Suchergebnisse

A rough estimation for avoidable losses in the European Union (EU) is 280 kg per capita per year, of which 13% can arise from agricultural production, 31% from product processing and 45% from households. The role of packaging in preserving fresh and processed foods is well known and documented but little research is available about the relation existing among new packaging solutions, shelf life extension and Food Loss, and waste reduction at different levels at the supply chain. Techniques as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) have been largely used to determine the Environmental Impact of food production and processing and packaging materials. However, the assessment taking into account the food and its packaging as a whole system, and of Food Loss reduction is necessary. In fact, from a life cycle perspective, no assessment of the Environmental Impact of food packaging showed the positive benefits of reduced Food Losses in the value chain. In this PhD project, the shelf life extension of red raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) and strawberries (Fragaria x Ananassa Duch) using active packaging solutions was investigated. The shelf life extension, critical indicators and cut-off criteria were defined as a tool to point out the time at which the lifetime ended and they were elaborated by multivariate approach. The final aim was to estimate the role of a new packaging technology in reducing the Environmental Impact along the supply chain in relation to the benefits of the Food Loss reduction derived from the actual Shelf Life Extension. For raspberries trial, three packaging solutions was studied: a) Lidded macro-perforated PET trays containing 125 g of berries, stored in air and considered as "traditional" packaging; b) lidded macro-perforated PET trays containing 125 g of berries inserted into master bags made of plastic materials with different permeabilities to gas and water vapour. This solution was referred to a passive modified packaging solution. c) macro-perforated PET trays containing 125 g of berries inserted into a master bag unit made of LDPE (OTR 4000 cm3*m-2*day-1 at 23 °C and 0 %RH). Before sealing, a defined volume of compressed dry air (moisturized by using distilled water applied onto paper towels), one oxygen scavenger, and a different number of pre-activated carbon dioxide emitters were added to the master bag. For strawberries trial three packaging solutions was studied: a) Lidded PET macro-perforated trays containing 250 g of fruits and stored in air were considered as "traditional" packaging; b) lidded PET macro-perforated trays (250 g of berries/tray) were inserted into an LDPE (OTR 4000 cm3*m-2*day-1 at 23 °C and 0 %RH) master bag. c) A different number of PET macro-perforated trays were inserted into an LDPE master bag. A central composite design (CCD) with four factors (number of CO2 emitters, number of O2 scavengers, ratio between packaging surface area and unfilled volume, storage time) at five levels was performed to optimize the active packaging solution. All the samples were stored in a cold chamber (5±1 °C; 70±5 %RH). Different physical-chemical and sensorial analyses were performed as following to identify for each packaging solution the shelf life value: Damaged berries (%), Mouldy berries (%); Weight loss (%); Colour (CIE L*, a* and b* parameters); Total solids (g/100g); Soluble solids (g/100g); pH; Titratable acidity (g citric acid/100 g); Consistency determined by single compression test (force*deformation at 60% of deformation); Volatile compounds by SPME-GC-MS technique; Sensorial global and Visual acceptability. In order to analyze the results from a multidimensional point of view, the obtained data were analyzed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Il ciclo di vita per ogni soluzione di imballaggio è stata valutata utilizzando il software 8.0.1 SimaPro®. The boundaries of the system was set from the berries production until the retailer storage, take into consideration also the operations to disposal of the packaging materials. The functional unit for this study was set as the day of shelf life. In the raspberries studies, the active packaging solution allowed the raspberries storage up to 11 days. This value was almost three times longer than the "traditional" packaging solution that allowed a shelf life value of 4 days. The Passive packaging solution allowed lead to a shelf life extension as 2 days in comparison to the traditional packaging. For each packaging solution have been done the assessment of the environmental impact using the LCA methodology. The "traditional" packaging solution determined the highest daily impact among the packaging solutions evaluated. The passive and active packaging solutions determined a significative reduction, in terms of environmental load, up to 55% and 70%, respectively. The extension of the lifetime of berries contribute also to reduce the food loss even if the environmental impact of packaging system (active devices and master bag) was increased. This increment was balanced from the environmental impact of food saved by using the new packaging solution. The assessment of strawberries shelf life stored in the traditional packaging systems established only 2 days as value, while in the passive packaging solution lead to a shelf life extension up to 4 days longer. The optimization of the packaging factors in the active packaging solution extended the berries storage until 12 days. The "traditional" packaging determined the highest daily impact than the other packaging solutions. The passive and active packaging solutions determined a significative reduction in environmental load respect to the "traditional" solution up to 66% and 82%, respectively. The implementation of LCA methodology with lifetime data assessed by experimental shelf life trials and multivariate analyses allowed the definition of the impact of new technologies based on active packaging, taking into account their role in shelf life extension. Although based on some assumptions, this PhD study tried to explain and measure how new packaging can affect fruits losses directly or indirectly by influencing the scenarios at different levels of the supply chain. The lack of economic and logistic information about Food Losses (and specific data on this kind of fruits) in the Italian supply and distribution chain should open to new and more useful considerations.

Tranquil' experiences are commonly associated with environmentally rich areas such as National Parks and in the UK, in Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs). In these areas, natural heritage is juxtaposed with heirlooms of socio-cultural value in a rural landscape crafted by mankind over millennia, resulting in their designation as protected areas, based on their unique and 'special' qualities (DAONB 2014). Such characteristics epitomise the very heart of 'heritage' as defined by UNESCO and the European Landscape Convention (2004) through a proliferation of non-renewable resources of tangible and intangible qualities inclusive of biodiversity, folklore, of historical and archaeological values, all of which have contributed to enhancing the socio-cultural value of these areas. Subsequently, as found in the case of the Dorset AONB specifically, this heritage has inspired some of the greatest literary and art works including those of Constable and of Hardy which in turn, have contributed to enhancing a regional and local identity, encouraging locals' strong sense of belonging and sense of place (Field 2008; Lyons 2006;DAONB 2014). The economic importance derived from enhancing these qualities provides for their public interest as favourable resources to tourism: an aim easily facilitated through the capitalisation of what is perceived as 'rural' and of the quintessential idyll of English heritage, in which notions of tranquil experiences are anticipated, expected and where possible, created. This popularity means that managing organisations must ensure that any form of development is sustainable and fundamentally, is sensitive to environmental, social and economic interests, whilst their statutory duty to provide 'quiet' enjoyment of the countryside is achieved. Key to addressing not only these objectives, but also enhancing the cultural and natural landscapes that define these IUCN Category V landscapes, is the definition of 'tranquillity'. However defining and then interpreting tranquillity into practice is complex. It is an intangible concept, highly subjective, and is a sociocultural construct relative to the area in question. Thus unlike past attempts to define tranquillity purely by institutions', therefore emphasising dominant political-management strategies, more recent recognition for the subjective nature of the concept demands that the fullest breadth of stakeholder engagement in defining tranquillity is warranted. Support for such engagement could feasibly be assumed, given statutes assert the fullest breadth of stakeholder engagement in the formulation of development and landscape policy, in planning decisions and with best practice an active citizenship role is considered critical. Yet, should the fullest breadth of stakeholder engagement be progressed, the first challenge concerns a practical issue due to the sheer number of highly qualitative views on what is/not considered being tranquil is infinite. A second challenge also focuses primarily on citizen engagement itself. Whilst statute endorses community engagement, reality is very different and where such opportunities are created for citizens to engage, a growing disengagement from local decision-making practices is increasingly evident in the UK. As such, three challenges are evident: 1) just how do you capture and 2) importantly use the breadth of subjective views on the subject of tranquillity whilst 3) tackle a fundamental challenge of encouraging the engagement of the so-called disengaged. The Broadly Engaging with Tranquillity project (BETP) uniquely addresses each of these challenges. A highly democratic research framework is progressed and founded on principles of best practice in protected area governance. Therefore engagement with rather than consultation on the fullest breadth of views is fundamental, inclusive of those classed as the collective voice, individuals and those reported as the most challenging, the 'hard to reach' and of visitors to the area. In turn, claims of heritage management being neglectful of landscape, history and community experiences, perspectives and their recollections are rejected (Waterton 2005). Rather, claims of the public reclaiming their common heritage are emphasised. Four stages of data collection progress the research: the key aim of which was to collate participants' views on what did/not constitute tranquillity in the case study area. The first stage concerned a series of participatory action research events, facilitated by the University of Winchester, at which representatives of institutions, of community and special interest groups conveyed their personal ideas on what comprised tranquillity. The second stage constituted a random household survey based on a stratified sampling framework of the case study area. A 22% response rate was achieved of which more than 50% of the respondents constituted the 'hard to reach'. The third research stage comprised a further round of participatory action research events solely convening local residents. The fourth and final data collection stage comprised a series of onsite surveys with visitors to the case study area. More than 14,000 qualitative views were collated, and following analysis and their conversion into a simple, replicable mathematical sum, their combined views were progressed through a Geographical Information System. This finally produced models of tranquillity according to institutions, local residents, inclusive of the 'disengaged' and 'engaged' members of the local community, and finally according to visitors views. Results of this research project are being used in the short-term to inform the protected area agency's activities in implementing their statutory duties to enhance and maintain tranquillity in the Dorset AONB and in so doing in implementing their Management Plan. In the long-term discussions are taking place how to use the results in encouraging local authorities to implement their duties related to the National Planning Policy Framework and its encouragement for creating tranquil zones at the local level. The research team are actively seeking partners across the EU to test the framework in alternative locations. The case area concerns the Dorset AONB, and integrates with the seascape of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. The project results from a collaborative partnership comprised of practitioners and academics, with funding provided by the UK Economic and Social Science Research Council (ESRC).

