Suchergebnisse

İnsanlık tarihinde giysi kullanımı ne zaman başladığı bilinmemekte en erken dönemlerde avladıkları hayvan postlarını giysi olarak kullandığı varsayılmaktadır. İnsanoğlunun örtünme içgüdüsü ve doğal olaylardan korunma gereksiniminden doğan, giyim kuşam kültürü, tarih öncesi çağlardan başlayarak günümüze kadar gelmiştir. Giysiler dönemlerin, ülkelerin, toplulukların veya kişilerin özelliklerini yansıtan önemli objeler, kültürlerin en canlı belgelerinden de biri olmuşlardır. Mezopotamya coğrafyasında kurulan devletlerde, Eski Çağ Anadolu Uygarlıklarında tarih öncesi çağlara ait ilk buluntular sanat ve giyim kültürü hakkında bilgiler vermektedir. Prehistorya'ya ait giyim kuşam kültürü hakkında bilgileri duvar kabartmaları, çivi yazıları, kitabe, tabletler ve taş oymacılığı ile yapılan el sanatı eserler, giysiler hakkında bilgi vermektedir. Duvar kabartmalarında tasvir edilen insanların üzerlerindeki giysiler, farklı devirlerin giyim-kuşamını öğrenmemize yardımcı olmaktadır. Kurganlardan çıkarılan kanıtlar arkeologlara insanların giydiği giysilerde çıkarımlar yapma olanağı sağlamıştır. Toplumun sınıflara ayrılmasıyla giysiler arasındaki farklar da artmış, yaşan bu gelişmeler tarihin her döneminde olduğu gibi giyim kuşama da yansımıştır. Çok zengin bir giyim kuşam geleneği olmasına rağmen araştırmalar yetersizdir. Kültürel gelişmelerle değişime uğrayan giysilerin araştırılması önem arz etmektedir. Toplumlara göre farklı özellikler kazanan giysinin tarihsel süreçte gelişimini, bilinirliliğini arttırılmasına katkı sağlanması amacıyla bu çalışma yapılmıştır. Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Veri toplama tekniği olarak doküman analizi yapılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler örneklemeye uygun olduğu düşünülen görsel materyallerle desteklenmiştir. Bu araştırmada, giysilerin tarih öncesi dönemden (Prehistorik) başlayarak, Sümerler, İran, Mısır, Çin, Hun, Eski Anadolu Uygarlıklarında; Hititler, Uygurlar Frigler, Urartular, Bizans ve Osmanlı Dönemi ve Anadolu halk giysileri araştırılmış ve giysi örnekleri ile ele alınmıştır.
It is unknown when the usage of clothes began in human history, however it is likely that they utilized the skins of the animals they hunted as clothing in the beginning. Starting in prehistoric times, the clothing generation's culture, which was developed from the human desire to cover and the necessity to protect against natural events, has made its way down to the present day. Important artifacts that reflect the peculiarities of many eras, countries, communities, or individuals have also become one of the most vivid cultural documents. The first ancient artifacts in the Ancient Anatolian Civilizations provide information on the culture of art and apparel in the states created in Mesopotamia's geography. It includes information about prehistoric clothing, wall reliefs, cuneiform writings, inscriptions, tablets, and handicrafts made with stone carvings, as well as clothing. The clothes worn by the people shown on the wall reliefs teach us about different eras of attire. Archaeologists have been able to make judgments about people's clothing based on evidence found in the kurgans. With the division of society into classes, the differences between clothes have also increased, and these developments have been reflected in clothing as in every period of history. Although there is a very rich tradition of clothing generation, researches are insufficient. It is crucial to look into the clothing that has altered as a result of cultural changes. This study was carried out in order to contribute to the development and awareness of the garment, which has evolved according to the societies, in the historical process. In the study, one of the descriptive research methods, the screening model was performed. Document analysis was performed as a data collection technique. The data obtained were supported by visual materials that were considered suitable for sampling. In this research, starting from the prehistoric period (Prehistoric), the clothes in the Sumerians, Iran, Egypt, China, Huns, Ancient Anatolian Civilizations; Hittites, Uyghurs, Phrygians, Urartians, Byzantine and Ottoman Periods and Anatolian folk costumes were researched and discussed with clothing samples.

