Contexte. L'augmentation du nombre de personnes âgées inuit est un phénomène récent dans les communautés nordiques et crée de nouveaux défis socio sanitaires. Cependant, les connaissances sur les déterminants sociaux (DSS) du vieillissement en bonne santé des populations inuit sont limitées. La définition inuit de la santé est holistique et géographique : la santé est créée par les interactions entre les individus et leur environnement. Cette dimension géographique est centrale pour comprendre comment les DSS favorisent un vieillissement en bonne santé, mais est rarement incluse dans les modèles de DSS inuit. Ma thèse de doctorat a pour but de conceptualiser et d'opérationnaliser un modèle des déterminants sociogéographiques du vieillissement en bonne santé dans les communautés inuit. Trois objectifs de recherche sont poursuivis : 1) conceptualiser, opérationnaliser et valider le concept de santé pour les Inuit âgés de 50 et plus ; 2) identifier les DSS à l'échelle individuelle, du logement et de la communauté associés à un vieillissement en bonne santé ; et 3) explorer la dimension géographique dans les mécanismes connectant les DSS au vieillissement en bonne santé. Méthodes. Cette thèse a été réalisée avec une méthodologie mixte et un devis exploratoire et explicatif. Les données qualitatives utilisées pour conceptualiser la définition de la santé proviennent d'ateliers organisés dans deux communautés du Nunavik en 2016. Des analyses de classes latentes ont été réalisées avec les données de l'Enquête auprès des peuples autochtones de 2006 (n = 850 Inuit ≥ 50 ans) pour opérationnaliser la définition de la santé en un indicateur holistique de santé. Les associations entre l'indicateur de santé holistique et les DSS mesurés aux échelles, individuelle, du logement et de la communauté ont été modélisées avec des régressions multinomiales. Une collecte de données a été réalisée à Baker Lake, Nunavut, à l'aide d'entretiens approfondis et d'un groupe de discussion auprès de 20 participants âgés de 50 à 86 ans pour explorer la dimension géographique des DSS et comprendre les mécanismes les connectant à la santé. Des analyses thématiques ont été réalisées sur ces données. Résultats. La santé était définie avec huit concepts : la santé générale, les limitations physiques, la santé mentale, la spiritualité, les comportements de santé, parler inuktitut, avoir des relations positives et de l'affection. Un indicateur de santé holistique à trois catégories a été créé avec les analyses de classes latentes : les participants en « bonne santé » pour tous les indicateurs, ceux ayant un profil de « santé intermédiaire » et les participants en « mauvaise santé » pour la plupart des indicateurs. Les associations entre l'indicateur de santé holistique et les DSS aux échelles individuelle, du logement et de la communauté étaient différentes pour les trois profils de santé. Par rapport à ceux ayant un profil de mauvaise santé, les personnes âgées inuit en bonne santé avaient plus de chance d'avoir de forts liens familiaux dans la communauté et de participer à des activités sociales. Celles ayant un profil de santé intermédiaire avaient plus de chances de vivre dans une communauté avec un statut socio-économique élevé et dans des logements en meilleures conditions. Les participants de ces deux profils étaient plus susceptibles que ceux en mauvaise santé d'avoir participé à des activités sur le territoire au cours de la dernière année. Les mécanismes géographiques liant les DSS au vieillissement en bonne santé ont été identifiés lors des entrevues et d'un groupe de discussion avec des aînés à Baker Lake. Des activités familiales et communautaires favorisaient les relations sociales positives et les connections symboliques au territoire, notamment le partage de nourriture traditionnelle. Des conditions de logement et des services communautaires adaptés à la santé des personnes âgées permettaient aux ainés de vieillir dans leur communauté. Des moyens de transports et d'informations adaptés étaient des facteurs facilitant l'accès aux ressources favorables à la santé entre les échelles du logement, de la communauté et du territoire. Conclusion. La dimension géographique des DSS conceptualisée dans cette thèse est centrale pour comprendre comment ces déterminants sociogéographiques influencent le vieillissement en bonne santé. Ces connaissances sont nécessaires pour guider l'élaboration et l'implémentation des politiques et des programmes sociaux et de santé adaptés au contexte de vieillissement en bonne santé dans les communautés inuit. ; Background: The aging of the Inuit population is a new phenomenon creating new and unique social and health challenges across the Arctic. There is relatively limited evidence about the health profile and the social determinants of health (SDH) for Inuit elders. The definition of Inuit health is holistic, and is anchored in a geographical dimension such that health is created through interactions between people and the land. This geographic dimension is central to understand the role of SDH in supporting healthy aging, yet are seldom included in Inuit SDH models. The overall aim of my doctoral thesis is to conceptualize and operationalize a model of the sociogeographic determinants supporting healthy aging in Inuit communities. This model is built in coherence with Inuit's definition of health which is The thesis follows three research objectives: 1) to conceptualize, operationalize and validate the concept of health for older Inuit aged 50 years and over; 2) to identify social determinants of health (SDH) at the individual, housing, and community levels associated with healthy aging; and 3) to explore the geographical dimension of the mechanisms connecting the social determinants to healthy aging. Methods: This thesis employs a mixed-methods exploratory and explanatory research design. Qualitative data used to conceptualize the definition of health for Inuit elders were retrieved from workshops conducted in two Nunavik communities in 2016. Using quantitative data from the 2006 Aboriginal Peoples Survey (APS) (n = 850 Inuit ≥ 50 years), latent class analyses was then used to operationalize the definition of health into a holistic indicator health. Associations between this indicator and selected SDH at the individual, housing and community scales were modelled using multinomial regressions. To further explore the geographical dimension of the SDH, and to understand the mechanisms linking the SDH to health, in-depth interviews and one focus groups with 20 participants aged 50 to 86 were conducted in Baker Lake, Nunavut. Thematic analyses were conducted on the data. Results: Health was defined along eight concepts: overall health, physical limitations, mental health, spirituality, health behaviours, speaking Inuktitut, having positive relationships, and affection. A three-category holistic health indicator was created from the latent class analysis: participants in "good health" for all indicators, those with an "intermediate health" profile, and participants in "poor health" for most indicators. Associations between the holistic health indicator and SDH at individual, housing and community scales were different for the three health profiles. Compared to those with a poorer health profile, older adults with a good health profile were more likely to have strong family ties in the community and to participate in social activities. Older adults with an intermediate health profile were more likely to live in a community with a higher socio-economic status, to live in better housing conditions. In comparison to older adults with a poorer health profile, those with good or intermediate health profiles were more likely to have engaged in land-based activities in the past year. The geographic mechanisms linking the SDH to healthy aging emerged through interviews and focus group with elders in Baker Lake. Family and community activities promoted positive social relationships and symbolic connections to the land, including the sharing of traditional food. Housing conditions and community services adapted for elders' health offered the possibility to age in place, i.e., in one's home and community. Adapted transportation and information systems were identified as facilitating factors to access resources supportive for health at the residential, community and environmental levels. Conclusion. The geographic dimension of SDH conceptualized and operationalized in this thesis is important to understand how sociogeographic determinants influence the health of Inuit elders. This type of information is needed to guide the formulation and implementation of social and public health policies and programs to support healthy aging across Inuit communities
This study aims to assess the performance of Pontianak Health BPJS employees by using transformational leadership style variables as independent variables and organizational culture as mediating variables. Data collection method using questionnaires which are distributed to 53 respondents, using census sampling techniques and Likert scales is used for data measurement. The Classical Assumption Test and path analysis were used to process the data using the IBM SPSS v22 application. The results of this study indicate that transformational leadership style has a positive and significant effect on employee performance, transformational leadership style has a positive and significant relationship with organizational culture, and organizational culture has a positive but not significant impact on employee performance.Keywords : Transformational Leadership Style, Organizational Culture, Employee Performance, BPJS Keesehatan Pontianak DAFTAR PUSTAKAAbbasi, E., Akbari, M., Tajeddini, K. 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The high street and the retail sector are facing a period of flux with tremendous pressures from local, national and global consumer trends, including rapid changes in the fiscal climate affecting local authorities. This situation has become particularly acute since the global economic downturn of 2008, which many see as the start of a significant long term global restructuring or the world's economy. Building on the findings of recent Government thinking, including the "Understanding high street performance" report by Genecon and the UK Department for Business, Innovation and Skills published in 2012, this study argues for a fresh approach to the situation faced by the retail sector, the high street and, more generally, town centres across the country. Instead of a reactive approach to consumer trends, this report argues for a re-think of the strategic positioning of town centres to reclaim them to their rightful position and role as places that serve their communities, visitors, businesses and key stakeholders with a quality of experience that encourages them to keep coming back, staying longer and becoming local residents in due course. In line with this, the achievement of prosperity for town centres is aligned here with their strategic aspirations, and ability to satisfy changing demands, which this report suggests includes a holistic approach to the integration and management of the daytime, evening and night time economies. These three segments of the 24-hr economy should be seen as part of one menu that town centres offer in an economy increasingly driven by customer experience and perceptions. To achieve this, key town centre decision makers - who should include the business community as well as local residents - need first to establish a vision for the future of their town centre that is anchored in the 'personality' or unique characteristics of their town, sometimes referred to as the 'DNA' of the place. The aims of this study are to: 1. Present a set of tools that will help places of different sizes (from small market towns to large city centres and potentially also villages and rural locations) to plot a locally tailor-made strategic road map towards prosperity informed by their stakeholders. 2. Develop and present a state-of-the-art Town Centre Classification Matrix linked to a 'personality' test for town centres. This tool, which can be used for individual retailers and businesses as well as entire towns and tourist destinations, represents the first stage of strategic positioning and includes key elements of perceptions among visitors, residents and businesses. 3. Develop and present a new and clear national performance framework for town centres is presented. This framework is linked to the Town Centre Classification Matrix and allows places to evaluate their current situation and to monitor progress towards their strategic vision or objectives. This is achieved through a ground-breaking approach that effectively demystifies the concept of town centre performance indicators. Each indicator is explained in an approachable manner with data collection methodologies that include the possibility of using commercially available data or adopting a do-it-yourself method to field research locally. 4. Empower and support communities, Town Teams, Portas Pilots, local authority representatives, businesses operating in or near town centres, trader organisations, Local Enterprise Partnerships (LEPs), town centre managers, business improvement district managers, policy makers, town planners, charities, national retail associations, shopping centre managers, urban regeneration practitioners, tourism officers, consultancies and researchers. 