At the heart of Australia's aid program is the objective 'to assist developing countries to reduce poverty and achieve sustainable development in line with Australia's national interest. A key aspect of this has been working towards attainment of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The Global Economic Crisis {GEC) has had a severe impact on progress towards these goals and threatens to further sidetrack progress through an increase in protectionist pressures globally that, if succumbed to, could potentially stifle trade and economic activity globally. Over the past three decades global trade flows have increased dramatically, and have maintained a strong growth rate averaging a 5.5% over the period of 2000-07, outstripping the growth in world output over the same period of 3%. This trend is especially evident in the Asian region, where trade-led growth policies have resulted in the 'Asian miracle' that saw millions pulled out of poverty. There are three factors that characterise the trade flows of the developing Asian-Pacific economies. First, the developing nations of the Asia-Pacific region have collectively become increasingly .dependent on trade with the average trade to Gross Domestic Product ratio of the region increasing by over 23 percentage points between 1997 and 2007 to 98.7% Second, this increased dependence on trade has been accompanied by an increase in intraregional trade, which now represents half of all trade flows in the region. However, the region remains heavily connected to the developed markets of the European Union {EU), the United States of America {US) and Japan who together account for approximately 45% of the region's export markets. Finally, the composition of the region's exports has also changed, though this varies markedly between the sub-regions. As a general split, the Asian economies (bar South Asia) are becoming more reliant on Industry, particularly electronics and components, while the economies of the Pacific on the other hand tend to be heavily dependent on tourism and primary resource exports. South Asia has become increasingly dependent on its service exports, including tourism. The combination of these three factors has dictated how severely the GEC has thus far affected the region. Generally speaking the crisis represents the most severe economic slowdown since the Second World War, with all major economies to drop into recession with a predicted overall drop in global output of 1.3% Led by the region's increased dependence on trade and the associated reliance on the developed economies, the GEC has severely impacted the developing Asia-Pacific where an overall growth rate of 3.4% is predicted for 2009, the most sluggish growth in the region since the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997-88 . The impact has not been uniform across the regions,however, those regions more dependent on trade and most susceptible to a drop in demand from the developed economies are feeling the most acute effects. The composition of exports also played a part with the nations that are most dependent on electronics (the East and South East Asian economies) affected most by the collapse in demand resulting from the GEC. Commodity exports were the next hardest hit (South and South-East Asia and the Pacific), followed by exports of capital equipment (mostly the more developed nations of the region) and then garment exports. Economies where tourism represents a large share of GDP were also hit hard. These figures present the double-edged nature of using trade flows as an engine for growth - put simply, the more reliant on trade a region is the greater the impacts of the GEC. On the surface this may seem an argument against using trade as the primary engine of national growth. It is important, however, to recognise these effects in light of the benefits that have been gained by these nations to date as a result of their openness to trade. Nevertheless, the GEC has led to a rise in pressure from domestic workers and industry on governments for protection from external shocks. Protectionism offers a means by which governments can respond to such pressure. Protectionism is the policy of protecting the markets, industries or jobs of one's own country, usually by restricting the entry of products or services from other countries. It offers a means by which governments can assist such industries by inflating the demand for their products by reducing the foreign competition that faces the firm. In doing so, local employment levels can be maintained, appeasing domestic political pressures from these groups. However, there are three negative impacts for the implementing economy associated with protectionist policies. First, consumers will be forced to pay a higher price for goods, lowering their purchasing power and raising the cost of inputs for local producers. Second, such policies will prevent efficient restructure and reform occurring in the economy, which will raise unemployment and lead to an inefficient use of resources. Third, protectionist policies are likely to lead to retaliatory policies from other trading partners, meaning that other, perhaps more efficient sectors of the economy are hurt by efforts to protect another. Despite this there has been a notable rise in protectionist pressures globally, accompanied by a rise . in actual policies. By and large, though, governments are resisting calls for protection in light of the damaging effects it has on both the domestic and also global economy. Various studies forecast these effects, generally presenting similar findings that there is no economic incentive to pursue protectionist policies but, in some cases, significant political incentive. The impacts of the GEC will have potentially severe effects on progress towards the MDGs, which will only be intensified by a shift to protectionist pressures. Any shift to protectionism will have important implications for Australia's aid program. To address this threat AusAID can help on two levels. First, by helping developing nations resist protectionist policies and maximise the benefits of trade through a range of aid-for-trade policies. Second, the aid program can work to alleviate the potential impact of a shift to protectionism on three main levels: (1) generating employment and growth; (2) assisting developing governments in the provision of essential services; and (3) protecting the most vulnerable of these nations.

A search is presented for a standard model-like Higgs boson decaying to the ?+?? or e+e? final states based on proton–proton collisions recorded by the CMS experiment at the CERN LHC. The data correspond to integrated luminosities of 5.0 fb?1 at a centre-of-mass energy of 7 TeV and 19.7 fb?1 at 8 TeV for the ?+?? search, and of 19.7 fb?1 at 8 TeV for the e+e? search. Upper limits on the production cross section times branching fraction at the 95% confidence level are reported for Higgs boson masses in the range from 120 to 150 GeV. For a Higgs boson with a mass of 125 GeV decaying to ?+??, the observed (expected) upper limit on the production rate is found to be 7.4 (6.5?1.9 +2.8) times the standard model value. This corresponds to an upper limit on the branching fraction of 0.0016. Similarly, for e+e?, an upper limit of 0.0019 is placed on the branching fraction, which is ?3.7×105 times the standard model value. These results, together with recent evidence of the 125 GeV boson coupling to ?-leptons with a larger branching fraction consistent with the standard model, confirm that the leptonic couplings of the new boson are not flavour-universal ; California Earthquake Authority European Regional Development Fund Joint Institute for Nuclear Research Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission: Pakistan National Science and Technology Development Agency: Thailand Fundacja na rzecz Nauki Polskiej Hispanics in Philanthropy Korea Research Council for Industrial Science and Technology California Department of Fish and Game Compagnia di San Paolo National Research Foundation Qatar National Research Fund Secretaría de Estado de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Canadian Mathematical Society A.G. Leventis Foundation U.S. Department of Energy Academy of Finland Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior Ministerio de Educación y Cultura Türkiye Atom Enerjisi Kurumu Research Promotion Foundation: Cyprus National Science Foundation Science and Technology Facilities Council Austrian Science Fund Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Wirtschaft Western Carolina University National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Instituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India Department of Science and Technology, Government of Rajasthan Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico ?????????? ???? ??????????????? ???????????? (????) Canadian Anesthesiologists' Society Belgian Federal Science Policy Office Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación European Commission Ministerstvo Školství, Mláde?e a T?lov?chovy National Institutes of Health: Hungary CERN Serbia NSC Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Santa Fe Institute Ministry of Education and Science Louisiana Academy of Sciences Fonds pour la Formation à la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro State Fund for Fundamental Research of Ukraine: Ukraine CS Fund: Croatia Fuel Cell Technologies Program Ministry of Education Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología Ministry for Business Innovation and Employment Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences Foundation for Promotion of Material Science and Technology of Japan: Taipei Human Growth Foundation Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo Secretaría de Educación Pública Fonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRS National Natural Science Foundation of China Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung Hungarian Scientific Research Fund N 14-12-00110 Universidade de Macau Rochester Academy of Science Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie European Regional Development Fund Ministerstvo Školství, Mláde?e a T?lov?chovy Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca: 20108T4XTM General Secretariat for Research and Technology European Research Council ; We congratulate our colleagues in the CERN accelerator departments for the excellent performance of the LHC and thank the technical and administrative staffs at CERN and at other CMS institutes for their contributions to the success of the CMS effort. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the computing centres and personnel of the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid for delivering so effectively the computing infrastructure essential to our analyses. Finally, we acknowledge the enduring support for the construction and operation of the LHC and the CMS detector provided by the following funding agencies: BMWFW and FWF (Austria); FNRS and FWO (Belgium); CNPq , CAPES , FAPERJ , and FAPESP (Brazil); MES (Bulgaria); CERN ; CAS , MoST , and NSFC (China); COLCIENCIAS (Colombia); MSES and CSF (Croatia); RPF (Cyprus); MoER , ERC IUT and ERDF (Estonia); Academy of Finland , MEC , and HIP (Finland); CEA and CNRS/IN2P3 (France); BMBF , DFG , and HGF (Germany); GSRT (Greece); OTKA and NIH (Hungary); DAE and DST (India); IPM (Iran); SFI (Ireland); INFN (Italy); NRF and WCU (Republic of Korea); LAS (Lithuania); MOE and UM (Malaysia); CINVESTAV , CONACYT , SEP , and UASLP-FAI (Mexico); MBIE (New Zealand); PAEC (Pakistan); MSHE and NSC (Poland); FCT (Portugal); JINR (Dubna); MON , RosAtom , RAS and RFBR (Russia); MESTD (Serbia); SEIDI and CPAN (Spain); Swiss Funding Agencies (Switzerland); MST (Taipei); ThEPCenter , IPST , STAR and NSTDA (Thailand); TUBITAK and TAEK (Turkey); NASU and SFFR (Ukraine); STFC (United Kingdom); DOE and NSF (USA). Individuals have received support from the Marie-Curie programme and the European Research Council and EPLANET (European Union); the Leventis Foundation ; the A.P. Sloan Foundation ; the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office ; the Fonds pour la Formation à la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium); the Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium); the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of the Czech Republic; the Council of Science and Industrial Research , India; the HOMING PLUS programme of Foundation for Polish Science , cofinanced from European Union, Regional Development Fund ; the Compagnia di San Paolo (Torino); the Consorzio per la Fisica (Trieste); MIUR project 20108T4XTM (Italy); the Thalis and Aristeia programmes cofinanced by EU-ESF and the Greek NSRF ; and the National Priorities Research Program by Qatar National Research Fund ; and the Russian Scientific Fund , grant N 14-12-00110 .

Measurements of two-particle angular correlations between an identified strange hadron (KS 0 or ?/??) and a charged particle, emitted in pPb collisions, are presented over a wide range in pseudorapidity and full azimuth. The data, corresponding to an integrated luminosity of approximately 35 nb?1, were collected at a nucleon–nucleon center-of-mass energy (sNN) of 5.02 TeV with the CMS detector at the LHC. The results are compared to semi-peripheral PbPb collision data at sNN=2.76 TeV, covering similar charged-particle multiplicities in the events. The observed azimuthal correlations at large relative pseudorapidity are used to extract the second-order (v2) and third-order (v3) anisotropy harmonics of KS 0 and ?/?? particles. These quantities are studied as a function of the charged-particle multiplicity in the event and the transverse momentum of the particles. For high-multiplicity pPb events, a clear particle species dependence of v2 and v3 is observed. For pT>2 GeV, the v2 and v3 values of KS 0 particles are larger than those of ?/?? particles at the same pT. This splitting effect between two particle species is found to be stronger in pPb than in PbPb collisions in the same multiplicity range. When divided by the number of constituent quarks and compared at the same transverse kinetic energy per quark, both v2 and v3 for KS 0 particles are observed to be consistent with those for ?/?? particles at the 10% level in pPb collisions. This consistency extends over a wide range of particle transverse kinetic energy and event multiplicities ; California Earthquake Authority Fonds pour la Formation à la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro State Fund for Fundamental Research of Ukraine: Ukraine CS Fund: Croatia Fuel Cell Technologies Program Joint Institute for Nuclear Research Ministry of Education Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission: Pakistan Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología National Science and Technology Development Agency: Thailand Ministry for Business Innovation and Employment Ministry of Science and Technology Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences Fundacja na rzecz Nauki Polskiej Foundation for Promotion of Material Science and Technology of Japan: Taipei Korea Research Council for Industrial Science and Technology Hispanics in Philanthropy California Department of Fish and Game Compagnia di San Paolo Secretaría de Estado de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Qatar National Research Fund National Research Foundation Canadian Mathematical Society A.G. Leventis Foundation U.S. Department of Energy Academy of Finland Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştirma Kurumu Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior Ministerio de Educación y Cultura Türkiye Atom Enerjisi Kurumu Research Promotion Foundation: Cyprus National Science Foundation Science and Technology Facilities Council Human Growth Foundation Austrian Science Fund Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo Secretaría de Educación Pública Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Wirtschaft Western Carolina University Fonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRS National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine National Natural Science Foundation of China Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung European Regional Development Fund Instituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare Hungarian Scientific Research Fund Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India Universidade de Macau Rochester Academy of Science Department of Science and Technology, Government of Rajasthan Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico ?????????? ???? ??????????????? ???????????? (????) Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie Canadian Anesthesiologists' Society Belgian Federal Science Policy Office Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung Ministerstvo Školství, Mláde?e a T?lov?chovy National Institutes of Health: Hungary CERN European Regional Development Fund Ministerstvo Školství, Mláde?e a T?lov?chovy Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca: 20108T4XTM Serbia NSC General Secretariat for Research and Technology European Research Council Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Santa Fe Institute Ministry of Education and Science Louisiana Academy of Sciences ; We congratulate our colleagues in the CERN accelerator departments for the excellent performance of the LHC and thank the technical and administrative staffs at CERN and at other CMS institutes for their contributions to the success of the CMS effort. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the computing centres and personnel of the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid for delivering so effectively the computing infrastructure essential to our analyses. Finally, we acknowledge the enduring support for the construction and operation of the LHC and the CMS detector provided by the following funding agencies: BMWFW and FWF (Austria); FNRS and FWO (Belgium); CNPq , CAPES , FAPERJ , and FAPESP (Brazil); MES (Bulgaria); CERN ; CAS , MOST , and NSFC (China); COLCIENCIAS (Colombia); MSES and CSF (Croatia); RPF (Cyprus); MoER , ERC IUT and ERDF (Estonia); Academy of Finland , MEC , and HIP (Finland); CEA and CNRS/IN2P3 (France); BMBF , DFG , and HGF (Germany); GSRT (Greece); OTKA and NIH (Hungary); DAE and DST (India); IPM (Iran); SFI (Ireland); INFN (Italy); NRF and WCU (Republic of Korea); LAS (Lithuania); MOE and UM (Malaysia); CINVESTAV , CONACYT , SEP , and UASLP-FAI (Mexico); MBIE (New Zealand); PAEC (Pakistan); MSHE and NSC (Poland); FCT (Portugal); JINR (Dubna); MON , RosAtom , RAS and RFBR (Russia); MESTD (Serbia); SEIDI and CPAN (Spain); Swiss Funding Agencies (Switzerland); MST (Taipei); ThEPCenter , IPST , STAR and NSTDA (Thailand); TÜBITAK and TAEK (Turkey); NASU and SFFR (Ukraine); STFC (United Kingdom); DOE and NSF (USA). Individuals have received support from the Marie-Curie programme and the European Research Council and EPLANET (European Union); the Leventis Foundation ; the A.P. Sloan Foundation ; the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office ; the Fonds pour la Formation à la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium); the Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium); the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of the Czech Republic; the Council of Science and Industrial Research , India; the HOMING PLUS programme of Foundation For Polish Science , cofinanced from European Union , Regional Development Fund ; the Compagnia di San Paolo (Torino); the Consorzio per la Fisica (Trieste); MIUR project 20108T4XTM (Italy); the Thalis and Aristeia programmes cofinanced by EU-ESF and the Greek NSRF ; and the National Priorities Research Program by Qatar National Research Fund .