Sumerians were the first People in history to invent the cuneiform script, which made the reporting of their achievements possible. Therefore, this had marked the beginning of written history. Moreover, their experience as pioneers in practicing large-scale irrigation is detailed in this paper, which also describes the intricate canal networks systems they had constructed together with the engineering works related to them. The land was flat and the two rivers had built themselves to higher levels than the surrounding lands by the continuous silting process, so gravity irrigation became possible and the people took the opportunity to construct these networks and establish their communities here. Description of the political and social developments, which led to the establishment of the city-states, is also given together with a list of the most prominent ones, and their locations are shown on a map indicating the heartland of Samaria in southern part of Iraq; close to the Persian Gulf. Wars between some city-states over water rights are detailed with their results in excavation of new canals, which are described here. A vivid description of the irrigation canals and the hydraulic structures that were needed and built are also presented which show that the Sumerians were versed in hydraulic principles, while in illustrating their methods of land preparation, seeding, irrigation and harvesting indicates they were skillful farmers. Moreover, the tools and implements invented for field operations such as those for water control, land preparation, seeding and harvesting, which are fully described, show that they were also inventors.The type of crops produced are given special attention and the abundance of yield they obtained was outlined indicating that surpluses had encouraged trading with other parts outside Samaria and so new commercial relations were developed. The economic aspects of this civilization such as wages and loans for farmers, work specialization and the appearance of new professions to meet cultivation requirements were described. The social hierarchy on which social relations and organization of work was based are presented especially those related to the agricultural and irrigation works which are given their share of explanation and discussion. Flood protection works needed for better safety from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers recurrent floods were routine practices of the Sumerians to protect themselves and their lands from the grave dangers of these floods. Therefore, they excelled in them, while canals maintenance by constant dredging of the silt brought down by the two rivers every year was a constant concern. The Sumerians over long period had accepted within them some other people namely, the Akkadians who intermingled with them, lived in their cities, and even mixed with them in marriages. This explains how a smooth transition of power had resulted in the rise of the Akkadians King Sargon, after he had started as a high-ranking official at the court of (Ur- Zababa) the last Sumerian king and replaced him to mark the start of the Semitic Akkadian domination, which lasted almost 200 years to 2150 BC. Sargon managed afterwards to unite all the city-states and establish the first empire in the world extending well beyond Sumeria, so it was said that his influence was felt from Egypt in the west to India in the east.Finally, this paper presents briefly the various theories behind the decline of the Sumerian- Akkadians power and the reasons for passing this to the new rising city of Babylon, which took over this civilization to establish its own. ; Validerad;2020;Nivå 1;2020-04-24 (marisr)

Assyriology covers disciplines that concern the study of the ancient Near East, and more specifically the period and the geographic area defined by the use of cuneiform writing. Archaeologists, historians and art historians who conduct research in this field work in countries at war or in countries that do not respect the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They are confronted with situations that affect their daily work. To better understand these situations, it is essential to understand the recent history of these countries, the role played by Western researchers in the rediscovery of antiquity, and the relationship of local politicians and populations to their past. In 2003, Assyriologists created the International Association for Assyriology to better address the situation in the Near East, and since 2014, they have reacted through official statements, before reflecting on the ethical behaviour of researchers. This concerns respect for the laws of the countries under study, cooperation with local scientists, the training of future