Suchergebnisse

There is a clear normative tension between the immunities of international organizations and the human rights to a court and to a remedy. Most national jurisdictions around the world have so far failed to recognize such a normative conflict and applied immunities irrespective of their consequences on individual claimants. However, following the Waite and Kennedy jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights, a number of European national jurisdictions have accepted the idea that applying international organizations' immunities may lead to breach the right to a court in case the claimants do not have access to an alternative remedy. This contribution focuses on the latter approach, which will be called 'alternative-remedy approach'. Drawing upon Gunther Teubner conceptualization of fundamental rights, it stresses the violence of the today's prevalent approach toward immunities, and maintains that, by refocusing the decision-making process on the situation of individual claimants, the alternative-remedy approach 'humanizes' a decision-making process otherwise blind to the fate of human beings in flesh and blood. The ambiguity of the European Court of Human Rights' jurisprudence as to the relevance of the alternative-remedy standard is also discussed, together with the consequences it had on the case-law of European national courts.

This doctoral dissertation is a critical inquiry into the knowledge-based processes that guide multi-lateral international collaboration to foster development in post-socialist Central Asia. Adopting an innovative analytic/methodological framework called institutional ethnography (Smith, 1987), the study problematizes how women are known as potential subjects of development. The present inquiry starts from the standpoint of local women who variously participate in two specific cooperation projects operating in contemporary Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. The analysis moves from women's accounts to the discovery of what is constituted in projects implementation practices, questioning procedures and structures of development as an institution. Both projects are analyzed as operating in socially and discursively organized settings–one being research for development (in Uzbekistan) and the other development within a non-governmental organization that is dependent on the exigencies of international development aid (in Kyrgyzstan). In both projects I discover that women systematically and continuously fail to benefit from the project's apparent benefits. From an institutional ethnographic position, these experiences are understood as institutionally organized. As discovered here, overlooking of women's needs and interests occurs routinely on the basis of knowledge-based processes which operate as a particular mode of domination called 'ruling relations'. The analysis demonstrates that when particular women in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan become involved in a development project, their experience is shaped by development policies including implementation frameworks that fundamentally do not work in their interest. The findings from the research site in Uzbekistan explicate the hidden work processes through which the project beneficiaries, specifically women-smallholders who suffer from uncertain and unreliable sources of livelihoods, disappear. Ruling ideas of agricultural marketing and impact-oriented development management incorporated into the project implementation procedures produce effects for women's local knowledge to be unrecognized as such. The project in Kyrgyzstan shows the actual project implementation work serving the national government's interests of fulfilling international obligations without solving, and sometimes even exacerbating, the problems of violence in the lives of women-beneficiaries. Knowledgeable and active women living in Central Asia are misconstrued. The projects' knowledge-based practices treat the knowledge of women who are potential beneficiaries as inappropriate to the analyzed projects' agenda despite these women's significant contribution to the relevant topics; they objectify the women's experiences leaving them invisible, thus, unaddressed. Such effects contradict and undermine the projects' goals, intentions and inclusive policies. As a result inequality along "gender" lines is routinely generated. The study offers support for an argument that attending to social organization of men's and women's different and similar experiences is a more satisfactory way of understanding their lives than employing the abstract concept "gender". This study documents exactly how things work so that institutional policies and practices carrying certain expectations, often entirely underground and unintentional, produce contradictory effects upon the women whose experiences are at issue. Offered here is a detailed map of institutional relations that explicates the multiple ways in which texts, documents, and work