Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Migraciones Internacionales y Cooperación al Desarrollo ; Casi dos décadas atrás, el colectivo venezolano no era objeto de estudio dentro del panorama migratorio, más bien todo lo contrario. Dadas las posibilidades que proyectaba el país, Venezuela era el lugar de destino preferido para muchos colectivos latinoamericanos, y fue, medio siglo atrás, para muchos españoles, portugueses, italianos, entre otros, el país que les recibió con los brazos abiertos y les brindó la posibilidad de un nuevo comienzo. A partir de 1998, coincidiendo con el comienzo de un cambio político e ideológico, el curso de la historia migratoria ha dado un giro y Venezuela ha pasado de ser país receptor a país emisor. Muchos son los venezolanos que han optado y siguen optando por salir del país, ocupando España el segundo lugar como país de preferencia. A fin de comprender mejor esta realidad, esta tesis doctoral aborda en primer lugar el análisis del contexto político, social y económico de Venezuela entre los años 1998-2015. A través del estudio de fuentes secundarias se visualiza claramente que el modelo del socialismo del siglo XXI (conocido mejor como chavismo) activa un nuevo fenómeno social que resulta en la emigración. Delimitada esta investigación a España se presentan cifras oficiales de la evolución migratoria de este colectivo en el panorama español entre 1998 y 2015, destacando el considerable aumento de la comunidad venezolana durante estos años. A través de las fuentes primarias se identifican los factores que han motivado a la gran mayoría de los venezolanos a abandonar el país constando que los motivos de salida se relacionan directamente con la situación política, social y económica del país de origen; siendo los dos primeros de mayor impacto. Asimismo, se mide la integración del colectivo venezolano en España, por medio de su incorporación al mercado laboral, el acceso a la vivienda, la educación, la salud y la participación social y cultural. El análisis descriptivo de los resultados obtenidos en el trabajo empírico, demuestra asimismo que el motivo de mayor peso para elegir a España como destino, es la posibilidad de entrar de manera legal por el beneficio de la doble nacionalidad: para la gran mayoría la española y en menor cantidad, otra nacionalidad de la Unión Europea. Se manifiesta aquí la descendencia española de muchos venezolanos que heredaron la nacionalidad a través de los abuelos o padres, como también parte de las costumbres y tradiciones. De la misma manera, los hallazgos del trabajo de campo junto con el análisis de fuentes secundarias, comprueban que tanto el capital económico como también el alto nivel profesional que trae gran parte del colectivo, han facilitado el acceso al mercado laboral. Finalmente, el estudio pretende tipificar el estilo de vida en España a fin de relacionar la emigración como una estrategia para reproducir o mejorar las condiciones de vida que se tenían en Venezuela. La construcción de un índice de reproducción social y el análisis de correspondencias, comprueba que una parte importante de los venezolanos mantienen su posición social y económica en el destino, y que existe una relación directa entre la reproducción social obtenida y la percepción de éxito del proyecto migratorio ; Nearly two decades ago, migrants from Venezuela were not object of study within the migration field. Given the country's possibilities, Venezuela was the preferred destination of many Latin American collectives and, half a century ago, it was also the preferred destination of Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, and citizens from other nationalities. The country received them with open arms and gave them the possibility of a new start. From 1998 onwards, as a consequence of the beginning of a political and ideological change, the immigration phenomenon has taken a turn, and Venezuela became a sending, instead of a receiving country. The number of Venezuelans who left the country raised sharply, with Spain being the second country preferred by those migrants. This doctoral thesis aims at a better understanding of this reality. The analysis of the political, social and economic context of Venezuela between 1998 and 2015. The study of secondary sources, reveals that the socialist model of the XXI century (better known as Chavismo) activate a new social phenomenon which results in emigration. As this investigation is limited to Spain, official figures of the growing numbers of this population in the Spanish context between 1998 and 2015 are presented, underlining the significant rising of the Venezolano community during these years. Through the study of primary sources, it is identified that the factors that motivated the majority of the Venezuelan people to leave their country, are directly related to the political, social and economic situation of the country, especially with regards to the first two dimensions. Furthermore, the level of integration of the Venezuelans in Spain is measured through several aspects, namely, the degree of integration in the labour market, the access to housing, education, health, and social and cultural participation. The descriptive analysis of the results obtained from the fieldwork reveals that the greatest motivation to migrate to Spain is the possibility of entering legally, as a result of having double nationality: most of them have the Spanish nationality or, in a smaller scale, a nationality of another country from the European Union. This aspect is related to the fact that many Venezolanos inherited the Spanish nationality, as well as, the Spanish costumes and traditions through their fathers or grandfathers. In a similar way, the findings from the fieldwork, together with the analysis from secondary sources, confirm that both the economic capital, together with the high professional level brought by those migrants, facilitates the access to the labour market. Finally, the present study aims to typify the lifestyle in Spain in order to relate the emigration as a strategy to reproduce or to improve the life conditions that they had in Venezuela. The construction of a level of social reproduction, and the correspondence analysis, reveal that in the host country, an important part of the Venezolanos maintain their social and economic position. Also, there is a direct relationship between the social reproduction obtained and the perception of the success of the migratory project.
Programa Interdisciplinar de Doctorado en Migraciones Internacionales Contemporáneas ; Partiendo del enfoque de fases, del análisis de políticas públicas, y del institucionalismo sociológico, esta tesis se centra en la fase de actividades de la política de inmigración, realizadas por las ocho instituciones que forman la Generalitat de Catalunya, para conocer cuáles han sido las actividades y por qué se han realizado. Se asumen como actividades no sólo las ejecutivas sino las previas a la formulación pública de las mismas. En su conjunto: seminarios, publicaciones, servicios, planes, programas, actos parlamentarios, dictámenes, recomendaciones, normas jurídicas, etc. Todo ello en relación a la inmigración extranjera, tanto regular como irregular, comunitaria o extracomunitaria, que se ha asentado en Catalunya en los últimos 34 años. La metodología ha sido el análisis cualitativo del contenido de 179 documentos institucionales, y 29 entrevistas semiestructuradas, realizadas a expertos y a responsables administrativos y políticos. Se distinguen tres etapas de la política: 1977 – 1991, en la que se dan las primeras experiencias pioneras de diversos colectivos profesionales (educación, servicios sociales, sanidad, etc.) en defensa de la inclusión de toda la población, aun sin un marco legal claro que les permita actuar así; así como gran cantidad de actividades de debate, seminarios, y similares. 1992 – 1999, en la que destaca la creación de las primeras organizaciones e instrumentos especializados (Consejo Asesor, Comisión Interdepartamental, Plan de Inmigración). Y 2000 – 2010: de consolidación de la institucionalización, al ordenarse las competencias inmigratorias de la Generalitat y ayuntamientos a través del nuevo Estatut d'Autonomia de 2006 y la Llei d'Acollida de 2010. No es posible entender la política sin conocer el discurso o marco, que subyace en toda actividad social y pública. La tesis tiene en cuenta el pensamiento catalán sobre la inmigración, gestado a lo largo de todo el siglo XX, y que enfatiza la integración, entendiendo por esta la adhesión al sentimiento de identidad de país, el conocimiento de la lengua catalana, y la movilidad social. Junto con el discurso tradicional hay que considerar dos elementos del conjunto del Estado: la existencia de un estado de bienestar -nacido antes de la democracia-, y la legislación estatal de extranjería. Finalmente, al discurso se le añaden, contemporáneamente, la dimensión de igualdad entre extranjeros y catalanes, y el poso cultural que supone desarrollar actividades específicas, de respuesta a las nuevas problemáticas o necesidades que comporta la presencia de extranjeros: gestión de asuntos religiosos, mediación intercultural, aprendizaje de las lenguas de origen, etc. Si la política de inmigración de la Generalitat ha tenido un valor positivo, se debe a la voluntad de querer disponer de dicha política; de hacer las cosas de una determinada manera (extensión al todo el territorio, cogestión con los ayuntamientos, especialización, formación, aporte de recursos financieros, cierta coordinación con el Estado), y de realizarlas con la intención de alcanzar los objetivos de igualdad y cohesión. La política no ha respondido a un modelo, sino más bien a una voluntad y a un estilo de trabajo. Finalmente, para entender la defensa de la igualdad y la cohesión es fundamental analizar las actividades del Ejecutivo en interacción con el control del Parlamento y las reivindicaciones y movilizaciones sociales. ; Based on the approach to public policy as a cycle (Charles O. Jones), and sociological institutionalism, this thesis focuses on the sequence of immigration activities as part of the immigration policy carried out by the eight institutions that form a part of the Generalitat. It takes into account not only executive activities but also pre-formulation activities: encompassing seminars, publications, services, plans, programs, parliamentary acts, opinions, recommendations, and legal regulations. All of these related to foreign immigration, both regular and irregular, third-country as well as EU nationals, who have settled in Catalonia during the last 34 years. The methodology used was a qualitative analysis of the content of 179 institutional documents and 29 semi-structured interviews with experts, regional and central government staff and policy makers. Three stages of the policy can be distinguished: (i) 1977 - 1991 , in which the pioneering efforts of different professional groups (education, social services, health, housing, etc. ) in defence of the inclusion of the entire population were made, albeit without a clear legal framework enabling them to do so. This was done in addition to activities of discussion, seminars, etc. (ii) 1992 - 1999, which saw the creation of the first organisations and specialised instruments (Advisory Council, Interdepartmental Commission, Immigration Plan); (iii) 2000 - 2010: consolidation of institutional architecture, by ordering the immigration powers of the Generalitat and municipalities through the new Statute of Autonomy (2006) and the Act 10/2010, on reception for immigrants and returnees. It is not possible to understand the policies without knowing the framework, which underlies all social and public activity. This thesis takes into account Catalan thinking on immigration, developed through the XX century, which emphasises integration, in the sense of identity with Catalonia, knowledge of the Catalan language, and social mobility. Together with the traditional framework, two other elements must be taken into account: a system of welfare, created in Spain before the democracy, and the State regulations for foreigners. Contemporarily two other elements have been added to the framework: the dimension of equality between foreigners and Catalans, and the integration of diverse cultural backgrounds requiring various specific activities: management of religious affairs, intercultural mediation, learning the languages of origin, etc. If the immigration policy of the Generalitat has had a positive impact, it is based on the will to have such a policy; to do things in a certain way (extending to the whole territory, co-management with municipalities, specialisation, training, provision of financial resources, some coordination with the Central Government), and perform them with the intention of achieving the goals of equality and cohesion. The policy has not responded to a model, but rather to a will and a way of working. Finally, to understand the defence of equality and cohesion, it is fundamental to assess the activities of the Executive in interaction both with the control of Parliament, and the social movements and grievances.
An die historische Erfahrung der Gleichursprünglichkeit von Theater und Politik in der attischen Polis schließt die Grundintuition der Arbeit an: Auch das Stadttheater in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland sei nicht nur eine Kulturkonsumnische oder ein Bildungsbürgerritual, sondern es bilde einen öffentlichen Raum, in dem politisch kommuniziert wird. Der empirischen Validierung dieser Intuition widmet sich eine Fallstudie, der Begriffsklärungen bezüglich politischer Öffentlichkeit vorausgehen. Diese orientieren sich am Stand der Forschung und Theorie an Hannah Arendts Begriff des Politischen, mit entsprechenden Gegenbegriffen des Konsumismus und Ritualismus. Das grundsätzliche Maß, welches die Realität des Theaters als politische Öffentlichkeit angeben kann, ist dabei die Struktur und Reichweite seiner Kommunikationen. Bezüglich des Begriffes "Öffentlichkeit" schließt die Arbeit an Jürgen Habermas und andere den Bereich normativ konzipierende Autoren an. Öffentlichkeit ist ein diskursives (reflexives) und darstellendes (präsentierendes) Netzwerk verschiedener "Arenen" und "Galerien" (Jürgen Gerhards) mit individuellen "Backstages" (Produktionsstrukturen; Bernhard Peters). Ein Bereich ist "öffentlich" insofern Sprecher ihre Beiträge auf ein Publikum ausrichten (Arena) und dieses Publikum diese Ausrichtung auch versteht (Galerie). Die politische Öffentlichkeit rahmt ihre Themen als Probleme des Gemeinwesens. "Kulturelle Öffentlichkeiten", in denen Form der Darstellung und "Kathexis" (Parsons), also affektive Besetzung der Handlungen zum Thema gemacht werden, dienen potenziell als Produktionsstruktur einer solchen politischen Öffentlichkeit, indem sie lebensweltliche Erfahrungen mit Strategien zugänglich und 'diskursfähig' machen, die der politischen Öffentlichkeit im engeren Sinne fremd sind. Die Rekonstruktion eines Begriffs des Politischen hält aus der aristotelischen Tradition einerseits fest, dass es um eine kollektive Selbstbestimmung, um einen "Raum gemeinsamer Angelegenheiten" geht. Insofern hängt der Begriff mit dem der Öffentlichkeit zusammen. Zweitens stellt politische Kommunikation den unhintergehbaren (wenngleich manipulierbaren) Bezug auf ein ethisch Richtiges her. Die Einsicht in die Pluralität der Perspektiven und Meinungen steht als drittes Definiens in einer Spannung zu dem vierten eines "agonistischen", in Entscheidungsalternativen polarisierten Raums (C. Schmitt u. a.). Im Gegensatz zu diesen Merkmalen stellt der "Konsumismus" Bezüge ausschließlich zu individuellen Präferenzen her und formuliert diese normativ neutral sowie (tendenziell) nicht-argumentativ und nicht-exklusiv. Im Gegenbegriff des "Ritualistischen" hingegen verschwindet die reflexive und pluralistische Dimension; das Gesellschaftliche wird hier auf das Gemeinschaftliche zurückgeführt. Bevor dieseBegriffe in der Fallstudie empirisch angewandt werden, verdeutlichen exemplarische historische Exkurse ins Theater Athens, des Elisabethanischen England und das Deutschland des 19. Jahrhunderts die Relevanz der Fragen nach der Kommunikationsstruktur der theatralen 'Sprecher' und ihrer Publika, wobei über die letzteren systematisch weniger bekannt ist. Am griechischen Theater wird der Bezug auf gemeinsame Angelegenheiten, am elisabethanischen die Pluralität der Sichtweisen, am deutschen die Ambivalenz zwischen aufs Private zielendem Bildungsauftrag und ritueller Gemeinschaftsbildung hervorgehoben. Das Theater der Bundesrepublik wird als Erbe des bürgerlichen Theaters, dessen Normativität in der mediatisierten Erlebnisgesellschaft unter Druck gerät, vorgestellt. Das "Stadttheater" wird als Typus von anderen Öffentlichkeiten abgegrenzt (wie der Freien Szene oder den Metropolentheatern), um klar zu machen, womit die Fallstudie sich beschäftigt. Die Fallstudie im westdeutschen "Mittelstadt" untersucht Kommunikationen des Theaterbetriebs (Interviews mit Produzenten; teilnehmende Beobachtungen), der Rezipienten (Zuschauerinterviews) und der Arena selbst (Inhaltsanalyse von Texten der Öffentlichkeitsarbeit). Von Interesse sind dabei sowohl Wissen wie Einstellungen der Befragten, also Informationen über Realia wie Desiderate. Die Analyse mit MAXQDA ist dabei qualitativ mit quantitativen Elementen, deren Gesamtbild eine Gewichtung der verschiedenen Kommunikationstypen möglich macht. Politische Attributionen finden sich, außer in Teilen der PR, deutlich stärker ausgeprägt als konsumistische. Ritualistische Vorstellungen und Vorgänge sind randständig. Diskurse haben einen wichtigen Stellenwert sowohl für Macher wie Publikum; reflexive Anschlussfähigkeit des von ihnen Vorgeführten und Wahrgenommenen wird von ihnen geschätzt, aber wegen verschiedener Hemmnisse in der Produktionsstruktur nicht durchweg genutzt. Am Ende der Arbeit werden die überwiegend positiven Befunde bezüglich politischer Kommunikation am Stadttheater der Bundesrepublik noch einmal kritisch auf ihre Reichweite hin befragt. Dabei wird der offenkundige Verlust ritueller Gemeinschaftsbildung im theatralen Feld als möglicherweise doch bedenklich für die Erneuerung politischer Öffentlichkeit gewertet. Eine neue Zentralität der in der Fallstudie oft randständigen Aufführungen und ihres kathektisch-repräsentativen Potenzials wird ins Visier genommen. Die Schwierigkeiten kultureller und politischer Öffentlichkeit, sowohl in die Breite der Gesellschaft wie in die Tiefe des individuellen Verständnisses hinein "bildend" zu wirken, werden angesprochen. ; In this dissertation, I explore how the link between politics and theatre - which share a common origin in the Attic democracy - is preserved in contemporary Germany, i.e., whether theatre still serves as a "political public sphere" (the overall title of the thesis). In order to do so, the notions of "public sphere" and "the political" are thoroughly defined by revising useful elements provided by sociological and political theory. Following Habermas and other German authors, I understand "public sphere" as a network consisting of "arenas" (speakers) and "galleries" (audiences) who produce discourses and presentations and react to them, with part of the production occuring non-publicly "backstage". While political publics frame their dis-courses as related to contentious issues of the polity, cultural publics concentrate on the for-mal aspects of presentation and on the emotive interface between the individual and society ("cathexis" in Parsonian terms). Political communication, more specifically, is understood here as discourse which relates (1) to the polity and (2) to what is good or bad for it, presenting arguments in a (3) pluralistic way, and with (4) potential polarization regarding the different alternatives. Hannah Arendt's view on the political sphere is a central inspiration for criterion [3], noting that there is a tension between this plural exchange of perspectives and the polarization criterion, which leads to diffcult trade-offs. As an antonym, "consumerist" communication is only related to indi-vidual preferences and indifferent to arguments and normative alternatives. "Ritualism", on the other hand, is akin to the political, but lacks the decisive feature of pluralism. The terrain for the empirical study is then paved by looking at exemplary stations of occi-dental theatre, namely the Athenian, the Elizabethan, and finally the German national theatre of the 19th century. The increasing ritualism of the latter is seen as the normative ancestor of contemporary state-subsidized staging in the Federal Republic of Germany. Among the different types of theatres to be found here, the typical "Municipal Theatre" is singled out as a public of local reach and importance (distinguished, e.g., from the "Metropolitan Theatre" with nation-wide frames and impacts). The discussions in that section make clear that the case study carried out in "Mittelstadt" is a typical one in many respects. The case study, operationalizing "the public" and "political communication" through a semi-quantitative content analysis of interviews (with producers and audience members) as well as of PR-related texts, finds clear evidence for both actual pluralistic discourse and reference to society, and - even stronger - for normative striving toward such kind of discourse. The "productive structure" of the Municipal Theatre imposes certain constraints on the reali-zation of said normativity, though, which result in shortcomings of dialogue and lacking of necessary knowledge about the communication partner (mostly about the audience in the case of producers). A missing centrality of the actual theatrical piece, the presentation, within the audience's discourse is a particularly critical finding. In the very last section, however, I put the overall positive findings of the case study into perspective. Firstly, I question whether the virtual 'withdrawal' of ritualistic elements can be assessed as entirely beneficial for the effectiveness of theatre as a cultural and political sphere (which re-opens the debate on the possibility and conditions for a "linguification of the Sacred" found in Durkheim and Habermas). Secondly, I make the point that the act of demonstration, of "showing" something - located at the heart of theatrical representation - harbours a specific political potential, but only if it is understood and received as a speech act in need of public interpretation. Thirdly, I reconsider the often noted tension between an in-depth elaboration of issues, on the one hand, and the inclusion of ever more topics and voices, on the other. While this tension is inherent to every public and not really dissolvable, in contemporary German theatre it might be advisable to emphasize the "Bildungsauftrag", the mandate for aesthetic in-depth education, instead of striving for an overproduction of discursive offer-ings and activities.