generations and the well-being of the workforce employed on archaeological excavation sites. It concerns the means to be implemented for the safeguarding and restoration of cultural heritage, without cooperating with dictatorial regimes. Finally, the ethical behaviour of the researcher depends on the transmission of knowledge to the public, and in particular information to potential buyers about the danger of contributing to the trafficking of antiquities. ; L'assyriologie recouvre les disciplines qui portent sur l'étude du Proche-Orient antique, et plus spécifiquement sur la période et la zone géographique définies par l'usage de l'écriture cunéiforme. Les archéologues, historiens et historiens de l'art qui mènent des recherches dans ce domaine, travaillent dans des pays en guerre ou des pays qui ne respectent pas la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme. Ils sont confrontés à des situations qui affectent leur travail au quotidien. Pour mieux appréhender les situations, il est indispensable de maîtriser l'histoire récente de ces pays, le rôle qu'y ont joué les chercheurs occidentaux dans la redécouverte de l'antiquité, et la relation des politiques et des populations locales vis-à-vis de leur passé. En 2003, les assyriologues ont créé l'International Association for Assyriology pour mieux faire face à la situation au Proche-Orient, et depuis 2014, ils ont réagi par le biais de déclarations officielles, avant de mener une réflexion sur le comportement éthique des chercheurs. Celui-ci porte sur le respect des lois des pays objets d'étude, la coopération avec les scientifiques locaux, la formation des futures générations et le bien-être de la main-d'œuvre employée sur les chantiers de fouilles archéologiques. Il concerne les moyens à mettre en œuvre pour la sauvegarde et la restauration du patrimoine culturel, sans pour autant se compromettre avec des régimes dictatoriaux. Enfin, le comportement éthique du chercheur passe par la transmission du savoir vers le public, et en particulier l'information à destination des acheteurs potentiels du danger de contribuer au trafic des antiquités. Depuis 2003, les assyriologues se sont organisés en une association internationale pour mieux faire face à la situation au Proche-Orient, et depuis 2014, ils ont réagi par le biais de déclarations officielles et multilingues, avant de mener une vaste réflexion sur le comportement éthique des chercheurs. Celui-ci porte sur le respect des lois des pays objets d'étude, la coopération avec les scientifiques locaux et l'échange de données, la formation des futures générations et le bien-être de la main-d'œuvre employée sur les chantiers de fouilles archéologiques. Il concerne également les efforts et moyens à mettre en œuvre pour la sauvegarde et la restauration du patrimoine culturel, sans pour autant se compromettre avec des régimes dictatoriaux ou des groupes belligérants. Enfin, le comportement éthique du chercheur passe par la transmission du savoir vers le public, et en particulier l'information à destination des acheteurs potentiels du danger de contribuer au trafic des antiquités.

У статті подано характеристику особливості розвитку військової справи за правління Рамзеса ІІ. Зазвичай період розквіту Стародавнього Єгипту пов'язується з правлінням Сеті І. На дев'ятому році свого правління він проголосив свого сина і спадкоємця співправителем, і саме з того часу почалася активна військова діяльність Рамзеса ІІ. Першу перемогу Рамзес отримав у морській битві проти «народів моря» на другому році свого правління і в подальшому це дало можливість йому вести успішні завойовницькі війни проти хеттів у Малій Азії, а також проти Сирії і Фінікії. Мир, встановлений між Єгиптом і Хеттським царством близько 1270 року до н. е., тривав понад століття. Це сприяло небувалому підйому економічного життя на Близькому Сході. Договір був перекладений єгипетською мовою і згодом увічнений на стінах Карнака і Рамессеума. Текст договору, який фараон відіслав Хаттусілю також був клинописним, складеним міжнародною тоді аккадською мовою. Його фрагменти збереглися в Богазкейському архіві. В основному договір був спрямований на забезпечення взаємної недоторканності володінь і надання допомоги, піхоти та колісниць, у разі нападу на одну з договірних сторін або повстання підданих. Обидві сторони взяли зобов'язання видавати перебіжчиків. Це був перший у світовій історії дипломатично оформлений договір, що дійшов до наших днів. Після підписання цього договору або внаслідок погіршення здоров'я закінчився період активних військових походів Рамсеса II. Почався час активного дипломатичного листування між двома країнами. У Богазкейському архіві були виявлені послання Рамсеса II, його сім'ї та візира Пасера, адресовані