of institutional actors are concerted together to smoothly organize such contradictory outcomes for these local women's lives. The dissertation concludes with a discussion about how the insights generated in this study might be of use by those concerned with making positive and meaningful change in the women's lives. ; Diese Doktorarbeit setzt sich kritisch mit den wissens basierten Prozessen auseinander, welche der multilateralen internationalen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit im post-sozialistischen Zentralasien zugrunde liegen. Unter Nutzung des innovativen analytischen und methodologischen Rahmens der Institutional Ethnography (Smith 1987), problematisiert die Studie die Wahrnehmung von Frauen als potentielle Subjekte der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. Die vorliegende Untersuchung nimmt die Standpunkte lokaler Frauen, welche gegenwärtig auf verschiedene Arten in zwei spezifischen Kooperationsprojekten in Kirgistan und Usbekistan eingebunden sind, als Grundlage. Neben den Berichten dieser Frauen wird analysiert, welche Praktiken bei der Implementation dieser Projekte konstituiert werden, um dadurch die Prozeduren und Strukturen der institutionellen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit zu hinterfragen. Beide Projekte werden in ihrem jeweiligen sozial und diskursiv organisierten Umfeld analysiert. Eines davon ist Forschung für Entwicklung (Usbekistan) und das andere Entwicklung innerhalb einer Nichtregierungsorganisation, welche von den Anforderungen internationaler Entwicklungshilfe abhängig ist (Kirgistan). In beiden Projekten stellte ich fest, dass Frauen kontinuierlich und systematisch vom offensichtlichen Nutzen der Projekte ausgeschlossen blieben. Aus einer institutionell-ethnographischen Sichtweise heraus können diese Erfahrungen als institutionell bedingt verstanden werden. Wie hier festgestellt wird, werden die Interessen und Bedürfnisse von Frauen innerhalb wissensbasierter Entwicklungsprozesse regelmäßig nicht wahrgenommen, da diese eine bestimmte Form von Dominanz ausüben, welche mit dem Begriff "Ruling Relations" bezeichnet werden kann. Diese Analyse demonstriert, dass die Einbindung von usbekischen und kirgisischen Frauen in Entwicklungsprojekte von Implementationsvorgaben und Entwicklungszielen bestimmt wird, welche ihren Interessen fundamental widersprechen. Die Erkenntnisse aus der Feldforschung in Usbekistan zeigen die Mechanismen auf, durch welche die Zielpersonen des Projektes, insbesondere weibliche Kleinbäuerinnen, die von unzuverlässigen und unsicheren Einkommen abhängig sind, vom Nutzen des Projekts ausgeschlossen blieben. Dominante Vorstellungen von landwirtschaftlicher Vermarktung und an messbaren Resultaten ausgerichtete Entwicklungsziele, welche in die Implementierung dieser Projekte einfließen, sorgen dafür, dass das lokale Wissen und die Erfahrungen von Frauen nicht einbezogen wurden. Die Analyse des kirgisischen Projekts zeigt zudem, dass seine Implementierung zwar den Interessen der nationalen Regierung bei der Erfüllung ihrer internationalen Vorgaben hilft, jedoch die Gewaltprobleme im Leben der weiblichen Zielgruppe nicht gelöst werden konnten. Teilweise wurden diese sogar noch verschlimmert. Sachverständige und aktive Frauen in der Region wurden nicht eingebunden. Aus der Perspektive der wissensbasierten Projektkonzeption wird das lokale Wissen derjenigen Frauen, welche potentiell Zielpersonen darstellen, als unpassend in Bezug auf die Projektagenda wahrgenommen. Dies geschieht, obwohl diese Frauen einen signifikanten Beitrag zur Implementation leisten. Diese Projekte versachlichen die Erfahrungen von Frauen und lassen ihre Probleme damit unsichtbar und unbearbeitet. Solche Auswirkungen widersprechen den Projektzielen, Intentionen und einem inklusiven Ansatz und unterminieren sie damit. Ein Resultat hiervon ist die Reproduktion von Ungleichheit entlang der Geschlechtergrenzen, auch unter der in der Studie vorgenommenen Neubewertung des Konzeptes Gender. Die Resultate der Studie unterstützen zudem die Erkenntnis, dass die Analyse der sozialen Organisation gemeinsamer und unterschiedlicher Erfahrungen von Männern und Frauen eine vielversprechendere Möglichkeit zum Verständnis ihrer Lebensumstände ist als das abstrakte Konzept "Gender". Diese Studie dokumentiert genau die Mechanismen, welche dafür sorgen, dass institutionelle Politiken und Praktiken mit bestimmten impliziten, oft unbewussten und unbeabsichtigten, Erwartungen widersprüchliche Effekte für diejenigen Frauen produzieren, welche im Fokus des Projektes stehen. Hier werden die multiplen institutionellen Beziehungen herausgearbeitet, welche gemeinsam mit Texten, Dokumenten und den Tätigkeiten institutioneller Akteure solche widersprüchlichen Auswirkungen auf das Leben von Frauen haben. Die Dissertation schließt mit einer Diskussion darüber, wie die Einsichten dieser Studie zukünftig genutzt werden können, um positive und bedeutsame Veränderungen im Leben von Frauen zu erreichen.