5. Help locations and centres of all sizes to make key investment decisions adopting a strategic approach using decision support tools (including key performance indicators) that enable decision makers to prioritise and deal with local issues effectively. Additionally, the indicators used in this study also support users who wish to do so in pursuing further market research avenues to gain a better understanding of their town centre and the complexity of interactions between different parameters. This includes the differences that may exist in some places between facts and perceptions (e.g. reported retail crime versus perceptions of crime and safety in the town centre). As in any change management context, it is vital to know the facts so that informed decisions can be taken to prioritise available resources effectively. Based on the findings of this study, there follow ten key recommendations for further action from central government, LEPs, the retail sector and key local decision makers: 1. The role of retail and other businesses (e.g. leisure) in town centres should be revised to adopt a more holistic approach bringing the daytime, evening and night time economies under a common umbrella of strategic positioning and performance. 2. The national performance framework for town centres and Town Centre Classification Matrix presented here should be adopted nationally as part of a wider package to support ailing high streets and town centres. 3. A National Observatory for Town Centre Prosperity should be created for the UK, based on the Town Centre Performance Barometer Toolkit presented here. This national observatory should act as a common database of best practice and avoid simplistic benchmarking or league table approaches. Instead, it should focus on the sharing of innovative and entrepreneurial practices adopted by different town centres to achieve prosperity through inclusive and strategic partnership approaches at all levels. 4. A long term analysis of UK town centre prosperity trends should be carried out on the basis of field data collected using the performance criteria presented in this study. Whilst the indicator-based Town Centre Performance Barometer Toolkit is adequate for a first snap shot of the issues affecting different town centres today, it will only provide limited assistance to locations unless trends can be developed for each indicator through continuous use over a longer time frame. 5. The role of effective and genuine partnership-based place management as a key mechanism in the strategic visioning and delivery of prosperous town centres of all sizes should be recognised and supported by central and local government, urban regeneration professionals, LEPs and key local decision makers. This should apply not only to the operational management of town centres but, crucially, to key decisions affecting their development, including major interventions and regeneration projects with an impact on future growth prospects. 6. The effectiveness of current place management models (including Town Teams, Portas Pilots and Business Improvement Districts, among others) should be investigated further with due attention to place management practice overseas to establish more focused support interventions from the public and private sectors in achieving better results in each case without reinventing the wheel. 7. The impact of high performing town and city centres on neighbouring smaller centres should be investigated further, particularly by LEPs, taking a regional network and impact approach to avoid a polarisation of resources towards a (limited number of) high performing town or city centres or the squandering of resources on duplication in a small geographic area. Similarly, governance issues affecting LEPs and local councils in areas (including town centres) located on different local authority boundaries should be addressed as part of a wider framework. 8. The interactions between town centre performance parameters and their cause-effect relationships should be researched further as there is currently a limited level of evidence and understanding of these beyond relatively simple one-to-one (and not one-to-many) relationships. 9. A better understanding of consumer behaviour within the town centre ecosystem needs to be achieved at both macro and micro level in order to better support long-term decision making for their effective strategic positioning. This study offers a first step towards this by highlighting the importance of visitor perceptions but does not address the deeper and more complex mechanisms that govern the development of these perceptions. 10. The national observatory recommended above should develop further the indicator-based toolkit presented here to create indices linked to a weighting system for individual indicators derived from an extensive nation-wide field research programme on town centre prosperity.
Relatório Final do Projecto de I&D financiado pela FCT. ; Instituição Proponente: Fundação Gaspar Frutuoso (FGF); Instituições Participantes: Universidade dos Açores (UAçores) e University of East Anglia (UEA); Unidade de Investigação Principal: Centro de Investigação e Tecnologia Agrária dos Açores (CITAa/UAçores). ; As ilhas da Macaronésia, devido à sua localização geográfica, intervalo de idades geológicas e elevados níveis de endemismo, constituem um sistema ideal para a realização de estudos evolutivos. Neste projeto foram investigados padrões de diversificação em taxa que diversificaram em vários arquipélagos da Macaronésia, com especial ênfase nos Açores, o arquipélago mais recente e mais remoto. Os insetos estão entre os organismos que mais diversificaram nas ilhas da Macaronésia e os escaravelhos do género Tarphius e Laparocerus e as borboletas do género Hipparchia são insetos com distintas capacidades de dispersão que colonizaram estas ilhas e que posteriormente sofreram extensa especiação. Estes insetos foram assim utilizados para estudar padrões e processos de diversificação em ilhas, e para investigar a dinâmica a longo termo da diversificação e o seu impacto na riqueza específica. Neste projeto utilizaram-se técnicas moleculares e abordagens filogenéticas e de genética de populações para estudar colonização e diversificação em ilhas oceânicas. Caracterizou-se a diversidade molecular para vários genes mitocondriais e nucleares em Tarphius e Hipparchia dos Açores, Madeira, Canárias e das áreas continentais vizinhas (Norte de África e Península Ibérica), e Laparocerus das Canárias. Os dados gerados permitiram: i) estimar relações filogenéticas e filogeográficas, e assim investigar hipóteses sobre a origem dos colonizadores; ii) investigar os papeis desempenhados pela capacidade de dispersão e fluxo genético, idade geológica, geografia e distância a fontes de colonizadores nos níveis de diferenciação; iii) investigar a importância relativa de vários processos (e.g., hibridação, separação incompleta de linhagens, especiação in situ, especiação pós-colonização) na evolução dos géneros em estudo; iv) definir unidades evolutivas significativas para conservação; e v) clarificar a taxonomia dos grupos em estudo, conjuntamente com dados morfológicos. Uma vez que Tarphius e Hipparchia ocorrem em múltiplos arquipélagos, este estudo representa o primeiro esforço para inferir padrões de colonização e diversificação em animais a uma escala englobando vários arquipélagos da Macaronésia. O trabalho de campo realizado possibilitou ainda a atualização da distribuição dos taxa em estudo, tendo sido descobertas novas espécies de Tarphius em Marrocos e nos Açores. De modo a colmatar a recorrente falta de partilha de conhecimento científicos com o público em geral, este projeto possui uma componente educacional que visa dar a conhecer espécies insulares endémicas, em particular insetos, e promover a sua conservação. A apresentação de informação sobre esta temática num formato apelativo e compreensível pela população em geral foi uma prioridade cujo objectivo final é influenciar a tomada de medidas políticas que conduzam a um modelo de desenvolvimento mais sustentável em que a biodiversidade não seja entendida como um impedimento ao progresso económico. Neste sentido foram desenvolvidas várias iniciativas junto das populações locais no arquipélago dos Açores, nomeadamente estudantes do 7 ao 12º ano, Câmara do Comércio de Angra do Heroísmo e o público em geral. Os inquéritos realizados a estudantes sobre o património natural dos Açores está a ser utilizado para a criação de dispositivos de aprendizagem sobre a temática da especiação em ilhas e espécies endémicas usando exemplos da Macaronésia. Foi criado uma página na rede social Facebook (www.facebook.com/Chama.lhe.Nomes) que, de um modo interactivo, dá a conhecer espécies de insetos que só existem nos Açores. Também para o público em geral foram produzidas exposições itinerantes sobre insetos dos Açores, uma para ser exposta em espaços interiores e outra composta por telas de grande formato para afixação em fachadas de edifícios. Foram ainda iniciados contactos com a Câmara do Comércio de Angra do Heroísmo, uma associação para a promoção do tecido empresarial regional e que de momento está envolvida no programa PRIMEA (Programa de Requalificação da Imagem das Empresas Açorianas). O objectivo é estabelecer uma parceria activa em que a biodiversidade regional passe a ser aceite como uma mais valia para a economia local e na definição da "Marca Açores". Os resultados deste projeto estão disponíveis para o público em geral no Portal da Biodiversidade dos Açores - www.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt (dados de distribuição de espécies), no Genbank - www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ (sequências de ADN) e no site oficial do projeto - www.gba.uac.pt/projetos/ver.php?id=4. ; ABSTRACT: The Macaronesian islands, due to their geographical location, range of geological ages and high levels of endemism, are an excellent system to study a myriad of evolutionary questions. In this Project we investigated diversification patterns in taxa that diverged in several Macaronesian archipelagos, focusing in the youngest and most remote group of islands, the Azores Insects are among the organisms that have diversified most in the Macaronesian islands. Beetles of the genus Tarphius, weevils of the genus Laparocerus and butterflies of the genus Hipparchia are examples of insects with distinct dispersal abilities that colonized those islands and subsequently underwent extensive speciation. Therefore, they provide an excellent opportunity to study patterns and processes of diversification on islands, and to investigate long-term dynamics of diversification and its impact on species richness. We use molecular techniques and phylogenetic and population genetic approaches to study colonization and diversification on oceanic islands. We characterized molecular diversity at multiple mitochondrial and nuclear genes of Tarphius beetles and Hipparchia butterflies populations from the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands, and from putative continental sources of colonists (North Africa and Iberia) and of Laparocerus weevils from the Canary Islands. The data generated allowed to: i) estimate phylogenetic and phylogeographic relationships, and thus to investigate hypotheses on the origin of colonizers; ii) investigate the roles of dispersal ability and gene flow, geological age, geography and distance to source of colonists on levels of differentiation; iii) investigate the relative roles of several processes (e.g., hybridization, incomplete lineage sorting, in situ speciation, post-colonization speciation) in the evolution of the study groups; iv) identify evolutionary significant units for conservation, i.e., unique populations that should be given protection priority to prevent further biodiversity loss; and v) clarify the taxonomy of the study groups, combined with morphological data. The fieldwork performed resulted in Tarphius species new to science from Morocco and the Azores, and allowed updating the distribution of the study taxa. To accomplish the often-neglected responsibility of sharing the outcome of scientific endeavours with the general public, we developed several educational activities that focus on the conservation of biodiversity on oceanic islands and, in particular, of island endemic insects. Information on biodiversity was prepared in an appealing and understandable format for the general population. The ultimate goal is to raise awareness on the issue and eventually influence political decisions towards a more sustainable governance model where biodiversity is not perceived as an impediment to economical growth. We developed several initiatives in the Azores, namely with 7-12th grade students, Chamber of Commerce (Câmara do Comércio de Angra do Heroísmo - Terceira) and the general public. The survey to students about the natural heritage of the Azores is being used to create learning devices about island speciation using Macaronesian examples. The page "Chama-lhe Nomes! was created on the social network Facebook (www.facebook.com/Chama.lhe.Nomes) to introduce, in an interactive manner, insects that only exist in the Azores and raise awareness about unknown biodiversity. We also produced two itinerants exhibit on Azorean insets for the general public, one indoor and one large format outdoor. Additionally we started dialogue with the Angra do Heroísmo Chamber of Commerce, an association that promotes regional business and is currently working on the image requalification of Azorean businesses (PRIMEA program). The goal is to establish an active partnership so that biodiversity is perceived as an asset for the local economy an for the creation of the Azores Brand (Marca Açores). Project outcomes were presented in meetings, published in scientific journals and are available to the general public at the Azorean Biodiversity Portal - www.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt (species distribution data), at Genbank - www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ (DNA sequences) and at the Project website - www.gba.uac.pt/projetos/ver.php?id=4. ; Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia.