цареві Хаттусілі III і його дружині Пудухепе. ; This article presents the peculiarities of military development during the reign of Ramesses II. It is usually assumed that the heyday of ancient Egypt had begun in times of pharaoh Seti's reign. In the ninth year of his reign, he appointed his son and heir as the co-regent, and since that time, Ramesses' II military activity had begun. Ramesses obtained the first military victory in the naval battle against the "Sea Peoples". In the second year of his reign, and in the future he succeeded in wars against the Hittites in Asia Minor, as well as against Syria and Phoenicia. Peace arrangement established between Egypt and the Hittite kingdom was about 1270 BC, had lasted more than a century. As a result, it contributed to the unprecedented rise of the economic life in the Middle East. The peace treaty was translated into Egyptian language and was immortalized on the walls of the Karnak and the Ramesseum. The text of the treaty, what pharaoh sent to Hattusili in exchange for his tablet, was also in cuneiform, inscribed in the Akkadian language – common language of that time. Its fragments have been preserved at the Bogazkale archives. Mainly, the treaty was created to ensure the mutual guarantee, that both sides would not invade the other's land, would give an aid, infantry and chariots if either party is attacked by a third party or in case of rebellion. Both sides promise to the other to repatriate refugees. It was the first in world history diplomatic agreement that is saved till nowadays. After the signing of this peace treaty, or because of the deterioration of health, the period of active military campaigns of Ramses II had ended. The time of active diplomatic correspondence between the two countries had begun. Messages from Ramesses II, his family and vizier Paser addressed to king Hattusili III and his wife Puduhepa were found at the Bogazkale archive. Egyptian doctors were often sent to the Hittites' court.

У статті подано характеристику особливості розвитку військової справи за правління Рамзеса ІІ. Зазвичай період розквіту Стародавнього Єгипту пов'язується з правлінням Сеті І. На дев'ятому році свого правління він проголосив свого сина і спадкоємця співправителем, і саме з того часу почалася активна військова діяльність Рамзеса ІІ. Першу перемогу Рамзес отримав у морській битві проти «народів моря» на другому році свого правління і в подальшому це дало можливість йому вести успішні завойовницькі війни проти хеттів у Малій Азії, а також проти Сирії і Фінікії. Мир, встановлений між Єгиптом і Хеттським царством близько 1270 року до н. е., тривав понад століття. Це сприяло небувалому підйому економічного життя на Близькому Сході. Договір був перекладений єгипетською мовою і згодом увічнений на стінах Карнака і Рамессеума. Текст договору, який фараон відіслав Хаттусілю також був клинописним, складеним міжнародною тоді аккадською мовою. Його фрагменти збереглися в Богазкейському архіві. В основному договір був спрямований на забезпечення взаємної недоторканності володінь і надання допомоги, піхоти та колісниць, у разі нападу на одну з договірних сторін або повстання підданих. Обидві сторони взяли зобов'язання видавати перебіжчиків. Це був перший у світовій історії дипломатично оформлений договір, що дійшов до наших днів. Після підписання цього договору або внаслідок погіршення здоров'я закінчився період активних військових походів Рамсеса II. Почався час активного дипломатичного листування між двома країнами. У Богазкейському архіві були виявлені послання Рамсеса II, його сім'ї та візира Пасера, адресовані цареві Хаттусілі III і його дружині Пудухепе. ; This article presents the peculiarities of military development during the reign of Ramesses II. It is usually assumed that the heyday of ancient Egypt had begun in times of pharaoh Seti's reign. In the ninth year of his reign, he appointed his son and heir as the co-regent, and since that time, Ramesses' II military activity had begun. Ramesses obtained the first military victory in the naval battle against the "Sea Peoples". In the second year of his reign, and in the future he succeeded in wars against the Hittites in Asia Minor, as well as against Syria and Phoenicia. Peace arrangement established between Egypt and the Hittite kingdom was about 1270 BC, had lasted more than a century. As a result, it contributed to the unprecedented rise of the economic life in the Middle East. The peace treaty was translated into Egyptian language and was immortalized on the walls of the Karnak and the Ramesseum. The text of the treaty, what pharaoh sent to Hattusili in exchange for his tablet, was also in cuneiform, inscribed in the Akkadian language – common language of that time. Its fragments