Rare earth elements are not rare at all. They are essential for the hardware of contemporary life as we know it, every contemporary industrialized society depends on them, and there are no known alternatives. Yet the geography of their production is strange. In 2009, China accounted for 97% percent of global production, with the majority coming from the Bayan Obo mine operated by the state-owned enterprise Baotou Rare Earth Group on the southern Mongolian steppe. When gradually intensifying export quotas combined with a temporary halt of official exports in 2010, the rest of the world woke up to its near total dependence on China's rare earth monopoly. To address this crisis, a Brazilian firm (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração) determined to capture rare earths from its niobium mine tailings in the state of Minas Gerais. Betting on the willingness of downstream firms to pay a premium for non-Chinese rare earths and subsidizing the effort with revenues from their niobium sales, they resolved to produce a steady output of rare earth oxides regardless of global market fluctuations. In 2012, CBMM successfully produced high-purity rare earth oxides. In 2013, the US, EU, and Japan won a WTO case against China's rare earth export quotas, restoring some semblance of the global status quo. But the story does not end there.Despite the relative ubiquity of rare earth elements, the abundance of known reserves near existing infrastructure networks, and the dissolution of the 2010 crisis, global prospecting efforts—with the aid of national governments and militaries—have targeted São Gabriel da Cachoeira in the high Amazon and the Western Lunar Highlands on the Moon as the next major points on the global rare earth frontier. This dissertation addresses the question: Given that rare earth elements are both abundant and vital, why is their production driven to so few, seemingly remote places? This question immediately begets three others: through what processes did China's Bayan Obo mine emerge as the single greatest source of rare earth elements worldwide? What provoked changes in China's policy and practice, and how did this precipitate spatial transformations elsewhere? And for what purposes are state, military, and private actors pursuing rare earth mining in São Gabriel da Cachoeira and the Moon? This dissertation proposes that the strange geography of the global rare earth frontier can be explained by world-historical shifts in the global division of toxic labor occurring within a context of state-building and geopolitical contest. It thus advances three claims. First, China's monopoly emerged through a convergence of long-term historical processes shaping northern China in the context of early 20th century imperialism, Cold War politics, and the epochal global economic shifts precipitated by Deng Xiaoping's 1978 reforms and the Reagan/Thatcher revolution. Second, the change in China's political economic priorities from export dominance to conservation has been stimulated by the acute environmental and epidemiological harms generated by rare earth production coupled with China's changing position in the global division of labor. Third, the contemporary geography of the global rare earth frontier is driven by more than geological determinism: although these sites are rich in rare earth elements, they are also historically contested regions and focal points for territorial agendas, for which a nationalist mandate for rare earth extraction provides a convenient pretext. These claims are based in a world-historical analysis of rare earth mining, and draw on political economy, political ecology, transnational theory to examine the convergence of Baotou, São Gabriel da Cachoeira, and the Moon in the production of the global rare earth frontier from the late 19th to early 21st century. I engage scientific literatures, archives, expert interviews and other perspectives across the Anglophone, Sinophone, and Lusophone world which were gathered in China, Brazil, and the United States during 2010 – 2014. The multilingual approach is central to this project. Multiple forms of knowledge are evident in the discourses on the rare earth frontier, and there is a symmetrical inaccessibility to the working rationales across language barriers even as these rationales interpenetrate to shape thought and action across global space. By examining the transnational historical production of the rare earth frontier across these sites, this dissertation refutes three dominant, yet persistent assumptions circulating in contemporary popular, policy, and academic discourse. First, that China's rare earth monopoly emerged because it possesses more rare earth elements than any other country; second, that China and Brazil possess mutually unintelligible histories precluding grounded relational analyses, and; third, that the Moon is a space of exception, beyond the purview of global economic activities and likewise, therefore, of critical concern.The purpose of this work is to demystify the contemporary global rare earth frontier. This work therefore has three aims. The first is to equip the reader with a deeper understanding of rare earth elements—the peculiarities of their geology and production, their political economic significance and their role in geopolitics far beyond what is available in the flurry of reports and opinion pieces generated since 2009. The second is to interrogate the historical origins and ongoing ramifications of the recent 'crisis' not as an exceptional circumstance, but as an episode that can be understood as emerging from and indicative of global development politics. The third and broadest aim is to move beyond entrenched global imaginaries that insist on the mutual unintelligibility of 'China' and 'the West,' or which seek to explain global changes as a series of unidirectional 'impacts' of one place on another, of 'center' on 'periphery,' (Hart 2002) as exemplified by much recent (but important) work concerned with China and Latin America (Gallagher 2008, García-Herrero 2007, Jenkins 2008, Rodriguez 2006). Although these sites differ in many important ways, each demonstrates a particular set of frontier attributes drawing especially from their respective histories at the margins of major imperial and territorial powers. These similarities help explain their convergence as points of extraction along the contemporary global rare earth frontier, while their differences account for the temporal and technological relationalities among these three sites in the global division of toxic labor.

The frequent crises of the capitalist system with its disastrous consequences for society and the environment have led to the reinterpretation and weighting of Marxist thesis. A retrospective to the economy and politics look, interacting with accounting reveals how it has always played aligned with the interests of capital paper, hiding truths and making up facts, which should be classifi ed as fetish accounting. In the document a critical examination of the accounts and its main authors is done through history, auscultation under scrutiny Marxist approaches that reveal the goodwill as a result of the exchange of goods, fi nding that any accounting doctrine time has accompanied since its epistemological trench, or in practice, serious and scientifi c approaches of Marx to achieve a decent life. The serious monitoring done at the various theories and techniques of accounting since Pacioli proposed by until today shows that its structure just came to have important advances in the last 50 years, considering that the basic designs have barely improved discipline in his art under the new technologies. The need to provide a restructuring accounting both in its conceptualization and theoretical corpus, and its pragmatic and practical work, so that progress towards a discipline that not cohoneste injustice and theft that favors capitalism arises in detriment of the actors that throughout history have been unknown such as work, society and the environment. ; Las frecuentes crisis del sistema capitalista con sus nefastas consecuencias para la sociedad y el ambiente han motivado la relectura y ponderación de las tesis marxistas. Una mirada retrospectiva a la economía y la política, en interacción con la contabilidad, revela cómo esta siempre ha desempeñado un papel alineado con los intereses del capital, ocultando verdades y maquillando realidades, con lo que puede calificársele de contabilidad fetichista. El presente artículo realiza un examen crítico de la contabilidad y sus principales autores a través de la historia, auscultando bajo la lupa de los planteamientos marxistas que delatan la plusvalía como resultado del proceso de intercambio de mercancías, para encontrar que la doctrina contable en ninguna época ha acompañado desde su trinchera epistemológica, ni en la práctica, los serios y científicos planteamientos de Marx para alcanzar una vida digna. El seguimiento juicioso efectuado a las diversas teorías y técnicas de la contabilidad desde lo propuesto por Pacioli hasta nuestros días muestra que su estructura apenas vino a tener avances importantes en los últimos cincuenta años, si consideramos que los diseños fundamentales de la disciplina apenas se han mejorado en su técnica en virtud de las nuevas tecnologías. Se plantea la necesidad de darle una restructuración a la contabilidad tanto en su conceptualización y corpus teórico, como en su quehacer pragmático y funcional, de manera que se avance hacia una disciplina que no cohoneste con la injusticia y el robo que propicia el capitalismo, en detrimento de los actores que durante toda la historia han sido desconocidos, como son el trabajo, la sociedad y el ambiente. ; Les crises fréquentes du système capitaliste avec ses conséquences néfastes pour la société et l'atmosphère ont motivé la relecture et la pondération des thèses marxistes. Un regard rétrospectif à l'économie et à la politique, dans une interaction avec la comptabilité, révèle comment ça a toujours occupé un papier aligné avec les intérêts du capital, en cachant des vérités et en maquillant des réalités, par lequel lui peut être qualifié de comptabilité fétichiste. Cet article fait un examen critique de la comptabilité et ses auteurs principaux à travers de l'histoire, en regardant sous la loupe des approches marxistes qui dénoncent la plus-value comme résultat du processus d'échange d'articles, pour trouver que la doctrine racontable dans aucune époque a accompagné depuis sa tranchée epistémologique, ni dans la pratique, les approches sérieuses et scientifiques de Marx pour atteindre une vie digne. Le suivi judicieux effectué aux diverses théories et aux techniques de la comptabilité depuis le proposé par Pacioli jusqu'à nos jours montre que sa structure a seulement eu des avances importantes dans les cinquante dernières années, si nous considérons que les dessins fondamentaux de la discipline seulement sont améliorés sa technicienne grâce aux nouvelles technologies. Il se pose la nécessité de donner un restructuración à la comptabilité dans sa conceptualisation et corpus théorique, ainsi que dans son travail pragmatique et fonctionnel, de manière que l'on puisse avancer vers une discipline que non justifies l'injustice et le vol alimentés par le capitalisme, au détriment des acteursqui n'ont pas été connus pendant toute l'histoire, comme c'est le travail, la société et l'atmosphère. ; As crises freqüentes do sistema capitalista com as suas conseqüências desastrosas para a sociedade e ambente motivaram o relectura e ponderación das teses marxistas. Um olhar retrospectivo para a economia e as políticas, em interação com a contabilidade, revela como isto sempre fez um papel alinhado com os interesses do capital, escondendo verdades e compondo realidades, razão por que posse califi cárse de contabilidade fetichista. Este artigo faz um exame crítico da contabilidade e seus autores principais pela história, examinando debaixo da lupa das posições marxistas que acusam a plusvalia como resultado do processo de troca de bens, para achar que a doutrina contável em nenhuma época acompanhou de sua trincheira epistemological, nem na prática, as posições sérias e científicas de Marx para alcançar uma vida merecedora. O seguimento judicioso feito às diversas teorias e técnicas da contabilidade de o proposto por Pacioli até nossos dias mostra que sua estrutura só teve avanços importantes nos últimos cinqüenta anos, se consideramos que os desígnios fundamentais da disciplina somente melhoraram em sua técnica devido a as novas tecnologias. É pensada a necessidade para dar uma reestruturação à contabilidade na sua conceptualização e corpo teórico, como também na tarefa pragmática e funcional, de forma que pode avançar para uma disciplina que não cohoneste com a injustiça e o roubo que propicia o capitalismo, em desfavor dos atores que foram ignorados durante a história inteira, como o trabalho, a sociedade e o ambente.