Walking is the main mode of transportation for many of the world's people, particularly those in cities of the majority world. In the metropolitan region of Jakarta, walking in the public realm constitutes the main transportation mode for almost 40 percent of trips—a massive contribution to urban mobility. On the other hand, there is no comprehensive planning for pedestrians in an analogous manner to other modes of transportation. Pedestrian facilities are often dilapidated, damaged, dangerous, or missing completely. Additionally, there is no process for assessing the inventory of pedestrian facilities, planning pedestrian facilities at a region-wide level, or even identifying the location of vernacular pedestrian routes in low-income and informal areas. Provincial pedestrian planning focuses on piecemeal, symbolic spaces such as monumental plazas that serve the nation-building project, but overlooks the functional network of routes that address the daily needs of the city's residents. This dissertation examines the issue of walkability planning in Jakarta by investigating what matters to pedestrians and how pedestrian space is produced. The research employs mixed methods, including pedestrian network groundtruthing, structured streetscape observations, multimodal traffic counts, pedestrian activity mapping, pedestrian surveys and interviews with policy-makers. Data is analyzed through a combination of in-depth qualitative analysis as well as quantitative and statistical analysis. Based on this research, six key elements of walkability planning are proposed for Jakarta: multidisciplinarity, ethnography, accessibility, legibility, integrated activity, and shared streets. A literature review of walkability metrics reveals that walking is a highly multidisciplinary activity, with very different metrics emerging from different fields. In order to effectively encourage pedestrian activity, new multidisciplinary metrics should integrate the perspectives of all of these related disciplines and pedestrian planning should occur through inter-agency coordination. In Jakarta, interviews with policy-makers suggested that pedestrian planning is hindered by the fact that there is no lead agency for pedestrian planning, and there is a lack of cooperation between the different agencies that plan and produce urban public space. Pedestrian planning is also hindered by a discursive framework that is both modally and geographically biased—favoring motorized, long-distance modes of transportation and employing method derived from a Western research and planning norms. In order to overcome this discursive bias, ethnography should become a standard part of urban research, planning and design. The need for ethnography and qualitative analysis was made visible by the mismatch between standard transportation terminology, and prevailing practices observed in pedestrian mapping exercises and raised by pedestrians in on-the street interviews. For example, standard survey categories do not account for informal or integrated activity patterns like mobile street vending. From surveys conducted with mobile street vendors, it was difficult to separate their pedestrian activities into categories of travel from home to work, business-related travel, and visiting friends and relatives. In fact, it was difficult to even separate their travel from their activities since many vendors carried out business as they made their way through the neighborhood. With a large portion of the population engaged in the informal sector, the discrepancy between assumed and actual behavior severely compromises the quality of transportation-related research that is conducted in Jakarta and many other majority world cities. Ethnographic and qualitative research methods may therefore assist in producing more context-sensitive planning data and outcomes. These context-sensitive methods could include new analytical methods that focus on integrated activity, rather than trip-based or activity-based analysis. In relation to pedestrian activity, context-sensitive planning encompasses new approaches to accessibility that combine the notion of transportation accessibility with disabled access and universal access standards. The need for such an approach was revealed during interviews with policy-makers, who described accessibility in terms of market goods rather than human rights. Within the market for urban public space, ordinary pedestrians were unable to compete with other modes of transportation; within the market for urban impressions, ordinary pedestrian spaces were outcompeted by prominent, symbolic spaces; and within the market for cultural capital, ordinary pedestrians were excluded from planning processes because even the discourse of pedestrian planning was inaccessible to regular residents. In response to this problem of exclusion, integrated accessibility may facilitate inclusion in both planning processes and urban spaces within the city. In particular, integrated accessibility would aim to provide comprehensive routes of travel for all pedestrians, rather than isolated pockets of so-called accessible (yet unreachable) facilities. More context sensitive planning would also be facilitated through greater legibility of fine-grained and vernacular pedestrian networks that were missing from standard planning maps. These fine-grained networks represent highly connected facilities that serve much of Jakarta's pedestrian transportation task. While the current synoptic illegibility of these areas may conveniently allow some communities to avoid state intrusion, it also means that low-income populations are chronically under-served with respect to basic urban planning and services. Increased legibility therefore allows for improvement and maintenance of urban systems like safe, functional pedestrian networks, and it may also play a role in increasing tenure security for Jakarta's significant floating population. In many of these vernacular spaces, new street design approaches would also benefit pedestrians, who tend to use the streets as shared spaces, rather than spaces that are rigidly segregated by mode. Pedestrian activity mapping revealed that only an overwhelming majority of pedestrians used streets as hybrid spaces, with activity types falling into the categories of surface sensitive, risk-averse, distance-minimizing and stationary pedestrians. More realistic shared street designs would therefore accommodate —rather than ignore—the types of activities that occur along Jakartan streets. Design standards for "great streets" in Jakarta would also emphasize the safe sharing of streets through self-enforcing approaches to speed limits, and the integration of various urban elements like drainage, mobility and public-private interaction. While walkability planning in Jakarta displays many "wicked problem" features, there is much that can be done to improve, if not resolve, conditions for pedestrians within the region. Recommended strategies for walkability planning in Jakarta include a regional walkability plan and environmental policy developed using participatory planning, reformed governance and institutional arrangements, and a constituency building approach. The strategies also include expansion of road designations and an integrated accessibility strategy that draws upon new data sources from a WikiPlaces network map, an integrated activity study and pedestrian network cost-benefit analysis. In addition to Jakarta specific proposals, a number of proposals are made to advance discourse on walkability more generally. These approaches include decentered analysis of integrated activity, informal economic activity analysis, vernacular placemaking and Asian shared street design. Pedestrians and pedestrian plans traverse diverse physical, administrative and disciplinary spaces in cities of the world. Integrated and multidisciplinary approaches are therefore required to understand and accommodate these key users of public space. In Jakarta, walkability planning has potential to improve urban transportation efficiency while contributing to traffic safety, economic vitality, environmental quality and democratic governance. Successful walkability planning in Jakarta may also provide a model for planning in other cities where Western models of planning are unrealistic, inequitable and inappropriate. Jakartan lessons on walkability planning are particularly relevant, and improvements in walkability are particularly powerful, for cities characterized by relatively low median incomes, high land use densities, a substantial informal sector, rapid urbanization and rapid motorization. By improving walkability planning in Jakarta and other cities of the majority world, policy-makers and planners can move toward more sustainable, socially equitable and efficient cities.