have been preserved at the Bogazkale archives. Mainly, the treaty was created to ensure the mutual guarantee, that both sides would not invade the other's land, would give an aid, infantry and chariots if either party is attacked by a third party or in case of rebellion. Both sides promise to the other to repatriate refugees. It was the first in world history diplomatic agreement that is saved till nowadays. After the signing of this peace treaty, or because of the deterioration of health, the period of active military campaigns of Ramses II had ended. The time of active diplomatic correspondence between the two countries had begun. Messages from Ramesses II, his family and vizier Paser addressed to king Hattusili III and his wife Puduhepa were found at the Bogazkale archive. Egyptian doctors were often sent to the Hittites' court.

Статья посвящена характеристике историко-правовых предпосылок формирования правого статуса города Еревана. В качестве первого документа, закрепляющего правовой статус Еревана, автор называет клинопись крепости Эребуни. По мнению Г. Тирацяна, Ереван был центром одной из административно-территориальных единиц Ирана в Ахеменидский период. Работы ряда историографов позволяют автору утверждать, что в VII в. в результате утверждения господства арабского халифата правовой статус города Еревана существенно изменился. После XII в. Ереван приобрел статус города, которым управлял совет старейшин. В XV в., как отмечает автор статьи, город стал центром наместничества, охватывавшего большую часть Араратского мира. Позднее Ереван переходил то под Иранское господство, то под господство Султанской Турции. В связи с этим менялась и форма управления городом. В XIX в. после захвата Царской Россией части Восточной Армении была основана Армянская область, правление которой осуществлялось посредством представителей генерал-губернатора. В статье подробно описан административный аппарат городского правления Ереваном в этот период, в годы Первой республики Армении, когда на законодательном уровне были созданы основания для организации местного самоуправления, независимого от центра, однако реализованы эти нормы не были в связи с оккупацией Армении большевистской Россией. В статье описана советская модель управления, просуществовавшая до 1995 г. Конституцией 1995 года Ереван получил статус области, что предполагало государственное управление. Параллельно в участковых общинах осуществлялось местное самоуправление. Данная модель сохранилась до конституционных изменений 2005 г., когда Ереван стал общиной. Это потребовало внедрения системы общегородского местного самоуправления. В статье выделяется семь основных этапов развития правового статуса города Еревана. ; The article is devoted to the historical and legal preconditions for the formation of the right Yerevan city status. The first document establishes the legal status of Yerevan, the author calls cuneiform Erebuni Fortress. According to G. Tiratsyana, Yerevan was the center of one of the administrative-territorial units in the Iranian Achaemenid period. The works of a number of historiographers allow the author to assert that in the 7th century as a result of the approval of the domination of the Arab Caliphate, the legal status of the city Yerevan has changed significantly. After the 12th century the city acquired the status of Yerevan, driven by a council of elders. In the 15th century, as the author of the article, the city became the center of governorship covering most of Ararat world. Yerevan later passed it under Iranian domination, then under the domination of the Sultan of Turkey. In connection with this change in the form of city management. In the XIX century, after the capture of the Imperial Russia of the Eastern Armenia was founded by Armenian region, which was carried out by a board of representatives from the Governor-General. The article described in detail the administrative apparatus of Yerevan City Council, in this period, in the years of the First Republic of Armenia, when at the legislative level were created basis for the organization of local self-government, independent from the center, but realized those rules were not in connection with the occupation of the Armenian Bolshevik Russia. The article describes the Soviet model of governance, which lasted until 1995. 1995 Constitution Yerevan received the status of the region, which involved government. In parallel, the local government was carried out in the district communities. This model has survived to the constitutional amendments of 2005. When Yerevan became a community. This required the implementation of a citywide system of local government. The article highlighted seven main stages of development of the legal status of the city of Yerevan.