Aufgrund des großen Wachstums der Städte in ariden und semi-ariden Zonen und der jährlichen Erweiterung der Trockengebiete, mit der in vielen Fällen die Zerstörung oder Unterentwicklung der städtischen Grünflächen einhergeht, versucht diese Arbeit, das Stadtbegrünungspotenzial einzuschätzen und eventuelle Hindernisse zu identifizieren. Während Grünflächen in Städten nicht nur zur Erhöhung der visuellen/ Lebensqualität, sondern auch zur Verbesserung des Klimas, Verbannung der Hitze und Bekämpfung der Umweltverschmutzung eine Notwendigkeit sind, verfügen trockene Länder nur über sehr begrenzte Wasserressourcen, die zudem unter starkem Druck durch das hohe Bevölkerungswachstum stehen. Diese Studie hat mit der Erforschung der Eigenschaften der trockenen Region im Allgemeinen und insbesondere Irans Teheran als Fallstudie gewählt. Diese Stadt, die in historischen Aufzeichnungen als üppiges Grün des Gartens dargestellt ist, leidet jetzt unter Wassermangel, Umweltverschmutzung und der Knappheit von Grünfläche, die in einigen Stadtbezirken weniger als 2 Quadratmeter pro Kopf beträgt. Eine nachhaltige Entwicklung der städtischen Grünflächen in Teheran ist ein multi-dimensionales Thema und wird von zahlreichen komplexen und miteinander verwobenen wirtschaftlichen, politischen, sozialen und ökologischen Faktoren beeinflusst. Die Probleme und vorgeschlagenen Lösungen sind im Überblick: 1. Eine dicht gebaute Stadt, knappe freie Räume und unverhältnismäßige Verteilung der Flächennutzungen: Angesichts der unterschiedlichen Struktur, Bevölkerungsdichte, Bedürfnisse und Möglichkeiten der verschiedenen Stadtbezirke wurde mehrere Strategien in Bezug auf Architektur und Stadtplanung für jeden Stadtbereich vorgeschlagen. 2. Die Kosten für die Grünflächenentwicklung im Vergleich zu ihrem Nutzen: Im Gegensatz zu den definierten Kosten für die Bebauung, Errichtung und Instandhaltung von Grünflächen ist der Preis bzw. der realisierte Wert dieses Gutes in Geldeinheiten bei dem Mangel von Vergleichsobjekten und Verkaufshandlungen schwer zu berechnen. Hier wurden die abstrakten Werte mit Ersatzobjekten und neuen Methoden für einen annähernd konkreten Preis für die langfristige Entwicklung der Grünflächen Teherans, wie auch die Schadensschätzung und Kompensationsmethoden bei Verlusten, manifestiert. 3. Mangelnde Bürgerbeteiligung und Sensibilisierung der Öffentlichkeit für den Umweltschutz und das Stadtgrün: In dieser Arbeit wurden mit einigen Beispielen die Bildung und Umweltkommunikation in den Schulen und Medien sowie die Rolle der Umwelt-NGOs und der nützlichen kulturellen Wurzeln und Traditionen zur Motivierung und Koordinierung der Bürger effektiv geschätzt. 4. Rechtliche, administrative und organisatorische Herausforderungen der Grünflächen von Teheran: Mit der Beschreibung des Grünflächenmanagements und der finanziellen Zyklus- und Budgetplanung in Teheran und der Gesetze, die das Grundstücks-/Wohneigentumsrecht und den Grunderwerb regelten, werden Lösungen und Teilweise eine Reform der Regulierung und besonders das adaptive Management sowie ein demokratisches und transparentes Verfahren und Informationsvermittlung in Grünflächeprojekten als Leitfaden für die Ermutigung zur Bürgerbeteiligung und Systemverbesserung vorgeschlagen. 5. Der Mangel an Wasser für die Bewässerung der Grünflächen: Für eine Antwort werden an dieser Stelle erstens der Wasserstand und die Trinkwasseranfrage/ der Wasserverbrauch berechnet und bewiesen, dass die natürlichen Gründe für den Wassermangel bei einem übermäßigen Verbrauch und hohen Wasserverlust liegen und entgegen der landläufigen Wahrnehmung in Teheran kein grundsätzlicher Mangel an Wasser für die Bewässerung der Grünflächen herrscht, da Teheran in einem Abwassermeer schwimmt und mit einer Abwasserbehandlung ausreichend Wasser nicht nur für öffentliche Grünflächen, sondern auch für die stadtnahe Landwirtschaft zur Verfügung stehen würde und die Nutzung von behandeltem Abwasser und Wasser aus anderen Quellen wie Qanats und Wasserläufen den Wasserstress in der warmen Jahreszeit reduzieren könnte. Bei einer Veränderung der Bewässerungsmethoden zur Verbesserung der Effizienz der Bewässerung und passenden Pflanzenauswahl werden die Entwicklung und der Ausbau der städtischen Grünflächen um das Fünffache in der Gegend, ohne Schäden für Umwelt und Trinkwasserressourcen, ermöglicht. 6. Die Auswahl der entsprechenden Pflanzenarten für Teheran: Trotz der Vielfalt der Pflanzenarten in Teheran ist die Bandbreite der vorherrschenden Arten beschränkt. Mit einem Vergleich von Klima und Bodenverhältnissen in den verschiedenen Stadtbezirken von Teheran und den bestehenden Bäumen, vorherigen Aufzeichnungen und der Empfehlungen der zuständigen Reviergärtner und einer Kombination dieser Merkmale und Eigenschaften - unter Heranziehung der einschlägigen Literatur- wurden hier die besten Baumarten für die verschiedenen Bezirke ausgewählt. ; While urban green spaces improve the quality of life and form the necessary foundation to avoid air pollution and achieve sustainable development, in most cases, the rapid growth of cities has been accompanied by destruction or underdevelopment of urban green spaces. In particular, it gets more complicated in arid and semi-arid areas in which water resources are getting more and more scarce. Taking this into consideration, the present work intends to estimate the potential of urban greenery and to identify possible obstacles. After studying the characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions in general, and those of Iran in particular, the present work has chosen to conduct a case study in the city of Teheran. In historical documents, the city of Teheran is described as a lush green garden. However, its surface has multiplied by 35 in the last seventy years and the population by 20, which resulted in an extreme water shortage, pollution and a scarce green space. In some districts of Teheran, the green space makes up less than two square meters per person. A sustainable development of the urban green space in Teheran is a multi-dimensional topic, which is influenced by numerous complex and interwoven economic, political, social and ecological factors. Hereafter, the main difficulties and proposed solutions shall be presented: 1. Densely built city with scarce free space and an unreasonable division of the ground: Because of the different structure, demographic density and possibilities of each district, various architectural and city planning strategies were suggested. 2. The expenses of green space development in comparison with its benefits: The expenses for the development, construction and maintenance of green spaces can realistically be calculated. However, its benefits are difficult to express in forms of money because of the lack of objects of comparison and no conducted sale. In this research, new methods are suggested for calculation of real costs and benefits of urban green space development to show the cost-effectiveness of such plans. 3. Lack of participation and sensitization for environmental protection and urban greening: By showing some examples, this work intends to appreciate the education and environmental communication in local schools and media, the useful cultural traditions, as well as the role played by environmental NGOs in the act of motivating and coordinating citizens. 4. Legal, administrative and organizational challenges posed by the green space of Teheran: This study describes the Green Space management, Teheran's financial cycle- and budget-planning and the laws considering property, accommodation and the acquisition of land. Furthermore, solutions and reforms, especially of the adaptive management, are being suggested. The article proposes democratic and transparent procedures and the dissemination of information in urban greening projects in order to optimize the system and the participation of citizens. 5. Lack of water to irrigate the green spaces: In order to find a solution to this problem, the water level and the actual consumption of water are being calculated. Apart from the natural causes, the reasons for the lack of water lie in an excessive use and considerable loss of water. Therefore, the common assumption that there is not enough water for the green spaces, can be considered a misconception. A sewage treatment would not only be sufficient for the watering of urban green spaces, but also for local farms. Using treated sewage or water from other sources, such as qanats or watercourses, could considerably reduce the lack of water during the warm period. In the case of such a change in watering methods to improve its efficiency and the selection of appropriate plant species, the green space in Teheran could be expanded by 5 times its current size, without causing any harm to the environment and drinking-water-supplies. 6. Selection of plant species for Teheran: Even though there is a diversity of plant species in Teheran, there is a limited amount of predominant species. The most appropriate trees species for each district were named after comparing the climate and state of the soil in the different districts of Teheran, compare different sources and consulting the local gardeners, listing the different present trees.
Obtener y aprovechar recursos y capacidades contribuye a constituir la base más sólida para generar ventajas competitivas. Dentro de los recursos, los que tienen más importancia estratégica son los intangibles, es decir, el capital intelectual con sus componentes, capital humano, capital estructural y capital relacional. La teoría administrativa moderna nos plantea que se debe trabajar sobre un conjunto de procesos y sistemas que permitan que el capital intelectual de una organización aumente de forma significativa, mediante la gestión de sus capacidades de resolución de problemas de forma efectiva, con el objetivo final de generar ventajas competitivas sostenibles en el tiempo. Se está refiriendo específicamente a la gestión del conocimiento. Por tanto, el papel de la educación y en particular de la educación superior ha adquirido una gran importancia para la generación de valor en la empresa moderna. De ahí que cuando se hace referencia a la competitividad empresarial no se puede desligar del proceso a la Universidad, máxime si el escenario de análisis es la región. La presente investigación se fundamenta en el análisis del Estudio de Competitividad del Tolima, elaborado en 1998, el cual dio las directrices sobre el quehacer de los diferentes agentes involucrados con el fin de insertar competitivamente al Tolima en el contexto de la globalización. Con el propósito de contrastar ese deber ser, se avanza en dos direcciones: en primer lugar se evalúa cuáles son los requerimientos de los empresarios actuales del Tolima en cuanto a programas de extensión e investigación que permitan el mejoramiento continuo de los colaboradores en las organizaciones y la posible coherencia o dispersión respecto al documento base. En segundo lugar, se identifica el rol que la Universidad de Ibagué - CORUNIVERSITARIA ha desempeñado como oferente de extensión e investigación al entorno empresarial en el período 1998-2004 con el fin de evaluar su contribución a la competitividad del Tolima. Teniendo este marco correlacional, el estudio presenta finalmente estrategias y acciones para ser desarrolladas por la Universidad de Ibagué - CORUNIVERSITARIA con el fin de dar cumplimiento al direccionamiento del documento de 1998 que permitan una contribución al desarrollo regional pero a la vez para lograr un mayor posicionamiento de la Universidad en la comunidad tolimense y alcanzar el liderazgo en la relación Universidad-Empresa. La investigación permite conocer las diferentes tendencias y preferencias de los empresarios en cuanto a capacitación, a instituciones capacitadoras, el portafolio de servicios desarrollado por la Universidad tanto en extensión e investigación, sus progresos, sus limitaciones y las oportunidades que tiene dadas las relaciones que tiene con sector gubernamental, con otras universidades tanto nacionales como extranjeras, con los gremios económicos del departamento y el aprovechamiento de las tecnologías de información y comunicación. ; Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) ; RESUMEN 8 ABSTRAC 10 INTRODUCCIÓN 12 1. MARCO TEÓRICO 16 1.1 LA GLOBALIZACIÓN 28 1.1.1 Características 28 1.1.2 Globalización y desarrollo regional 33 1.2 LA COMPETITIVIDAD 40 1.2.1 Características de la competitividad 40 1.2.2 Competitividad y globalización 43 1.2.3 Competitividad y desarrollo regional 44 1.2.4 Competitividad y organizaciones 47 2. GLOBALIZACIÓN Y SOCIEDAD DE CONOCIMIENTO 49 2.1 Globalización, conocimiento y desarrollo regional 52 2.2 Conocimiento y competitividad regional 53 3. ESTRATEGIAS DE COMPETITIVIDAD Y PRODUCTIVIDAD REGIONAL 57 3.1 Estrategias de competitividad global 57 3.2 Estrategias de competitividad en Colombia 59 3.3 Estrategias de competitividad en el Tolima 62 4. LA UNIVERSIDAD Y EL DESARROLLO REGIONAL 74 5. CARACTERÍSTICAS DE LA RELACIÓN UNIVERSIDAD – EMPRESA 77 6. ANÁLISIS DEL ESTUDIO DE COMPETITIVIDAD TOLIMA 1998 80 7. DIAGNÓSTICO DE LOS REQUERIMIENTOS DE LAS EMPRESAS TOLIMENSES RESPECTO A CAPACITACIÓN 92 8. LA UNIVERSIDAD DE IBAGUÉ Y SU PAPEL FRENTE AL DESARROLLO REGIONAL 100 9. ESTRATEGIAS Y ACCIONES DE UNIVERSIDAD DE IBAGUÉ - 125 CORUNIVERSITARIA PARA CONTRIBUIR A LA COMPETITIVIDAD DEL TOLIMA 10. CONCLUSIONES 135 BIBLIOGRAFÍA 139 ; Maestría ; Getting and taking advantage of resources and capabilities contributes to build stronger bases to generate competitive advantages. Among the resources, the most important ones strategically talking are the intangible ones. It means intellectual capital and its components, human capital, structural capital and relationship capital. The modern administrative theory states that you must work over a group of processes and systems that let the intellectual capital of and organization increase in a significant way, through the management of its capabilities to solve problems effectively, with the final purpose of generating sustainable competitive advantages through time. It is referring specifically to the management of knowledge. So, the role of education and in particular in the uppest levels has acquired a great importance for the creation of value in the modern enterprise. As a result, when you make reference to the entrepreneurial competitiveness you can't separate the University of this Process, much more if it is the region that is being analyzed. The current research is supported on the analysis of the study made in 1998 about the competitiveness of Tolima, which gave the parameters of what-to-do to the different agents involved with the purpose of inserting competitively the department of Tolima in a globalized context. With the purpose of contrasting that must-do, we are moving to two directions: First evaluating which are the requirements for the current enterprises of Tolima about extension programs and research that permit a constant improvement of the collaborators in the organizations and the possible coherence or dispersion of the base document. In second place, it is identified the role that University of Ibagué – Coruniversitaria has played as a supplier of extension and research to the entrepreneurial sector during 1998-2004 with the purpose of evaluating its contribution to the competitiveness of Tolima. Having this corelational frame, the study finally presents strategies and actions to be developed by University of Ibagué – Coruniversitaria and so fulfill the directions given by the document of 1998 that permit a contribution to the regional development and at the same time, achieve a better position of the university in the Tolimense community, and achieve the leadership in the university – enterprise relationship. The research permits to know the different tendencies and preferences of enterprises about training, training institutions, the portfolio of services developed by the university in extension and research, its progress, its limitations, and its opportunities considering its links with the governmental sector, with other national and international universities, with the economic sectors of the department, and the use of technologies of information and comunications.
One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies. ; One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies.
One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies. ; One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies.
Constitutional justice in Ecuador has evolved in light of the 2008 Constitution, recognizing rights and implementing mechanisms for their respect and protection; However, those who are called to apply the supreme norm and carry out a conventional control in specific cases of violations of fundamental rights, are people without specialization in the matter whose resolutions converge in a continuous violation of legal security. Through a qualitative investigation and the method of documentary observation, 50 resolutions of the Constitutional Court of Ecuador were analyzed within extraordinary protection actions corresponding to the years 2020 and 2021 that originated protection actions. As a result, the lack of legal criteria in constitutional matters as evidenced by the justice operators, in the first and second instance, which forced those affected to go to the highest interpreter of constitutional justice to carry out an adequate analysis of the specific case, arising the need to create specialized judiciary in constitutional matters that hear these actions. Keywords: Constitutional justice, violations of fundamental rights, legal security, the specialized judiciary in constitutional matters. References [1]J. Asencio, Introducción al Derecho Procesal, Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch, 2015. [2]R. Ávila, Los Principios de Aplicación de los Derechos, Nuevas Instituciones del Derecho Constitucional Ecuatoriano, Quito: Ediar, 2008. [3]Asamblea Nacional Constituyente del Ecuador, Constitución Política del Ecuador, Decreto Legislativo No. 000. Registro Oficial de fecha 11 de agosto de 1998, Quito, 1998. [4]Asamblea Nacional Constituyente del Ecuador, Constitución de la República del Ecuador, Decreto Legislativo No. 000. Registro Oficial No. 449, de fecha 20 de octubre del 2008, Montecristi, 2008. [5]C. Ballén, "Algunos desafíos procesales de la jurisdicción especial", Iuris Tantum Revista Boliviana de Derecho, n° 25, pp. 474-501, 2018. [6]R. Reyes, "Los Derechos Humanos y la Seguridad jurídica", Revista UNAM, n° 37, pp. 93-97, 2016. [7]E. Figueroa, Jueces Constitucionales. En Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República del Perú, Lima: Fondo Editorial, 2016. [8]J. Riofrío, "Alcance y límites del principio de jerarquía. Criterios para jerarquizar derechos, valores, bienes y otros elementos", Revista Derecho PUCP, (84), 189-222, 2020. [9]M. Casals and J. Núñez, "Los principios en el derecho: ¿una fuente del derecho o una fuente de interrogantes?", Revista de Derecho, n° 16, pp. 31- 45, 2020. [10]S. Andrade and L. Ávila, La transformación de la Justicia, Quito: Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos, 2008. [11]V. Aguirre, "La administración de justicia en Ecuador", Revista Horizonte de los derechos humanos, pp. 11-25, 2012. [12]S. Andrade, La Función Judicial en la vigente Constitución de la República, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional (CEN), 2009. [13]G. Plaza and A. Zamora, "La necesidad de jueces especializados en el sistema judicial multicompetente ecuatoriano", Revista Polos y Conocimiento, n° 49, pp. 1073-1087, 2020. [14]A. Figueruelo, El derecho a la tutela judicial efectiva, Madrid: Tecnos, 2017. [15] A. Brewer, Derecho Procesal Constitucional. Instrumentos para la justicia constitucional. Bogotá: Ediciones Doctrina y Ley, 2013. [16] A. Grijalva, Constitucionalismo en Ecuador, Quito: Corte Constitucional para el Período de Transición, 2012. [17]I. Quintana, La acción de protección, Ecuador: CEP, 2016. [18]Corte Constitucional para el periodo de transición, "Sentencia No. 031-09-SEP-CC dentro del Caso No. 0485-09-EP", 2009. [Online]. Available: http://doc.corteconstitucional.gob.ec:8080/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/97245b3a-3639-4594-a77c-eedb7d2a431c/0485-09-EP-sent.pdf. [Last access: December 2nd, 2021]. [19]R. Oyarte, Derecho Constitucional Ecuatoriano y Comparado. Quito: Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones, 2014. [20]G. Zagrebelsky, Principios y votos. El Tribunal Constitucional y la política. Madrid: Editorial Trotta, 2008. [21] L. León González, D. Barrueta and L. Martell, "La seguridad jurídica una proyección general", Revista Conrado, n° 5, pp. 292-299, 2019. [22]R. Hernández, C. Fernández and P. Baptista, Metodología de la Investigación, México: Mc Graw Hill Education, 2014. [23]Asamblea Nacional del Ecuador, Código Orgánico de la Función Judicial, Ley No. 0. Registro Oficial Suplemento No. 544 de, fecha 09 de marzo de 2009, Quito, 2009. [24]Asamblea Nacional del Ecuador. Ley Orgánica de Garantías Jurisdiccionales y Control Constitucional, Ley No. 0. Registro Oficial Suplemento No. 52 de, fecha 22 de octubre de 2009, Quito, 2009. [25] Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, Celebrada en una Conferencia especializada del 7 al 22 de noviembre de 1969, San José, 1969. [26]A. Pérez, Justicia que tarda…. [Online]. Available: https:// www.eluniverso.com/opinion/2020/02/28/nota/7758489/justicia-que-tarda/. [Last access: December 2nd, 2021]. ; La justicia constitucional en Ecuador ha ido evolucionando a la luz de la Constitución del año 2008, reconociendo derechos e implementando mecanismos para su respeto y protección; sin embargo, quienes son llamados a aplicar la norma suprema y realizar un control convencional en casos concretos de violaciones a derechos fundamentales, son personas sin una especialización en la materia, cuyas resoluciones convergen en una continua vulneración a la seguridad jurídica. A través de una investigación cualitativa y del método de observación documental, se analizaron 50 resoluciones de la Corte Constitucional del Ecuador dentro de acciones extraordinarias de protección correspondientes a los años 2020 y 2021 que tuvieron como origen acciones de protección. Comoresultado se evidenció la falta de criterio jurídico en materia constitucional por parte de los operadores de justicia, en primera y segunda instancia, que obligó a los afectados a acudir al máximo intérprete de justicia constitucional para que realice un adecuado análisis del caso concreto, surgiendo la necesidad de crear judicaturas especializadas en materia constitucional que conozcan estas acciones. Palabras Clave: Justicia constitucional, violaciones a derechos fundamentales, seguridad jurídica, judicaturas especializadas. Referencias [1]J. Asencio, Introducción al Derecho Procesal, Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch, 2015. [2]R. Ávila, Los Principios de Aplicación de los Derechos, Nuevas Instituciones del Derecho Constitucional Ecuatoriano, Quito: Ediar, 2008. [3]Asamblea Nacional Constituyente del Ecuador, Constitución Política del Ecuador, Decreto Legislativo No. 000. Registro Oficial de fecha 11 de agosto de 1998, Quito, 1998. [4]Asamblea Nacional Constituyente del Ecuador, Constitución de la República del Ecuador, Decreto Legislativo No. 000. Registro Oficial No. 449, de fecha 20 de octubre del 2008, Montecristi, 2008. [5]C. Ballén, "Algunos desafíos procesales de la jurisdicción especial", Iuris Tantum Revista Boliviana de Derecho, n° 25, pp. 474-501, 2018. [6]R. Reyes, "Los Derechos Humanos y la Seguridad jurídica", Revista UNAM, n° 37, pp. 93-97, 2016. [7]E. Figueroa, Jueces Constitucionales. En Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República del Perú, Lima: Fondo Editorial, 2016. [8]J. Riofrío, "Alcance y límites del principio de jerarquía. Criterios para jerarquizar derechos, valores, bienes y otros elementos", Revista Derecho PUCP, (84), 189-222, 2020. [9]M. Casals y J. Núñez, "Los principios en el derecho: ¿una fuente del derecho o una fuente de interrogantes?", Revista de Derecho, n° 16, pp. 31- 45, 2020. [10]S. Andrade y L. Ávila, La transformación de la Justicia, Quito: Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos, 2008. [11]V. Aguirre, "La administración de justicia en Ecuador", Revista Horizonte de los derechos humanos, pp. 11-25, 2012. [12]S. Andrade, La Función Judicial en la vigente Constitución de la República, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional (CEN), 2009. [13]G. Plaza y A. Zamora, "La necesidad de jueces especializados en el sistema judicial multicompetente ecuatoriano", Revista Polos y Conocimiento, n° 49, pp. 1073-1087, 2020. [14]A. Figueruelo, El derecho a la tutela judicial efectiva, Madrid: Tecnos, 2017. [15] A. Brewer, Derecho Procesal Constitucional. Instrumentos para la justicia constitucional. Bogotá: Ediciones Doctrina y Ley, 2013. [16] A. Grijalva, Constitucionalismo en Ecuador, Quito: Corte Constitucional para el Período de Transición, 2012. [17]I. Quintana, La acción de protección, Ecuador: CEP, 2016. [18]Corte Constitucional para el periodo de transición, "Sentencia No. 031-09-SEP-CC dentro del Caso No. 0485-09-EP", 2009. [En línea]. Disponible: http://doc.corteconstitucional.gob.ec:8080/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/97245b3a-3639-4594-a77c-eedb7d2a431c/0485-09-EP-sent.pdf. [Último acceso: 02 de diciembre de 2021]. [19]R. Oyarte, Derecho Constitucional Ecuatoriano y Comparado. Quito: Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones, 2014. [20]G. Zagrebelsky, Principios y votos. El Tribunal Constitucional y la política. Madrid: Editorial Trotta, 2008. [21] L. León González, D. Barrueta y L. Martell, "La seguridad jurídica una proyección general", Revista Conrado, n° 5, pp. 292-299, 2019. [22]R. Hernández, C. Fernández y P. Baptista, Metodología de la Investigación, México: Mc Graw Hill Education, 2014. [23]Asamblea Nacional del Ecuador, Código Orgánico de la Función Judicial, Ley No. 0. Registro Oficial Suplemento No. 544 de, fecha 09 de marzo de 2009, Quito, 2009. [24]Asamblea Nacional del Ecuador. Ley Orgánica de Garantías Jurisdiccionales y Control Constitucional, Ley No. 0. Registro Oficial Suplemento No. 52 de, fecha 22 de octubre de 2009, Quito, 2009. [25] Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, Celebrada en una Conferencia especializada del 7 al 22 de noviembre de 1969, San José, 1969. [26]A. Pérez, Justicia que tarda…. [En línea]. Disponible: https:// www.eluniverso.com/opinion/2020/02/28/nota/7758489/justicia-que-tarda/. [Último acceso: 02 diciembre 2021].