Walking is the main mode of transportation for many of the world's people, particularly those in cities of the majority world. In the metropolitan region of Jakarta, walking in the public realm constitutes the main transportation mode for almost 40 percent of trips--a massive contribution to urban mobility. On the other hand, there is no comprehensive planning for pedestrians in an analogous manner to other modes of transportation. Pedestrian facilities are often dilapidated, damaged, dangerous, or missing completely. Additionally, there is no process for assessing the inventory of pedestrian facilities, planning pedestrian facilities at a region-wide level, or even identifying the location of vernacular pedestrian routes in low-income and informal areas. Provincial pedestrian planning focuses on piecemeal, symbolic spaces such as monumental plazas that serve the nation-building project, but overlooks the functional network of routes that address the daily needs of the city's residents. This dissertation examines the issue of walkability planning in Jakarta by investigating what matters to pedestrians and how pedestrian space is produced. The research employs mixed methods, including pedestrian network groundtruthing, structured streetscape observations, multimodal traffic counts, pedestrian activity mapping, pedestrian surveys and interviews with policy-makers. Data is analyzed through a combination of in-depth qualitative analysis as well as quantitative and statistical analysis. Based on this research, six key elements of walkability planning are proposed for Jakarta: multidisciplinarity, ethnography, accessibility, legibility, integrated activity, and shared streets. A literature review of walkability metrics reveals that walking is a highly multidisciplinary activity, with very different metrics emerging from different fields. In order to effectively encourage pedestrian activity, new multidisciplinary metrics should integrate the perspectives of all of these related disciplines and pedestrian planning should occur through inter-agency coordination. In Jakarta, interviews with policy-makers suggested that pedestrian planning is hindered by the fact that there is no lead agency for pedestrian planning, and there is a lack of cooperation between the different agencies that plan and produce urban public space. Pedestrian planning is also hindered by a discursive framework that is both modally and geographically biased--favoring motorized, long-distance modes of transportation and employing method derived from a Western research and planning norms. In order to overcome this discursive bias, ethnography should become a standard part of urban research, planning and design. The need for ethnography and qualitative analysis was made visible by the mismatch between standard transportation terminology, and prevailing practices observed in pedestrian mapping exercises and raised by pedestrians in on-the-street interviews. For example, standard survey categories do not account for informal or integrated activity patterns like mobile street vending. From surveys conducted with mobile street vendors, it was difficult to separate their pedestrian activities into categories of travel from home to work, business-related travel, and visiting friends and relatives. In fact, it was difficult to even separate their travel from their activities since many vendors carried out business as they made their way through the neighborhood. With a large portion of the population engaged in the informal sector, the discrepancy between assumed and actual behavior severely compromises the quality of transportation-related research that is conducted in Jakarta and many other majority world cities. Ethnographic and qualitative research methods may therefore assist in producing more context-sensitive planning data and outcomes. These context-sensitive methods could include new analytical methods that focus on integrated activity, rather than trip-based or activity-based analysis. In relation to pedestrian activity, context-sensitive planning encompasses new approaches to accessibility that combine the notion of transportation accessibility with disabled access and universal access standards. The need for such an approach was revealed during interviews with policy-makers, who described accessibility in terms of market goods rather than human rights. Within the market for urban public space, ordinary pedestrians were unable to compete with other modes of transportation; within the market for urban impressions, ordinary pedestrian spaces were outcompeted by prominent, symbolic spaces; and within the market for cultural capital, ordinary pedestrians were excluded from planning processes because even the discourse of pedestrian planning was inaccessible to regular residents. In response to this problem of exclusion, integrated accessibility may facilitate inclusion in both planning processes and urban spaces within the city. In particular, integrated accessibility would aim to provide comprehensive routes of travel for all pedestrians, rather than isolated pockets of so-called accessible (yet unreachable) facilities. More context sensitive planning would also be facilitated through greater legibility of fine-grained and vernacular pedestrian networks that were missing from standard planning maps. These fine-grained networks represent highly connected facilities that serve much of Jakarta's pedestrian transportation task. While the current synoptic illegibility of these areas may conveniently allow some communities to avoid state intrusion, it also means that low-income populations are chronically underserved with respect to basic urban planning and services. Increased legibility therefore allows for improvement and maintenance of urban systems like safe, functional pedestrian networks, and it may also play a role in increasing tenure security for Jakarta's significant floating population. In many of these vernacular spaces, new street design approaches would also benefit pedestrians, who tend to use the streets as shared spaces, rather than spaces that are rigidly segregated by mode. Pedestrian activity mapping revealed that only an overwhelming majority of pedestrians used streets as hybrid spaces, with activity types falling into the categories of surface-sensitive, risk-averse, distance-minimizing and stationary pedestrians. More realistic shared street designs would therefore accommodate--rather than ignore--the types of activities that occur along Jakartan streets. Design standards for "great streets" in Jakarta would also emphasize the safe sharing of streets through self-enforcing approaches to speed limits, and the integration of various urban elements like drainage, mobility and public-private interaction. While walkability planning in Jakarta displays many "wicked problem" features, there is much that can be done to improve, if not resolve, conditions for pedestrians within the region. Recommended strategies for walkability planning in Jakarta include a regional walkability plan and environmental policy developed using participatory planning, reformed governance and institutional arrangements, and a constituency building approach. The strategies also include expansion of road designations and an integrated accessibility strategy that draws upon new data sources from a WikiPlaces network map, an integrated activity study and pedestrian network cost-benefit analysis. In addition to Jakarta-specific proposals, a number of proposals are made to advance discourse on walkability more generally. These approaches include decentered analysis of integrated activity, informal economic activity analysis, vernacular placemaking and Asian shared street design. Pedestrians and pedestrian plans traverse diverse physical, administrative and disciplinary spaces in cities of the world. Integrated and multidisciplinary approaches are therefore required to understand and accommodate these key users of public space. In Jakarta, walkability planning has potential to improve urban transportation efficiency while contributing to traffic safety, economic vitality, environmental quality and democratic governance. Successful walkability planning in Jakarta may also provide a model for planning in other cities where Western models of planning are unrealistic, inequitable and inappropriate. Jakartan lessons on walkability planning are particularly relevant, and improvements in walkability are particularly powerful, for cities characterized by relatively low median incomes, high land use densities, a substantial informal sector, rapid urbanization and rapid motorization. By improving walkability planning in Jakarta and other cities of the majority world, policy-makers and planners can move toward more sustainable, socially equitable and efficient cities.
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF RACISM IN DJANGO UNCHAINED MOVIE Tiara Magda Amelia English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Tyara_46@hotmail.com Widyastuti, S.S., M.Pd. English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Wid_unesa@yahoo.com Abstrak Rasisme masih muncul seperti halnya membandingakan antara ras orang jawa dan ras cina. Rasisme muncul karena dalam masyrakat, ada yang memiliki kekuasaan banyak ataupun sedikit. Jadi, dalam jurnal yang berjudul "Analisa Wacana Kritis Rasisme pada film Django Unchained" akan berfokus pada (1) tipe rasisme apa yang muncul pada pengucapan orang kulit putih sebagai grup yang dominan dan (2) bagaimana kekuasaan bisa mengontrol masyarakat yang di lakukan oleh orang kulit putih sebagai grup dominan. Analisa Wacana Kritis mempunyai hubungan istilah dengan kekuasaan, kesinambungan dan dominasi. Jadi, Analisa Wacana Kritis merupakan teori yang tepat untuk menganalisa tutur kata. Jurnal ini menggunakan metode qualitative untuk memberi penjelasan yang lebih jelas melalui teory Van Djik. Jurnal ini berfokus pada rasisme di film Django Unchained. "Django Unchained" berisi tentang rasisme yang dilakuakan orang kulit putih sebagi dominan grup. Jurnal ini berfokus pada tutur kata rasis yang dilakukan oleh orang kulit putih. Hasil dari jurnal ini yaitu ditemukan tutur kata yang mengandung representative, expressive, commisive and directives. Orang kulit putih menggunakan dasar kekuasaan mereka dan juga menggunakan kekuasaan akses dan discourse, dan pengontrol pikiran untuk mengontrol masyarakat. Selain menggunakan kekuasaan, orang kulit putih juga sosial dan kesadaran manipulasi untuk memanipulasi masyarakat. Keywords: rasisme, analisa wacana kritis, kontrol, kekuasaan dan manipulasi Abstract Racism still appears such as comparing race between javanesse and chinesse people. Racism appears because of having less or more power in society. So, this journal which title "Critical Discourse Analysis of Racism in Django Unchained Movie" will be focused on (1) in what way white people as dominant group show their racism and (2) how power can control society which is done by white people as dominant group. Critical Discourse Analysis has a great deal with the names of power, inequality and dominant. So, Critical Discourse Analysis is a good scholar to analyse the utterances. This study uses qualitative method in order to get clearer explanation through Van Djik's theory. This study focuses on racism in society in "Django Unchained" movie. "Django Unchained" movie contains of racism which is done by white people as dominant group. Thus, this data focuses on the utterances of dominant group as exerciser of racism. Here, the result of this study is white people as the dominant group utter racism in representative, expressive, commisive and directives. They also use the base of power rosurces, access and discourse and mind control to control over society. Besides using power, they also use social and cognition manipulation to manipulate society. Kata Kunci: racism, critical discourse analysis, control, power and manipulation INTRODUCTION Racism is not abstract systems of social inequality and dominance. Power abuse can be defined as dominance, for example in terms of the violation of norms and human social rights. Racist can be defined as ideology of racial thinking of people who have more power to do their belief in society. Fiske (1994) says racist discourse is in the media consists of a list of words, images and texts that threaded together, produce an understanding of the world and position and status of people of color in that world. Changing nature is the most complex aspect in racist. The racist behaviour can see by insulting, harrasing each other in the school, workplace or in public, doing racial graffiti, and similar aggressive anti-social acts. However, the beliefs and behaviours of social deviants are not limited in individual racism. Racism can be seen by how people act each other by their behaviour and talk. For