We performed a survey of grassland communities in the Ukrainian Carpathians with the aim of: (1) syntaxonomically classifying the meso- and subxerophilous grassland vegetation; (2) analysing the main gradients in their species composition; (3) estimating the effect of selected environmental factors on grassland species composition; (4) assessing the species richness of vascular plants and bryophytes in relation to the measured environmental variables. We collected 46 phytosociological relevés during the growing seasons of 2010 and 2011. Species composition and species richness were studied at two spatial scales (1 m² and 16 m²) in relation to soil parameters (soil depth, pH (KCl), content of P, K, Mg, N and C), management regime (mowing, grazing, ploughing in the past and burning), and other factors (altitude, litter cover, open soil, inclination, solar radiation and animal excrement). Seven grassland types were distinguished belonging to 3 classes and 4 alliances, namely the Nardetea strictae including the Violion caninae (mesic pastures at altitudes of 400–600 m mostly on moderate slopes) and the Nardo strictae-Agrostion tenuis (grasslands on moderate slopes at altitudes of 700–900 m usually managed by mowing and grazing the aftermath); the Molinio-Arrhenatheretea, including the Arrhenatherion elatioris (submontane grasslands originated mostly on former fields after their abandonment in the past) and the Cynosurion cristati (intensive pastures); and the Festuco-Brometea including the Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati (abandoned grasslands dominated by Brachypodium pinnatum and Inula salicina). Detrended correspondence analysis indicated that the major compositional turnover was related to altitude and soil reaction. A canonical correspondence analysis confirmed that altitude had the strongest effect on species composition in the analysed dataset, followed by management treatments (former ploughing, grazing intensity). For vascular plant species richness, regression tree analysis identified grazing intensity as the most important predictor at the 1 m² scale. At the 16 m² scale, soil humus content was evaluated as the most important predictor of vascular plant species richness, followed by litter cover and grazing intensity. The number of bryophytes was not determined by the studied environmental factors at either of the two spatial scales. Although the number of analysed relevés in this study was limited, our results significantly contribute to the understanding of submontane grasslands in the Ukrainian Carpathians. ; Einleitung: In den ukrainischen Karpaten existieren noch große Flächen naturnahen Graslands, das größtenteils von Hand gemäht oder beweidet wird. Das Gebiet besitzt eine hohe Biodiversität die sich im Grasland stark konzentriert. Das landwirtschaftliche System in den ukrainischen Karpaten entspricht dem high nature value farming, einem Konzept der EU-Agrarpolitik zum Erhalt einer hohen Biodiversität auf landwirtschaftlichen Flächen (BEAUFOY 2007, NUPPENAU et al. 2011). Bislang war das naturnahe Grasland der ukrainischen Karpaten pflanzensoziologisch kaum untersucht. Daher erstellten wir dort in den Jahren 2010 und 2011 insgesamt 46 Vegetationsaufnahmen um (1) das meso- und subxero-phile naturnahe Grasland syntaxonomisch einzuordnen, (2) die floristischen Hauptgradienten zu analysieren und ökologisch zu interpretieren, und um den Einfluss verschiedener Umweltfaktoren auf (3) die Artenzusammensetzung und (4) den Artenreichtum der Gefäßpflanzen und Moose einzuschätzen. Untersuchungsgebiet: Die Studie wurde in folgenden Regionen der ukrainischen Karpaten durchgeführt: Zakarpatska Oblast-Mizhhirskyi Rayon, Volovetskyi Rayon, Khuststkyi Rayon, Rayon und Tyachivskyi Rakhivskyi Rayon, Ivano-Frankovskaja Oblast-Dolynskyi Rayon und Lvivska oblast Skolivskyi Rayon (Abb. 2). Das Ausgangsgestein in den ukrainischen Karpaten wird von wechselnden Schichten des Flysch-Schiefers und Flysch-Sandsteins gebildet; kleinräumig existiert auch Kalkstein oder Granit. Das Klima ist gemäßigt kontinental. Das Untersuchungsgebiet gehört zu den unteren Karpaten mit moderat-hohen Gipfeln (bis 2061 m ü. NN: Hoverla). Die hier präsentierten Vegetationsaufnahmen wurden in Höhenlagen von 137–927 m ü. NN erstellt. Methoden: Während der Vegetationsperiode 2010 und 2011 wurden 46 Vegetationsaufnahmen nach der Braun-Blanquet-Methode mit allen Gefäßpflanzen- und Moosarten erstellt. Die Vegetation wurde auf 1 m²- und 16 m² (4 × 4 m)-Flächen aufgenommen, wobei die 1 m²-Flächen innerhalb der 16 m²-Flächen lagen. Auf den 1 m²-Flächen wurde die Deckung der Arten in Prozentschritten geschätzt während auf den 16 m²-Flächen die neunstufige Braun-Blanquet-Skala verwendet wurde. Für jede Aufnahmefläche wurden die folgenden Bodenparameter und Standortmerkmale erfasst: Bodentiefe, pH (KCl), Gehalte an P, K, Mg, N und C, aktuelle Landnutzung (Mahd, Beweidung, Abbrennen) sowie frühere Ackernutzung, Meereshöhe, Streudeckung, Deckung offener Boden, Hangneigung, Trockenheit und die Präsenz von Tierexkrementen. Die Vegetationsaufnahmen wurden in JUICE 7.0.98 analysiert (TICHÝ 2002, TICHÝ & HOLT 2006). Die Deckungswerte wurden vor den Analysen quadratwurzel-transformiert und die Vegetationsaufnahmen anschließend mit der Ward-Methode mit relativen euklidischen Distanzen analysiert. Eine mit dem Programm CANOCO 4.5 (TER BRAAK & ŠMILAUER 2002) durchgeführte Gradientenanalyse sollte Unterschiede in der Artenzusammensetzung zwischen den Vegetationseinheiten visualisieren. Beziehungen zwischen dem Artenreichtum der Gefäßpflanzen und Moose und 17 Umweltvariablen wurden mit Hilfe von Regressionsbäumen analysiert (BREIMAN et al. 1984). Ergebnisse: Sieben Vegetationstypen aus drei Klassen und vier Ordnungen wurden unterschieden (Beilage S1): Klasse Nardetea strictae → Ordnung Nardetalia strictae → Verbände Violion caninae (Weiden in Höhenlagen von 400–600 m vorwiegend an sanften Hängen) und Nardo strictae-Agrostion tenuis (in Höhenlagen von 700–900 m an sanften Hängen; in der Regel gemäht und anschließend beweidet). Klasse: Molinio-Arrhenatheretea → Ordnung Arrhenatheretalia → Verbände Arrhenatherion elatioris (submontane Wiesen, vorwiegend auf früheren Ackerflächen) und Cynosurion cristati (Inten-sivweiden); Klasse Festuco-Brometea → Ordnung Brachypodietalia → Verband Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati (Brachen mit Dominanz von Brachypodium pinnatum und Inula salicina). Korrelationen der DCA-Ordinationsachsen mit Ellenberg-Zeigerwerten, Bodenvariablen und Land-nutzungstypen deuteten auf die Meereshöhe und den pH-Wert des Bodens als wichtigste Umweltfaktoren für die Vegetation hin (Abb. 6). Eine kanonische Korrespondenzanalyse (CCA) deutete ebenfalls auf die Meereshöhe als wichtigste Umweltvariable hin, gefolgt von den Landnutzungsvariablen ehemalige Ackernutzung und Beweidungsintensität sowie pH-Wert des Bodens, Abbrennen sowie Phosphor- und Magnesiumgehalt (Tab. 3). Der Gefäßpflanzenartenreichtum war auf den 1 m²-Flächen am stärksten mit der Beweidungsintensität korreliert (Abb. 8) und auf den 16 m²-Flächen mit dem Bodenhumusgehalt, der Streudeckung und Beweidungsintensität (Abb. 9A). Der Moosartenreichtum konnte auf keiner der beiden Raumskalen durch die untersuchten Umweltfaktoren erklärt werden. Am artenreichsten (im Mittel 61 Gefäßpflanzentaxa pro 16 m²) waren montane, regelmässig gemähte Wiesen, die offenbar niemals als Acker genutzt worden waren oder auch nicht intensiv beweidet wurden. Wiesen auf ehemaligen Ackerstandorten zeigten mit 52 Taxa einen mittleren Gäßpflanzenartenreichtum (Tab. 2) während Weiden des Violion caninae und Nardo-Agrostion am artenärmsten waren (45 bzw. 43 Taxa; Abb. 7). Diskussion: Ein direkter Vergleich unserer phytosoziologischen Einteilung mit bereits aus dem Untersuchungsgebiet publizierten Syntaxa wurde nicht vorgenommen, da die betreffenden ukrainischen Pflanzensoziologen einen anderen Klassifikationsansatz, eine andere Skala bei der Schätzung der De-ckungsgrade sowie grössere Aufnahmeflächen (100 m² bis ≥400 m²) verwendet haben. Mit dieser Methodik wurden in den letzten 10 Jahren die Vegetationstypen einiger Nationalparks und Naturschutzgebiete in den ukrainischen Karpaten pflanzensoziologisch klassifiziert (CHORNEY et al. 2005, KLIMUK et al. 2006, TOKARYUK et al. 2009, DERZHYPILSKY et al. 2011). Die Ergebnisse der Studien entsprechen jedoch nur teilweise unseren Einheiten. Schlussfolgerungen: Naturnahes Grasland bildet einen prägenden Bestandteil der Vegetation der Karpaten. Ihre größte Bedrohung sind Änderungen der traditionellen Landnutzung, vor allem aber die Aufgabe der Landnutzung überhaupt. In einigen Regionen ist Intensivierung (meist Überweidung) ein Problem wodurch die Diversität des Graslands erodiert und die Wiesen degradieren. Trotz dieser negativen Entwicklungen stellen die ukrainischen Karpaten für naturnahes Graslands immer noch eine naturschutzfachlich sehr wertvolle Region dar. Die Erkenntnisse dieser Studie sollen zur besseren Kenntnis und zum besseren Verständnis der unterschiedlichen Graslandtypen der Region beitragen.