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This article was co-published with the Guardian.Top Republican donor and TikTok investor Jeff Yass is connected to over $16 million in funding to anti-Muslim and pro-Israel groups that have advocated for a U.S. war with Iran and other militaristic policies in the Middle East, according to an investigation by the Guardian and Responsible Statecraft.Media reports on Yass, the billionaire co-founder of Susquehanna International Group, a trading and technology firm, have focused on his outsized role in the Republican Party, to which he is now the largest political donor in the 2024 election cycle, contributing more than $46 million thus far.Yass has also emerged as the biggest funder of a group targeting progressive representative Summer Lee (Pa.) in her primary race, suggesting an interest in influencing Democratic primary outcomes, not just in boosting Republicans.But little has been reported about his involvement in funding groups advocating a pro-Israel U.S. foreign policy, hawkish U.S. policies in the Middle East and support for theorists whom experts described as extreme anti-Muslim conspiracists.Leading Yass's philanthropy in the foreign policy space is $7.9 million contributed to Jerusalem Online University between 2014 and 2019 by a grant-making group at which he once served as one of three directors.A Jewish Daily Forward investigation into the group in 2011 found that the website promotes itself as a source of educational materials about the Middle East and Israel, but the website's actual message is far more biased, the Forward found."On its website and its promotional materials, Jerusalem Online U hardly portrays itself as a center for neutral academic inquiry," the Forward wrote. "In fact, it boasts an explicitly pro-Israel mission that seems distinctly at odds with academic principles. In one advertisement for its services, the Jerusalem Online U site's blog features a video of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu telling Congress last May that 'Israel is what is right' about the Middle East. The words 'Be a Part of What's Right' appear on screen as he speaks."The contributions came from the Claws Foundation, an entity at which Yass served as a director alongside Arthur Dantchik, a co-founder of Susquehanna and attorney Alan P Dye. Dye did not return calls for comment. The Kids Connect Charitable Fund — which does not list Yass or Dantchik as directors but listed the Claws Foundation as a "related tax-exempt organization" in an IRS filing and was identified as an arm of both men's philanthropy by Haaretz — contributed another $3.48 million to Jerusalem Online University's parent organization, Imagination Productions.The Claws Foundation also issued a $10,000 grant to Friends of the Israel Defense Forces in 2011 and $35,000 in grants, between 2010 and 2011, to the Center for Security Policy, an anti-Muslim and conspiracy theory-promoting group founded by Frank Gaffney, whom the Southern Policy Law Center describes as "one of America's most notorious Islamophobes" and the Anti-Defamation League describes as a chief promulgator of the conspiracy theory "that the US government has been infiltrated by the Muslim Brotherhood and that a number of political figures have actual ties to the group." The Center for Security Policy vice-president, Clare Lopez, has said: "When Muslims follow their doctrine they become jihadists."In 2013 to 2014, the Claws Foundation sent $250,000 to the David Horowitz Freedom Center, another central promoter of anti-Muslim conspiracy theories. Horowitz, whom the group is named after and who serves as its president, once complained that Muslims are a "protected species in this country" and said he's "wait[ing] for the day when the good Muslims step forward," at a Brooklyn College event in 2011."The fact Yass is donating to Gaffney and Horowitz's organizations shows how extreme his politics are," said Tommy Vietor, former National Security Council spokesperson under President Obama. "They are beyond Trump. They are OG conspiracy theorists. Gaffney in particular."The Claws Foundation also donated $100,000 to the Central Fund of Israel in 2014, a group that the New York Times described as a "clearinghouse" for settlement development in the Israeli-occupied West Bank."The Claws Foundation has contributed more than $300 million, overwhelmingly to children's hospitals, adult healthcare, education and the arts in the United States, and has never sought to influence U.S. foreign policy," said a spokesperson for Yass and Dantchik. "Moreover, $31 million of Claws contributions went to the Shalom Hartman Institute, one of whose important apolitical initiatives is building bridges between Jewish and Muslim communities. Focusing on a few de minimis contributions promotes a false narrative that fits a biased agenda."Yass's philanthropy also appears to bring Yass into close contact with efforts to influence U.S.-Israel and U.S.-Iran relations via advocacy and lobbying campaigns. A non-profit group, QXZ Inc, is the largest identifiable source of funding for the American Israel Public Affairs Committee's (AIPAC) efforts to obstruct the White House's nuclear diplomacy with Iran during Barack Obama's second presidential term.In 2015, QXZ Inc contributed $1.5 million to Citizens for a Nuclear Free Iran, AIPAC's advocacy group opposing the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), an agreement between the five permanent members of the U.N. Security council plus Germany and Iran to impose restrictions on Iran's nuclear program in exchange for Iran receiving some relief from nuclear-related sanctions.Vietor was dismissive of AIPAC's work opposing the Obama-era JCPOA but suggested that electing and influencing Trump became a goal of some Iran-deal opponents."[Funders of the anti-JCPOA campaign] lit that money on fire in 2015. They were incapable of beating Obama politically in terms of defeating the JCPOA in Congress so they changed tactics and went all in for Trump," said Vietor. "Trump chose to pull out of the JCPOA despite many of his advisers saying it would be a disaster and it has been. Iran is closer than ever to getting a nuclear weapon."Yass's ties to a group providing significant financial support to AIPAC's effort were unreported until now. QXZ's links to Yass were revealed when Strong Economy for Growth, a Massachusetts-based group, spent $1.2 million supporting a failed 2016 ballot question regarding lifting caps on charter schools. State campaign finance officials required the group to disclose the identity of its donors. Yass, via QXZ, was the largest funder of Strong Economy for Growth.QXZ's involvement in well-concealed funding of foreign policy advocacy continued in 2015 with a $250,000 contribution to neoconservative pundit Bill Kristol's Emergency Committee for Israel (ECI), a group that ran ads attacking Obama as "caving to Iran" with the JCPOA.The New Yorker's Connie Bruck profiled the group's strategies and reported that the ECI "sought to intimidate critics of Netanyahu, and Israel's most powerful American backers, for the escalating drive to war with Iran, and to damage Obama."Underscoring QXZ's commitment to the most militaristic and pro-Israel wings of the Republican party, the group contributed $1.05 million between 2018 and 2019 to the Republican Jewish Coalition, a club of hawkishly pro-Israel megadonors.A spokesperson for Yass did not comment on Yass's ties to QXZ but denied Yass's involvement in donations to the Emergency Committee for Israel, the Republican Jewish Coalition or Citizens for a Nuclear Free Iran."Jeff Yass has never directed QXZ to fund any such groups and any statement otherwise is false," said the spokesperson.Yass has said nothing about his foreign policy agenda in public remarks but the timeline of his meeting with Trump and Trump's subsequent reversal of his position on banning TikTok offers an early indication that Yass may already be an influential figure for the Republican nominee for the presidency.Trump has a track record of shifting positions on Israel and Iran to align with political megadonors. Only after securing the nomination in 2016 did Trump pivot to more militaristic positions in the Middle East — committing to withdrawing the U.S. from the JCPOA, moving the U.S. Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem and supporting an unconditionally pro-Israel U.S. approach to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict — positions in lockstep with his biggest political patrons in the general election, the late Sheldon Adelson and his wife, Miriam.Yass's spokesperson denied that Yass seeks influence with Trump on foreign policy matters."Jeff Yass has never discussed foreign policy with Donald Trump, has never contributed to Mr. Trump and has no plans to do so," said the spokesperson. "Mr. Yass's philanthropy is largely focused on school choice and has nothing to do with foreign policy.""As a libertarian, Jeff generally opposes American involvement in foreign affairs as evidenced by his support for Rand Paul and Thomas Massie," the spokesperson said.
[eng] Newspapers and television are full of stories about inappropriate behaviour by political and business leaders published weekly. According to Guinote (2008), an individual's behaviour will be changed when they reach a leadership position, which only a few can control. Many of these allegations, which show the headlines, are related to abuse of power and inappropriate enrichment. Although leadership has been defined as an individual's ability to face a goal, with this ability, they influence other people to follow her/him in the endeavour to achieve the goal (Western, 2019). The study of leadership has been approached from many perspectives. Nevertheless, they do not have the same perception of leadership in North American and European authors, nor between Westerners and Orientals (Western, 2019). Among common themes in the leadership literature, the debate over whether leaders are born or made remains open. Therefore, the chapter on whether circumstances transform an individual into a leader or, on the contrary, their personality make them leader remains open. For example, personality traits have been found to be medium to high heritability, so leadership traits may also be moderately heritable (Johnson, et al., 1998). Ultimately, leadership studies have been based on both the search for characteristic and personality traits (Kirkpatick & Locke, 1991) and what circumstances transform an individual into a leader (Western, 2019). Leadership is not power, since power is the ability to control others activities through any of the sources of power (coercive, rewarding, legitimate, expert and referral) (Hatcher, 2005), and leadership is the ability to inspire people to follow the leader in achieving a goal (Western, 2019). However, both concepts are related since a leader without power does not make sense (Hatcher, 2005). In this doctoral thesis, it is considered that leadership implies power and, precisely, this endowment of power can transform the leader's perception of her/his followers. By the inspiration of the tradition of studies based on personality traits (Kirkpatick & Locke, 1991), we intend to study what personality traits moderate an employee with power (boss) and make her/him act as a leader who seeks to pursue the benefit of the group (company) rather than their personal benefit. Various realms of knowledge have tried to find some explanations for this type of behavior. Either from economic theory with the agency dilemma (Eisenhardt, 1989), social psychology, through the concept of psychological distance (Trope & Liberman, 2003) or from evolutionary psychology, with the search for ultimate reasons of origin of leadership (King, Johnson, & Van Vugt, 2009). For example, the agency dilemma proposes that in a decision-making context, two actors may intervene: an "agent" (person or organization) who makes decisions by a delegation of another actor, a "principal" (person or organization), and whose result affects the principal. According to economic theory, the agent acting on behalf of the principal will be motivated to perform for her/his benefit rather than for the principal, posing a moral conflict (Eisenhardt, 1989). Another theory that attempts to explain the selfish position of those who achieve leadership position come from social psychology that considers social distance, a common concept in sociology, as a psychological distance (Stephan, Liberman, & Trope, 2010). Although it has covered several types of psychological distance, temporal distance is the most relevant for the study of leadership. It affects the interpretation of relationships between people or physical distance to places (Magee & Smith, 2013). In a sense, greater psychological distance becomes mindsets of cognitive abstraction (Stephan, Liberman, & Trope, 2010). Another area that has tried to find explanations for both the origin and development of leadership is evolutionary psychology (King, Johnson, & Van Vugt, 2009). Throughout evolutionary history, leaders play a critical role in achieving goals. Living in a group is full of compromise and conflict, so groups have demonstrated a need for leaders. Leaders use different strategies to solve coordination problems even in ancestral environments, such as group movement, intragroup and intergroup competition (Van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008; Van Vugt M. , 2006). According to researchers in evolutionary psychology, leaders can use one of the most beneficial ways to inspire their followers, sacrificing their self-interest and personal goals to benefit their followers and organization (Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). Indeed, these types of leaders with sacrificing behaviour have charismatic and influential personality compare to dominant leaders (Choi & Mai-Dalton, 1999; De Cremer & Van Knippenberg, 2004; Van Knippenberg & Van Knippenberg, 2005; Yorges, Weiss, & Strickland, 1999). Consequently, self-sacrificial leaders evoke more positive affect, trust, cooperation, and good performance between their followers (De Cremer, 2006; Van Knippenberg & Van Knippenberg, 2005). There are often conflated status hierarchies and decision-making hierarchies, but it will be helpful to discriminate between them. Leaders have a decision-making position in the group where individuals face problems and disproportionate influence on group decision-making and can prioritize resources in return (Van Vugt M. , 2006). Here in this research, we will consider the transformation process suffered by individuals who achieved a leadership position within a business organization and, therefore, a position of power in a business decision-making context. This consideration will be made both from social psychology and from evolutionary psychology. Although both fields have been developed from different theoretical processes, for two decades, multidisciplinary approaches have been recommended in marketing studies (O'Shaughnessy, 1997). Recently, social psychologists are interested in exploring the effect of the power of an individual's behaviour; Power is an ability to influence other people and usually based on a position in the hierarchy (Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003; Lammers, Stapel, & Galinsky, 2010; Maner & Mead, 2010). Today, in advanced societies, the hierarchical order of social structures is organized according to the merit of subjects that comprise it. Thus, the old structures based on aristocratic origin or family to which someone belongs have changed by social advancement based on merit. High achievers reach higher positions compared to less achievers (Smith, Jostmann , Galinsky, & Van Dijk, 2008). However, the social system does not have to work with great precision in all contemporary societies. What transcends to the community is that individuals who do not achieve positions of power are because they perform imperfectly are less capable or motivated than those who have reached powerful positions (Guinote, 2007). These beliefs, widespread in modern societies, that the powerful individuals reach their position by their own effort, meaning that when an individual comes to a place of leadership with power and authority in an organization, this fact leads to a process of personal transformation that changes the vision that s/he has of herself, her idea of others, followers or subordinates. It begins to see others as pieces that could be used to achieve their own goals (Anderson & Berdahl, 2002; Galinsky, Gruenfeld, & Magee, 2003; Smith & Bargh, 2008; Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson, & Lijenquist, 2008; Smith & Trope, 2006; Guinote, 2007a). Shreds of evidence have been collected on the mental transformation of individuals who have achieved positions of leadership and power. First, powerful leaders see the futures more optimistically, perceive that they control the destiny and lead them to make risky decisions (Fast, Gruenfeld, Sivanathan, & Galinsky, 2009). Second, when individuals exert leadership, they begin to consider others, even former colleagues, differently. For instance, they begin to pay more attention to themselves than the needs of others (Rucker, Dubois, & Galinsky, 2011). They establish a social distance between themselves and the followers or subordinates (Kipnis, 1972) and even tend to ignore other people's suffering (Van Kleef, et al., 2008). Third, through this process of estrangement and reification, they perceive their subordinates as mere instruments of manipulation to help them achieve their own goals (Gruenfeld, Inesi, Magee, & Galinsky, 2008). Although the literature praises leaders' role, some individuals are capable of working beyond their own interest and even take personal costs to benefit their group or organization (Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). Nevertheless, there are many shreds of evidence in the literature that individuals who achieve a position of power are more likely to deceive (Lammers, Stapel, & Galinsky, 2010). In this sense, they tend to act socially inadequately, putting their interest in priority (Gonzaga, Keltner, & Ward, 2008). The classic book "Power, corruption, and rectitude" (Rogow & Lasswell, 1963) mentioned that leaders who exercise power obey two factors: the individual needs of the exaltation of ego and the organization's structure. Personality factors are under the influence of different circumstances; how they grow, their childhood, the type of education and the deprivations they suffered determine how they will use power as adults. And regarding the organizational context, tradition, reputations, and leadership are pointed as factors that encourage or discourage corrupted behaviour (Rogow & Lasswell, 1963). The focus of this thesis is on the effect of power on the behaviour of individuals. Additionally, we want to evaluate different personality factors, exploring what kind of personality traits discourage promoted leader from falling into the temptation to pursue selfish behaviour.