example mocking, saying bad thing to other people, threatening or the other else by using their utterances. Yule (1996) says speech act is action which is done via utterances. According to Searle (1979) there are five kinds of classification speech act, they are : Declaration Declaration is the word which can change the world by using utterance. In declaration usually use expression of "I bet", " I declare", "I resign". For example : " I baptise this boy Michel Meyer". Representative Representative is type of speech act which is contain of believe. The statement consist of assertions (someone who say something clearly without any hestitation), conclusions (someone who has say everything all of the conversation, he or she conclude his conversation by saying "so" or "it means that" or "it can be said"), and description (someone who wants to describe something for example describe person, personality, events, news etc). Expressive Expressive is type of speech act which is about speaker's feel. The statement is like pleasure (someone who feels happy or exciting, joy ), pain ( someone who feels hurt by somebody else, the words which are usually used "hurt" and "sick" "pain"), like (someone who love or pond of something) , dislike (someone who does not like something and the words are usually used "dislike", "hate", "can not stand", "can not bear"), or sorrow (someone who is in bad condition or uncomfort zone ). The word of expressive such as: happy, sad, upset, love, like, hate, fear, and so on. For example "being rich is wonderful". Directives Directive is type of speech act which want to someone do something. Usually the word of directives contains of requesting, (using question words such as who, what, why, which, whose, and how), commanding is about how to people give a command to someone to do something, usually in imperative sentence like "open the door!"), inviting (a person who wants to invite someone to join or attend his or her event), forbiding (usually to ask someone not to do the harm thing), suggesting (the word, usually use in suggesting is should or ought to). Commisive Commisive is type of speech act which speaker wants to commit himself to some future actions. Like promising (the word which is used in promising is "promise", "will"), threatening (threatening is like someone who wants to say something rude and harm to person, it has impact to the future), refusing (the word which is usually appeared in refusing sentence is "no", it is like person who does not want to do something of accept a thing). For example : "I will pick up you tomorrow". Critical Discourse Analysis Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) deals with social power abuse, dominance, inequality and the way these are reproduced by the social group member through text and talk (Van Djik, 1998a). Wodak and Meyer (2001) say that Critical Discourse Analysis is the term of language as social practice. CDA focuses on between discourse and society, the social problem is about rising inequality in the society. Moreover Fairclough (1941) explains more about CDA that CDA not only shows how to investigate language which has relationship with power , but also shows the discursive nature of much contemporary social and cultural change.In CDA, language is not the most powerful part but language can reach power which is done by powerful people who use power to maintain society for their interest. That is why CDA often chooses the perspective of those who suffer (powerless group), and critically analyses the language use of those in power, who are responsible for the existence of inequalities. Power Critical Discourse Analysis deals with power abuse. The meaning of power is, according to Max Webber in Empowerment and Community Planning, power as probability that someone follow somebody's will, eventhough his will resistance to it in social relationship. In addition, Robert Dahl (1961) argues that power is exercised which done by individuals who are prevented from doing what they want prefer to do in community. Access and Discourse The dominance can control society because they have the base resources. These are the base resources of power such as wealth, income, good job, status, knowledge and education. Social power has relation with access and discourse. In this case the language users or communicator or speaker can have more or less in the use special discourse or may be in specific communicative events and contexts. It means that the speaker have more or less to control and access the discourse. Mind Control Influencing mind, somehow influence readers and hearers in news report, political propaganda, advertising, religious sermons, corporate directives or scholarly articles. They influence by knowledge, affecting opinion or changing attitudes. In specific context, the hearers or reader who given knowledge and belief reject, disbelieve, or otherwise mentally act in opposition to the intentions of powerful speaker or writer. The powerful speakers or writers have relative freedom to use discourse in their own interest. There are points of discursive mind control is a form of power and dominance if such control is in the interest of the powerful and if the recipients have 'no alternatives', i.e., no other sources (speakers, writers), no other discourses, no other option but to listen or read, and no relevant other beliefs to evaluate such discourses. Eventhough, the speaker or writer has many freedom, in other hand in the recepients are many coercion. The status of powerful writer and speaker is the function of properties of text and talk. The powerful speaker may be lied to, manipulated, persuaded to influence in their interest. The "victims" who have lack of knowledge or lack of power resources, they can not detect lies and manipulation from powerful people. For example journalist or writers have enough experience to influence society by message in their mind idea. They know how to change opinion and knowledge of readers. It is notion of changing people's mind. They change opinion and knowledge by emphasizing specific topic (headline and summaries in newspaper). They may influence mental model structure include discourse comprehension. Manipulation Influencing people's mind by controlling their action and attitudes needs persuasion and manipulation way to do it. But in Critical Discourse Analysis, manipulation needed to require as further theoritical analysis (Van Djik, 2006). Besides using power to control society, some speakers do manipulation to affect people's opinion and belief. Manipulation is a form of talk in conversation or interaction among people, manipulation deals with power abuse. Manipulation is illegitimate notion because, manipulation not only consist of power but also power abuse which is done by dominance. Thus, manipulation has negative sense rather than persuasion. Pictures, photo, movie or other media are exercised of manipulation by influencing the "victim". Manipulation in Society Power dimension in society takes apart to involve control people who exercise over other. In exercising control over other, manipulation needs social actor to satisfy personal and social criteria which can influence other. The group membership can define their power by their position, profession, and material. For example, parent can manipulate their children because of their power and authority in the family and professors can manipulate their student because of position and their knowledge. Everyday, in society, people may practice the kind of social manipulation in their group rather than personal Cognition Manipulation Manipulating people, it can be called manipulating their mind. People's mind is about people's belief like their knowledge, opinion and ideology which reflect to their actions. The mind is very complex process. So, it needs real time and action to apply it efficiently. The manipulator will decrease understanding their explanation while speaking, by speaking faster, less clearly and speaking with complex sentence, difficult word and confused topic. So, the hearer will get no idea what manipulator say or get a weak understanding from manipulator. In the one hand, the dominant group will facilitate their understanding with their interest in their information while doing manipulation. It is mean that the context model of the speaker has a clear plan to hamper the understanding. This research uses 2 research questions. They are in what type of speech act white people as dominant people show their racist utterances and how white people control society by using their power. the puposes of this study is to describe and show white people do racism and to describe how white people control society by using their power. all of the research questions are about in "Django Unchained" movie. METODE This research uses descriptive qualitative. The differentiate qualitative and quantitative is qualitative concerned with how and why something is, while quantitative focused on how much or how many (Litosseliti, 2010). The use of qualitative method is to analyse in what type utterances which contain of racism utter by white people as dominant group, second to analyse how white people as dominant group control society by using their power. The data is taken from the movie of "Django Unchained", the source of data is taken from utterances in "Django Unchained" movie. The data is movie which contain of racism. The movie is directed by Quentin Taratino. Data collection techniques are done by observation. In this case, the writer using non-participation technique in which the writer observes the data through taking notes of the object and without making interview or questionnaire as what Wray, Trott, Bloomer, Reay, & Butler (1998) had said that observing data is consisting of recordings, transcriptions, and notes relating to your subject's behaviour and language (spoken and or written). In this study, the data are from the utterances which contain of racism and power in "Django Unchained" movie will be observed. By doing observation, the use of transcription is important to support the utterances of data. According to Miles and Huberman, they defined analysis as consisting of three current flows of activity: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing or verification (1994). In this data analysis, the writer also uses these three activities. Data Reduction. In this research, the writer reduced the data that she does not focused on and need. There are so many conversations that produced by the characters in this "Django Unchained" movie. In this case the writer reduced the conversation which does not contain of power and racism. Data Display After reducing the data, analysing will be the next step. The analysis will be display as in data display. The data is displayed by using two tables in first and second research question. The tables are used when collecting the data. The first (1) contains of scene, utterances, utterances of racism and types of speech act. The writer identifies the appearing racism in that movie. The racism utterances are like how white people behave to black people with racism behaviour such as mocking insulting, harrasing each other, doing racial act, and similar aggressive anti-social acts. After indentifying the writer will analyze appearing racism by using what types of speech act which related to utterances of the conversation. The table (2) contains of scene, utterances, power and manipulation. The writer tries to analyze how white people as dominant group controls society. The dominance group is white people who have more power than black people. So, the dominance group's conversation will analyze in concept how power can control society. After knowing conversation which contain of power, the writer will analyze how and which power of white people use to control the society. After that analyze the power by using manipulation way is taken from Van Djik. Table 3.1 Speech act of racism utterances by white people. No. Scene Utterances Utterances of Racism Types of Speech act Table 3.2 The use of power and manipulation by white people. No. Scene Utterances Power Manipulation Conclusion Drawing and Verification No. RACISM KIND OF SPEECH ACT R1 Poor devils Representative In data analysis technique, the data are obtained through several steps based on the research questions. Finally, after doing reducing and displaying data, the researcher can be drawn and verified by using theory which used are power and manipulation, racism by Van Djik. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table of Racism R2 It's against the law for niggers to ride horses in this territory. Representative R3 They ain't never seen no nigger on a horse before. Expressive R4 Not on my property. Not around my niggers, he can't. Expressive R5 your fancy-pants nigger Expressive R6 Get that nigger outta here Directives R7 your loveliest black creatures Directives Table of Power No. UTTERANCES POWER MANIPULATION P1 Mr. Bennet : You and your Jimmie rode from Texas to Tennessee to buy one of my nigger gals? No appointment, no nothin'? Access and dsicourse - P2 Mr. Bennet : Betina, sugar, could you take Django there and take him around the grounds here and show him all the pretty stuff. Betina : As you please, Big Daddy. Access and dsicourse - P3 Mr. Monsieur Candie : - No, no, no, no, no. no beggin'. No playin' on my soft heart. I done paid $500 for you. When I pay $500, then I expectto get five fights out of a nigger, - 'fore he roll over and play dead. Black people : sir. . Mr. Monsieur Candie : Mr. Stonesipher?, Let Marsha and her bitches, send D'Artagnan to nigger heaven. Access and dsicourse - P4 Mr. Monsieur Candie : One more moment, doctor! Dr. King Schultz : What? Mr. Monsieur Candie : It's a custom here in the South. once a business deal is concluded that the two parties shake hands. It implies good faith. Dr. King Schultz : - I'm not from the South. Mr. Monsieur Candie : - But you are. in my house, doctor. - So I'm afraid I must insist. Dr. King Schultz : -insist. On what? That I shake your hand? Access and dsicourse Social Manipulation and Cognition manipulation P5 Dr. King Schultz : Is there one amongst you who was formerly a resident of the Carrucan plantation? Djanggo : I'm from the Carrucan plantation. Dr. King Schultz : Who said that? What's your name? Django : Django Mind control - Based on the result, the data proved that racism appear in "Django Unchained" movie. Racism is kind of belief that ignoring people who have different color of skin and the status of them. In this case, white people are drawn as the dominant group who has more power than black people. The dominant appear in society because of having differences power. Having differences of power reproduces inequality. Reproducing inequality in society can make racism, as in "Django Unchained" movie. Appearing racism is because of having inequality of power in the movie. Because of inequality, white people in "Django Unchained" do power abuse in order to they want to control black people and society in their interest. White people do power abuse, because they have more power than black people and white people has more than one in the base power resources like money, status, and job. Thus, they have more access to control black people and society. The word inequality and power abuse make a deal with the theory of Critical Discourse Analysis (Van Djik, 1998a). CDA tents to power, inequality and dominant. In this case, the function of CDA is to improve the way of thinking of society through "Django Unchained" movie. "Django Unchained" movie contains of racism. Van Djik (1995) adds that CDA focuses on text and talk especially in discourse and society. Text and talk contain of words and utterances. Utterances have relationship with study of speech act. According to Yule (1996) speech act contains of action which is done by utterances. Deborah (1994) adds that specch act is basicly concerned with what people "do" with language. So, people can do act by using language via utterances. There are many utterances appear in "Django Unchained" movie. So, in this case, speech act takes apart in analysis utterances. The use of speech act is to describe the conversation of the actors in "Django Uncahined" movie. Why describing conversation through speech act, because speech act can explain the action of the speaker through utterances. According to Yule (1996) people do not only produce utterances which contain of grammartical structure and words, but also show their action through utterances. Searle (1979) adds that people express their feeling and attitude, and they do all of them via utternaces. Speakers will emphasize what they want to speak by using the clearer words. According to Searle (1979), he does classification speech act into five, they are declaration, representative, expressive, commisive, and directives. By using classification of speech act, the reseacher can analyse the type utterances of speech act which white people as dominant group do racism. Thus, as the examples of classification of speech act, in R1 shows that the utterances contain of racism in representative speech act. Like, white people mock black people with uncommon utterances, as in R1 the white people called black people with "poor devil". The word "poor devil" in this utterance means that black people as poor people, because job of black people is only as slave. White people are always under or lower than white people, so white people mock black people as a poor. The word "devil" is a part of the satan who never does a good thing in their life. White people describe the life of black people as a devil. The others example of racism in the data is like R8, racism appear in the rules of law, the law forbids the black riding a horse, the reason is the status of black people, and only white people can ride a horse. In the R1 and R2, show racism through the status between white people and white people. The status between them makes an inequality in society. From the data R1 and R2, those are the prove that racism show by doing discrimination which done by white people. According to Essed (1991) racism is done by discrimantion through intimidation minority group and law. Pendakurs (1995) adds that racism can do by insulting, harrasing minority group. Those can happend because dominanted group use their power to do power abuse. According to Van Djik (1998a), inequality in society appear because a group or people who have more power than other group do power abuse. It implies that the dominanted group can control other group in order to follow the interest of dominanted group. Like in P3, white poeple who have the base resources of power show such as money, job, and status acn control society by using their the base of power resources. The conversation shows that Mr. Candie has more money to pay the black people. The status of black people is lower than Mr. Candie because Mr. Candie is the boss of black people. Having all of the power white people do power abuse. Besides having the base of power, white people have power of access and discourse and mind control in order to get good way to control society. Here in P1 conversation shows that Mr. Bennet as the owner of plantation has the base resources of power. He has higher status than others, because he is the boss of the plantation. Absolutely, he has a good job than others. It means his financial is better than others. P1 shows, Mr. Bennet as the owner of plantation, he can do many things in his plantation because he has access in his own plantation to control his plantation and society around the plantation. In P5, Dr. Schultz do mind control by changing his attitude in good attitude in order to Django will do what he wants, usually white poeple do bad thing in black people but in this case white people do a good thing in order to get his interest. Besides controlling by using the base resources of power and, access and discourse and mind control, white people use social manipulation and cognition to manipulate society by using good actor in order to society can not detect the lie from the white people. Doing manipulation, according to Van Djik (2006) that manipulators make others believe do things that are in the interest of the manipulatorinterests of the manipulated. It can againts the interest of the victim of manipulation. Lacking of knowledge can make manipulator do his manipulation well. Because the "victim" has no choice to belief or accept the knowledge itself. Like in P4 Mr. Candie do social and cognition manipulation, he does manipulation to his interlocutor follow his will. Mr. Candie is good social to do manipulation, because he succes does manipulation, he also use their knowledge to manipulate his interlocutor, it supports by his interlocutor does not about custom knowledge in South, so his interlocutor has no choice to reject what Mr. Candie wants. The term of racism can not be separated from power. People who use racism will deal with power. They use power in order to control society, controling society has purpose is to get their will through society. CDA is the key to know how power, inequality and dominant take apart in this movie. After discussing how power works in "Django Unchained" movie, people know how to use power in order to avoid power abuse around society. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion This study reveals the relationship between racism and power. Those can not be separated because racism appear because of having more or less power between each group society. White people abuse their power to do bad thing in black people. Thus, CDA is a term to take deeper analysis in order to get improvement among society through text and talk. Text and talk which contain of words and utterances can define what people act. It is term of speech act which scholar analises act through utterances. So, people can know how people act through their utterances. Based on the results of the study, there are some proves that the movie contains of racism utterances. The racism shows through utterances. The white people do racism by mocking them, the way they mock black people are using kind of speech act such as directives, expressive, commisive and representative. White people do racism because they ignore the kind of thing which is different with them like color of skin, status, job and wealth. Inequality in society reproduces racism. Racism contains of power and manipulation. The inequality in society appears because each group has more or less power, for example the base resources of power are job, status, and wealth and also access and discourse power, and mind control. Inequality itself reproduce dominant among society. In addition white people do manipulation instead of using power to get easier to control and manipulate society. Suggestions As sugesstion for the future researcher, needs to take a deep analysis racism in others mass media. In this study the researcher takes a movie as her data. Movie is one of the member of mass media. So, the next researcher ca take others mass media like news, magazine, newspaper, radio, news televison etc. Another suggestion is from the area in Critical Discourse Analysis. Critical Discourse Analysis has many areas such as politic and society. In this data the researcher takes society. It means that next researcher can take other area In CDA. In addition, the way of analysis is so widely in the data. 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The Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region is making progress in opening the doors of development to all. But it still has a long way to go. At the current pace, it would take, on average, a generation for the region to achieve universal access to the basic services that make for human opportunity. Intra-county regional disparities are large, and barely converging.This book assesses the status and evolution of human opportunity in LAC. It builds on the 2008 publication, "Measuring Inequality of Opportunity," in several directions. First, it uses newly-available data to expand the set of oppo
Everyone knows about seasonality. But what exactly do we know? This study systematically measures seasonal price gaps at 193 markets for 13 food commodities in seven African countries. It shows that the commonly used dummy variable or moving average deviation methods to estimate the seasonal gap can yield substantial upward bias. This can be partially circumvented using trigonometric and sawtooth models, which are more parsimonious. Among staple crops, seasonality is highest for maize (33 percent on average) and lowest for rice (16½ percent). This is two and a half to three times larger than in the international reference markets. Seasonality varies substantially across market places, but maize is the only crop in which there are important systematic country effects. Malawi, where maize is the main staple, emerges as exhibiting the most acute seasonal differences. Reaching the Sustainable Development Goal of Zero Hunger requires renewed policy attention to seasonality in food prices and consumption.
The main objective of this technical assistance paper is to provide recommendations to the Royal Government of Bhutan for modernizing its hydrometeorological services, including capacity strengthening for disasterrelated early warning systems (EWSs). The DHMS does not have a national hydromet services policy but is in the process of preparing a strategic document to guide its modernization and institutional reform process. This technical assistance paper contributes to this process and proposes a road map for transforming the DHMS into a modern service delivery agency.