The purpose of this thesis is to define and identify the effects of price discrimination policies on the use and organization of urban public transports. Price discrimination is the possibility to price a service with different level of tariff. At first, we will define the issues around public transport fares, whose complexity is now mitigated by existing smart cards and other payment tools. Then, the spatial dimension of the fare will be given special attention through the study of the relationships between fee structure and spatial morphology of 10 cities around the world. The relationships between urban morphology and pricing will be confirmed. Knowing that usage of public transport are diverse, it is essential to have a good knowledge of users habits. Smard Card data reconstruction provides geographical and statistical information that can be re used for urban planning and for pricing policy. How ?Grand Paris orbital line 15, will be launched in 2020. It is an example of introducing a new metro line inducing significant time savings for commuters. Passengers will be given a real alternative between their usual route and the new one. The new route can offer several advantages: gain of time spent during the trip, gain in terms of number of transfers, comfort gain, security gain, price advantages. This could be an opportunity for an agency to review its fare policy. Our model is based on existing travel flows derived from the itinerary reconstruction from Navigo Smart Card pass. It establishes the principles of a fare grid based on travelers' preferences and current travel patterns. For this research, we used data from public transport pass users in the Paris' Metropolitan area, for one month. Finally, we show that price discrimination is related to "mobility" and not to "public transport". If we consider the mobility needs of the user, pricing is no longer that of "transportation" but a package of services enabling access to different forms of mobility. Therefore it is transport governance that can be a problem. How to federate all mobility stakeholders in France? This dimension is essential for public transport authorities. It is a key success factor for achieving ambitious and sustainable urban planning policies. ; L'objet de cette thèse est de définir et d'identifier les effets des politiques de différenciation tarifaire sur l'usage et l'organisation d'un réseau de transport de voyageur urbain ou interurbain. Par différenciation tarifaire, on entend la capacité à faire payer à l'utilisateur un service à des prix différents, en tenant compte de plusieurs critères que nous définirons : l'usage, la distance parcourue…. La tarification différenciée est également appelée discrimination tarifaire de deuxième niveau dans les pays anglo-saxons. La politique tarifaire d'un réseau de transport public répond à trois objectifs qui sont souvent contradictoires. Le premier est la collecte de la recette et la couverture des coûts, le second est l'orientation des usages sans détériorer la fréquentation. Enfin le troisième présente la politique tarifaire comme un instrument possible de politique urbaine. Quels sont les éléments d'une politique tarifaire qui peuvent avoir une influence sur le comportement des utilisateurs en termes de déplacement sur un territoire ? Est-ce qu'un tarif multimodal va générer plus de déplacements combinés, un meilleur taux de fréquentation ? Peut-on observer des changements de comportements suite à l'introduction de tarifications spécifiques comme les tarifs heures de pointe/heure creuses ? Les moyens de paiement comme les facilités d'accès au service font également partie de la stratégie tarifaire : les cartes prépayées, le post paiement, les cartes à valeur permettant de débiter le prix des trajets en fonction des pratiques sont autant de supports permettant l'accès à des bouquets de services. Des tarifications parfois extrêmement sophistiquées ne sont pas perçues comme telles par les utilisateurs. La première partie a pour objectif de définir les enjeux autour de l'élaboration du tarif et de la différenciation tarifaire. Les mécanismes et les composantes de la différenciation tarifaire seront définis et les travaux déjà réalisés sur les relations entre tarification et usage d'un service seront passés en revue de manière à dégager un état des lieux des pratiques tarifaires existantes et hiérarchiser celles pouvant avoir un impact direct sur l'usage spatial du réseau. Dans une deuxième partie, l'étude portera sur la dimension spatiale du tarif à travers l'étude des relations entre les différentes tarifications à la distance et la morphologie spatiale des territoires considérés. L'efficacité des pratiques tarifaires eu égard aux politiques de planification urbaine sera évaluée à partir d'exemples de villes ayant des formes urbaines de type mono-centrique, polycentrique ou composite. La relation entre tarification et morphologie urbaine sera confirmée. L'objet de la troisième partie est de simuler le comportement des utilisateurs lors de modifications tarifaires à partir des données de fréquentation disponibles grâce aux validations billettiques. Dans un premier temps à partir des données de validations des réseaux urbains et interurbains de Belfort ainsi que du département de l'Oise et de la Drôme, nous montrerons qu'il est possible de faire des analyses ciblées. Puis, à partir des données réelles collectées sur le réseau d'Ile de France, et en se projetant à l'introduction d'une ligne structurante nouvelle comme la ligne 15 du Grand Paris, nous chercherons à simuler l'impact d'une tarification différenciée sur la fréquentation globale des deux réseaux. En utilisant un algorithme de répartition des flux selon un modèle de répartition entre deux itinéraires concurrents, Il s'agira d'explorer une méthode de construction d'une grille tarifaire qui fixerait des niveaux de recette globale tout en orientant les usages sur des objectifs définis : niveau d'utilisation de la nouvelle ligne, tranche horaire, courts et long trajets. Enfin, la quatrième partie s'attache à définir les effets des politiques de mise en œuvre de différenciation tarifaire sous l'angle de la gouvernance tarifaire et de la gouvernance des projets billettiques. Cette dimension est essentielle car méconnue du public et pourtant un facteur clef de succès pour la réalisation de politiques urbaines ambitieuses en matière de report modal et d'aménagement.

We thank CERN for the very successful operation of the LHC, as well as the support staff from our institutions without whom ATLAS could not be operated efficiently.We acknowledge the support of ANPCyT, Argentina; YerPhI, Armenia; ARC, Australia; BMWFW and FWF, Austria; ANAS, Azerbaijan; SSTC, Belarus; CNPq and FAPESP, Brazil; NSERC, NRC and CFI, Canada; CERN; CONICYT, Chile; CAS, MOST and NSFC, China; COLCIENCIAS, Colombia; MSMT CR, MPO CR and VSC CR, Czech Republic; DNRF, DNSRC and Lundbeck Foundation, Denmark; EPLANET, ERC and NSRF, European Union; IN2P3-CNRS, CEA-DSM/IRFU, France; GNSF, Georgia; BMBF, DFG, HGF, MPG and AvH Foundation, Germany; GSRT and NSRF, Greece; ISF, MINERVA, GIF, I-CORE and Benoziyo Center, Israel; INFN, Italy; MEXT and JSPS, Japan; CNRST, Morocco; FOM and NWO, Netherlands; BRF and RCN, Norway; MNiSW and NCN, Poland; GRICES and FCT, Portugal; MNE/IFA, Romania; MES of Russia and ROSATOM, Russian Federation; JINR; MSTD, Serbia; MSSR, Slovakia; ARRS and MIZŠ, Slovenia; DST/NRF, South Africa; MINECO, Spain; SRC and Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; SER, SNSF and Cantons of Bern and Geneva, Switzerland; NSC, Taiwan; TAEK, Turkey; STFC, the Royal Society and Leverhulme Trust, United Kingdom; DOE and NSF, United States of America. The crucial computing support from all WLCG partners is acknowledged gratefully, in particular from CERN and the ATLAS Tier-1 facilities at TRIUMF (Canada), NDGF (Denmark, Norway, Sweden), CC-IN2P3 (France), KIT/GridKA (Germany), INFN-CNAF (Italy), NL-T1 (Netherlands), PIC (Spain), ASGC (Taiwan), RAL (UK) and BNL (USA) and in the Tier-2 facilities worldwide. ; A measurement of the production processes of the recently discovered Higgs boson is performed in the two-photon final state using 4.5 fb−1 of proton-proton collisions data at √s=7 TeV and 20.3 fb−1 at √s=8 TeV collected by the ATLAS detector at the Large Hadron Collider. The number of observed Higgs boson decays to diphotons divided by the corresponding Standard Model prediction, called the signal strength, is found to be μ=1.17±0.27 at the value of the Higgs boson mass measured by ATLAS, mH=125.4 GeV. The analysis is optimized to measure the signal strengths for individual Higgs boson production processes at this value of mH. They are found to be μggF=1.32±0.38, μVBF=0.8±0.7, μWH=1.0±1.6, μZH=0.1+3.7−0.1, and μt¯tH=1.6+2.7−1.8, for Higgs boson production through gluon fusion, vector-boson fusion, and in association with a W or Z boson or a top-quark pair, respectively. Compared with the previously published ATLAS analysis, the results reported here also benefit from a new energy calibration procedure for photons and the subsequent reduction of the systematic uncertainty on the diphoton mass resolution. No significant deviations from the predictions of the Standard Model are found. ; ANPCyT ; YerPhI, Armenia ; Australian Research Council ; BMWFW ; Austrian Science Fund (FWF) ; Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS) ; SSTC, Belarus ; National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) ; Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) ; NSERC, NRC ; CERN ; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT) ; Chinese Academy of Sciences ; MOST ; National Natural Science Foundation of China ; Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion Colciencias ; Canada Foundation for Innovation ; Ministry of Education, Youth & Sports - Czech Republic ; MPO CR ; Czech Republic Government ; DNRF ; Danish Natural Science Research Council ; Lundbeckfonden ; EPLANET ; European Research Council (ERC) ; European Union (EU) ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; CEA-DSM/IRFU, France ; GNSF, Georgia ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; German Research Foundation (DFG) ; HGF ; Max Planck Society ; Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; Greek Ministry of Development-GSRT ; NSRF, Greece ; Israel Science Foundation ; MINERVA ; German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development ; I-CORE ; Benoziyo Center, Israel ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ; CNRST, Morocco ; FOM (The Netherlands) ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) Netherlands Government ; BRF ; RCN, Norway ; Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Poland ; NCN, Poland ; GRICES ; Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology ; MNE/IFA, Romania ; MES of Russia ; Russian Federation ; JINR ; MSTD, Serbia ; MSSR, Slovakia ; Slovenian Research Agency - Slovenia ; MIZS, Slovenia ; DST/NRF, South Africa ; MINECO, Spain ; SRC ; Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden ; SER ; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) ; Cantons of Bern ; Geneva, Switzerland ; National Science Council of Taiwan ; Ministry of Energy & Natural Resources - Turkey ; Royal Society and Leverhulme Trust, United Kingdom ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; National Science Foundation (NSF) ; ICREA ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ST/M001474/1 ST/J005525/1 ST/I006056/1 ATLAS Upgrade ATLAS ST/J004928/1 ST/L006480/1 ST/L003414/1 ST/J005487/1 ST/I006056/1 ST/L006464/1 ST/J004928/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/M007103/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/L001179/1 ATLAS Upgrades PP/D002915/1 ST/K003658/1 ST/H001069/2 ST/M001504/1 ST/K003658/1 GRIDPP GRIDPP ST/J00474X/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/I00372X/1 GRIDPP ST/I00372X/1 ST/K001426/1 ATLAS ST/K001264/1 ATLAS ST/L000970/1 ST/K00140X/1 PP/E002846/1 ST/M003213/1 ST/M002306/1 PP/E003087/1 ST/L001179/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/I006080/1 ST/G502320/1 ST/J004928/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/J00474X/1 ST/L000970/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/K001248/1 ST/K001418/1 ST/J004944/1 ST/M000761/1 ST/L000970/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/K001302/1 ST/I005803/1 GRIDPP ST/I005803/1 ST/I000178/1 ST/H001085/2 ST/I006056/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/K00137X/1 ST/I000186/1 ST/L003325/1 ST/L00352X/1 ST/L001179/1 ST/M002071/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/M001733/1 ST/J005576/1 ST/M002306/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/G50228X/1 PP/E000444/1 ST/L001209/1 ATLAS Upgrades