The Assyrian Empire (1350-c. 610 BC) reached its peak during the reign of Assurbanipal (668-c. 630 BC). Nevertheless, due to a lack of sources which may indicate the empire had begun to decline, the latter half of the reign is not well known and the empire entirely collapsed afterwards. Thus, this reign is considered a key period of the Assyrian Empire. Though the correspondence of Assurbanipal constitutes essential research material, it has never been seriously studied because much of it has only been published in cuneiform copy and only partially translated. To investigate this correspondence, the present article focuses on letter ABL 292 from Assurbanipal to Enlil-bāni, the governor of the Babylonian city Nippur and its citizens. The paper gives the transliteration, the translation, and a commentary of the letter. The text is undated, but it was probably written in or after 653 BC. The present research indicates that the letter is rich in rhetorical flourish and literary reference. Similar expressions are found in contemporaneous texts such as Esarhaddon's Succession Treaty, the royal inscriptions of the Assyrian kings and the Babylonian Creation Epic Enūma eliš. Especially interesting is how the King uses such political rhetoric towards the local governor and the citizens. 要旨 アッシュルバニパルの治世の間に(紀元前668年-約630年頃)、アッシリア帝国(紀元前1350年-約610年頃)は最盛期を迎えたが、王の治世後半については史料の欠如のためよく知られていない。これは帝国の衰退の始まりを示すのかもしれず、王の治世後、帝国は急激に崩壊した。それゆえアッシュルバニパルの治世は、極めて重要な時期の一つとみられてきた。しかしながら、アッシュルバニパルの書簡は、王の治世に関する不可欠の史料であるにもかかわらず、その多くが楔形文字の複写のみ、または部分的な翻訳のみの出版に限定されているため研究が滞ってきた。本稿では、アッシュルバニパルの書簡のうち、ABL 292に注目する。当該書簡はアッシュルバニパルからバビロニアの都市ニップルの知事であるエンリルバーニおよびニップルの市民に宛てられている。本稿では当該書簡の翻字、翻訳、および注釈を載せる。当該書簡は年代付けられていないが、おそらく紀元前653年以降に書かれたと思われる。研究の結果、当該書簡は美麗字句に満ちており、また豊かな文学的関連性を持っている。類似した表現はエサルハドンの王位継承条約やアッシリア王の王碑文、バビロニア創生叙事詩エヌーマエリシュなどの同時代テクストに見つけることが出来る。とりわけ興味深いのは、王がいかにして政治的レトリックをローカルな知事や市民に対し使用したかということである。

This contribution deals with the archives of Old Assyrian traders (originating from the city-state of Assur on the Tigris) from the first centuries of the second millennium BC, found in their houses in the lower town of the ancient Anatolian city of Kanesh, which is excavated since 1948 by Turkish archaeologists. The now more than 23.000 cuneiform tablets discovered there, belonging to at least 60 different merchants' archives, constitute the most detailed and extensive written evidence on overland trade before the early Middle Ages. After providing general information on the traders, their business and their archives (kept in sealed "strong-rooms"), a more detailed analysis is preceded (§ 2) by distinguishing the various situations in which traders lived and worked in Kanesh – seniors or young men, with or without their family, some also with a house in another trading town in Anatolia - and the impact this had on their relations with their mother-city and on the nature and number of written records in their archives. In § 3 a brief sketch is given of the self-governing, corporate Assyrian merchant community, called "kārum Kanesh" (its location and archives have not yet been discovered), run by its main members. As an extension of the government of the city of Assur and head of the colonial network in Anatolia it played a vital role in performing administrative (it kept accounts, organized general accounting sessions and could impose rules), commercial (organizing collective operations and dealing with the local palace and ruler) and judicial tasks (as court of law), whose impact on the activities of the traders is reflected by their archives. In § 4 the three main categories into which the records may be distinguished are described: a large variety of letters, legal documents (contracts and judicial records) and memorandums, lists and short notes, whose functions the long § 5 analyzes. Three functions, which may overlap, are distinguished. Firstly (§ 5.1) as means of communication, mainly by letters, essential for the success of the caravan system and the contacts between people - relatives, business partners, authorities - in Assur and the colonies, notably with personnel and relatives traveling or temporarily settled elsewhere in Anatolia. Secondly (§ 5.2) as aid to memory, letters, testimonies, memorandums