A talk by Anthony Pym in a course in variation in English. - Transcript below: What is diglossia? It's from Greek: di- means two; gloss, the tongue. Two languages. Not to be confused, however, with bilingualism, which is from Latin: bi-, two: lingua, the tongue. Two languages. There is, however, in English social linguistics a systematic difference between the two terms, diglossia and bilingualism. Usually, bilingualism is the capacity of the individual, of a person, to speak one, two, or three—more than one—language, let's say: bilingualism, okay? You could call them polyglots, that's a nice term for describing people, and French and French-inspired social linguistics talks about plurilingualism for the capacity of the individual. Now, diglossia is something quite different. Diglossia is a social situation; it's not concerning individuals, it concerns a society in which there are two languages related in such a way that they have different social functions. Okay? That's diglossia: a social situation; bilingualism, plurilingualism is concerned with the capacities of the individual. Now, a standard definition of diglossia—this is [Charles] Ferguson, 1959—oh, it's long and complicated, but anyway, diglossia is a relatively stable language situation. And that's important; it's not a transitory thing, it's not a bad thing, it's something that we observe occurring over centuries in many parts of the world. So, a situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language, there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety. So we have these two kinds of varieties happening within the same language; one would be spoken—the dialects, etc.—and the other would be learned, standardized, the language of literature. Then he goes on of written literature either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education—so you get to this other one by going to school—and is used for written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation. So it's easier to understand if you go to Zurich, for example, where you've got people speaking Swiss German in the street and on television, on local television, and then going and studying in standard German and learning to write standard German, and they wouldn't write down their spoken language. These two varieties of the language with different social functions, and they are highly separate. Another classic example would be Arabic in Morocco, where we do have classical Arabic for religious functions, certainly for the King, and then spoken Moroccan Arabic in the street, although Moroccan Arabic does get into the press in that case, okay, So those are cases where the one language has varieties with different social functions. The functions are traditionally called H and L in English. H stands for high, but you don't say high; H stands for the written, official social functions. L stands for the spoken, non-official, vernacular social functions; low, okay. We try to avoid high and low because that was Charles Darwin's mistake, when he talked about the higher species, that led to all sorts of racism and misunderstandings. H and L are there not in the sense of H being superior but of them simply being different. That's why the decision has been made to use H and L as letters rather than as descriptors. Now that's a strict definition of diglossia. There's a more relaxed definition, and that would be when the two varieties in question don't have to belong to the same language, okay? So in parts of the complex society around us here, we find Spanish being used for official functions. Certainly, here, 50 years ago, Spanish would be absolutely the H variety and Catalan would be the L variety. They are different languages—cognate, but different—and yet they would satisfy most non-demanding definitions of diglossia. So that would be the relaxed definition, or the loose definition: the two varieties, two different functions. The varieties don't have to belong to the same language; they can, but they don't have to, okay. I'll point out that now with the standardization of Catalan—so it's become very much the H variety around us here—we find situations where Catalan occupies H functions in official society, certainly Barcelona. Spanish can move to L for many of the immigrant groups and occupy those functions, and then we have another Catalan, which is that of the farmers and the traditional working class, with its many regional varieties, and that's becoming an L as well. So it needn't be just H and L. There can be other languages, or the same language can move into those two positions if, uh, if the society takes on that sort of form. Um, when we— when we use— Catalan linguists don't like the theory of diglossia and the basic reason is this: diglossia sort of accepts asymmetries; it accepts that language is going to have different power relations, and that this is a stable and normal thing. Whereas their fight has long been for Catalan to assume full H functions, and the official language policy in Spain is for all co-official languages to have full H functions. So they want a situation that they call bilingüisme, which is H and H full capacity in everything. Why not? That can happen; there's no law against it. The simple observation in English-language social linguistics is that it needn't happen, that we have long-term stable asymmetries in language functions. So, if you find that you haven't got it, it's not because you're an aberration, it's just because your societies tend to suggest that we can have asymmetric language functions without any disaster befalling anybody. The other thing that, um, that my students will say is that "we don't want our language to have an L function—L means powerless; H means power. Give me power, empower me, make my language big and strong and written and standardized." Which, of course, is what any linguist would do because linguists are the people who do that sort of work. Great work for ourselves, yeah. All right, but be careful. Over history, the languages that die are often those that are in the H position. Look no further than classical Greek or Latin. All the romance languages that we speak had an L function in relation to H-variety Latin. Which one won out over history? The L varieties, not the H. English itself is the result of a diglossic situation where we had Old French in H we had Anglo-Saxon varieties in L. And did H repress L and kill L over time? Quite the opposite. The result, the English that we have is a merger of the two but with a rising influence, I suspect over time, of the L. The L came up and absorbed the H. So it's not true that it's bad, historically, to be in an L position. An L position is close to where the people are and economic activity is and where people vote, after all. In our course we look, of course, at certain things that depend on diglossia. Diglossia is like the basic social situation that sets up the possibility of, for example, a lot of code-switching that we find. And then if you think of the example of Oberwart where, uh, Hungarian and German were in contact we found that the language shift that we saw there was a classic case of what we now know and would call diglossia, where German had the official function, the H functions, Hungarian had the social life, the association with territory over time. And in that particular case, because of the political shift of the village, the H took over and displaced L in that particular situation. There are no fatalities. It's not always bad to be in the L position, and H and L relations in diglossia can continue and be stable for many centuries. That's the lesson, at least, of English social linguistics. You're welcome to find counter-examples.
Issue 28.4 of the Review for Religious, 1969. ; EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. ASSISTANT EDITOR John L. Treloar, S.J. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS EDITOR Joseph F. Gailen, S.J. Correspondence with the editor, the associate editors, and the assistant editor, as well as books for review, should be sent to R~EVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63~o3. Questions for answering s.hould be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania + + + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Edited with ecclesiastical approval by faculty members of the School of Db.'inity of Saitxt Louis University, the editorial ottices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Owned by the Missouri Province Edu-cational Institute. Published bimonthly and copyright ~) 1969by REvIr:W. voR REt.mlOt:S at 428 East Preston Street; Bahimore, Mary-land 2t202. Printed in U,S.A. Second class postage paid at Baltimore, Maryland and at additional mailing offices, Single copies: $1,00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $5.00 a year, $9.00 for two .years; othei countries: $5.50 a year, $10.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order paya-ble to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Renewals and new subscriptions, where ac¢om. panied by a remittance, should be sent to REVIEW VOR RELIGIOUS; P. O. Box 671; Baltimore, Maryland 21203. Changes of address, business correspondence, and orders not accompanied by a remittance should be sent:to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ; 421:1 East Preston Street; Baltimore, MarTland 2120'2. Manuscripts, editorial cor-respondence, and books for review should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOL'S; 612 Humbold t Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis "Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to the address of the Questions and Answers editor. JULY 1969 VOLUME 28 NUMBER 4 SISTER ELAINE MARIE PREVALLET, S.L. Reflections .on . Pr a and Religious Renewal It is fairly commonplace today that in all the talk of religious renewal the most neglected area is that of prayer. One might hazard the guess that this area is one of the most basic and most in need of rethinking and genuine renewal; one might also hazard the guess that people do not talk in depth about it because they do not know what to say. Like other areas of.renewal, there is question of what can be changed and what must remain. iEqually, there is growing realization that it will not be su~ient, to change the horarium and the outward form ur:less there is also renewal of the inner dynamic of /, prayer. To change structure may indeed be the likeliest ',,.¢-,way to achieve the change in process and attitude. If that is so, as the structure begins to change, new develop-ments in our understanding of prayer may arise from the life and experiences of renewal-minded religious com-munities during the next decade. What will be needed, however, is much sharing of and reflection upon the experience of religious, and sensitivity to new insights into the character of their prayer. We shall attempt here only to indicate some general areas of difficulty or de-velopment which characterize our present situation; Two observations may be in order at the outset. First, the difficulty with the concept of prayer is no doubt due to the pace and noise of modern society; but it is, I believe, more largely due to the crisis of faith which characterizes our age. When the basic notion of God is under so much scrutiny, and when one finds so much un-certainty as to the meaning and validity of believing in God at all, then obviously the concept of pra~e.r cannot remain untouched. For the nature and meaning of prayer will be determined by the character or concept of the one to whom one prays. Even though our under-standing of God must be constantly changing and growing, yet it must be in some fundamental way secure 4- Sister Elaine Ma-rie, S.L. is the chairman ol the de-partment of theol-og~ at Loretto Heights College; 3001 South Fed-eral; Denver, Colo-rado. 802S6:!2, ~ VOLUME :28, 1969. ÷ ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 532 in faith. If we are not sure of God or it we do not know what our relationship to Him is, we cannot, be sure ot praye~---whether we should pray or how much we should pray. Hence, the difficulties in prhyer are closely tied to difficulties in faith.1 Secondl), it seems to me an unnecessary obfuscation of the issue to speak ot work as prayer. Prayer must, ot course, have an intimate connection with life and must therefore be related to work; but it aids neither our understanding nor our prayer to say that work is prayer. Prayer, as I shall refer to it, contains an essential com-ponent ot consciousness, reflection; it includes what has traditionally been named meditation. It may indeed occur that one prays--reflects upon meanings and values in the light ot the gospel message or one's understand-ing ot God--while one works. But to equate the two seems to me to be playing with words, the result being the loss ot the meaning ot prayer. Reflection takes time, effort, concentration. We are not a patient society, not used to being quiet; we are used to looking tot quick pragmatic results. Prayer demands patience and quiet; and it will often produce no immediate, demonstrable result. Hence, the tendency is to want to leave prayer aside, and one way ot doing this is simply to make facile verbal equation between work and prayer. The;~is~ sue is then quickly settled. When we are lett to our own in the matter that is, it we have provided no set time or place or fre-y.~] quency-~our experience will probably be that prayer will, sooner or later, simply drop out ot the picture. It will be pushed out by more immediate demands, more concrete "work to do." Yet it seems essential that the lives ot religious have a dimension ot depth and that religious themselves have what might be called a con-sciousness ot ultimacy. They must have a certain steady perspective, a clear focus. They must have this, not just for themselves, but [or others, as part of their service. Yet, in the immediacies that make up daily living, perspective and focus are easily lost; depth quickly turns shallow and empty. It seems necessary, then, to provide for oneself time and quiet to ponder meanings and values in the light ot the gospel message or in the light o[ one's understanding ot God. It is necessary to deepen one's understanding o[ faith, to reflect on the meaning ot God's loving presence. Finding God in prayer is a necessary concomitant to recognizing His presence in XA good treatment of this situation is given by Douglas Rhymes, Prayer in the Secular City (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967), espe-cially pp. 12-25. all things. Obviously, this is saying nothir~g new. It is simply reasserting the value of balancing action with contemplation.2 Let us now consider some perspectives which may prove valuable to the development of prayer at the present time. Christianity and Personalism From all sides we become aware that we are living in an age of "the person," an age which has a new realiza-tion of the value, the uniqueness, the importance of the human person. In this context, Christianity shows itself as eminently propounding the value of the human per-son: the Christian revelation of God as Trinity is, after all, a revelation of God as personal, as communicating Persons. The Incarnation speaks of the personal love of God for man and His desire to be in communion with man; the Resurrection of Christ speaks of the continuing possibility for man to be in personal communion with God through the humanity of Christ. These three central dogmas of the Christian mystery indicate that man's re-lationship with God is a deeply personal one, allowing whatever is deepest and most unique in each man to find its expression and its fulfillment in his relationsh.ip with the Divine Persons. If we seek to understand prayer, therefore, we may well begin with simply this affirmation of man as person and God as Persons. We may move from that to a second affirmation, equally involving the dimensions of person, and speak of presence. For the possibility of being per-sonally present to another is one of the highest preroga: tives of man. Here again the Trinity speaks of personal presence as belonging to God Himself; the Incarnation speaks of the presence of God to man in Christ, and the Resurrection speaks of the continuing presence of the risen Christ to His followers. If we wish a basis for personal prayer, we need no other starting point than these fundamental Christian affirmations. We can under-stand personal prayer as involving the presence of the Three Persons who are God, and, most especially, the presence of the risen Christ. To be conscious of this presence requires faith, but also deliberate effort--time and concentration--to reflect upon the faith-datum and its significance. ~ We do not wish to assert priorities here; it is not a case of either/or, but of both/and. Equally, we do not wish to deny that when faith is deeply lived, there need be no disjunction, between work and prayer. But given our human situation, it seems safe to say, minimally, that thought is necessary for finding and maintain-ing meaning and perspective. -:;- ", -- 4- ÷ ÷ Prayer and Renewal VOLUME 28, 1969 Sister Elain~ Mari~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Individual Prayer We can move from here to ask what characterizes the relationship between the risen Christ and the believer, and therefore what the qualities of prayer will be.~ We can treat these briefly under the headings of love, need, and thanksgiving. If we examine any love relationship, we will find that it always involves a personal petition to be accepted and loved by the other. Hence love always involves prayer to the other--a petition, implicit or explicit, for under-standing, for acceptance--simply for communion. In the last analysis, what any such prayer seeks is com-munion of heart and mind, reconciliation of under-standing and wills. Expressed simp!y, we want to be one with the person to whom we are praying:' we want him to understand our prayer, and we want to understand him as he receives our prayer. It is here that meditation on the life of Christ in the Gospels finds its importance. For the risen Christ now is the same Christ who lived the inciden~ ts portrayed in the Gospels; He is now, as it were, the result of the experiences which He assimilated dur-ing His earthly life. The mysteries of His life on earth live on in Him, and they must be entered into by any-one wishing to know Him as He is now. To use an analogy: I am as I am now because of what has hap-pened to me in the past. Anyone who wants to under-stand me deeply ~nust understand certain of the signifi-cant experiences that have formed me, have given my life direction. And in the measure that another under-stands in a deep and compassionate way my past, in the measure that another has been able to enter into my past, to experience it with me, the other will under- Stand me. So in our attempt to come to union of heart and mind with Christ: insofar as we penetrate the experience de-picted in the gospel, we come to understand the living Christ who is now as He is because of those experiences. If we want to know the Christ whom we are petitioning, then we will need to know Him through the Gospels.* Further, in any love relationship, the one whom we love finally determines both the character and the con-tent of a prayer; in some sense then, the one addressed in prayer has a major role in creating the prayer. We * Much of the following is drawn from M. Nddoncelle's analysis in God's Encounter with Man (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1964). * For a more detailed and carefully nuanced presentation of the place of contemplation of the Gospels in Christian life, see David Stanley, "Contemplation of the Gospels, Ignatius Loyola, and the Contemporary Christian," Theological Studies, v. 29 (1968), pp. 417--45. will ask for what the one petitioned can give, and we will ask it in a way we know to be acceptable to him. Reflection upon this will perhaps give a direction for thinking about the questions so often posed these days: why should I pray? for what should I pray? If one re-flects that the one receiving the petition is God, loving and personal, then one might conclude that one could ask God for anything, for nothing is impossible to Him. However, if one considers more deeply the person of Christ, and, knowing Christ, knows also His deepest concerns, then one would be led to pray not for trivia but to seek in prayer a communion in His concerns. The Christ of the Gospels has as His deep concern the genuine well-being of men, their relationships, their dignity, their fulfillment. Our prayer, then, if it really considers the one petitioned and seeks communion with Him, will result in a sharing in His concern for men, communion in His outlook with respect to the needs of men, communion of understanding of the Christian task. Thus, if we have sought genuine com-munion with Christ, our prayer will impel us outward-- to meet the needs o£ the neighbor. This means also that we need not leave behind or abstract from our own daily living and working in prayer, but rather that we try to come to see how Christ's concern, His outlook, His understanding, can be translated by us into our con-crete situations. From the other side, the one petitioned would want to understand us as we approach him in prayer--why we pray, what its content means, and to respond in the way that will fulfill the deepest need of the one praying. Love does not refuse the petition of love, yet must be at liberty to answer as love knows best. Hence prayer can never be an effort at manipulation; it can never seek to use the other as the instrument of its own advance. Love approaches the autonomy of the other, approaches him freely and leaves the other free in response. Again, then, love is seeking nothing so much as communion; it is entering into the myster~ of the other, it is allowing two freedoms to meet, it is allowing its own develop-ment to be charted by the free response of the other. Prayer will accordingly always contain an element of surrender. But we can approach prayer also from the angle of existential human need. To seek communion with an-other is really to seek to fulfill a deep human need--the need to come to terms with human existence as incom-plete, to free oneself from self-sufficiency. To recognize one's own need, to approach another in need is, con-trary to our tendency to sufficiency, deeply human and + Prayer and Renewa! VOLUME 28, 1969 Sister Elaine Marie REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 536 deeply fulfilling. To pray to another is to offer oneself as apprentice, to be willing to learn, to admit that we do not know or cannot do, that we are not in complete mastery of the course of our destiny, that we do not always perceive the meaning of events. Being ready to admit our insufficiency and approaching Christ to try to see things as He sees them, to seek thus a reconciliation of our mind and heart with His is already fulfilling an existential demand: that we, humanly, are limited, are needy, that we find fulfillment only in communion. To pray, then, belongs to the truth of human nature; it is an impulse that genuinely expresses and fulfills a deep need of human existence. The attitudes of love and of need come together in the basically Christian prayer of thanksgiving. For we turn to Christ as the effective sign that we are loved by God, that His love has touched our humanity and opened it. In relationship with Him we recognize that our human need is not a burden but a joy, the joy of being creatures, the joy of being redeemed and accepted as sons of a loving Father. In Christ, then, we need not make a pre-terise of sufficiency but can freely and lovingly admit our need and turn to him for acceptance, for a perspective which is fuller than our own and can complete and cor-rect it. Because we are creatures in need, yet because He lives to be in loving communion with us, our prayer of need is already thanksgiving. For our deepest existential need is to be accepted and loved as we are and thus brought to transcend ourselves. Communion with God in Christ can do this in a way that no human communion can. It is Christ who most fully recognizes and accepts the human condition as creaturely, as unredeemed, and who exists only to meet us "where we are," and to bring us beyond ourselves to the Father. When we turn to Christ in prayer, it is then already thanksgiving that He is there, that He knows us and loves us as .we are, that we can be in communion with Him. Community Prayer What distinguishes community prayer from individual personal prayer is, obviously, the presence of the com-munity. But this factor can provide us with some ma-terial for reflection. We may start with the premise that each individual has been touched and loved by God; each is uniquely related to God in Christ. Further, each individual has his own gift for the building up of the Body of Christ. For a community to be a community in any profound Christian sense, there must be among the members a sensitivity to the part played by each, an ap-preciation of the unique gift which, each possesses, a willingness to help each other be what he or she is in- tended to be. There must be a sense of belonging to each other, of being for each other, of affecting each other by what each says and does and is. There must be, then, some sense of communion. It is perhaps precisely the phenomenon of the com-munity that has been neglected in our previous methods of community prayer. If we take seriously the presence of Christ in each other, then .we have to admit that each member of the community may be a "word" of Christ to us. Community prayer might well include some oppor-tunity to listen to the word of Christ from within the community. This would presuppose that the members approach community prayer with the mentality of being "present" to each other, as well as to God; it would mean that we make some effort to be conscious and aware of the others with us at prayer, instead of regard-ing them as a source of distraction. The community at prayer adds a new dimension--the presence of Christ in each other--to our way of approaching Him in prayer. One might, in this context, suggest that some of the prayer we address to Christ ought, in fact, to be a prayer to the community. A prayer of loneliness, of weariness, of discouragement, might more practically be met by Christ in the community than by Christ addressed ver-tically. This implies, of course, great openness among the members of the community, sensitivity and receptivity to human needs. The basis for such prayer can be seen in this passage from Origen: Take the case of a man who is of the number of those who have acquired more than sufficient of the needs of life and charitably hears the request of a poor man who petitions God for his wants. It is clear that this man too will accede to the petition of the poor man. For he obeys the will of the Fa-ther who brings together .at the time of prayer the one who prays and the other who can grant the prayer and cannot, because of God's kindly provision, ignore the needs of the former. We must not, therefore, think that when these things hap-pen they happen by chance. For He who has numbered all the hairs on the head of the saints brings together in harmony at the time of prayer both him who can do a service, giving ear to him who is in need of His benevolence, and the one who devoutly prays? God answers men's prayer by bringing the community together so that men may, in Christ, meet the needs presented there. One may, evidently, speak one's need-- or in other words, pray--to Christ through the commu-nity, and it is in this way that He answers one's prayer. To do this in the explicit context of Christian prayer ÷ ÷ ÷ Prayer and Renewal sOrigen, Prayer, xi, 4-5; translated in Origen: Prayer, Exhorta- VOLUME tion to Martyrdom, trans. John J. O'Meara (Westminster: Newman, 1954), pp. 45-6. 