We acknowledge the support of ANPCyT, Argentina; YerPhI, Armenia; ARC, Australia; BMWF and FWF, Austria; ANAS, Azerbaijan; SSTC, Belarus; CNPq and FAPESP, Brazil; NSERC, NRC and CFI, Canada; CERN; CONICYT, Chile; CAS, MOST and NSFC, China; COLCIENCIAS, Colombia; MSMT CR, MPO CR and VSC CR, Czech Republic; DNRF, DNSRC and Lundbeck Foundation, Denmark; EPLANET, ERC and NSRF, European Union; IN2P3-CNRS, CEA-DSM/IRFU, France; GNSF, Georgia; BMBF, DFG, HGF, MPG and AvH Foundation, Germany; GSRT and NSRF, Greece; ISF, MINERVA, GIF, I-CORE and Benoziyo Center, Israel; INFN, Italy; MEXT and JSPS, Japan; CNRST, Morocco; FOM and NWO, Netherlands; BRF and RCN, Norway; MNiSW and NCN, Poland; GRICES and FCT, Portugal; MNE/IFA, Romania; MES of Russia and ROSATOM, Russian Federation; JINR; MSTD, Serbia; MSSR, Slovakia; ARRS and MIZS, Slovenia; DST/NRF, South Africa; MINECO, Spain; SRC and Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; SER, SNSF and Cantons of Bern and Geneva, Switzerland; NSC, Taiwan; TAEK, Turkey; STFC, the Royal Society and Leverhulme Trust, United Kingdom; DOE and NSF, United States of America. ; This paper describes a measurement of the Z/γ∗ boson transverse momentum spectrum using ATLAS proton-proton collision data at a centre-of-mass energy of √s = 7 TeV at the LHC. The measurement is performed in the Z/γ∗ → e+e− and Z/γ∗ → µ+µ− channels, using data corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 4.7 fb−1. Normalized differential cross sections as a function of the Z/γ∗ boson transverse momentum are measured for transverse momenta up to 800 GeV. The measurement is performed inclusively for Z/γ∗ rapidities up to 2.4, as well as in three rapidity bins. The channel results are combined, compared to perturbative and resummed QCD calculations and used to constrain the parton shower parameters of Monte Carlo generators. ; ANPCyT ; YerPhI, Armenia ; Australian Research Council ; BMWF, Austria ; Austrian Science Fund (FWF) ; Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS) ; SSTC, Belarus ; National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) ; Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) ; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada ; NRC, Canada ; Canada Foundation for Innovation ; CERN ; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT) ; Chinese Academy of Sciences ; Ministry of Science and Technology, China ; National Natural Science Foundation of China ; Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion Colciencias ; Ministry of Education, Youth & Sports - Czech Republic Czech Republic Government ; DNRF, Denmark ; Danish Natural Science Research Council ; Lundbeckfonden ; EPLANET ; European Research Council (ERC) ; NSRF ; European Union (EU) ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; CEA-DSM/IRFU, France ; GNSF, Georgia ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; German Research Foundation (DFG) ; HGF, Germany ; Max Planck Society ; Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; Greek Ministry of Development-GSRT ; NSRF, Greece ; Israel Science Foundation ; MINERVA, Israel ; German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development ; I-CORE, Israel ; Benoziyo Center, Israel ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ; CNRST, Morocco ; FOM (The Netherlands) Netherlands Government ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) Netherlands Government ; BRF, Norway ; RCN, Norway ; Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Poland ; NCN, Poland ; GRICES, Portugal ; Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology ; MNE/IFA, Romania ; MES of Russia ; ROSATOM ; Russian Federation ; JINR ; MSTD, Serbia ; MSSR, Slovakia ; Slovenian Research Agency - Slovenia ; MIZS, Slovenia ; DST/NRF, South Africa ; MINECO, Spain ; SRC, Sweden ; Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden ; SER, Switzerland ; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) ; Cantons of Bern, Switzerland ; Geneva, Switzerland ; National Science Council of Taiwan ; Ministry of Energy & Natural Resources - Turkey ; Royal Society of London ; Leverhulme Trust ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; National Science Foundation (NSF) ; ICREA ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ST/K001310/1 ST/J501074/1 ST/L001195/1 ST/H001093/2 ST/H00100X/2 ST/I005803/1 ST/K001302/1 ST/K00140X/1 ATLAS ST/M007103/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/M003213/1 ST/L006480/1 ST/K50208X/1 ST/K00137X/1 ST/J005487/1 ST/H001042/2 ST/J004928/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/J00474X/1 ATLAS Upgrades PP/E002846/1 PP/E000347/1 ST/F007418/1 ST/J004944/1 ST/J005525/1 ST/H001026/2 ST/K001361/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/I006056/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/I006080/1 ST/I00372X/1 GRIDPP ST/K001361/1 ATLAS ST/M000761/1 ST/G502320/1 ST/J004928/1 ST/H001042/1 ST/J00474X/1 ST/H00095X/2 ST/I00372X/1 ST/K003658/1 GRIDPP ST/L000970/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/L003112/1 ST/L003325/1 ST/M002071/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/I000178/1 PP/E002757/1 PP/E000487/1 ST/K000659/1 ST/K001248/1 ST/K001310/1 ATLAS ST/K001329/1 ATLAS ST/K00073X/1 ST/J005460/1 ST/K001388/1 ST/K501840/1 PP/E003087/1 PP/E000444/1 ST/G50228X/1 ST/M001474/1 ST/L001179/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/J005533/1 ST/I006056/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/I006056/1 ST/H00100X/1 ST/H001069/2 ST/K001361/1 ST/K001310/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/I005811/1 ST/J002798/1 ST/K001337/1 ATLAS ST/K001361/1 MINOS/MINOS+ ST/K003437/1 ST/K003437/1 GRIDPP ST/L000970/1 ST/L001209/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/L001179/1 ATLAS Upgrade ST/M001733/1 ST/K001418/1 ST/K502236/1 ST/L001144/1 ST/M002306/1 ST/H001026/1 ST/K001426/1 ATLAS ST/K001264/1 ATLAS ST/K000705/1 PP/E000355/1 ATLAS ST/H001093/1 ST/I005803/1 GRIDPP ST/I505756/1 ST/K001310/1 LHCb ST/J005576/1 ST/K001361/1 LHCb ST/K003658/1 GRIDPP ST/M002306/1 ATLAS Upgrades ST/L001179/1 ST/K001361/1 LHCb Upgrades PP/D002915/1 ST/M000664/1 ST/K501840/1 GRIDPP ST/F00754X/1 ST/I000186/1 ST/L00352X/1 ST/K000713/1 ST/K00140X/1 ST/L006464/1 ST/M001431/1 ST/K001310/1 LHCb Upgrades ST/J500641/1 ST/H00095X/1