and lists, to keep track of the many, often complex and valuable transactions, especially investments and credit operations, to monitor due dates and dun defaulting debtors. And thirdly (§ 5.3) as evidence, especially "valid" records, that is those in sealed envelopes, both contracts and agreements and a variety of usually sworn depositions and testimonies, which resulted from and were used in private summonses, mediation, arbitration or formal lawsuits. The latter could take place in kārum Kanesh and in Assur, before the City Assembly, headed by the ruler of Assur, which resulted in verdicts and official letters. Credit operations in particular generated many evidentiary records, most of them in order to provide creditors with various securities and specific facilities, such as a "payment contract" (with a defaulting debtor) and a kind of "bearer's cheques". Paragraph 6 investigates the role of "copies" and "duplicates", both of letters and "valid records", made to serve multiple addressees of letters, to provide business partners and co-witnesses with essential data (e.g. to dun defaulting debtors and to prepare for lawsuits), and to keep evidence available when originals were sent overland. The final § 7 analyzes the various ways in which records were classified, by subject matter, persons involved, the nature of the texts (e.g. letters, debt-notes, and sealed or unsealed records), and stored in the archives. This was usually on shelves along the walls or in various types of frequently sealed containers (wooden boxes, baskets, leather bags and jars) or as sealed packets, whose contents could be identified by inscribed bullae that served as labels. Letters of absent traders who ask wives or friends to retrieve records from their archives and write about the transport of groups of tablets provide interesting information. Unfortunately the archaeological record about the discovery of the tablets usually is too general, because their exact find-spots and numbers are rarely mentioned, which makes it impossible to distinguish valid, current records, from old files, no longer in use and possibly stored in jars. The informative value of the bullae, often separated from the tablets to which they belonged and published separately, is also not exploited. The resulting picture, mainly based on the textual information, shows a rather practical way of classification in various types of easily distinguishable groups and files in different "containers", but many details remain unclear.

Tesi realitzada a l'Institut del Pròxim Orient Antic (IPOA) ; Tesi doctoral, Universitat de Barcelona. Facultat de Filologia, 2012 ; [spa] El propósito de esta tesis es estudiar las prácticas funerarias en el valle del Éufrates a lo largo de los períodos conocidos como Bronce Antiguo y Bronce Medio, i.e. durante el tercer milenio a.C. y la primera mitad del segundo, a partir de una metodología interdisciplinaria. La metodología propuesta responde a uno de los objetivos principales de esta investigación y que es traspasar fronteras (temporales, entre el Bronce Antiguo y el Bronce Medio, y disciplinarias, entre arqueología y filología), con el fin de contribuir a impulsar un análisis de las prácticas funerarias en el mundo antiguo desde múltiples frentes. La interrelación entre todos ellos ha permitido obtener una visión más amplia y completa de cómo funcionaron tales prácticas y con ello dar cuenta del fenómeno atendiendo a toda su complejidad. El estudio se basa en fuentes arqueológicas y epigráficas. Arqueológicamente, comprende los yacimientos ubicados en el valle del Éufrates, desde la cuenca de Karababa, en el sureste de Turquía, hasta la frontera con Irak en el sur. Junto a los yacimientos situados a lo largo del valle, se han incorporado otros algo alejados del curso del río pues resultan indispensables por la relevante documentación que aportan para este estudio como, por ejemplo, Kültepe/Kanish, en el centro de Anatolia, y Tell Mardikh/Ebla en la llanura occidental a 60 km de Alepo. Por lo que respecta a las fuentes cuneiformes, éstas incluyen principalmente los archivos desenterrados en Ebla, Mari y Kanish. Así pues, el diálogo entre los dos tipos de documentos ha permitido reconstruir el