The increased influx of refugees into Europe in 2015 put a strain on Europe's common asylum system. The European Union was faced with the challenge of solving this urgent problem, and was forced to take interim measures. In September 2015, the Council took two decisions: the first to relocate 40,000 applicants and the second to relocate 120,000 applicants to Member States. The relocation decisions were based on the principles of solidarity and fair sharing of responsibility as expressed in Article 80 of the TFEU. Member States retain the right to refuse to relocate an applicant only where there are reasonable grounds for regarding him or her as a danger to their national security or public order. However, states cannot, on the basis of security considerations, arbitrarily decide not to fulfill the obligations arising from the relocation decisions. 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Nowadays, we notice that there is a correlation between the concepts of crisis and migration; the main problem is clearly the number of people risking or losing their lives through irregular routes because of the absence of alternatives. There is also a growing discrepancy between restrictive migration policies and the real demand for cheap migrant labor in Europe, as neither European nor African states have a much genuine interest in stopping migration because the economies of receiving and sending countries have become increasingly dependent on migrant labor and remittances, respectively (De Haas, 2008). Nevertheless, all the experts speak about the need to open new migratory channels to combat irregular migration and trafficking, in order to match the real demand for labor, and limit the effects of the large informal economies in Europe and the Maghreb. Europe's migration crisis has exposed shortcomings in the Union's asylum system. In western countries, political asylum is mainly a tool for humanitarian protection, but it also helps manage migratory flows. Accordingly, the same person could be viewed as a refugee in a country and as an economic migrant in another. The sole difference is that to refer to an individual as a migrant is to hold them in a state of transit. Some claim that the distinctions that are made between refugees and economic migrants are irrelevant since they do not take into account the stories of these individuals (Colombo, 2015). In contrast, digital culture has no consideration for boundaries and has allowed more people to acquire the information they need to access the global labor market. In our globalized and fluid society, social inclusion and migration have become indivisible. It is true that one can talk about social inclusion from several perspectives and not necessarily from the one of migration, but a fair social inclusion would enable people to move without recourse to irregular migration routes. On a broader perspective, social design could be the field of design supporting the aspirations of highly vulnerable population groups and the injustices they are subjected to: refugees and migrants are among these groups facing issues related to various segregations; work, education, healthcare,etc. During the last decade, design has increasingly been viewed as a problem-solving approach, which makes it central to innovation in general. This is also the case when dealing with wicked social problems. Terms like design thinking, human-centered design (HCD) and design for public policy are more and more used, especially when we talk about collaborative and inclusive approaches towards complex social issues. In fact, we have witnessed the emergence of several new fields of design linked to this social character with a particular enthusiasm for social innovation. Manzini (2015) insists on recognizing design as strategic in playing an essential role in triggering, supporting and scaling-up social innovation. What contribution can design make in this specific field? What is the designers' position concerning complex social problems that are often directly linked to a highly politicized issue like the one of migration? In this research Makers Unite was our primary case study. The project was initiated by "The Beach", a social design studio working principally with disadvantaged communities in Amsterdam. They promote Sustainsist Design, as the new playing field for designers. Thus, they developed an extensive knowledge on co-design based on "connectedness, localism, sharing, and proportionality" (Krabbendam and Schwarz, 2013). Through its story-sharing space, Makers Unite seeks to tackle both the social and environmental issues of the refugee crisis meeting the definition on Sustainist Design as a link between social and ecological sustainability. The project brings together both "newcomers" and local residents in co-designing enticing products and narratives, beginning with up-cycling life vests and boats accumulated on Greek island shores used as entry points to Europe and causing environmental problems. This would enable refugees to take their first steps in regaining their dignity, as it facilitates the identification of the abilities of newcomers and connects their skills with local experts in their respective fields. The Dutch context granted an idea, though a generic one, about the situation of migrants in a country of northern Europe to be compared to that of Italy as a perfect sample of the countries of southern Europe. In Parallel, a non-exhaustive outside-in research was also conducted through a series of spontaneous interviews with migrants, but also social workers in the asylum field. We attempted a kind of immersion to understand in a tangible way the issues that migrants face on a daily basis. The people we had the opportunity to meet were all different and each one had their own story. There was a wide range of profiles with different nationalities (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Morocco, Tunisia, Palestine, Senegal, Guinea etc.) backgrounds and levels of education. As explained, globalization has made mobility a necessity for both host and home countries, and now the Internet has facilitated this mobility, through platforms and applications of job matching for instance. But it remains very limited, sometimes even abstract, and the populations who need it most, alas, do not have access to it. Internet has also facilitated mobility for workers of a new kind; "digital nomads" that work remotely and do not need a fixed location. There are also storytelling platforms where "influencers" create content, stories with value that people read, like and share. Because each individual has his own story and each story deserves to be listened to and valued, how could these three types of services be linked? How can someone give value to their own story and skills? Does he/she necessarily have the skills to create content and share it? Does valuing the stories and skills of individuals prevent them from embarking on a perilous journey to provide a way out by finding work abroad?
Guest editors: Joanne Lehrer (Université du Québec en Outaouais), Christine Massing (University of Regina), Scott Hughes (Mount Royal University), and Alaina Roach O'Keefe (University of Prince Edward Island)Not only is professional learning conceptualised as critical for increasing educational quality and enhancing children's learning and developmental outcomes (e.g. Lazarri et al., 2013; Munton et al., 2002; Penn, 2009; Vandenbroeck et al., 2016), but specific elements of professional learning (in both initial and continuing education, or preservice and in-service learning) have been identified as essential to transforming early childhood educators' and preschool teachers' professional identities and practice. For example, critical and supported reflection (Thomas & Packer, 2013), learning experiences that target entire teams (Vangrieken, Dochy, & Raes, 2016), collaborative and empowering practice (Helterbran & Fennimore, 2004), and competent leadership (Colmer et al., 2008) have all been found to be effective means of supporting professional learning.While there appears to be consensus in the literature around what needs to be done, and even around how it should be done, numerous constraints prevent the implementation and maintenance of sustainable and transformational professional learning in ECEC. Vandenbroeck and colleagues (2016) go beyond the focus on individuals and childcare teams, identifying two further levels necessary for competent systems of professional learning: partnerships between local early childhood programs and social, cultural, and educational institutions (such as colleges and universities); and governance regarding vision, finance, and monitoring. In the Canadian context, the Canadian Child Care Federation has also stressed the importance of a system-wide strategy to strengthen the child care workforce (CCCF, 2016). However, early childhood services in Canada are under the purview of the provincial and territorial governments and, therefore, the conditions, regulations, certification requirements, curriculum documents, and educational systems vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The educational requirements for certification, for example, may include no formal training (in NWT and Nunavut), one entry-level short course, one-year certificates, or two-year diplomas. This complicates efforts to define who the early childhood professional is and what opportunities are constitutive of professional learning (Prochner, Cleghorn, Kirova, & Massing, 2016). While these disparities within the field may impede the development of a cohesive strategy, Campbell et al. (2016) recently asserted that much can be learned from sharing and appreciating the rich diversity of approaches to professional learning both within and across provinces and territories. In addition, examples from other countries serve to broaden the discussion and expand our understanding of what is possible (Vandenboreock et al., 2016).This special issue, then, is dedicated to sharing stories of hope and coordinated action, linking theory with practice. We seek Canadian and international submissions related to professional learning practices that extend beyond individual programs, showcasing partnerships and community mobilization efforts within and across various settings for young children (child care, Kindergarten, drop-in centres, etc.) in relation to philosophical, practical, critical, transformative, personal, and/or hopeful themes. Each submission will respond to one or more of the key questions, including, but not limited to:How can professional learning be conceptualised?How do we build and maintain effective partnerships to foster professional learning?What strategies for transformative community mobilization might be shared?How can innovative strategies be applied on a wider scale?How might taken-for-granted professional learning and evaluation practice be disrupted?What story about professional learning do you need (or want) to tell?How has your community been transformed through a particular activity, event, or practice?How might the lives and futures of children be positively shaped by engagement in partnerships and mobilization?Where might we be in 5, 10, or 15 years through such endeavours?We welcome submissions in multiple formats, including research articles, theoretical papers, multimedia pieces, art work, book reviews, and so forth. These may be submitted in English, French, or in any Canadian Indigenous language. Submissions are due August 1, 2017 and should be submitted as per Journal of Childhood Studies submission guidelines. ReferencesCampbell, C., Osmond-Johnson, P., Faubert, B., Zeichner, K., Hobbs-Johnson, A. with S. Brown, P. DaCosta, A. Hales, L. Kuehn, J. Sohn, & K. Steffensen (2016). The state of educators' professional learning in Canada. Oxford, OH: Learning Forward.Canadian Child Care Foundation [CCCF], (2016). An Early Learning and Child Care Framework for Canada's Children. Retrieved from: http://www.cccf-fcsge.ca/wp-content/uploads/CCCF_Framework-ENG.pdfColmer, K., Waniganayake, M. & Field, L. (2014). Leading professional learning in early childhood centres: who are the educational leaders?, Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 39(4), 103-113.Helterbran, V.R. & Fennimore, B.S. (2004). Early childhood professional development: Building from a base of teacher investigation. Early Childhood Education Journal, 31(4), 267-271.Lazarri, A., Picchio, M., & Musatti, T. (2013). Sustaining ECEC quality through continuing professional development: systemic approaches to practitioners' professionalization in the Italian context. Early Years: An International Research Journal, 33(2), 133-145.Munton, T., Mooney, A., Moss, P., Petrie, P., Calrk, A., Woolner, J. et al., (2002). Research on ratios, group size, and staff qualifications and training in early years and childcare settings. London: University of London.Penn, H. (2009). Early childhood education and care: Key lessons from research for policy makers. Brussels: Nesse.Prochner, L., Cleghorn, A., Kirova, A., & Massing, C. (2016). Teacher education in diverse settings: Making space for intersecting worldviews. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.Thomas, S., & Packer, D. S. (2013). A Reflective Teaching Road Map for Pre-service and Novice Early Childhood Educators. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 5(1), 1-14.Vandenbroeck, M., Peeters, J., Urban, M. & Lazzari, A. (2016). Introduction. In M. Vandenbroeck, M. Urban & J. Peeters (Eds.) Pathways to Professionalism in Early Childhood Education and Care, (pp. 1-14). London: Routledge.Vangrieken, K., Dochy, F., & Raes, E. (2016). Team learning in teacher teams: team entitativity as a bridge between teams-in-theory and teams-in-practice. European Journal Of Psychology Of Education - EJPE (Springer Science & Business Media B.V.), 31(3), 275-298. doi:10.1007/s10212-015-0279-0