Having restored their independence, the Republic of Belarus and the Baltic states turned to get into the similar conditions, when economy restructuring and drastic transformations are required, including independent customs policy conducting. Nowadays these countries nave different foreign trade indicators' values, and they are participants to different European integration structures (Belarus is a member of the Eurasian Economic Community, while the Baltic states have recently become members of the European Union (EU)). Authors of the article analyze customs tariff and non tariff measures, technical and technological customs development, customs control in Belarus and Baltic states as well participation of the above-mentioned countries in the economic Integration process. The comparative analysis of the customs policy results, which are based on the similar conditions, will let to define the efficiency degree of one or another customs policy type for a country with transitive economy. The research objective is to define customs policy specific features in Belarus and the Baltic states, and to compare customs policy effectiveness at the macroeconomlc level ivith the help of the basic statistical indicators on the foreign trade turnover. The research methods are synthesis and analysis, deduction, induction, comparative analysis, statistical method and several others. ; Atkūrusios nepriklausomybę Baltijos valstybės ir Baltarusijos Respublika panašiomis planinės ekonomikos į rinkos ekonomiką transformacijos sąlygomis sprendė ūkio restruktūrizacijos ir nepriklausomos muitų politikos kūrimo uždavinius. Šiuo metu šios valstybės skiriasi užsienio prekybos rezultatais, yra susiformavusi skirtinga prekių importo ir eksporto struktūra, šios valstybės priklauso skirtingoms integracinėms struktūroms: Baltarusija yra Eurazijos ekonominės bendrijos narė, o Estija, Latvija ir Lietuva yra Europos Sąjungos narės. Remdamiesi šiose valstybėse taikomų muitų politikos instrumentų ir užsienio prekybos palyginamosios analizės duomenimis, autoriai nagrinėja šiose šalyse taikomas tarifines ir netarifines užsienio prekybos reguliavimo priemones, muitinių organizavimo ir kontrolės klausimus, jų dalyvavimą ekonominio integravimo procesuose. Estija, Latvija ir Lietuva vertinamos kaip liberalios užsienio prekybos politikos Šalys. Estijoje eksporto muitai, išskyrus istorines ir kultūros vertybių prekes, ir importo muitai buvo panaikinti visoms prekėms. Latvijoje ir Lietuvoje eksporto muitai taikyti minimaliam prekių rūsių skaičiui. Siekiant apsaugoti vietos gamybos sektorius, Latvijoje tokioms prekėms kaip mediena, metalai, cheminės ir farmacinės prekės, o Lietuvoje - žemės ūkio ir maisto prekės, tekstilės gaminiai transporto priemonės taikyti importo muitai, kurių tarifai neviršijo 55 procentų. Baltarusijoje, siekiant visapusiškiau panaudoti vietos gamybinius pajėgumus, eksporto muitai nu¬statyti žaliavoms ir energijos šaltiniams, o importo muitai taikomi vietos gamintojams apsaugoti. Žaliavoms nustatyti importo muitai neviršija 5 proc, o pramoninėms prekėms - 30 proc. Baltarusijoje dėl didesnių eksporto muitų ir didesniam prekių pavadinimų skaičiui taikymo, jos žaliavų eksporto dalis iš bendro eksporto 2002 m. sudarė 6,97proc, t. y. mažiausia dalis, palyginti su Lietuvos žaliavų eksportu - 11,9proc, Estijos -16,1 proc. ir Latvijos 14,04proc. Importo liberalizavimo lygį rodo importo muitų ir importo masto santykis. Sis santykis Estijoje 1997m. sudarė 0,001 proc., Latvijoje -1,41, Lietuvoje -1,27, o Baltarusijoje 4,12proc. Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas ekonominio ir neekonominio pobūdžio netarifinio reguliavimo priemonių taikymas Baltarusijos ir Baltijos valstybėse. Daugiausia netarifinio reguliavimo priemonių skaičių, iš jų eksporto draudimą ir licencijavimą, eksporto sutarčių registravimą, kvotas, minimalias eksportuojamų prekių kainas, taiko Baltarusija. Estija tarptautinėje prekyboje taiko tik eksporto licencijavimą. PVM ir akcizų mokesčiai panašūs visose nagrinėjamose šalyse, išskyrus tai, kad pagal Baltarusijos Respublikos ir Rusijos Federacijos muitų sąjungos nuostatas PVM už eksporiuojamas prekes renkamas prekių kilmės Šalyje. Svarbus užsienio prekybos veiksnys yra nacionalinių valiutų susiejimo su užsienio valiutomis pasirinkimo tr reguliavimo mechanizmas. Svarbiausių užsienio valiutų kursų svyravimai turėjo skirtingą įtaką nagrinėjamų šalių eksportui, nes jų nacionalinės valiutos buvo skirtingai susietos su pagrindinių šalių valiutomis, pavyzdžiui, Estijos krona buvo susieta su Vokietijos marke, Lietuvos litas iki 2002 metų buvo susietas su JAV doleriu, o Latvijos latas - su valiutų krepšeliu. Užsienio prekyboje Baltarusija 1990-2000 metais taikė privalomos užsienio valiutos pajamų dalies pardavimą pagal nustatytą oficialų keitimo kursą, taip sukurdama papildomą fiskalinę naštą Šios šalies prekių eksportuotojams. Dėl dažno muitų teisės aktų keitimo bei privačių kompanijų diskriminacinio pobūdžio veiksmų įforminimas Baltarusijos muitinėje reikalauja didesnių laiko sąnaudų ir finansinių išteklių. Baltijos valstybių muiti¬nėse įforminimas yra paprastesnis, jose galioja vienodi muitinės teisės aktai ir muitinės bei transporto dokumentai, taikomos supaprastintos muitinės procedūros. Salių muitinių teritorinė struktūra visose keturiose nagrinėjamose šalyse yra racionali, išsidėsčiusi pasienyje ir teritorijų viduje, tačiau Baltijos Šalys pagal Europos Sąjungos programas Customs 2000, 2002 ir 2007 turi plačias muitinių infrastruktūros ir technologijų tobulinimo galimybes, kokių neturi Baltarusijos muitinė. Baltijos šalių muitinės, padedamos Europos Sąjungos muitinių, įgyvendino rizikos analizės ir valdymo, elektroninio deklaravimo sistemas. Muitinės pareigūnų rengimo ir kvalifikacijos kėlimo srityje Baltarusijoje veikia keturi universitetai ir keletas mokymo centn{, o Baltijos valstybių muitinės šioje srityje dar turi tr keitimosi ES valstybių narių muitinių praktika galimybių. Tarptautinės ekonomikos integracijos ir prekybos liberalizavimo procesus globaliniu lygmeniu reguliuoja Pasaulio prekybos organizacija (PPO) ir Pasaulio muitinių organizacija (PMO), kurios nariai yra visos keturios valstybės. PPO narės yra visos Baltijos valstybės, o Baltarusija dėl protekcionistinės prekybos politikos, jos integracijos į Rytų ekonominę erdvę vis dar išgyvena derybų dėl narystės stadiją. Baltijos valstybės jau 1990 metais prisijungė prie muitinėms labai svarbios Kijoto konvencijos, o Baltarusija dar tik ruošiasi šioms procedūroms. Be to, Baltijos valstybės yra prisijungusios prie daugelio Vakartį transporio konvencijų, dėl to importo-eksporto ir tranzito sąlygos šiose valstybėse yra kur kas geresnės. Nors nagrinėjamos šalys išsidėsčiusios Europoje, regioniniu lygmeniu jos priklauso skirtingiems integraciniams centrams - ES ir NVS. Europos Sąjunga, kaip integracijos centras, turi didesnę ir imlesnę rinką su daugiau kaip 400 mln. vartotojų, vientisą tarptautinės prekybos ir muitų teisinę bazę. NVS rinka, apimanti 200 mln. skurdesnių vartotojų, neturi suderintos vientisos prekybos teisinės bazės, o joje pagaminti produktai yra mažiau konkurentiški. Neturėdama galimybių plėtoti plačius ekonominius ryšius Europos ekonominėje erdvėje, Baltarusija aktyviai plėtoja dvišalius susitarimus su NVS valstybėmis, Kinija ir trečiojo pasaulio - Azijos ir Ramiojo vandenyno, Afiikos ir Lotynų Amerikos - šalimis. Straipsnyje pateiktos šios išvados: 1. Baltijos šalių muitų politika, palyginti su Baltarusija, yra liberalesnė, jai būdingas aktyvus dalyvavimas ekonominės integracijos procesuose ir aukštesnis technologinio išsivystymo lygis. 2. Baltarusijos laipsniškas importo ir eksporto muitų mažinimas, derintas su ribotu stipraus eksporto sektoriaus protekcionizmu, netarifinių muitų reguliavimo priemonių mažinimu, muitų politika, rė mėsi aktyvesniu dalyvavimu ekonominio integravimo procesuose dvišalių susitarimų lygmeniu.

El sistema de inspección establecido en los mataderos de la Unión Europea dispone que los controles oficiales que se realizan en ellos deben basarse en una evaluación previa de los riesgos para la salud pública, la sanidad animal y el bienestar de los animales y adaptarse al tipo y rendimiento de los procesos efectuados en cada matadero. El sistema de inspección puede ser más o menos preciso en función de factores relacionados con el personal que lo lleva a acabo, las autoridades competentes responsables y el matadero en el que se aplica. Los factores relacionados con el personal que determinan la precisión de los sistemas de inspección incluyen su formación, su experiencia, el número de personal asignado a la inspección y su motivación. El veterinario oficial es el encargado de realizar las tareas de inspección en los mataderos, que incluyen la inspección ante mortem de los animales vivos, el control del bienestar animal y la inspección post mortem de las carnes obtenidas de los animales sacrificados; tras realizar estas tareas de inspección, el veterinario oficial debe tomar las medidas oportunas en relación con los animales vivos, el control del bienestar animal y la carne fresca, registrar las actuaciones realizadas y las pruebas efectuadas, y comunicar los resultados de inspección que se consideren relevantes para los responsables de las explotaciones ganaderas y del matadero. Para realizar estas funciones de forma adecuada el veterinario oficial debe tener la cualificación necesaria. Los informes realizados sobre la inspección realizada en los mataderos en la UE muestra deficiencias relacionadas sobre todo con las inspecciones ante mortem y post mortem, el control del bienestar animal y las responsabilidades de las autoridades competentes. La inspección ante mortem es un examen clínico que busca la identificación de los animales enfermos o anormales antes de entrar en el matadero para su sacrificio y la inspección post mortem es un examen anatomopatológico destinado a detectar y eliminar las anomalías macroscópicas que pueden afectar a la aptitud de la carne para el consumo humano; en consecuencia, las tareas de inspección que tiene asignadas el veterinario oficial deben basarse en unos conocimientos técnicos especializados de los signos clínicos y de las alteraciones morfológicas que puedan observarse durante las inspecciones ante mortem y post mortem en los animales vivos y en las carnes obtenidas. El presente trabajo se ha realizado como veterinario oficial de dos mataderos de ganado porcino de cebo durante un periodo de 8 años. Los signos clínicos observados durante la inspección ante mortem y las alteraciones morfológicas observadas durante la inspección post mortem se han estudiado, fotografiado y clasificado según su importancia para la salud pública, la sanidad animal, el bienestar animal, la producción animal y la toma de decisiones sobre los animales vivos y las carnes, obteniéndose una colección de 1219 imágenes macroscópicas que muestran las alteraciones morfológicas detectadas durante las inspecciones ante mortem y post mortem. Además, se ha realizado un estudio de prevalencia de un grupo de alteraciones morfológicas en una muestra de 1000 cerdos. ; The inspection system established in slaughterhouses of the European Union stipulates that official controls are carried out in them should be based on a prior assessment of the risks to public health, animal health and animal welfare to match the type and performance of the processes carried out in each slaughterhouses. The inspection system can be more or less accurate depending on factors related to the staff that carried out, the competent authorities responsible and the slaughterhouse where it applies. Factors related to staff that determine the accuracy of the inspection systems include their training, experience, the number of staff assigned to the inspection and motivation. The official veterinarian is responsible for carrying out inspection tasks in slaughterhouses, including ante mortem inspection of live animals, animal welfare control and post mortem inspection of meat obtained from animals slaughtered; after these tasks of inspection, the official veterinarian must take appropriate measures with regard to live animals, the control of animal welfare and the fresh meat, record the performed actions and tests carried out, and communicate inspection results that are considered relevant for managers of farming and slaughterhouse. To perform these functions adequately the official veterinarian must have the necessary qualifications. Reports produced on inspection in slaughterhouses in the EU shows mostly related deficiencies ante mortem and post mortem, control of animal welfare and responsibilities of the competent authorities. Ante mortem inspection is a clinical test that looks for the identification of abnormal or sick animals before entering the slaughterhouse for slaughter. Post mortem inspection is a histological examination designed to detect and eliminate macroscopic anomalies that might affect the fitness of the meat for human consumption. Consequently, the inspection tasks assigned to the official veterinarian must rely on specialized technical knowledge of the clinical signs and morphological alterations they can be observed and which vary according to species, age and the system of production, primarily. This work has been done as official veterinarian from two abattoirs in bait pig by a period of 8 years. Both the clinical signs observed during the ante mortem inspection and morphological alterations observed during the inspection post mortem have been studied, photographed and classified according to their importance within the field of public health, animal health, animal welfare, animal production and decision‐making on the live animals and meat. Thus, in this work it has obtained a collection of 1219 images of macroscopic morphological alterations. On the other hand, has been carried out a study of prevalence of a group of these morphological alterations in a sample of 1000 slaughtered pigs, a data analysis that provide records of seizures and a study of the limitations of the system of inspection applied.