537 REVIEW FOR RELI@IOUS 5S8 seems to provide a genuine opportunity of deepening one's faith in the presence of Christ in the community, as well as drawing attention to our responsibility to meet the needs of others--an end toward which prayer to Christ must always lead us. Further, it is our human experience of what it means to be related as persons that is always our prime analo-gate for understanding our relationship with God in Christ. Community prayer may provide us with deep experiences of what it means to be persons in commu-nity, and therefore might greatly aid our understanding of what we mean when we speak of God as Persons, or of the Trinity, Community prayer will be improved, it seems, if we consider it not only as individuals gathering to recite together the same prayer, but as individuals gathering, sensiti~ce to and aware of each other, to say who they are together: that they have common desires, common needs, a common faith. They can profess at once their faith in God and in each other, their trust in God and in each other. They may gather to say to God and to each other that they are sinful, that they need forgiveness from God and from each other. They may listen and respond together to Scripture or to other readings that would bring them together in communion with Christ in heart and mind, and in communion of conviction and purpose with respect to their task in the world. We do not wish to deny the value of structured com-munal forms of prayer such as the Divine Office. These can provide a welcome balance for the more personal, subjective form suggested above. We wish only to sug-gest that on occasion some way of acknowledging and being aware of the presence of each other in prayer may be an important factor in preventing community prayer from becoming formalized, and may be a way of keeping ~t relevant to the life and needs of the community. It becomes, then, a means of growth in faith and in love both for God and for each other, and thus a means of really creating genuine Christian community. If individ-ual prayer seeks communion of heart and mind with Christ or the persons of the Trinity, then community prayer must have as an added aim a communion of heart and mind with the community. It seems obvious that this is somewhat difficult if nothing is done to make one aware of the presence and needs of the community members. Community prayer must aim at making a conscious community in Christ--by sharing in ioy and sorrow, need and suffering with each other, in the presence of Christ. A community becomes a community precisely by acknowledging needs and praying to and for each other. A community, then, comes together to pray, but it is also formed into a genuine and meaningful commu-nity through its sharing in prayer. From a different angle, reflection upon our experience of the community indicates that all members of a reli-gious community do not have the same gift of prayer. Given the premise that each individual has his own gift for the building up of the Body of Christ, it seems evi-dent that some individuals are, by temperament and by gift, more disposed to prayer-.and reflection than others. Perhaps this is an area where the fruits of one's gift for the Body must be seen in a communal context: that if' we have in our community someone with a gift for prayer, we all share in the benefits of his or her reflec-tion, his prayerfulness. This in no way dispenses the other members not so gifted from any effort in this direc-tion. Each person must be concerned about acquiring the dimension of depth in his faith life, must be con-cerned about communion of heart and mind with Christ. Yet if it is our experience that even in religious commu-nities all do not have the same gift, we may profit from trying to understand that experience. All must be sensitive to this gift in their midst, ap-preciate it, and encourage its development. Equally, all can benefit from those who do have a special gift of prayer. But this implies that the one so gifted must be openhearted enough to share his insights and reflections, for this is part of the responsibility connected with the gift of prayer as contributing to the building up of the Body of Christ. Doubtless we need to reflect more deeply upon the matter of responsibility to and for the gift of prayer. No prayer is purely individual. All prayer be-longs to and is at the service of Christian community. Sacramental Prayer Sacramental prayer may now be ,seen as incorporating and epitomizing all the elements present in other forms of prayer. Christ is present to each individual who par-ticipates in sacramental action; each is uniqt~ely re-lated to Him. The community is also present--present there to each other and to God. Christ is present in the community. But He is also present, acting through the symbols used in sacramental action. Here, once again, we need to be conscious not only of ou.r vertical relationship to Him, but also of the other members of the community, aware of them and present to them. We need, further, to be conscious of how Christ is present in sacramental signs: we need to have reflected deeply upon the natural meanings involved in each of the sacramental signs, but also upon their specific Christian meaning, shared and understood by the com-munity. For Christ will act toward us according to the meaning of these signs. Each sign says something to us ÷ Prayer and Renewal~ VOLUME~281 1969, ".~ + ÷ ÷ Sister Eioine Marie REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 540 as individuals loved and touched by God, but also to us as a community. Sacraments are occasions when we gather as a community to celebrate, in specific, signify-ing ways, God's loving us and His acting through Christ in our midst. Ideally, then, sacramental action should include some opportunity for explicit awareness of the community. How this may be done with greatest effectiveness may vary. A communal celebration of penance might include, individual "prayer" to the community, or the commu-nity's praying together to acknowledge its communal blindness, inertia, and negligence, its need for forgive-ness, for Christ's redeeming love. It might include some action or gesture to signify forgiveness of one another as mediating, along with the sacramental sign, the forgive-ness of Christ. The Eucharistic prayer is more easily recognized as communal, since our eating of the one bread and drink-ing of the one chalice say that we already share, in Christ, a communion of life with Him and with each other. The signs of food, and Christ's presence to us through these signs, as well as the presence of the com-munity there, both say that we are creatures who need the sustenance and nourishment of faith and hope and love; we need this nourishment from Christ, but also from one another. This is eminently the sacrament of thanksgiving, as we return to God, in and with Ghrist, all that we have and are. The Eucharist is in a very real sense the highest point of our prayer, both individual and communal; it is the culminating point of our presence to and communion with Christ and the Chris-tian community. It should be an occasion of real cele-bration of our community in Christ. More thought will need to be given to the matter of celebrating, and how our awareness of each other, of our community, can be given recognition in Eucharistic celebration. Conclusion This is obviously only a sketch of some lines along which we might watch for development in the prayer life of religious communities. There is urgent need that religious be convinced of the value of prayer and de-termined to realize its value and meaning in forms suit-able for our times and within the thought patterns of our age. We have undertaken the task of wholesale re-newal of religious life, including its most mysterious dimension, that of prayer. If we fail in this task, some-thing deep and nourishing for our lives and the life of the Church will simply die. Only if we succeed will we find strength, vitality, and meaning to enable us to make our contribution to the Body of Christ in the twentieth century. It is worth our best efforts. EDITED BY THOMAS F. O'MEARA, O.P. Community and Commitment COMMUNITY There* is a new burst of awareness and[desire for com-munity both within and without the Church. The need for community lies deep in the heart of ~tlan. Religious and apostolic life cannot find its source} realization, or sign value simply in the fact that a gr~oup of men or women dress alike and perform certain ritual actions together Human relations are too profound, too deep 1y explore~, too important for this-superfiCial bond. Why do religious live in community? In some way it must be to enable and to enrich a human, Christian, apostolic, and celibate life. Each of these aspects calls for commu-nity and must find it or be frustrated. For-the present generation, isolated and made anxious by advancing technology, community is essential. A! new view of religious life must emphasize its importan.ce and its roots in the New Testament. Community exists to help the person develop as a person, to help the Christian develop !as a Christian. Community must be an adult familial ~ommunity, for this is basic to man. If a man does not create one through marriage, he must find another form, for man cannot live totally alone ~nd live healthily. R~.ligious commu-nity life, like the Christian individual, i~ a place where nature and grace meet. The charisms of the Spirit, the times, the heritage of the order, the psychological needs of persons are an array of aspects highl:ighting the im-portance of community. Community supports the indi-vidual in his apostolate; it gives hir~ direction and encouragement. But community is not jffst the backdrop * This article is excerpted from a paper feceS,' tly prepared by a group of midwestern Dominicans. The title ofI the ful.1 paper is "Towards a Theology of the Dominican Life in the United States Today." The article presented here has been edited b~ Thdmas F. O'Meara, O.P. I + 4- 4, Father Thomas O'Meara, O.P., is a member of Aquinas Institute School of Theology; St. Rose l~riory; Dubuqqe, Iowa 52001¢ " - . ; VOLUME 28;.1959: ¢'.,' 541 T. F. O'Meara, O.P. REVIEW I~OR RE~L[GIOUS ~2 for activity; it is essential to effective Christian life and apostolate. Apostolate and community are correlatives. Neither can be defined without the other. We are in-volved in a communal apostolate and an apostolic com-munity. We do not yet know how the rather recent re-discovery of the importance of community will effect a more profound level of community life; but we do know that for the United States and the American life style this rediscovery is extremely important, perhaps more important (and more advanced) when compared to the life style of Europeans. The previous form of routine, joint prayer (which is not the same as communal prayer), tolerant charity, frustrating or limiting obedience was insufficient. It often led to seeking a "family" outside of the priory rather than bringing friends into our family. The jurid-ical description of community is insufficient, since community is primarily a human and Christian, a psy-chological and socio-theological reality. Law can neither form nor direct true community; it can only give a very few boundaries beyond which community could not exist. From these legal lines to real community is a long road, but it is a road which the Christians could begin to traverse if they would emphasize grace, not law. If the Church is a microcosm of the world, the reli-gious community is a microcosm of the society in which it lives. The religious community should be a kind or type of Christian community, a model for it. By its very existence in communal sharing and dedication to preaching the gospel, the religious community shows it is not the world. But the religious community is in the world. It shares in human communities--in their life and in their structures. By baptism and vows we look to a special fulfillment beyond the merely social community of family and city. This is possible, however, only by listening closely to the insights of the gospel, to the Church, and to the contributions of the secular sciences. Psychology can be seen as a kind of praeparatio evan-gelica for healthy community life, for charity, maturity, honesty, joy, and dedication. We must learn what is the correct size for a community of men or of women, as determined by social and psychological studies; how a community can best be directed; what is the importance of work; whether one community needs a single apostolic goal or whether these can be pluralistic. Neither theology nor canon law have all the information on this; social psychology and management planning must help. We will see below that the community is the source of authority. The superior exemplifies the spirit of the community. He inspires and coordinates the ac-tivities of the community flowing from their life and work. He is not, primarily, a secretary, a bookkeeper, or a control center for daily life. The community should be open because Christian Iove is open; the community is mature and the superior a guide rather than a controller because this reflects the Christian (not the Jewish) idea of God. No closed community is happy. Jesus Christ was not closed in upon himself. Christian community-apostles must not be just intellectually open, but emotionally and psychologically open to change, to newness, to risk. To be such, the religious community must be physically open to the com-munities it borders. Religious communities cannot be fortresses, for these are anachronistic. Rather they must be dynamic centers of the Christian prophetic word en-gaging in conversation and cooperation with the world. Privacy and silence have a purpose, but they are not absolutes; they are ordained to dialogue and mission, and so cannot object to a reasonable openness of a com-munity to those for whom we exist. Just as vatican II showed that the world was vastly complex and different, and emphasized the local church as the New Testament does, so too a new view of reli-gious life will emphasize the local community. This is where religious life will be lived or will die out. The novitiate and a few houses of so-called strict observance cannot be the norm, especially in the United States where such a "norm" would be viewed as hypocritical. The local community will either attract novices to its kind of life or none will come, since young Americans are now attracted to concrete persons and what they are doing, not to ancient saints or romantic descriptions. The local community is all-important, and the province is seen as the coordinating center of creative and respon-sible local communities. VOWS IN C01V[MUNITY The Vows as Commitment to Christian Community and Ecclesial Apostolate The vows are directed towards community member-ship and activity. Since they are acts of persons, they have personal implications such as lasting celibacy, per-sonal mortification and denial, communal sharing, and so forth. But the community dimension can no longer be eclipsed by the personal; it is the community way of life which asks for celibacy; it is a particular level of apostolic efficiency and potential which requests poverty; and obedience is basically not the submission to one man's direction in the details of li[e, but the entrance into a community with its own necessary leadership. Vows are a lasting commitment to service through corn- Community and Commitra~nt VOLUME 28, 1969 munity for the kingdom of God. Obedience is commit-ment to community; poverty exists for service, peace, and equality; chastity is essential to this kind of dedication. Because of the importance of the New Testament record and an individual's commitment, we must have a Biblical theology of commitment-in-vows. We 'must have not only a Biblical theology of the vows, but a sociology and psychology of them as well. The vows are not re-straints but liberating influences. Are the vows the same as every and any commitment to a religious community? Do they have positive sign value today, as the Council de-mands they should? Does their nomenclature get in the way? Perhaps it is possible to see different levels of active commitment following evangelical counsels: these levels would be introductory (novitiate), temporary and termi-nal (auxiliaries), permanent but open to dispensation, and final. We must be wary of stating a theology of vows in terms of any dualism or any triumphalism. We cannot take for granted our identification of virginity with virtue, poverty with righteousness, or the religious life with a higher state. The vows, like the religious life, cannot be absolutes since they are means. How can Americans rediscover, emphasize, and expli-cate the goals towards which the vows tend. If these goals die out or escape achievement, the vows no longer have any real purpose. The keeping of a vow without any purpose or success is not in keeping with Jesus' reli-gious thought. Vows are means to love, to zeal, to open-ness, to adaptation, to maturity, to Christian apostolic success, to service. Vows do not permit us to have no concern for the future of ourselves or our society, to have no interest in others, to withdraw, to escape decisions and responsibilites, persecution and defamation, to es-cape the necessity of worrying about life and livelihood, to ignore the effectiveness of our community and the Roman Catholic Church. The purpose of the vows is to communicate Christ through a personal and communal life in God. 4. 4. 4. T. F. O'Meara, O.P. REV|EW~ FOR RELIGIOUS 544 Chastity A theology of religious chastity avoids every dualism. It never loses sight of the goodness of human emotions and sexuality, the permanent role sexuality plays in a balanced personality. Chastity is not a means of not-getting- involved in the world, of "avoiding near occa-sions of sin." Chastity is not a way of playing safe, nor are sins against chastity the most horrendous of the religious life, adding "malice" to sexual disorder. A re-ligious~ chastity can be a .selfishness of great proportions. Chastity must search seriously for its justification, and each must ask whether he justifies his living of a life which is not creative of human family; he asks this question not just once at perpetual vows but throughout his life. It is not at all clear that Americans today are more involved in sexual immorality than in the past, although they are certainly barraged with the glorification of sexuality. Still, the seriousness of not sharing one's life with another human being, the potential ambiguity of sexual abstinence, and the gift of creating a family should not be set aside easily. Does celibate chastity as a commitment to a community of Christian service have the theology and sign value for today it deserves? How do religious love in a human way? How is sexuality present in a love for the community and the world? Psychology must help to determine the dynamics and limitations of chastity in each individual, and the particular conditions which this or that province or house must take into ac-count. Chastity allows for a certain level of Christian dedica-tion to the apostolate and sanctity. It is academic to ask whether this is better or best, since only the individ-ual with his God-given vocation has a "place" in the sight of God. Chastity allows (it does not insure or cause) dedication: (a) to many persons rather than a few; (b) to areas of work which are dangerous or demanding in an exceptional way; (c) to an intensity of work in quality and quantity. Chastity is connected with the revolution-ary, missionary, and suffering nature of the Christian apostolate insofar as the celibate preacher of the gospel can go where a family cannot. Ghastity and poverty allow a certain economic and social independence, a freedom from political or economic systems which may be perversely harming human life and development. Poverty Poverty is not simply the absence of normal or special consumer goods. Amid growing American affluence, poverty is an evil, and the American mentality is intent upon its elimination. Christian "poverty" can have value in America as a sign of Christian eschatology and as an identification with the downtrodden and persecuted. In the present social and political upheavals within the United States, it has become clear that some religious who "practiced" poverty (sometimes in ludicrous detail) at the same time possessed a mentality which was un-sympathetic to the poor. Poverty must be seen, then, as a sign of the worldly and transcendent kingdom of God, of the "already" and "not yet" of the Christian mission. There are three aspects of poverty within the religious life, aspects which must be constantly tested as to whether they have a contemporary voice and to whether ÷ ÷ ~ommunity and Commitment VOLUME 2~ 1969 T. F. O~Meara, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELlflIOUS they are kept in the right balance. (1) Poverty of the individual and community must be proportionate to the particular apostolate and community. Poverty must smooth the road to effective apostolate and Christian Service. We must not let privileges, traditions, "contacts" little by little lead us away from service to the poor and persecuted. (2) Poverty has sign value: it frees us for work for the kingdom of God which is coming; it pro-claims our faith in divine providence and in the power of Christ to become the center of the evolving world. Our faith in Christ above and within the world is active now and in the future. (3) Poverty frees us for work among persons and proclaims the primacy of the personal, Christian, spiritual over the material. Wealth is power; but poverty affarms faith in another power, a power which is ultimately greater because it influences not mountains or machinery but persons and ideas. Vatican II emphasized the importance of real sign value to poverty, the importance of personal poverty and of corporate poverty. The latter demands real financial sharing on a national and international level as integral to the living of the vow of poverty. The Constitution on the .Church in the Modern World asks that we take up dialogue with the world as it is. With regard to the eco-nomic dimensions, we see that technological society has given us means of great value and importance. Wealth is good, and the assumption---dominant from the origins of man--that poverty and sickness were inevitable and frequent is now questioned by American youth, scien-tists, and polity. The correct direction of this nation's wealth and power would be a greater byproduct of our dedication to poverty than our supercilious contempt of all who possess or study wealth. In short, are we "using" our poverty for people? Poverty not only allows us to be especially dedicated to apostolates, but demands that we employ well time and energy in our areas of work. Poverty can mean em-ploying secretaries, jet travel, electronic media, and so forth in order to reach in a year (or a day) thousands more than Paul or Dominic contacted in a lifetime. On the personal level, poverty can easily be rendered mori-bund by establishing a life where all needs are filled im-mediately within a fully ordered house. Poverty means lack of security but trust in God. Poverty should prepare religious for living in the present era where the models and, concepts of the religious life are being hotly debated and seriously questioned. Poverty and faith are corre-lates; poverty and routine or unchallenged life are con-tradictions. Poverty rejects any defense of the past which turns priories, publications, apostolates, liturgies, and so forth into the displays of a museum. This is espe- cially true in the United States where we have practically no past and where our mentality is future oriented. Very practically, poverty is a commitment to commu-nity life. The American religious wants to know where and who this community is. He takes for granted his right to have some information on how the large amounts sacrificed or earned are being spent. The United States' Church has experienced many cases of poor planning, excessive construction of buildings, un-needed schools and apostolate.s, waste or diffusion of sums of money. The Christian who commits himself to poverty in a community has an obligation to see that that community itself is not sinning against poverty, and clearly superiors must answer not only to God but to the members of the community who freely offer their earnings. The spirituality and life of r~ligious in the area of poverty are not helped but rather frustrated by re-mote, corporate decisions on the expense of money. Can we not expect that a religious who sees money wasted will hesitate to remain within the community or to con-tinue his work and sacrifice? Obedience Thomas Aquinas emphasized the theological impor-tance of God's creation and agents. God acts directly in His world rarely. Similarly, obedience is not just a per-sonal relationship to God, and a superior never fully takes the place of God or Jesus Christ. Obedience is a commitment to God's kingdom revealed to us in Christ as present in a special ecclesial community. Obedience like authority involves community. Americans are raised in the Anglo-Saxon tradition of law. This tradition is often almost in contradiction to certain RoMan and European philosophies of law. The British and American legal mentality looks to a mini-mum of laws and a maximum of obedience; this is allied to equity but does not tend toward dispensation. Clearly the spirit of religious constitutions of the past and the Code of Canon Law stem from another philoso-phy. That is why the Constitution of the United States with 190 years of amendments fills only a few pages, while the laws of the community of "Christian freedom" are numerous. This national difference will influence American reaction to laws, authority, and obedience in the religious life. The purpose of authority is not to rule over the de-tails of the life of children, but to enable their matura-tion and sanctity. Adulthood, participation, and deci-sion- making can and should belong to all the members of a community in a society where political maturity is taken for granted. From the point of view of charisms, Community and Commitment VOLUME 28~ 19~9 54~ T. F. O'.~e~,~'a~ O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 548 the Spirit cannot be relegated to the mind of the supe-rior, nor will educated Christians accept the point of view that the will of the superior is always God's positive (as contrasted with His permissive) will. Education and adulthood render implausible the Neoplatonic idea that the superior informs the inferiors, because he always knows--intellectually or theologically--more than they do. Rather, the superior brings to focus the will of the community when it is holy and reasonable, or solves dilemmas presented by opposing parties. Traditions of democracy, initiative, consensus, and Aquinas' emphasis on nature with grace and secondary causes under God have been obscured by later spiritual theologies. There is a crisis in communities over whether differ-ent points of view exist, or whether bureaucratic con-trol can yield to political maturity. Today's crisis of obedience cannot be solved by more laws, stricter cen-sures, and tighter controls. This will only lead to the sin of forcing schism and apostasy. Mature Christians can-not renounce their own consciences over what seems er-roneous or insignificant. The crisis of obedience shows that a new kind of person is emerging in the Western world. He is quite different from either the Medieval peasant or the European bourgeois. His education, social responsibility, and creative initiative can either be used within the community, or he can be rejected. But he will not choose to live as a non-person, stripped of his own existence and potentiality--for neither common sense nor Christian virtue would suggest that he do so. There is a crisis in the Church today centering in the realization of authority. This is not simply "a crisis of authority." What is at issue is not that authority, even that infallible authority exists, but how it exists. This crisis is of great extent and needs a solutio~frather than a repression. The crisis is stimulated by the ever in-creasing role played by the mass media in Church affairs, by Vatican II's theology of collegiality, and by the transi-tion of the Church from a feudal or immigrant power to a vital stimulus within a pluralistic society. The crisis is particularly acute in the United States due to our lack of roots in the past history of the Church, to the American political mentality, and to the tension arising from past attempts to merge these two. The future should not be allowed to witness a growing division be-tween our standard style of administration on the one hand, and the majority of religious, especially the young, on the other. The New Testament recognizes even within its nor-mative pages a certain pluralism in Church forms. An example of this is found in St. Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians, Chapters Twelve through Fourteen. Different gifts are given to different members of the Church by the same Spirit. Every member of the Church does not have the same function, just as each part of the body does not have the same function. Though these members have different rules, a unity still exists from the members' re-lationship to Christ. There is a diversity in the Church, but it is a diversity which is unified in Christ. All of these gifts are given for the upbuilding of the Church. In this view of the Church given by St. Paul, there is definitely an emphasis on a plurality in Church forms, but a pluralism which is unified in Christ. Yet, the division, isolation, and frustration felt by many religious do exist. Where does it come from? Cen-tral authority often seems to be irrelevant. Why? Perhaps because it offers negative laws post factum rather than leadership before and during the moments of decision. This kind of authority is frustrating to those who have not been consulted and whose circumstances militate against the decision taken; it is irrelevant to many who may with risk choose to prefer real community and effec-tive apostolate to belonging to a long established group. The following three ideas are guidelines by which to measure practical decisions on renewing the concrete realization of government. (1) Charity. Charity is primary. Past constitutions have given the impression that holiness and charity come infallibly from obedience. Experience teaches that this is not true. Love for the community and the in-dividuals in it must have a certain primacy over systems, machinery, and political goals. Love is prior to obedience and is the original cause of obedience. The present crisis will not be solved without a greater emphasis on love for the individual person. (2) Freedom. It is the purpose of neither the vow of obedience nor of government to plan each individual's life and day. There should be an atmosphere freely to be lived in, not a minute horarium to be conformed to. Vatican II's Church in the Modern World begins with man, his dignity, and freedom; religious should not be afraid to follow that example. The purpose of au-thority should be to offer maxrmum help with minimum legislation. (3) Comumunity. Freedom, education, and personal maturity are some of the catalysts for today's crisis in religious community. Until we are accustomed to col-legial decisions at all levels, we will have anguish and potential death in American religious institutes. Three things are involved in the government of a community vis-a-vis the new problems: (1) the struggle for real com-munity life; (2) the necessity to be, without sacrificing heritage or unity, pluralistic; and (3) the desire for the ÷ ÷ ÷ Community and Commitment VOLUME 2BI 1969 549 T. F. O'Meera, REVIEW FOR RELIGZOUS 550 apostolate to correspond to personal needs and exigen-cies of society, and to help form community. It is clear that we do not have all the answers as to how to form this new community life on either the per-sonal or the structural basis. Clearly some things must go and others stay. But we must strive towards what is mentioned immediately above, for they are fundamen-tal to what religious life claims to be. The struggle to-wards this is itself good. Complaints about impending doom and disaster fail in Christian hope. The struggle is evangelical, since the vocation and following that Jesus preached include uncertainty. In the past we created a world where we conquered the future by avoid-ing it, by being static. We must not be afraid of uncer-tainty or risk and even danger in evaluating and living life. Political philospophy tells us that there are two ques-tions in the renewal of political structure: (1) What is your model of person? What kind of people are you deal-ing with? (2) In the light of what is best suited for these persons, who decides and governs? In considering our political structures, have we overlooked the first question? In regard to the second, decision and consul-tation should penetrate into the community as far as they can. This is a principle not only of politics but of a Christian theology of virtue. Today, we do not really have conflict within the de-velopment of representation and pluralism in govern-ment; we have a conflict as to whether pluralism and collegiality should be allowed to exist at all. This con-flict is disastrous, for new forms of realizing authority in religious community can be combated in America only at the price of a Pyrrhic victory, the decline of religious life. How are mature American religious to come to realize that representation and political discussion about the leadership and direction of the order is not evil. The Acts of the Apostles record discussion among the Apostles. For an American, not to question, noi to engage in the realm of political life is to be immature. We must not allow the leaders of men and women religious (who are not on the same theological plane as bishops) to become persons who mix the sacred with the secular like kings of divine right. Some attempt must be made to open more lines of communication, to broaden the base of author-ity, to give the greatest possible representation, to recognize the responsibility of local communities for their lives, to allow for pluralism and even dissent--all within the context of religious obedience to those in of-rice. How this is to be done without weakening authority is a challenging but far from insuperable question. To ~nany [rom other cultures, the entire view may seem bizarre or even dangerous. However, it is a legitimate possibility within ecclesial religious life, and it is the normal and traditional political mentality of Americans. Actually, obedience will grow where love has primacy; zeal will become more intense where consultation (with or without final agreement) has made it feel worthwhile. While commitment to Christian community-apostolate is destroyed by depersonalization and autocracy, it is increased through openness and honesty. Community and Commitment VOLUME 28, 1969 55! ANTHONY D. HECKER, S.J. Attitudes, Unity, and Renewal ÷ ÷ ÷ Anthony Hecker, s.J., writes fa'om Coleran House; 19 Linnaean Street in Cambridge, Massa-chusetts 02138. ' REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS In this age of renewal, both in the Church and in re-ligious orders, I would like to present for your considera-tion my reflections on those factors which could inhibit renewal. I refer to the need of greater communication between the so-called "New Breed" and the consequently so-called "Old Breed." I personally would prefer to ignore all such labels not only because of the divisions which they hint at but also because of the divisive-ness which they foster. I would like to do an in-depth study of the problems which I have observed both in my own order and in other orders with which I have come into some contact. However, because of various and sundry limitations, I must acknowledge that the following is neither a total study nor an in-depth study; rather it is simply my past and present reflections con-cerning these problems, about which 1 have a genuine concern. I present these reflections to you because I think that any attempt toward renewal will become operation-ally successful only insofar as there is unity among the members of the renewing order. At present I think that there is at least some lack of unity and that the source of that lack of unity is in our attitudes toward one another. It could easily be the case that my portrayal of these attitudinal difficulties is at least excessive, at most er-roneous. Nevertheless, by presenting these reflections to you, I hope at least to foster some reflection concerning unity and ways in which it might be improved. First, I would explain that, although I am relatively "young" and am a scholastic, I do not intend to castigate merely the "old" religious. (Indeed, I would hope that nothing that I say is construed, or misconstrued, as castigation of any person or group of persons.) The problems of communication cannot be facilely attributed to any one person or group of persons; we are all re-sponsible to a greater or lesser extent. Second, I would note that the basic problem of communication has its foundation in attitudes--attitudes toward the non-peer groups, especially those attitudes which are founded on implicit, and, hopefully, not recognized, presuppositions concerning the non-peer groups. I also want to state the several presuppositions which will be implicit throughout the rest of this discussion. First, we should not confuse unity with uniformity. For example, the excessive concern with mode of dress (ex-cessive because the concern exceeds that warranted by the subject matter) is more a question of uniformity than unity. External symbols do not foster unity; they can at best point to a unity which may or may not exist. A corollary principle, which I hesitate to state because of the apparent note of castigation contained therein, is that common life does not mean reducing everything to the lowest common denominator. I would willingly and forcefully declare that common life is necessary for unity. When, however, common life is proclaimed as a principle of uniformity, as well as of unity, then not only are the unifying aspects pushed below the horizon but also any further use of common life as a principle of action and decision is viewed by the subject with suspicion and dis-trust, rightly or wrongly. A second presupposition of this discussion is that dif-ferent attitudes or manners of acting should not be so facilely assigned a value parameter. That is, when some-one's attitudes or actions are even radically different from our own, we should not assume that they are wrong; much less should we arbitrarily impute base motives to them. For example, is it not more probable that certain priests and religious prefer not to perform "folk" or "liberal" liturgies because they think that they cannot find God so easily or so fully in such liturgies because of the "distrac-tions" inherent in such liturgies, than it is that their preferences are because they are "old fogies" or "die-hard conservatives"? Conversely, is it not more probable that certain priests and religious prefer to perform "folk" or "liberal" liturgies because they think that they can find God more easily and more fully in such liturgies because those "distractions" actually aid them in lifting themselves up to God, than it is that their preferences are because they are "always seeking new and exciting things"? A preference for uniformity would demand that one or the other view prevail. A preference for unity would allow the recognition that unity is not opposed to diversity. An all-pervasive value orientation would de-mand that one or the other view be declared good or better, and that the other be declared bad or worse. A view that would recognize the worth of a value orienta-tion but would also realize that it is not universally ÷ ÷ ÷ ~/OLLIME 2$, 19~9 A. D. Hecke~;$.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 554~ applicable would allow the recognition that several different, views can prevail simultaneously. There are many ways of approaching God, even within one (Jesuit) general framework. The primary concern of this discussion, then, is to con-sider attitudes of religious toward other religious. I would begin by stating, even categorically, that dogmatism among "liberals" is at least an implicit denial of the very essence of liberalism. A liberal, if he is a true liberal, must accept the conservative on his own--the conserva-tive's- terms; a liberalism that excludes anyone because they have a different viewpoint is, at best, a caricature of liberalism. How then, can liberals castigate conservatives because they are not liberals? Should the true liberal have, and manifest, a desire to proselytize everyone everywhere, to malte everyone liberals whether they want to be or not? To all these questions I must answer, No. Lest my answer be interpreted as a non-liberal attitude toward those "liberals," I would state that my answer is based upon my own reflections concerning what a liberal is. Accordingly, I would ask those "liberals" to help me to understand their view of liberalism and how that view is compatible with their attitudes. On the other hand, I would state, even categorically, that dogmatism among "conservatives" or "traditional-ists" is at least an implicit denial of the very essence of tradition. Dogmatism here leads to fossilization of tradi-tion. Can the true conservative deny that there is any development in our understanding of God and of our relation to Him, indeed that development is inspired by the Spirit? Can the true conservative deny that there are a variety of ways of approaching God, that God can be "all things to all men"? (Would they really limit God in this way?) If they do not allow for the continuous workings o[ the Spirit, are they not left with merely the dead letter of the past? Indeed, is not this continuous and varied working of the Spirit a presupposition of Ignatius in the Spiritual Exercises (Annotations 4, 15, 18), and is it not probable that Ignatius intended these as principles of Christian living as well as principles to be used in the Spiritual Exercises? Can the true conserv-ative demand uniformity of thought--that we all think alike--rather than unity of thought--that we agree on certain common goals and then proceed in our various ways to foster attainment of those goals? Would it be possible for the conservative, and the liberal as well, to accept the distinction between "accepting a view" and "agreeing with a view" (accepting a view as valid despite the fact that it is not a view he can personally agree with)? A second attitude that I would consider is the emo- tional generalizati.on of a response to a particular aspect of another person. This attitude appears to predominate among the younger religious, perhaps only because of my greater contact with them; it might be just as prevalent among older religious. What I mean by this attitudinal problem is that, at least occasionally, a person will ob-serve a limitation in another person (real or imagined) and then proceed to generalize--the person can do noth-ing right. The particular observation becomes generalized into an attack on the person of the person. For example, a student may discover that a particular facultymember has a character fault let us say pride. Rather rapidly the student will become convinced that that person is a poor teacher and/or advisor. I will grant that I have ob-served few religious with this problem, but unfortunately some of these few are quite vociferous. Even were their judgments true, I think it an extreme lapse of charity to commit such character assassination. Unfortunately, also, too many younger religious are not critical enough in evaluating these unsolicited reports. They might hear from a vociferous few that a teacher cannot teach and readily accept it as fact, without even experiencing the teacherl Finally on this problem, too many religious, young and old alike, engage all too frequently in destructive criti-cism. It seems, at times, to be almost a preoccupation, occasionally even descending to a type of "Can you top this?" session. Needless to say, all these manifestations of the same general attitude are destructive of unity, all the more pernicious because it results in a gradual and insidious erosion of unity, unnoticed and unreflected upon. Can we not accept the limitations of each other without bandying them all about? If we must talk about the limitations of another, let us in all charity and honesty talk about them with the person most concerned--the person with the limitation. Let us build one another up in charity rather than tearing one another down, and thus destroying the very fabric of our various orders. The third and final attitudinal area I would concern myself with is that of suspicion and distrust--not al-together unrelated to destructive criticism. What I mean by this is the tendency of too many of us to presume the worst of each other and, accordingly, to impute poor motives. This attitude is, I think, founded on at least two; more fundamental problems: lack of understanding and lack of faith in the good will of others--two problems which closely interact upon each other. Lack of understanding appears to know no boundaries. It is prevalent between younger and older religious, between subjects--regardless of age--and superiors. That ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ A. D. Hecker, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS between subjects and superiors seems to be more heavily influenced by a lack of faith; it will be treated in its proper place. Conversely, the lack of understanding between younger and older religious seems to be prior to, and causative of, the lack of faith. This lack of under-standing is, I think, intimately linked with the problem of unity. Unity is not that sort of thing which can be readily and simply assumed as existing between a group of men or women with common goals; nor can it be fostered and maintained by a total reliance upon sym-bolic acts and customs. Unity is something that has to be worked at in a real way by all the members of a group. Unity demands that all in the group understand one another; and to understand one another requires both work and patience. The urgent, and apparently natural, impulse to be understood seems to force us to give a primacy to this aspect of our interpersonal rela-tions. I wonder if this is not a false assigning of priorities. Could it not be that in order to be understood we must first understand others? Could it not be that in order to express ourselves in a manner that others can under-stand, in order to express ourselves in the thought pat-terns of the others, we must first understand the others? Of course it should also be realized that to simply understand the thoughts or expressions of others does not suffice. This is merely a token or surface understand-ing. To properly understand other persons, at least an attempt must be made to understand the social, emo-tional, psychological, and philosophical tensions and views that influenced those persons during their forma-tive years. For example, do younger religious under-stand, and realize the consequences of, the circumstances in which their elders grew up? (There is the fact that absolutism was not only prevalent in theology but that it also permeated all aspects of life and thought-- Einstein and such thinkers were not public knowledge, and thus not influential on public patterns of thought, until the forties; the social sciences were not influential until the mid-fifties; apologetics was a major concern throughout the entire course of. studies. Now when apologetics is given such an all-pervasive primacy, should it be surprising that the critical faculty 'is highly devel-oped, and that there should be a great concern to preserve and protect all aspects of the Catholic faith--incidentals as well as essentials?) On the other hand, do the older religious understand, and realize the consequences of, the circumstances in which the younger religious grew up? (There is the fact that Einstein's theory was public knowledge, and thus permeated all aspects of life and thought; the social sciences Were in full flowei', and thus the greater concern about freedom and interpersonal relations; Teilhard de Chardin was influential in shaping a new worldview-- readily taught to and accepted, perhaps uncritically, by the younger men.) I do not not mean to imply by all this that the new is better than the old, nor that the old is better than the new. Rather I am attempting to point out the fact that there are in any of the orders today two--at least two--- quite different ways of viewing the world, views that underlie and permeate all aspects of life of the various persons. I reiterate, neither is better, they are just simply different. Accordingly, to understand any thought, view, or opinion of another person, that thought, view, or opinion must be understood in the context of that per-son's way of viewing the world. Of course, there will be the few, with either worldview, who are incapable of understanding the other worldview of the other person; but this does in no way imply that Christian charity is no longer needed. Because we do not understand the other person's point of view, we should not assume that he is wrong, or foolish, or operating with ill will; neither should we ridicule or antagonize him. We should ap-proach those few, then, with the realization that a greater demand may be made upon our charity--they may ridicule or antagonize us but we need not respond in kind--and with a determination that we shall improve our relations with them. These last remarks lead us to a consideration of the lack of faith in the good will of the other person. There seems to be this lack of trust between old and young; but, more importantly, there seems to be some mutual lack of trust between superiors and subjects. Certainly the latter, but I think also the former, implies a limitation in our practical spirituality. What I mean by this is that, while supernatural faith is directed primarily to God, in that very fact it should also be directed toward men. Faith in God includes faith in God's loving kindness and grace-full influence upon men, especially upon men who have committed themselves totally to God. Accordingly, to say that one has faith in God and yet to manifest a radical lack of faith in men totally committed to God involves one, to some extent, in a contradiction. To point out what I have referred to as a limitation in our practical spirituality I would use, by way of ex-ample, our attitude toward what the Jesuits refer to as the "plus-sign." We seem today to disdain the term "plus-sign" and all that it connotes. On those rare occurrences when we do use it we manifest what we think that it means. Too often we apparently mean that we have al-ready judged the other person, thus fostering a negative image of him in ourselves, but that we will give him the ÷ ÷ ÷ Renewal VOLUME 2~ 1969 557 benefit of the doubt and not report him. I submit that the "plus-sign" does not connote this negative attitude but rather one that is quite positive. It is not an act which follows upon judgment but is an act which pre-cedes judgment. It is a humble admission of the fact that too little is known of the other person, especially of his degree of deliberation, to judge him on the basis of a solitary act. It is the suspension of judgment as opposed to rash judgment. I would suggest that this might be what Ignatius was referring to in the Praesupponendum to the Spiritual Exercises. I would also reiterate that it is doubt-ful that Ignatius wrote this to be used solely in the con-text of the Exercises; rather it was intended also as a principle of Christian living. In the light of all this, when we disagree with someone in principle, or concerning policy, should we seek out negative reasons for his position, especially if we do not understand his point of view or frame of reference? When we disagree with superiors in principle, or con-cerning policy, and realize that we cannot effect a change, would it not be more healthy and mature to seek out their reasons for maintaining the present system even while we continue to represent our views? Of course another requirement of our interpersonal relations is patience. Even if superiors were to agree that some changes might be beneficial, time would often be re-quired before they could be effected. Conversely, if changes are effected, how can we be so sure that they are failures after only three or four months of operation, especially if we have had little contact with that area? I would close as I began: emphasizing that these are some of my reflections concerning unity, at least limited, possibly erroneous. It was my intention, and is my hope, that these reflections might be a means of stimulating reflections on the problems of unity and ways in which the present degree of unity might be improved. A. D. Hecker, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 558 EDWARD R. TRUBAC Long-term Financial Planning for Religious Communities Faced* with scarce resources generated by a growing number of apostolates combined with a declining number of vocations, religious communities have increasingly turned to planning in order to allocate these resources in the best way possible. However, present planning has gen-erally been of a short-term nature principally designed to meet the rather immediate needs of the religious com-munity. Many decisions have been made without a clear notion of their long-run financial implications and with-out a careful analysis of alternative proposals. In my talk I would like to begin by discussing some basic principles of planning, then apply these principles to the long-range needs of religious communities, and conclude by tracing some of the financial implications of planning decisions, Basic Principles of Planning In referring to long-range planning, I am not talking about an informal annual get-together in which adminis-trators meet to give their opinions about the course of the future. Neither am I referring to the kind of planning which is initiated because of some kind of crisis, such as a sharp decline in profits for a firm or a sudden increase in instructional expenses for a school. This kind of plan-ning is really not planning at all; in fact, it ilIustrates the costs associated with a lack of planning in which options to act and shape events are restricted as one is forced to react and adapt to a given situation. Long-range planning is a formal, organized process in which a person or group of persons is 'specifically * This is the text of a talk given on February 26, 1969, at the Conference for Religious in Financial Management held at the University of Notre Dame. ÷ ÷ Edward R. Tru-bac is assistant pro-lessor of finance; University of Notre Dame; Notre Dame, Indiana 46556. VOLUME 2~ 1969 charged with developing a plan of what the organization should look like in five or ten years; the basic purpose of the plan is to mobilize the available resources of the or-ganization in a way that will best achieve its objectives: Firms which have adopted formal plans often seek new ventures through mergers, acquisitions, product line diversifi-cation, or market expansion. They are not satisfied with main-taining the status quo unless they determine, after careful analysis, that this is the best possible course of action. And, in some instances, a company can improve its performance significantly by planning ways to increase the efficiency of cun-ent operations, rather than following the more glamorous but more risky diversification route? To repeat, long-range or strategic planning, to use the more popular term, is essentially concerned with the eval-uation of alternative courses of action (with the stress on the word alternative) in an effort to select the best course of action for the future. And by best course of action, I mean the one that best meets the objectives of the organi-zation. ÷ ÷ ÷ Edward R. Trubac Planning Principles and the Long-Term Needs of Religious Communities This approach is obviously applicable to religious communities as well as to business firms. Like firms, re-ligious communities have in the past few yeais become more actively engaged both in "product line diversifica-tion" and efforts designed to improve the efficiency of current operations. For example, some alternatives that might be grouped within a long-term planning framework for a typical religious community would be: (a) Should the community continue to own and op-erate small hospitals, should only large ones be consid-ered, or should the community relinquish ownership ~ind merely staff hospitals and homes? (b) Is it advisable to continue the two-year college in its present form on the motherhouse campus or should it be discontinued and a house of formation set up near a university campus? (c) Should the community continue in elementary edu-cation, should expansion in secondary schools be consid-ered, or should sisters accept teaching positions in secular institutions? (d) Should a religious community operate only in schools andhospitals, or should many of the members be actively engaged in some of the various types of social work that are open to today's sister? A correct though obviously superficial answer to the REV1EW FOR RELIGIOUS x Harold W. Henry, "Formal Long-range Planning and Corpora-tion Performance," Michigan Business Review, November, 1968, 560 p. above questions would be to do what you think is best. But what is best is again dependent on your objectives. And while you may start with general goals, acceptable guidelines for decision-making must be phrased in con-crete and measurable terms. Here business firms have a decided advantage over non-profit organizations. For while a firm may have as its general objective the opera-tion of a diversified, growing, and profitable worldwide manufacturing business, its specific objective will prob-ably be couched in terms of a specified rate of return on investment; the evidence of the firm's success in meeting this goal can easily be gleaned from its financial report. For the typical religious community, the honor and glory of God and the sanctification of its members would adequately reflect its general objectives, these goals to be specifically achieved through the external works of char-ity of caring for the sick, social work, and the education and training of youth. But while the subobjectives of business firms (for example, a specified rate of return on investment) lend themselves to rather precise measure-ment and, therefore, evaluation, those of religious com-munities do not. First, it is difficult to identify measurable goals in health care, social work, and education, particu-larly Catholic education. And if you cannot specify your objectives in measurable terms, how can you accurately evaluate your operations? This is a problem that most non-profit institutions have in common. Moreover, even if you could express the objectives of each apostolate in meas-urable terms, there would still be the problem of com-paring different units of measurement; in other words, a firm can estimate the expected contribution of each new venture or product in terms of a common denominator-- profit. But how does a religious community, trying to maximize the benefits from its various activities, compare the gains from medical care with the gains from educa-tion when these benefits are expressed in different units of measurement? Finally, religious congregations are faced with the unique problem of structuring a community life that will maximize spiritual development as they al-locate their resources to their various works. Measurable Guidelines for Allocating Resources to the Various Apostolates Because of the difficulties in defining measurable units of output, value judgments will necessarily play a large role in the choice of community works. However, I do think there are some objective guidelines that should not be ignored. First, religious communities are constrained in selecting apostolic works by the specialized nature of their resources, both people and buildings. While people probably constitute the chief constraint, I am familiar ÷ ÷ Financial Planning VOLUME 213, 1969 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS with several cases o~ communities who have experienced difficulties in changing the pattern of their activities be-cause of the problems involved in liquidating their in-vestment in buildings and equipment. Now when I use the term constraint in referring to people, I do not mean to use it in a negative sense. If members of a religious community are competent in and motivated toward, for example, the medical care field, then the community should be in that area (one of the first steps in the planning process should be an inventory of talents and attitudes for the various works). Each apostolate can easily be broken down into several sub-apostolates that are in urgent need of competent and highly motivated people. To take the medical care apos-tolate as an example: (a) Religious communities strong in administrative personnel will continue the traditional pattern of ownership and manage-ment. (h) Some will wish to retain ownership and policy making responsibility but will be unwilling to pr.epare religious for administration. They will utilize religious m direct service to patients and in purely spiritual roles and will be obliged to place administration in the hands of seculars. (c) Others may give only direct care while still others, de-pending on their preferences and training, may engage in home nursing, care for the aged or programs for retarded and handicapped people.