This paper analyzes the current status of fisheries and aquaculture in Southeast Asia and international trade. Analysis concludes that a policy of sustainable management for both capture fisheries and aquaculture is of greatest importance, but such a policy has been neither planned nor implemented with a holistic and long-term perspective. Current policy reflects a short-term view and the immediate needs of each nation. Therefore, capacity building of human resources and organizations, including governments, is needed for the formulation of holistic national policies to seek long-term and fundamental remedies for the sustainable management of fisheries resources and intensified and extensive aquaculture. Such holistic national policies should include science-based management, monitoring, enforcement, coordination of capture fisheries and aquaculture, and international trade policies. It may include the effects of climate change and oil price increases, as well as international market trends and regulations or barriers. Moreover, international trade will be promoted based on the sustainability of capture fisheries and aquaculture. ADB members and governments are urged to provide official development assistance for policy implementation, in particular to the private sectors that may not otherwise receive any, and to small and community-related businesses. Recommendations focus on building capacity for the long run, among others, for which facilitation should be provided.

AbstractThis study contributes to the debate about the net gain of international migration on development by analyzing the effect of migration on school attendance of children of left‐behind households in Cameroon. A quick literature review shows that migration can impact children's education through two main channels: the "budget constraint" channel and the "family disruption" channel. Based on this literature review, we develop a theoretical framework to highlight the underlying mechanisms. In order to empirically assess the two channels, we use a survey designed for this purpose. Results highlight a detrimental effect of migration on boys' school attendance, whereas girls are not affected. This negative effect is mainly explained by parental and recent migrations. Thus our empirical results provide evidence on the fact that, in the Cameroonian context, international migration does not always positively influence development, at least as far as children's education is concerned.

Altres ajuts: SEJ2005-06357 ; Altres ajuts: SEJ2006-4444 ; The concept of polarization is linked to the extent that a given distribution leads to the formation of homogeneous groups with opposing interests. This concept, which is basically different from the traditional one of inequality, is related to the level of inherent potential conflict in a distribution. The polarization approach has been widely applied in the analysis of income distribution. The extension of this approach to the analysis of international distribution of CO2 emissions is quite useful as it gives a potent informative instrument for characterizing the state and evolution of the international distribution of emissions and its possible political consequences in terms of tensions and the probability of achieving agreements. In this paper we analyze the international distribution of per capita CO2 emissions between 1971 and 2001 through the adaptation of the polarization concept and measures. We find that the most interesting grouped description deriving from the analysis is a two groups' one, whichbroadly coincide with Annex B and non-Annex B countries of the Kyoto Protocol, which shows the power of polarization analysis for explaining the generation of groups in the real world. The analysis also shows a significant reduction in international polarization in per capita CO2 emissions between 1971 and 1995, but not much change since 1995, which might indicate that polarized distribution of emission is still one of the important factors leading to difficulties in achieving agreements for reducing global emissions.

Beginning on January 31, 2000, at least 100,000 cubic meters of highly polluted water escaped from a tailings dam at the Aurul gold mine in Baia Mare, Romania. The water flowed into the Somes, Tisza, and Danube Rivers, causing enormous environmental damage. Most of the damage occurred in Hungary, downstream from Baia Mare. Hungarian politicians called the spill "the first, most serious environment[al] catastrophe in the 21st century," and "the worst ecological disaster in central Europe since Chernobyl in 1986." More striking than the resemblance to the Chernobyl disaster, though, was the resemblance to another 1986 environmental catastrophe: the Sandoz warehouse fire at Schweizerhalle, near Basel, Switzerland, which released over 10,000 cubic meters of highly contaminated water into the Rhine.4 In each of these instances, an international environmental legal regime ostensibly protected the affected river system. However, international law failed to prevent or reduce the impact of the accident in each case. Fourteen years after the Sandoz spill, Europe's river systems remain unacceptably vulnerable to catastrophic chemical accidents. This article explores the growth of the environmental regime of one such system, the Danube basin, and the weaknesses revealed by the Baia Mare accident.