Lo stress odierno è causato da un contesto che sta cambiando e che genera un'incertezza continua. Nel corso dell'ultimo decennio, in particolare, si è potuto osservare il proliferare di gruppi di ricerca che si occupano dei problemi psicosociali del lavoro e della qualità della vita. Un sondaggio dell'Agenzia europea per la salute e la sicurezza sul lavoro (EU-OSHA) rivela che più di un italiano su 2 pensa di lavorare in un ambiente stressante e oltre 7 su 10 additano come causa la precarietà. Il sondaggio ha coinvolto tutta l'Unione e, nel nostro Paese, 480 lavoratori maggiorenni a tempo pieno, parziale o autonomi, intervistati tra il 28 novembre e il 1° dicembre 2012. Esso rivela che circa la metà dei lavoratori in Europa (51%) ritiene che lo stress da attività lavorativa sia comune nel proprio luogo di lavoro, mentre il 16% degli intervistati lo ritiene "molto comune". Il primo settore a indicare i casi di stress legato al lavoro come un fenomeno comune è quello sociosanitario. Nei Paesi con un debito pubblico molto alto tra cui il nostro, gravano problemi come precarietà e riorganizzazione del lavoro che rappresentano le cause più comuni di stress da lavoro (72%), seguite dalle ore e dal carico di lavoro (66%). Comportamenti inaccettabili come il bullismo o le molestie sono percepiti come una causa frequente di stress da lavoro da sei lavoratori su dieci (59%). Altre cause frequenti sono rappresentate dal mancato sostegno da parte di colleghi o superiori (57%), dalla mancanza di chiarezza sui ruoli e le responsabilità (52%) e dalle scarse opportunità di gestire i modelli di lavoro (46%). Lo stress assume un'importanza fondamentale inteso come "tutto ciò che continuamente eccede alle risorse adattative del singolo individuo". Secondo l'Istituto Americano per lo Stress, fino all'80% degli incidenti sul lavoro è legato allo stress. Esso infatti riduce la prestazione lavorativa sia manuale che intellettuale ed aumenta il rischio di errori e di infortuni, riduce la memoria e la flessibilità. Tra le conseguenze più diffuse ci sono emicrania, aumento del rischio di malattie cardiovascolari, ulcere, ipertensione e dolori muscolo-scheletrici, ma anche depressione, scarsa memoria e aggressività. L'accumulo di stress è anche la principale condizione di rischio per la patologia del burnout e del mobbing. L'indagine Eurispes 2013 rivela che il 23,5% degli occupati riconosce i sintomi del mobbing, dichiarando di aver subìto almeno una volta forme di sopruso o persecuzione da parte del datore di lavoro (87,6%) o dai propri colleghi (39,2%). Anche a questo proposito il fenomeno riguarda più spesso i precari. Il burn-out è una malattia in costante e graduale aumento tra i lavoratori dei paesi occidentalizzati a tecnologia avanzata. Vari studi hanno messo in evidenza che esso non è un problema dell'individuo in sé, ma del contesto sociale nel quale opera. Il lavoro (contesto, contenuto, struttura, ecc) modella il modo in cui le persone interagiscono tra di loro e il modo in cui svolgono il proprio lavoro. Quando l'ambiente di lavoro non riconosce l'aspetto umano del lavoro, il rischio di burnout aumenta. Sempre con maggiore evidenza l'azienda risulta essere uno dei luoghi dove si articolano le relazioni umane e la vita sociale, dove si esprimono le persone e dove, soprattutto, agisce l'intera e vasta gamma delle relazioni, dei sentimenti e dei comportamenti umani. Ed è in questo "setting" che si definisce il disagio da lavoro, che assume diverse forme in relazione a quale realtà problematica entra maggiormente in conflitto e come il conflitto viene considerato. Una organizzazione complessa come un'azienda è un "sistema interattivo", dove la problematica soggettiva diviene la punta dell'iceberg di una dimensione collettiva di natura relazionale e di gruppo. Da più parti, non ultimo nel Testo Unico per la Sicurezza (D.Lgs. 81/08 e s.m.i), si sente affermare che il benessere, la salute e la qualità della vita lavorativa, rappresentano oggi una sfida ed un dovere cruciale per le imprese, il cui vantaggio competitivo è profondamente legato non solo ad efficienza e produttività, ma anche alla capacità di costruire con i propri dipendenti un ambiente organizzativo motivante, sereno, fondato sulla fiducia. Tanto più nel momento storico odierno, nel quale le imprese sono attraversate da incertezza, fatica, esigenze di prestazione sempre più pressanti e in tempi sempre più ristretti. Lo stress da lavoro costituisce una grande sfida per le organizzazioni che, per arginare il fenomeno devono valorizzare ed utilizzare pienamente il proprio patrimonio di risorse umane. In particolare, il ruolo del dirigente è di vitale importanza nella prevenzione, gestione e riduzione di tale stress. Esso è infatti definito, nell' art. 2 comma 1, lettera d) D.Lgs. 81/08, come la "persona che, in ragione delle competenze professionali e di poteri gerarchici e funzionali adeguati alla natura dell'incarico conferitogli, attua le direttive del datore di lavoro organizzando l'attività lavorativa e vigilando su di essa". Lo stile di direzione e comunicativo del dirigente ha una forte influenza sullo stato di benessere individuale e del gruppo e di conseguenza sulla condizione complessiva di benessere organizzativo. Quest'ultimo si riferisce alla capacità di un'organizzazione di promuovere e di mantenere il più alto grado di benessere fisico, psicologico e sociale dei lavoratori in ogni tipo di occupazione. E' da sottolineare che ai fini del decreto legislativo 81/08 e successive integrazioni (D.Lgs 106/09) e dell'accordo europeo sullo stress, il target di riferimento per la valutazione dello stress non è il singolo lavoratore, ma il benessere organizzativo nel suo insieme, anche se talvolta acquisito tramite la percezione delle singole persone. Riuscire a favorire il coinvolgimento, il consenso e la collaborazione del personale, riduce il rischio di esposizione ad agenti stressanti e migliorare il clima relazionale del gruppo. Di conseguenza lo stress viene ormai affrontato a livello di organizzazione del lavoro, implementando programmi che privilegiano l'eliminazione delle sue cause piuttosto che il trattamento delle sue conseguenze.

The construction of a national service for the evaluation of the school system had a long and difficult birth in Italy, and lagging behind the international panorama. The first signals that show attention to this problem date back to 1990, at the National School Conference, where for the first time, a hypothesis about this was formulated. However, the times were not yet ripe for an institution of this kind: in fact, at that time there was lacking a centralized computer system capable of recording the data of the Italian school system. In 1997 the Minister of Education Giovanni Berlinguer, by a directive, instituted the National Service for the Quality of Education, with the task of "assessing the situation and the effectiveness of the country's training system, its different articulations to at all levels, in order to suggest the necessary improvements and to be able to compare our situation with comparable situations in other countries ". This service is established at the European Center for Education (CEDE), an institution which belongs to the Ministry of Education and which also has the institutional tasks of learning problems and their evaluation. By legislative decree N ° 258 of 1999, the CEDE was transformed into a National Institute for the Evaluation of the Education System (INValSI) with a substantial extension of its tasks and purposes in the evaluation sector. The realization of this National Evaluation Service (SNE) was accelerated by the establishment, on the part of the Ministry of Education in July 2001, of a Working Group whose objective is to develop a service which provide, at different levels of decision and intervention (Ministry of Education, local authorities, schools) useful information for understanding the phenomenon of "school" and its behavior over the years; this information is essential so that each subject, at their level, can make an informed decision on the policies and objectives to be set, verify their activation and progress, allocate resources correctly, with a view to continuous improvement. The working group projected the SNE model and tested it in the field for three years, through three Pilot Projects (PP): PP1 (school year 2001-2002), PP2 (school year 2002-2003) and PP3 (school year 2003-2004), which are described in broad outline below. The objective of these Pilot Projects was to verify the technical and economic applicability of the initiative by making, if necessary, the adjustments suggested by experience. It is on the basis of this experience that the legislative decree (No. 286, November 2004) on the "Institution of the National Service for the Evaluation of the Education and Training System" was promulgated, which emphasizes the purpose of this service: assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the system "by framing the assessment in an international context" (art.1); the seat is redesigned and becomes, to face its new role, the INVALSI (Istituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema dell'Istruzione e della Formazione). Schools and training establishments, Regions, Provinces and Municipalities are also involved, each according to their skills, to achieve this objective. ; La construction d'un service national pour l'évaluation du systême scolaire a eu en Italie une naissance longue et difficile, et en retard par rapport au panorama international. Les premiers signaux qui témoignent d'une attention à ce problême remontent à 1990, à l'occasion de la Conférence Nationale de l'Ecole, o๠pour la premiêre fois, une hypothêse à ce propos a été formulée. Cependant, les temps n'étaient pas encore mûrs pour une institution de ce genre : en fait, il manquait à cette époque un systême informatique centralisé capable d'enregistrer les données du systême scolaire italien. En 1997 le Ministre de l'Education Giovanni Berlinguer, par une directive, institut le Service national pour la qualité de l'éducation, avec la tâche de « évaluer la situation et l'efficacité du systême de formation du pays, ses différentes articulations à tous les niveaux, afin de suggérer les améliorations nécessaires et de pouvoir confronter notre situation avec des situations comparables dans d'autres pays ». Ce service est institué au Centre Européen de l'Education (CEDE), institution qui appartient au Ministêre de l'Education et qui a aussi pour tâches institutionnelles les problêmes de l'apprentissage et leur évaluation. Par le décret législatif N° 258 de 1999, le CEDE est transformé en Institut National pour l'Evaluation du Systême de l'Education (INValSI) avec un élargissement substantiel de ses tâches et finalités dans le secteur de l'évaluation. La réalisation de ce Service National d'Evaluation (SNE) a été accélérée par l'institution, de la part du Ministêre de l'Education en juillet 2001, d'un Groupe de Travail dont l'objectif est d'élaborer un service qui fournisse, à différents niveaux de décision et d'intervention (Ministêre de l'éducation, autorités locales, établissements scolaires) des informations utiles pour la connaissance du phénomêne « école » et de son comportement au fil des années; ces informations sont indispensables pour que chaque sujet, à son niveau, puisse décider en connaissance de cause les politiques et les objectifs à fixer, en vérifier l'activation et le déroulement, allouer correctement les ressources, dans une logique d'amélioration continue. Le groupe de travail a projeté le modêle du SNE et l'a expérimenté sur le terrain pendant trois ans, à travers trois Projets Pilotes (PP) : PP1 (année scolaire 2001-2002), PP2 (année scolaire 2002-2003) e PP3 (année scolaire 2003-2004), qui sont décrits dans les grandes lignes ci-dessous. Ces Projets Pilotes avaient comme objectifs de vérifier l'applicabilité technique et économique de l'initiative en y apportant, si nécessaire, les ajustements suggérés par l'expérience. C'est sur la base de cette expérience qu'a été promulgué le décret législatif (n.286, novembre 2004) sur l' « Institution du Service National d'Evaluation du Systême d'Education et de Formation » qui souligne la finalité de ce service : évaluer l'efficience et l'efficacité du systême « en encadrant l'évaluation dans un contexte international » (art.1) ; le siêge est remanié et devient, pour faire face à son nouveau rôle, l'INValSI (Istituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema dell'Istruzione e della Formazione). Les établissements scolaires et de formation, les Régions, les Provinces et les Municipalités sont également impliqués, chacun selon ses compétences, pour réaliser cet objectif.