory — Relationship with humanitarian law — Application in occupied territoryEconomics, Trade and Finance — Natural resources — Sovereignty of State over natural resources — Occupied territory — Plunder and exploitation of natural resources in occupied territoryInternational Court of Justice — Provisional measures — Counter-claims — Evidence — Burden of proof — Standard of proof — Credible evidence — RemediesState Responsibility — General principles — Responsibility of State for acts of armed forces — Responsibility for unauthorized acts by members of armed forces — Fourth Hague Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 1907, Article 3 — Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions, 21977, Article 91 — Responsibility for acts of armed bands — Duty to make reparationTerritory — Rights and duties of territorial sovereign — Duty of vigilance to prevent use of territory for attacks on neighbouring States

AbstractFrom 1 January 2012, all flights departing from or arriving at the European Union are covered by the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). Amendments were made to Directive 2003/87/EC by Directive 2008/101/EC with the objective of reducing climate change impacts attributable to aviation, but also in order to avoid distortions of competition. The scheme now includes all airlines, including those from third countries, and accounts for emissions that occur partly outside the airspace of EU Member States. A large number of third countries claim that the extension of the Emissions Trading Scheme to legs of flights outside EU territory violates the principle of state sovereignty and deny the jurisdiction of the EU to regulate emissions that occur beyond its borders. So far, the validity of the EU regulation has been challenged by a claim brought by US and Canadian air carriers. They contended that, in adopting the Directive, the EU infringed principles of customary international law—in particular the principle of state sovereignty and the prohibition of extraterritorial application—as well as various international agreements. On 21 December 2011, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that the inclusion of emissions from aviation in the EU ETS is valid. In response, Chinese and Indian carriers threatened not to pay the charge, while US airlines pledged to consider other options. This chapter analyses the judgment of the Court and the opinion of Advocate General Kokott in this case. Particular attention is given to the question of extraterritorial jurisdiction and the understanding of state sovereignty in the context of global climate change mitigation. The chapter argues that the Court missed an opportunity to contribute to the clarification of the law on jurisdiction and to the development of climate law.

For more than three decades, the hypothetical constitutional right of informational privacy has governed by assumption in the lower courts. The Supreme Court assumed the right into being in two cases decided in 1977, Whalen v. Roe and Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, and persisted in assuming the right exists without deciding recently in NASA v. Nelson. In the fertile murk of indecision, a hodgepodge of standards from interest-balancing all the way up to strict scrutiny and a quasi-constitutional law of intuitions have arisen in the lower courts. What constitutes a violation of this assumed right? The law struggles for a standard to define a violation, but we know it when we feel it. [para] The Article contends that the very fuzziness of the hypothetical r+D14ight comes from its nature as an affectively saturated moral intuition regarding the proper balance of state and citizen power and unease over incursions in times of social change. The Article is also about how to translate the powerful moral intuition that the Constitution should have something to say (even if its text does not quite say it) when the government does something creepy or outrageous with our intimate information into respectable law that helps sort out the manifold meritless claims predicated on privacy as knee-jerk reaction rather than right and allows policy innovation in the laboratories of states and political branches. [para] The Article argues that privacy is a transitional lens that opens up our vision of the liberty and freedoms safeguarded in the Constitution. We need not invent or recognize a new atextual right of informational privacy. Rather the concept of informational privacy is a lens that brings into focus a richer vision of the scope of textually inscribed constitutionalfreedoms and what it means to vindicate them.

As of its enormous range in interpretation, language is never precise. At the same time there would be no law without language. Legislative texts could never attain absolute preciseness in a linguistic sense because they have to comprise the environment in all its complexity, therefore conduct an enormous effort of abstraction. The legal terminology has an exceptional position compared to other special terminologies because it structures the legal world. In general, the common addressees are no experts in this field. Technical languages are based on special terminologies. The user has to be aware in using technical terms correctly. The legal system and its special terminology are closely related, but the result could be linguistic impreciseness. This arises on the European platform mainly through translations, which are obligatory to protect the typical European character of multilingualism. Multilingualism is a huge and expensive challenge for the European Union. The legal systems of the member states are autonomous and its legal terms are rarely transferable. In comparison with them, the European legal system cannot be considered as a completely independent differentiated system. Impreciseness in this linguistic field results from the impossibility of an appropriate, same sense mediating translation as well as from the multilingual and dynamic character of the European Union and its pluralistic legal system. This impreciseness is typical for the EU. Only an absolute autonomous European state law, including its own terms based on a single language, could avoid impreciseness. European directives, as typical legal acts of the EU, allow a transfer of the predetermined contents with possible scopes of operation. The given contents have to be transferred into national law from the Member States. These scopes of operation provide possibilities for (structural) impreciseness, because divergent national arrangements can lead to different initial positions in the Member States and therefore to unequal treatment. ...

El presente trabajo recoge unas reflexiones generales sobre las principales reformas penales acaecidas en los últimos años en el ordenamiento jurídico español, analizando los principales aspectos que se contienen en el Anteproyecto de Ley Orgánica –con fecha de 16 de julio de 2012-, por la que se modifica la LO 10/1995, de 23 de noviembre, del Código Penal. En la actualidad, el denominado "Expansionismo del Derecho Penal" es una realidad. Por un lado, la aparición de nuevos intereses -junto a los ya tradicionales-, que se entienden dignos de tutela y protección; por otro, las nuevas formas de riesgo que determinan la utilización de técnicas de tipificación específicas: delitos de simple actividad fundamentados en la puesta en peligro del objeto de tutela, y por último, la flexibilización de las reglas de imputación de la responsabilidad penal, con la merma de los derechos y libertades que ello puede llegar a suponer para los ciudadanos. ; This article contains some overall reflections on the main penal reforms which have been recently undertaken within the Spanish Legislation Framework. I have therefore analyzed the main aspects of the published draft of the Organic Law from July 16th 2012, which will eventually modify the existing Organic Law 10/1995 from November 23rd of the Criminal Code. Currently the so-called «expansionism of the criminal law» is an undeniable reality. On one hand, the new emerging interests, on top of the existing traditional ones, which are generally worth deserving guardianship and protection. On the other hand, the new means of risk which determine the use of very specific classification techniques such as offences of simple activity based on having put at risk the protected object. To sum up I have tackled how the way of making the allocation rules of the criminal responsibility more flexible could ultimately lead to a decrease of rights and freedoms of the citizens