proceso del ritual funerario mostrando los ritos funerarios como un compendio de acciones, que no se centran exclusivamente en el funeral, en la medida en que se hallan atestadas prácticas rituales anteriores y posteriores al sepelio. La estructura del trabajo responde a dicho proceso y se organiza de acuerdo con los pasos llevados a cabo durante el ritual funerario. Asimismo el estudio sincrónico y diacrónico – con la innovación de adoptar la nueva periodización propuesta por el proyecto ARCANE para la región del medio Éufrates para el tercer milenio – ha permitido observar cambios y pervivencias en las prácticas funerarias a lo largo de más de un milenio a partir de la interrelación entre la localización de las tumbas, su tipología constructiva, el tipo de deposición de los restos humanos y las ofrendas funerarias. Gracias a esta perspectiva histórica la correlación entre prácticas funerarias, cultura material y tendencias sociales puede ser entendida más adecuadamente. Por último, al investigar los mecanismos de construcción de la memoria social, se han detectado y analizado determinadas estrategias utilizadas en las prácticas funerarias, esencialmente en relación con el culto a los ancestros, la construcción de la memoria y el pasado común de la comunidad. Así, se ha podido calibrar cómo éstas se han visto afectadas por las transformaciones socioeconómicas y políticas, y de manera especial con la difusión de la escritura. ; [eng] The aim of this thesis is to study the burial customs in the Middle Euphrates valley over the periods known as Early and Middle Bronze Age, i.e. during the third and second millennia B.C., based on an interdisciplinary methodology. The methodological proposal presented here responds to one of the main objectives of this research and that is to cross boundaries: temporal (between Early and Middle Bronze Age) and among disciplines (between Archaeology and Philology), in order to promote an analysis of the funerary practices in the ancient world from multiple fronts. The interrelation among all of them has yielded a wider and more complete vision of how such practices functioned, as well as it has accounted for the phenomenon in all its complexity. Thus archaeological and epigraphic sources have been used. Archaeologically, this study includes the sites located in the Euphrates Valley, from the Karababa basin, in the southeast of Turkey, to the border with Iraq in the South. Along with sites located along the valley, have been incorporated others somewhat away from the course of the River as they are essential for the relevant documentation that they provide for this study as, for example, Kültepe/Kanish in Central Anatolia and Tell Mardikh/Ebla in the Syrian western plain 60 km away from Aleppo. With regard to the written sources these mainly include the archives unearthed in Ebla, Mari and Kanish. Therefore the dialogue between the two types of documents has allowed reconstructing the process of the funeral ritual. The work has been articulated around the elements that make up this process in order to show the funeral rites as a compendium of actions that do not focus exclusively on the funeral since there are attested ritual practices before and after the burial. In addition, the synchronous and diachronic analysis of the data – with the adoption of the new periodization proposed by the ARCANE project for the Middle Euphrates region for the third millennium – enabled to observe changes and maintenances in burial customs over more than one millennium from the interrelation between the location of the graves, its constructive type, the type of disposal of human remains and grave goods. Thanks to this historical perspective the correlation between funerary practices, material culture and social trends can be better understood. Finally, when investigating the mechanisms of construction of social memory, certain strategies used in funerary practices have been detected and analysed, essentially that related to the cult of the ancestors, the construction of memory and the common past of the community. Thus, how they have been affected by socio-economic and political transformations and in particular with the spread of writing have been calibrated.