* Financial Considerations in the Planning Process Financial considerations must also play a roIe in plan-ning the optimal mix of activities. I would like to see religious communities, in formulating their long-term plans, estimate their expected net financial return on in-vestment in each of the apostolates under consideration; that is, they should calculate the financial costs and bene-fits of each apostolate. I am certainly not suggesting that if a community never expects to cover its expenses from a particular activity that it should drop that work. What I am saying is that it would be very useful to identify the apostolates that are expected to operate at financial losses over the next five to ten years. Because if projections show that certain activities will not generate sufficient income to meet expenses, then a decision to subsidize that apos-tolate will have to be made in the light of projected total financial resources, including income on investments, con-tributions, debt financing, surplus generating apostolates or a combination of all these approaches. I should like to digress for a moment and mention that while the expansion or contraction of investments in the various apostolates should not hinge merely on their ex- ~John J. Flanagan, S.J., "What I~ the Catholic Hospital Apos-tolate?" Hospital Progress, March, 1966, pp. 50-1. pected financial returns, there are other investments, those which are not directly involved in attaining the objec-tives of the order, where financial factors should domi-nate. Here I am including not only financial assets such as stocks and bonds but also such assets as the farm owned by many religious congregations. Apart from special con-siderations, such as the community's sensitivity to charges of its being land rich, the farm should be evaluated solely on the basis of its expected financial rate of return. The evaluation technique would basically first involve deter-mining the current investment in the farm in terms of equipment and building values plus the current market value of the land. One would estimate the net dollar re-turn on the farm for the next five or ten years including as your return both estimated net income from the farm and expected appreciation bf land values. An expected rate of return should then be secured by discounting these future dollar returns to the present; this rate would be compared to the return on alternative investment op-portunities. If the expected rate of return on the farm is less than 5%, the existing rate on time deposits, then one would be well advised on that basis to dispose of the farm. Determining the Costs of Apostolates In calculating the expected net financial return from each apostolate, the first step would be to examine cost experiences in the recent past as a basis for future cost projections; data for the past three to five years should be sufficient for this exercise, although it should be stressed that the usefulness of past data for projection purposes is inversely related to the degree of change experienced by the community in the recent past. Securing this infor-mation may well present some problems since the stand-ard chart of accounts used by many religious communi-ties is not structured around the various apostolates. There are usually separate accounts for the generalate, provincialate, and local houses; in addition, expenses are usually categorize.d along input (salaries, travel expenses, supplies, and so forth) and institutional (junior .college on the motherhouse campus) lines rather than focusing on the various outputs (medical care, educational work, social work) of the community. The junior college prob-ably serves more than one apostolate and these educa-tional costs should be allocated to the various works of + the community. In the same vein, the category travel ex- + penses will also include costs associated with a variety of ~" apostolates. In addition, an attempt should be made, where possible, to allocate administrative expenses among .1~i.na~.ia't P!anning the different works of the community. I am not advocat-ing a wholesale overhaul of the accounting systems, of VOLUME aa, ~96~, religious communities. I am merely suggesting a supple- 563 REV]EW FOR RELIGIOUS mental technique designed specifically for long-term plan-ning purposes that will facilitate the cost projections for each of the various apostolates. In ferreting out all costs, the focus should primarily be on the educational, administrative, maintenance, and re-tirement costs associated with placing and sustaining peo-ple in the various apostolates; per capita expenses in each of these categories for each of the apostolates should be derived, summed, and projected into the future; this re-suiting figure should then be multiplied by the estimated number of people in each of the community's activities in order to secure a total estimated cost figure for each apos-tolate. Capital expenditures on building and equipment directly associated with the works of the community (par-ticularly hospitals and colleges as a result of the contin-uing trend toward separate ificorporation and ownership) should ordinarily not be treated as an expense to the com-munity although there are certainly numerous cases where, for example, debt service requirements generated by building programs could not be met by the school or hospital and constituted a severe financial drain on the religious community. One of the great advantages of identifying costs, for ex-ample, the costs of educating sisters, is that it permits one to price and compare alternative approaches to supply-ing the same or approximately the same type of educa-tion. Although I will readily admit that considerations other than financial are extremely important and even overriding in certain situations, still the right kind of fi-nancial information will at least permit a comparison of the costs of sending a person to be educated at the junior college for sisters on the motherhouse campus with the cost of education at a university. The question of which costs less will require careful analysis but the cost differ-ential will probably not be as great as might be deter-mined from examining the accounting records of many religious communities; that is, the cost may not be ap-preciably less to send a person to junior college and may, in fact, be more expensive. One of the hidden costs I am alluding to is the failure of many religious communities to fully account for the contributed services of the mem-bers of the order who are teaching in these colleges. By contributed services, I mean in this case the salary that a member of the religious community could have earned teaching at a university minus her maintenance costs at the motherhouse that are met by the community. For ex-ample, if the subsistence needs of a religious teaching at a junior college for sisters are valued at $2,000 a year while she could have earned $10,000 annually teaching at a university, then the contributed services would total $8,000. A recent survey by one of the graduates of our program in institutional administration indicated that only 50% of the junior colleges surveyed included con-tributed services in their budget as an expense to be met by the community. This omission gives a very distorted picture of the true costs of operating junior colleges. A less hidden but perhaps more controversial cost is that of depreciation. The traditional argument against non-profit institutions depreciating their capital assets is that the needed funds are not generated from operating income as with a business firm, but are commonly ob-tained through fund-raising campaigns. I feel, however, that all costs should be identified, regardless of how they are met. Moreover, communities may find donations to be a very undependable source of funds in the future. As a further point, most hospitals depreciate their capital as-sets. This policy on the part of hospitals of accounting for depreciation has been given added stimulus by third party payments which explicitly recognize depreciation as a reimbursable cost (for example, Medicare). As these third party payments become more widespread in the area of education, accounting for depreciation expenses will correspondingly grow in popularity. Again, it should be emphasized that identifying the education costs of sisters prods administrators to trace out alternative cost patterns. Another possibility, for ex-ample, is the growing practice of affiliate membership in which the person finances her own college education if at all possible, but maintains regular contacts with the con-gregation. This policy, of course, would be the least ex-pensive (it would also meet the problem of people leav-ing the community after being educated but before earning any return for the community); but the issue of the impact on vocations would certainly have to be care-fully explored. A similar analysis should be applied to maintenance, administrative, and retirement costs. Past cost data allo-cated among the various apostolates should be secured as a basis for projecting total costs in the future. The pro-jected cost of current procedures should then be com-pared with cost projections of alternative ways of meeting these needs. Projecting Net Financial Returns from Each of the Apostolates After the cost information has been properly processed, the last step in this exercise would require the projection of net financial returns for each of the various apostolates. These financial returns vary widely, depending on the particular activity. It should come as no surprise that the financial returns to religious communities are particu-larly meager from the Catholic secondary and elementary ÷ ÷ + Finandal Planning VOLUME 28, 1969 REVIEI/V FOR RELIGIOUS school apostolates. For religious teaching in colleges and universities and especially for those working in the medi-cal care area where contributed services are considered as reimbursable costs, the financial returns are competitive with those received by lay people with similar qualifica-tions and experience. But the salary and fringe benefits received by the typical sister teaching in a Catholic ele-mentary school (and this is irrespective of whether the school is community or diocesan owned) falls far short of even meeting the expenses incurred by the community in placing the sister in that position. The most detailed in-formation concerning this issue has been derived from Father Ernest Bartell's study on the financing of Catholic education. The data go back to 1963-64, but they serve their illustrative purpose. They show that the per capita contributed services of religious teaching in two dioceses averaged $5425 in one diocese and $3572 in the other.3 Contributed services are specifically defined as the salary that could have been earned by the religious teaching in the public school minus all recorded parish expenditures on behalf of the religious teachers, including cash sal-aries, gifts, and convent maintenance. In addition, a rental charge imputed on the parish investment in con-vent living facilities should be deducted; this charge would be equivalent to the earnings foregone by the parish on a comparable commercial investment. In his study Father Bartell also estimated that if one religious order teaching in one of the dioceses were just to break even and recoup its educational and retirement investment in its members, then it would have had to re-ceive $1057 yearly from each of its teachers over an aver-age working life of 40 years, even assuming that these payments could be invested at 5% during the lifetime of the religious teacher.4 Since the members of this order annually remitted, after current expenses, only $360 each back to the motherhouse, the $700 difference might be looked upon as a subsidy paid by the religious commu-nity to the diocese. Now, I am not going to strongly argue for or against this particular subsidy although I do believe that alter-native ways of reducing it should be carefully examined. One way might be to negotiate with diocesan authorities for salary increases. Another possible approach might be state aid where the contributed services of the sister would perhaps be recognized as a reimbursable cost, as in the medical care field. Or the community might simply 8 Ernest J. Bartell, C.S.C., "Efficiency, Equity and the Economics of Catholic Schools," Catholic Education Today and Tomorrow: Proceedings of the Washington Symposium on Catholic Education, 1968, pp. 12-3. *Ibid., p. decide that its estimated total financial resources will be sufficient to subsidize this apostolate. Conclusion In conclusion, I would like to see a statement along the following hypothetical lines included in the formal plan of each religious community. In deciding on the op-timum amount of resources to be devoted to apostolate A, B, C, and D, we have considered alternative ways of meeting the expenses associated with each activity and have chosen the best alternative for each. Next, in esti-mating the net financial benefits [or each of the aposto-lates over the next five to ten years, we project that activ-ity A will run a large deficit. But despite this expected deficit, we wish to keep our commitment to this aposto-late and estimate that apostolates B, C, and D will gener-ate a surplus of a sufficient size which when combined with income on investments and expected donations will meet the deficit in A. I strongly feel that this type of approach will add a more realistic dimension to community planning. Finandal Planning VOLUME 28, 1969 567 LOUIS TOMAINO Religious Community and the Johari W ndow ÷ ÷ Louis Tomaino is the associate di-rector of Worden School of Social Service; Our Lady of the Lake Col-lege; San Antonio, Texas 78207. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 568 The building of effective human community is gen-erally regarded as one of the most critical issues facing religious orders now and in the near future. Such community spirit is essentially a group phenomenon and it may be that certain findings in group dynamics are very relevant to religious communities. In this paper we are concerned mainly with communities of women. In evaluating the kinds of relationships present in human community, a conceptual model designed by Joe Luft and Harry Ingham for use in the National Train-ing Laboratories seems particularly helpful. It is called the Johari Window.1 This model, although not prepared specifically for religious, states that the sister by her actions and words in the community, projects a kind of "window" of herself which is viewed by others. Other members of the community likewise project similar windows and the sum total of these projections is a powerful dynamic which fashions group relationships in that community. The Johari Window represents four kinds of informa-tion which governs the flow of relationships among community members involved. This includes: A. Things the sister knows about herself and the community and about her feelings about others. B. Things the sister does not know about herself and the community and about her relationships with others. C. Things others in the community know about the sister and the community. D. Things others do not know about sister and the community and about the relationships therein. By "things" we mean sisters' thoughts, impulses, desires, fears, fantasies, prejudices, hopes, dreams and goals. Thus, sister's Johari might look like this: a Joseph Luft, "Johari's Window," Human Relations Training News, v. 5 (1961), p. 6. Things known by others Things unknown by others Things known by sister THE ARENA (open area of the re-lationship) THE FACADE (are~ of hidden de-fenses) Things unknown by sister THE BLIND SPOT (realities not recog-nized) THE UNKNOWN (unexplored reali-ties) 1. The Arena--This is that part of the relationship which is open: ". the cards are on the table." This refers to that part of sister that is completely honest because she faces community issues in the open. When group issues or problems are known and faced by all members openly, we say that these things are in the arena. 2. The Blind Spot This area comprises those thoughts, feelings, and so forth which sister has, but of which she is not aware. However, others in the com-munity do see these things in her because her actions and words make them visible. For example, the sister with definite authoritarian leanings may not recognize this tendency in her interactions with others, but others see itl 3. The Facade--This area consists of feelings, moti-vations, and so forth which sister has, but keeps hidden for whatever reason, oftentimes because she may con-sider their revelation as inappropriate. Therefore, while she knows these things about herself, other community members are not able to perceive them. 4. The Unknown--This includes those aspects of sister's group relations which are unexplored, latent, unconscious, and simply not known. The goal in building community is to make the Arena as large as possible so that conditions for com-munication are improved through openness, free inter-change and productive action. Everything we have said so far about sister can truly be said about community. Realistically, the obstacles to developing real com-munity cannot be dealt with until they are known. These hurdles cannot even be accurately identified until sister and the community develop an open arena where issues can be placed. Therefore, how does one go about establishing a large arena? Let's consider two processes termed exposure and feedback and how they may be utilized to alter sister's Johari. If she really opens up with other sisters, if she + lohari Win¢lo~ is not too insecure to discuss her own doubts and questions, sister will be revealing something of her-self. This is exposure. She will humanize herself by demonstrating that she too is subject to many of the hazards faced by others. Whitaker2 refers to four kinds of openness. Verbal openness, or the process of using direct words to express to another exactly what we mean. ,4ffective openness or the sharing with others our personal experience of boredom, depression, anger, warmth, fantasy, and physical contact. Physiologic open-ness as shown through expressing a blush, hunger, or a headache. No purpose openness is the occasional idle hour, the no-point-in-it encounter, where people are "just there" with no visible goals in mind. To do this comfortably requires real open-endedness. In performing these kinds of things the sister shows part of herself and neutralizes some of her facade. The horizontal line of the Johari is moved downward, thereby enlarging the arena, eliminating some facade and mak-ing the unknown area smaller. Feedback means simply a way of securing some knowl-edge about ourselves as individuals and as community members. It is indispensable to establishing lines of communication and to changing ourselves. This idea urges that the sister create opportunities whereby others may give her feedback on herself. This feedback might tell her things about herself which she did not previously know and thereby elimi-nate some blind spot. The perpendicular line of the Johari" is moved laterally which makes the arena larger, the blind spot smaller, and the unknown is further diminished. If the Sister desires and secures both feedback and exposure, her Johari would look like this: Feedback REVIEW'FOR RELIGIOUS ~ Carl Whitaker, M.D., "Open Communication from the Psycho. therapist," Existential Psychiatry, Spring, 1966, pp. 55-8. The large arena suggests that something is really happening in the life of this sister. Blind spots (I didn't realize you thought I didn't like you) are clarified. The unknown is decreased (I'm glad we both know how we feel on this point), and energies previously used to maintain facades are now diverted to more constructive purposes. The possibilities for communica-tion and change are vastly enhanced with things now put into the arena where they can be managed. We are suggesting, in effect, that those religious groups characterized by large arenas have created conditions favorable to building effective community. The sum of individual Johari's in the group tends to promote a general or average Johari for the whole community. The larger the arena, the greater the chance for ef-fective community. The question might indeed he raised: Of what value to community life are blind spots, facades, or unknowns? Some other, and extreme, windows sometimes seen in both individuals and communities are as follows: The large unknown tells that this sister desires neither feedback nor exposure. She is strictly official and operates by "the rule." Other sis-ters never get to know her. In this situation the sister is willing to expose, hence the small facade. She tolerates no feedback from others in the community and thereby does not know what others think of her. This sister constantly seeks feed-back from others but is not willing to put herself "on the line" with others. Hence the large facade. Too much facade breeds conditions for mistrust. Needless to say, the climates generated by such win-dows are not conducive to developing the kinds of + atmospheres associated with productive community life. + ÷ Some Findings about Sisters Jay Hall and Martha Williams developed a Personnel Relations Survey~ inventory of 60 items which, when s Jay Hall and Martha Williams, Personnel Relatio~ Survey, ~ohari Window VOLUME 28, 1969 571 taken by individuals, projects for them a personal Johari Window profile. Group profiles can also be averaged out on this test. In the past year this writer has administered the Johari Test to approximately 600 sisters from various congregations as part of Group Dynamics Workshops. Using a total sample of 500 sisters we are able to secure interesting data on the kinds of windows projected by sisters. Hall and Williams constructed their questionnaire in such a way that it yields a Johari for the respondent relative to his subordinates, to his colleagues, and to his superiors. It also illustrates an "average" Johari for each respondent. The generalizations about sisters which can be made from the 500 taking the test are these: 1. Sisters tend to be slightly more open than other groups tested in workshop (ex-school teachers, social workers, policemen). Given the goals and values of religious group life, however, the sisters do not appear to be significantly more open than other less cohesive groups. 2. Sisters tend to be less open with their superiors than with subordinates or colleagues. This may be a product more of unapproachable superiors than of reti-cent sisters. Sisters revealed greater facade with su-periors than with the other two groups. 3. Arenas were larger with colleagues than with the other two groups. 4. Sisters seem to be more concerned with feedback than with exposure which seems to be typical of most groups. Out of a possible high score of 50 the sisters tallied an average score of 35 for feedback and 29 for exposure. In summary the general relationship tendencies of the 500 sisters appeared as shown on following page. Looking at the type of window projected by sisters suggests information which may be helpful in develop-ing greater openness among sisters, hence more effective community. The survey shows that sisters tend to be less open with superiors than with the two other groups. How can openness be achieved in this area? Many modern theo-logians stress the fact that religious obedience can be thought of as a shared responsibility. The Holy Spirit speaks through the entire community and not only through the superior. It seems, therefore, the re-sponsibility of each individual sister to contribute to REVIEW FOR RELI$10U$ unpublished training inventory, Southwest Center for Law and the 572 Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, 1965. E u r e 5 10 15 20 '25 30 35 45 50 5 Feedback ) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 community development by sharing her ideas, sugges-tions, and other Johari "things" with others. If the spirit works through each person, how can the commu-nity know the will of God if each is not willing to share? In making decisions which affect the community each sister assumes a great responsibility. It has been found that decisions reached via consensus tend to be more accurate than individual or minority decisions. Consensual thinking in the community can be gained through open discussion, sharing, and listening on the part of each community member. Although arriving at such decisions in community meetings may be time consuming, their very importance suggests that the group might well afford the time involved. Creating an atmos-phere of openness requires conscious work over months or even years. Thus, we seem to be saying that human community can be nurtured by development of a large arena through the conscious use of both openness and feed-back. The documents of Vatican II, especially the Church in the Modern World, lend eloquent support to this idea as seen in the following statements: h¯f eT wheh epnr itmheit mivue lCtithuudrec hof. pbreohveivdeerds ,w aenr ee xoaf monpele h oefa rct oamndm ounneity mind, and found nourishment in the teaching of the gospel and in the sacred liturgy, especially the Eucharist. Let such a life continue in prayerfulness and a sharing of the same spirit. As Christ's members living fraternally together, let + ÷ lohari Window VOLUME 28, 1969 573 them excel one another in showing respect and let each carry the other's burdens. For thanks to God's love poured into hearts by the Holy Spirit, a religious community is a true fam-ily gathered together in the Lord's name and rejoicing in His presence . In fact, brotherly unity shows that Christ has come; and from it results great apostolic influence (Decree on the Appropriate Renewal o[ the Religious Li[e, n. 15). Thus it is evident to everyone that all the faithful of Christ of whatever rank or status are called to the fullness of the Christian life and to the perfection of charity. By this holi-ness a more human way of life is promoted even in this earthly society (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 40, par. 3). The People of God and the human race in whose midst it lives render service to each other. Thus the mission of the Church will show its religious, and by that very fact, its su-premely human character (The Church in the Modern World, n. 11). Let .chapters and councils faithfully acquit themselves of the govermng role given to them; each should express in its own way the fact that all members of the community have a share in the welfare of the whole community and a responsibility for it (Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life, n. 14). Christ arouses not only a desire for the age to come, but by that very fact, He animates, purifies and strengthens those noble longings too by which the human family strives to make its life more human (The Church in the Modern World, n. 38, par. 3). Through her individual members and her whole commu-nity, the Church believes she can contribute greatly toward making the family of man and its history, more human (The Church in Modern World, n. 40, par. 5). ÷ ÷ Louis Tomaino REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 574 JOSEPH F. ROCCASALVO, S.J. The Presence of Christ in Christian Community The presence of Christ in the Christian community is a fascinating topic, but one that is not easy to treat in a free and familiar style. This is so, because we face a difficult and important question: how can we adequately recognize this presence in our experience. In reading any answer, no matter how well formulated, we must avoid the mistake of expecting too much. The bodily Christ is hidden from our view. Unlike the Apostles who walked with Him in Jerusalem or stood close by when He preached from the waters of Galilee, His visible counte-nance cannot now be seen, touched, or handled. It is not that we feel He hides Himself capriciously; yet there are times when we are overwhelmed by our desire to see Him, without resorting to any writer's conception or artist's portrait. We are tempted to cry out: "Christ, come forthI Let Your loyal followers look upon You. Draw the screen that conceals Your presence from our hu-man eyes." But despite our pleas there is no physical ap-pearance, and we would not dare to hope for one. In addressing myself to the preceding difficulty, I shall formulate my answer through an indirect use of con-cepts. By this I mean that such concepts will try to illumine for the reader the experience they point to, without intending to adequate it entirely. Since we are dealing with the most personal dimension of Christianity, our faith or commitment to a Person, its ultimate signifi-cance must lie beyond the frontier of language in the do-main of mystery. Yet granting this radical incommuni-cability in the final analysis, one may use concepts as long as it is remembered that they are open to the term towards which they aspire. The reader, then, must be like one who contemplates an horizon. Beyond the outline of words he seeks perspectives which he can barely discern but which draw him precisely because of the mystery he + Joseph A. Roc-casalvo, s.J., is a member of Wood-stock College in Woodstock, Mary-land 21163. VOLUME 28, 1969 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Roccasa~o, $.$. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS senses in them. The formulation is of value, not only for what it says, but also for what it may suggest. As a point of departure for this analysis, we must start with our experience. In assigning content to this word we take. it to mean the whole range o~ the self's active relationship with the other, or the entire range of reality as disclosed to me and to which I respond. But this is my experience: it is the real as disclosed to one who is a Christian, committed to the Church and the faith of the Church. Since faith is part of my experience, part of the real as disclosed to me, it must necessarily be a Christian experience, including all that the life of faith includes. Here it must be recalled that my faith is first and foremost a commitment to a Person who has invited me to share a life in which He Himself will be my ful-fillment. In other words, my faith is a total response of mind and heart to Christ who has entered my world and lived His li~e in our midst. What, then, is the purpose of a Christian who reflects upon his experience to which his faith is interior? Since my personal relationship with Christ is a lived conviction, an intimate part of the reality that discloses itself to me, I shall try in my reflection to spell out the implications of this total commitment. I undertake this task because I am compelled by my freedom to take a personal stand towards my life and to be fully responsible for that stand. I must use the reasoned reflection of the philo-sophical method to avoid doing this naively. In brief, I shall try to discern by analysis how my personal commit-ment to Christ makes Him present to me, not in terms of revelation or the magisterium of the Church, but as dis-closed in my lived experience. This reflection, then, will help make me a more responsible and responsive Chris-tian. As I have indicated, the faith which is interior to my lived experience is fundamentally a personal commit-ment of mind and heart to the Person of Clu-ist. He has spoken to me in time, using words which He has in-tended for all men. Included within these words is the promise of continued presence, in spite of visible ab-sence: "Where two or more are gathered in my name, I am in the midst"; or, "If anyone will love me. I will mani-fest myself to him." Still again He tells us: "I am with you all days, even to the consummation of the world." While I cannot expect that His presence will be manifest by some physical appearance, I may rightly expect, through trust in His personal promise, some kind of experimental awareness of His presence in and through the gathered Christian community. Our inquiry can be placed in the form of a thesis statement: whether or not there is a special presence of Christ, experienced within the Chris- tian community. If there is, how can it be described phenomenologically, and what are the requisites for this partictalar theophany? Our question can be restated more dynamically: when I experience my witness to this Person in communion with other Christians, how does He "draw nigh"? Is His presence a diffused, unthematized one, con-comitant with the consciousness of the Christian com-munity; and if this is so, how may it be thematized upon reflection? This analysis, of course, does not necessarily exclude His coming-to-presence in other ways. Before we can discover what is the special character of Christ's presence in the witnessing Christian community, we must first analyse the meaning of this rather elusive word. ~Nhat does it mean to have someone or something present? The dictionary tells us. that the word is used in at least two distinct senses: first, it can mean physical presence, namely, that which is or stands before one, in view or at hand; that which is spatially located in this place and not elsewhere. Second, the word may have a temporal significance, referring to contemporaneous pres-ence, or that which is not past or future, but is operative in the time that is now. It is precisely in these two senses of physical and contemporaneous presence that phe-nomenologists like Luijpen have described man's terres-trial life as an intentional existence in and towards the world through knowledge and love. Through knowledge the world is physically and con-temporaneously present to my consciousness as I am to it, for to know is simply to exist as present with the world. Therefore, it is through this co-presence of knowledge that the world begins to disclose itself and be for a man. ~,Vithin this disclosure the meaning of the world refers itself to other human presences, so that as I live I realize that the world presents itself, not merely for me, but for the other also. The world is present to us both, one we mutually encounter. My presence in the world is emi-nently co-presence. Gradually I begin to realize that the presence to me of persons is radically different from things. While the latter are unaware of me, in fact, are indifferent to my stature as a man, my presential awareness of persons tells me that they may take my presence uniquely into account, re-sponding warmly to my whole world of needs, concerns, and achievements. I have given the other access to myself in a way that is beyond the power of things. Of course, the responsiveness of the other to me is subject to degrees of encounter. For instance, I can meet someone with cordiality, shake hands with him, and sit down to dinner and conversation. On the other hand, I can speak to the same person on the telephone, or merely notice him on the opposite side of the street without speaking to him at The Pr,~ence o~ Christ 4, ÷ Joseph F. l~occo~a~vo, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS all. Our mutual presence to one another can remain on a distant, functional level, or it can open itself to more pro-found degrees of responsiveness. Through love my reply to the other's presence is a reply to his unique personhood. He has become for me a cen-ter of new meaning, so that whenever he comes within the range of my presence, I experience an appeal to con-sent to his, to accept it, to support and share it. He now becomes a presence which I cherish, someone who stands lovingly before me when he is visibly in view. Even when he is physically absent, his unique subjectivity grows into an atmosphere which encompasses me and abides, despite the most engrossing tasks. This is what is meant by being-loved. The other's loving presence makes my personal life be more fully and by his affection, aids and favors it. I no longer face the future as an isolated self-presence, and this alone is perhaps the most profound witness of love's contemporaneity: it has created a "we" that brings plenitude and happiness. Having seen from the preceding analysis how the per-son is present, to me through knowledge and love, we can now pass on to the next step in our analysis of Christ's communal presence. Since the Christian community is fundamentally made up of persons who confess a com-mitment to this Person as interior to their, experience, for the sake of ordered procedure we shall first describe the growth of the individual person's unique response to Christ, and then inquire what role the community played in its development. Someone may object, however, that description of such an affective relationship with Him is difficult, if not impossible, because as subject of my love, He does not come within the scope of the senses. This objection would be valid, were His visible presence abso-lutely necessary to sustain such a relationship. But as we shall see, bodily absence does not a priori exclude a personal confrontation with Him. Since "He was made in all things like unto man, sin alone excepted," or, in other words since He is wholly man, my loving commit-ment to Him will follow an interpersonal pattern. He will not let me doubt His intimate friendship with me, nor will He let me think that He is far removed to another sphere or order of creation. We are both persons, and to ascertain the degrees of encounter with one another is to see applied the formulations derived, from the phe-nomenology of love. Let us look back, for a moment, and see how presential knowledge of Him blossomed into the presence of love. As a Christian who steps back and reflects upon the history of his love for Christ, I discover that initially my contact with Him was a certain mild acquaintance, mostly derived through insertion in the world of other Christians. Through dialogue this man was seen as a source and center of activity, a Person of boundless understanding, tender heart, and constancy in action. There was a certain generous and uplifting quality about Him, which made Him both admirable and attractive. The personal dynamism of this man was present to me as something known, though somehow memorable. He was contemporaneously present to my life via the intentional-ity of knowledge. Gradually the knowledge of this man becomes in-teriorized and the remoteness of history vanishes. He is no longer a figure of the past, nor His life a fact of some past history, preserved through a lasting record. His words have a vitality which make them come alive for me, while those of other men are dead, or living only in books and monuments left behind. This man's words are timeless, and as they have beckoned to all men of all ages, they beckon to me now and call for my response: "I am the way and the truth and the light"; and again, "Come to me all you who are burdened and I will refresh you." The sheer radiance of.this man becomes indispensable in my eyes and wakens me to a new life. Admittedly His presence is not a bodily one, but in some ineffable way, His spirit is operative and quickens me now, so that He is contemporaneous with my life. His appeal to come and follow Him, to accept, support, and share His subjec-tivity is one to which I utter an uncompromising yes. I commit myself to this Person, adopt His name, and set Him up for my ideal. He is now not merely one whom I respect at a distance, but one for whom I care. I plan my destiny not alone, but with Him, for He is more to me than some unblemished truth or way of enlightenment. My whole being is seized by the desire to let Him be as He declared Himself: my very God. He is now the center of my experience, my faith, and what formerly existed as an object known in the knower, is now replaced by one who is cherished as a beloved is in a most intimate friend. This sense of togetherness between Christ and myself does not involve His bodily presence, to be sure. But it is not absolutely necessary that there be such a nearness to sustain our love. In order for two people to continue loving one another, it is not requisite that each be visibly on hand for the other. In fact, in the separation of two people in love, their affective response is still a con-temporaneous experience of a lasting bond. Their mu-tual love, despite distance, remains as a tonality, as an abiding atmosphere that permeates each other no matter what the task. How often have we heard it said: "I do not forget you; you are always in my thoughts." We do not reflect on the deep reality that lies beneath these words. We do not understand, or rather, realize, that when two ÷ ÷ The Presence Christ VOLUME 28, 1969 ,579 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Roccasalvo, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 580 persons are united in love, they do not need to lie visibly side by side like two bodies. They are already in each other. This is the principle of all love union, and in particular, of the intimate friendship which is that union's highest form. So it is with myself and Christ to whom I have committed my life. Indeed I look forward hopefully (as anyone who has loved) to the time when we may be reunited in a face to face encounter. But for the extent of my waking life, this Person shall remain an abiding presence for me, operative within the center of my experience. At this point in our analysis, someone might offer the following conscientious objection: how was it possible to have achieved such a loving relationship with Christ, let alone sustain His contemporaneous presence, when one never had the occasion to confront Him in person? Is it not necessary to "ground," in some way, my power to respond? It is here that one must analyse the delicate role of the Christian community in aiding the growth of my personal commitment to Christ. Since I have discovered Him as the personal center of my life, He has also been disclosed as that center to which the common-unity of Christians offer their affirmation of love. Therefore, my commitment to this Person is not an insulated one. In fact, His presence as a presence-to-be. responded to in love would not have been possible if, anterior to my coming, there had not been a community that already celebrated their loving relationship to Him. This community was a "formative milieu," into which I was inserted and which allowed for this growth and re-sponsiveness in love. Therefore, just as I can only grasp myself as a person through the communal presence of other persons who appeal to me for a unique reply, so also I can only grow in a loving, presential awareness of Him insofar as He is disclosed in and through the Christian community. We will better see the roIe of the community as the place of His presence by seeking to un-derstand what transpires within its interior. In the community of Christians, the Person of Christ is the link which binds us, one to the other. This is so, because He is the point of agreement
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of credit card knowledge and financial self-efficacy toward credit card misuse and intention to reuse credit card. The technological breakthroughs and regulatory reforms of the past decades have brought payment media to the forefront of business, social and political interest. This research is a survey research that is conducted to understand the causal relationships between variables with the use of questionnaire as the instrument to obtain data. The questionnaire is distributed to 100 sample who fulfill the requirements. The sample of this research are adults in Pontianak that are at least 21 years old. In this research, the data analysis method used is Structural Equation Model Partial Least Square (SEMPLS) method. To conduct analysis using PLS method, this research is using smartPLS 3.0 software. The hypothesis of the research is H1 : Credit card knowledge have significant influence on credit card misuse, H2: Financial self-efficacy have significant influence on credit cards misuse, H3: Credit card knowledge have significant influence on intention to reuse credit cards, H4: Financial self-efficacy have signficant influence on intention to reuse credit cards, H5: Credit card misuse have significant influence on intention to reuse credit cards. The result of this research shows that H1, H4 and H5 are accepted but H2 and H3 are rejected.References A, F. (1984). "Many sides of the coin: The psychology of money usage. Personality and Individual Differences. 501-509.Ackert, L., & Church, B. (2015). Credit cards, financial responsibility, and college students: an experimental study. International Journal of Behavioural Accounting and Finance, Vol. 5 No. 1, 1-26.Aghazadeh, H., & Esfidani, M. R. (2007). Internet Marketing Strategies. 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This dissertation analyzes the mechanisms behind labor market dynamics from different angles. Entrepreneurship is, as well as an alternative to paid labor, a source of job creation. High rates of nascent entrepreneurship can considerably decrease unemployment if the matching of new jobs and the unemployed is efficient and without large institutional frictions. As the matching of new jobs and the unemployed is not an instantaneous process, frictional unemployment is part of a healthy labor market. When short-term unemployment turns into long-term, the Beveridge curve --- with its negative relationship between vacancy rate and unemployment rate --- shifts outwards, indicating an inefficient matching processes that may lead to persistent mismatch patterns and unemployment. Here, instruments of Active Labor Market Policy (ALMP) can also decrease unemployment if they work as intended, which must be carefully evaluated. Tools to evaluate labor market must eventually deal with the large heterogeneity in real world societies concerning individual traits such as education, age, etc. From a macroeconomic perspective, the interactions between firms and workers, and the flows of people between unemployment and employment or out of the labor force are strongly affected by periods of up- and down-turns in the business cycle. The exact reasons for fluctuations in job finding and separation rates still pose puzzles in macroeconomic research of labor market dynamics. Labor market fluctuations, and in particular their magnitudes and autocorrelations after shocks in productivity and separation are still not fully understood today. A better replication and, hence, understanding, lies in the openness to new analytical models, exploratory methodologies or the work in interdisciplinary teams to adapt promising standard methods from one field to the other. The incidence of long and persistent unemployment remains one of the major challenges in economic policy. There is large body of literature that documents the negative consequences of unemployment for society and the individual: the economy is undermined by declining human capital, lower wages and increasing governmental expenditures on unemployment and welfare benefits. %textcolor{blue}{ Ja, aber das kommt nicht wirklich schlimm rüber, finde ich. Wohin führt das, historische Beispiele anbringen}. On the individual level, long-term unemployed people often experience a lower wellbeing and an impairment of mental and physical health. During the last two decades, many European countries went through a paradigm shift in unemployment policy from welfare towards workfare as a response to high and structural unemployment rates. Training measures, job-search monitoring, and sanctions for non-compliance with job-search requirements have become well-established measured used by Active Labor Market Policies (ALMPs) that aim to shorten periods of unemployment. The evaluation of specific instruments of ALMPs regarding the effectiveness in encouraging unemployed people to take up jobs earlier and/or not become locked-in to training measures is highly important, they might turn out to be ambiguous for the heterogeneous group of unemployed. In Germany, the focus of this thesis, a major part of the decline in unemployment has been attributed to the reform of active and passive labor market policy in the period 2003--2005. The so called 'Hartz' reform led to a substantial restructuring of the unemployment and social benefit system. Its core was the implementation of an extensive monitoring and sanctioning system that aimed to dramatically increase individual job search activities. Even though the overall unemployment rate decreases from $11.17%$ in 2005 to $4.98%$ in 2014, a high stock of long-term unemployed with $44.66%$ still remains. To date, sanctions are one of the major instruments to encourage unemployed to search and actively apply for jobs. Existing studies generally confirm sanctions as effective instruments to increase the likelihood of finding a job for recipients of unemployment insurance. However, a continuous evaluation of the effect of sanctions on welfare recipients, specific inflow cohorts or specific groups --- e.g. the long-term, elderly, or youth --- is required to prevent unintended (side) effects. Based on public administrative regional data, I estimate an empirical matching function in functional form of a stochastic efficiency frontier that seeks evidence for the effect of the 'Hartz IV' reform on matching efficiency before and after its implementation in 2005. As a functional framework I choose the translog function to address the interactions of stocks and flows in generating new hirings. Furthermore, the twofold structure of a stochastic frontier allows for a modeling of potential sources expected to induce an increase or decrease in matching efficiency over time and between regions (e.g. 'Hartz IV'). According to the results, 'Hartz IV' has increased the matching efficiency for both specifications. The younger and the long-term unemployed contribute to a significantly higher matching efficiency, which is in line with the aims of the 'Hartz IV' reform. Another study of my thesis aims to evaluate the effect of Unemployment Benefit II (UB II) sanctions on unemployment outflow. Under 'Hartz IV', the monitoring and sanction system was radically reshaped to lower the persistent stock of unemployed, in particular long-term unemployed. By far the majority of European studies, evaluating the effect of sanctions, focus on the recipients of unemployment insurance (UI). Compared to welfare recipients, they are, on average, more likely to find a job. Using a survey sample of UB II recipients covering the years 2005--2007, we also ask whether the intended positive effect of benefit sanctions on employment entry of UB II recipients also results in unintended and increased incentives to leave the labor market. Controlling for the endogeneity of a sanction enforcement, we employ a mixed proportional hazard model for both destinations. Our findings suggest an increasing impact on the outflow to both employment and non-employment. Venture creation with a successful performance implies job creation and a reduction in unemployment. A fruitful entrepreneurship landscape is determined by venture creation, and in particular their establishment and survival. The factors that divide the group of entrepreneurs from the group of (un-)employed are examined by a growing number of empirical and theoretical studies on entrepreneurship. Besides regional factors --- such as urbanization and localization economies, regional knowledge creation and public institutions --- personal traits and individual behavior are found to be highly influential upon the decision to become an entrepreneur and stay in business. Moreover, evidence suggests that the group of self-employed is very heterogeneous. Differences between, for example, female and male entrepreneurs, between necessity and opportunity self-employed, or between own-account-self-employed and self-employed who become employers and hire other workers are broadly investigated. Do we observe other differences in the group of self-employed? Lately, working as self-employed, either part-time, or with an additional wage job on the side ('hybrid' self-employed) has become popular in Germany and Europe. Which personal traits or regional determinants influence this development? What exactly turns an employed worker into a part-time or into a hybrid entrepreneur? My contribution to this topic is to explain the entry decisions of nascent entrepreneurs who choose between part-time and full-time self-employment, or between hybrid and exclusive self-employment. My findings reveal the importance of accounting for possible (re)transitions between the two pairs of subtypes of self-employment in addition to the alternative of self-employment exit. Thes results suggest that people with a low risk propensity benefit from an intermediate step into hybrid entrepreneurship. This intermediate step appears crucial, yielding a higher probability of subsequently switching to exclusive self-employment. From a political perspective, is it of particular interest to analyze which factors ensure the success and survival of ventures. This knowledge can help develop and improve start-up programs aimed to support entrepreneurs with the best chances to survive and create employment. The last chapter is a methodological excursion to a novel application of Rule-Based Modeling (RBM) --- a subclass of agent-based modeling --- in labor economics. Thinking outside the box, a rule-based labor model approach illustrates the interactions and transitions between employed, unemployed and entrepreneurs that have been highlighted in the previous chapters. We apply rule-based modeling (RBM) to a simple labor market model, consisting of employed, unemployed and entrepreneurs. The interaction between these agents follows both explicit-defined and emergent rules. Our simulation allows us to observe the macro-level-effects that emerge from the micro-level-interactions of the agents. This simple example model aims to illustrate the potential of RBM to replicate the labor market dynamics at the macro level 'emerging' from micro interactions between unemployed, employed and entrepreneurs. It represents an introductory work that establishes RBM as an alternative tool in the field of agent-based computational economics.