Guest editors: Joanne Lehrer (Université du Québec en Outaouais), Christine Massing (University of Regina), Scott Hughes (Mount Royal University), and Alaina Roach O'Keefe (University of Prince Edward Island)Not only is professional learning conceptualised as critical for increasing educational quality and enhancing children's learning and developmental outcomes (e.g. Lazarri et al., 2013; Munton et al., 2002; Penn, 2009; Vandenbroeck et al., 2016), but specific elements of professional learning (in both initial and continuing education, or preservice and in-service learning) have been identified as essential to transforming early childhood educators' and preschool teachers' professional identities and practice. For example, critical and supported reflection (Thomas & Packer, 2013), learning experiences that target entire teams (Vangrieken, Dochy, & Raes, 2016), collaborative and empowering practice (Helterbran & Fennimore, 2004), and competent leadership (Colmer et al., 2008) have all been found to be effective means of supporting professional learning.While there appears to be consensus in the literature around what needs to be done, and even around how it should be done, numerous constraints prevent the implementation and maintenance of sustainable and transformational professional learning in ECEC. Vandenbroeck and colleagues (2016) go beyond the focus on individuals and childcare teams, identifying two further levels necessary for competent systems of professional learning: partnerships between local early childhood programs and social, cultural, and educational institutions (such as colleges and universities); and governance regarding vision, finance, and monitoring. In the Canadian context, the Canadian Child Care Federation has also stressed the importance of a system-wide strategy to strengthen the child care workforce (CCCF, 2016). However, early childhood services in Canada are under the purview of the provincial and territorial governments and, therefore, the conditions, regulations, certification requirements, curriculum documents, and educational systems vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The educational requirements for certification, for example, may include no formal training (in NWT and Nunavut), one entry-level short course, one-year certificates, or two-year diplomas. This complicates efforts to define who the early childhood professional is and what opportunities are constitutive of professional learning (Prochner, Cleghorn, Kirova, & Massing, 2016). While these disparities within the field may impede the development of a cohesive strategy, Campbell et al. (2016) recently asserted that much can be learned from sharing and appreciating the rich diversity of approaches to professional learning both within and across provinces and territories. In addition, examples from other countries serve to broaden the discussion and expand our understanding of what is possible (Vandenboreock et al., 2016).This special issue, then, is dedicated to sharing stories of hope and coordinated action, linking theory with practice. We seek Canadian and international submissions related to professional learning practices that extend beyond individual programs, showcasing partnerships and community mobilization efforts within and across various settings for young children (child care, Kindergarten, drop-in centres, etc.) in relation to philosophical, practical, critical, transformative, personal, and/or hopeful themes. Each submission will respond to one or more of the key questions, including, but not limited to:How can professional learning be conceptualised?How do we build and maintain effective partnerships to foster professional learning?What strategies for transformative community mobilization might be shared?How can innovative strategies be applied on a wider scale?How might taken-for-granted professional learning and evaluation practice be disrupted?What story about professional learning do you need (or want) to tell?How has your community been transformed through a particular activity, event, or practice?How might the lives and futures of children be positively shaped by engagement in partnerships and mobilization?Where might we be in 5, 10, or 15 years through such endeavours?We welcome submissions in multiple formats, including research articles, theoretical papers, multimedia pieces, art work, book reviews, and so forth. These may be submitted in English, French, or in any Canadian Indigenous language. Submissions are due August 1, 2017 and should be submitted as per Journal of Childhood Studies submission guidelines. ReferencesCampbell, C., Osmond-Johnson, P., Faubert, B., Zeichner, K., Hobbs-Johnson, A. with S. Brown, P. DaCosta, A. Hales, L. Kuehn, J. Sohn, & K. Steffensen (2016). The state of educators' professional learning in Canada. Oxford, OH: Learning Forward.Canadian Child Care Foundation [CCCF], (2016). An Early Learning and Child Care Framework for Canada's Children. Retrieved from: http://www.cccf-fcsge.ca/wp-content/uploads/CCCF_Framework-ENG.pdfColmer, K., Waniganayake, M. & Field, L. (2014). Leading professional learning in early childhood centres: who are the educational leaders?, Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 39(4), 103-113.Helterbran, V.R. & Fennimore, B.S. (2004). Early childhood professional development: Building from a base of teacher investigation. Early Childhood Education Journal, 31(4), 267-271.Lazarri, A., Picchio, M., & Musatti, T. (2013). Sustaining ECEC quality through continuing professional development: systemic approaches to practitioners' professionalization in the Italian context. Early Years: An International Research Journal, 33(2), 133-145.Munton, T., Mooney, A., Moss, P., Petrie, P., Calrk, A., Woolner, J. et al., (2002). Research on ratios, group size, and staff qualifications and training in early years and childcare settings. London: University of London.Penn, H. (2009). Early childhood education and care: Key lessons from research for policy makers. Brussels: Nesse.Prochner, L., Cleghorn, A., Kirova, A., & Massing, C. (2016). Teacher education in diverse settings: Making space for intersecting worldviews. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.Thomas, S., & Packer, D. S. (2013). A Reflective Teaching Road Map for Pre-service and Novice Early Childhood Educators. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 5(1), 1-14.Vandenbroeck, M., Peeters, J., Urban, M. & Lazzari, A. (2016). Introduction. In M. Vandenbroeck, M. Urban & J. Peeters (Eds.) Pathways to Professionalism in Early Childhood Education and Care, (pp. 1-14). London: Routledge.Vangrieken, K., Dochy, F., & Raes, E. (2016). Team learning in teacher teams: team entitativity as a bridge between teams-in-theory and teams-in-practice. European Journal Of Psychology Of Education - EJPE (Springer Science & Business Media B.V.), 31(3), 275-298. doi:10.1007/s10212-015-0279-0
Because of automation and reduction of the number of operators, the control of industrial systems is becoming a critical issue. For automated manufacturing systems (AMS) where resource sharing is preponderant, the notion of partial or total blocking is frequent and validation before implementation is preferable to reduce the risks.Due to the easy and concise description of the concurrent execution of processes and the resource sharing by Petri nets, many methods to verify deadlock-freeness and to synthesize controllers using structural theory or reachability graph have been proposed over the past two decades.Traditionally, a deadlock control policy can be evaluated by three performance criteria : structural complexity, behavioral permissiveness, and computational complexity. Generally, deadlock control policies based on the state space analysis can approach the maximal permissive behavior, but suffer from the state explosionproblem. On the contrary deadlock control policies based on the structural analysis of Petri nets avoid in general the state explosion problem successfully, but cannot lead to the maximally or near maximally permissive controller. Morover, the current Deadlock control theory based on siphons is fairly mature for ordinary Petri nets,while for generalized Petri nets, it is presently at an early stage.On the other hand, most deadlock control policies based on Petri nets for AMS proceed on the premise that the resources in a system under consideration are reliable. Actually, resource failures are inevitable and common in most AMS, which may also cause processes to halt. Therefore, it is judicious to develop an effective and robust deadlock control policy considering unreliable resources.This thesis aims to cope with the limitations mentioned above. Our main theoretical and algorithmic contributions are the following. Firstly, after revisiting the controllability conditions of siphons and limitations of max and max' controlled-siphon properties, we define the max'' cs property and we prove that this new cs-property is not only sufficient but also a necessary liveness condition forgeneralized systems of simple sequential processes with resources (GS3PR). Moreover, we show how the checking of this property and hence liveness of GS3PR nets can be translaled into resolution of an integer programming (IP) model.Secondly, we propose a class of manufacturing-oriented Petri nets, M-nets for short, with strong modeling capability. Combining siphon control and the theory of regions, we develop a deadlock prevention method that makes a good trade-off between behavioral optimality and computational tractability Moreover, this thesis proposes a maximally permissive control policy for a subclass of Petri nets (calledBéta-nets) based on the token distribution pattern of unmarked siphons.Finally, we propose a designs method for robust liveness-enforcingsupervisors for AMS with unreliable resources appropriate in particular for systems of simple sequential processes with resources(S3PR) ; Le contrôle de systèmes industriels à cause de l'automatisation et la réduction de nombre des opérateurs devient un enjeu crucial. Les systèmes de production automatisés (AMS) sont d'autant plus touchés car une défaillance du programme de contrôle peut réduire considérablement la productivité voire entraîner l'arrêt du système de production. Pour certains de ces systèmes où le partage des ressources est pondérant, la notion de blocage partiel ou global est fréquente et la validation avant implantation est préférable pour réduire les risques.En raison de la capacité des réseaux de Petri à décrire aisément l'exécution concurrente des processus et le partage des ressources, de nombreuses méthodes de vérification d'absence de blocage et de synthèse de contrôleurs basées sur la théorie structurelle ou le graphe d'accessibilité des réseaux de Petri ont été proposées au cours des deux dernières décennies.Traditionnellement, une méthode de prévention de blocage est évaluée selon trois critères de performance: la complexité structurelle, la permissivité comportementale, et la complexité de calcul. Les méthodes fondées sur l'espace d'état aboutissent généralement à un contrôle maximal permissif mais souffrent de l'explosion combinatoire de l'espace d'états. En revanche, les méthodes de synthèse de contrôleurs fondées sur l'analyse structurelle évitent le problème de l'explosion de l'espace d'état mais aboutissent à des superviseurs pouvant restreindre considérablement les comportements admissibles du système. De plus si la théorie structurelle de contrôle de siphons pour la synthèse des superviseurs est mature dans le cas des réseaux de Petri ordinaires, elle est en développement pour les réseaux de Petri généralises. Par ailleurs, la plupart des travaux existants partent du principe que les ressources sont constamment disponibles. Or l'indisponibilité de ressources est en réalité un phénomène ordinaire. Il serait donc judicieux de développer une politique de vérification de blocage qui soit efficace tout en considérant des ressources non fiables.Cette thèse vise principalement à faire face aux limitations mentionnées ci-dessus. Nos principales contributions à la fois théoriques et algorithmiques sont les suivantes.Premièrement, après avoir revisité les conditions de contrôlabilité des siphons (cs–propriété) et précisé les limitations de la max cs- propriété et max' cs- propriété, nous définissons la max'' cs-propriété et nous démontrons que cette nouvelle propriété est une condition non seulement suffisante mais aussi nécessaire pour la vivacité de la classe des GS3PR (Generalized Systems of SimpleSequential Processes with Resources).Par la suite nous montrons comment le problème de la vérification de cette propriété et donc la vivacité des GS3PR peut se ramener à la résolution d'un programme linéaire en nombre entiers.Dans une seconde partie, nous proposons une classe de réseaux de Petri appelée M-Nets dotée d'une forte capacité de modélisation des systèmes de production automatisés. En combinant la théorie du contrôle siphon avec la théorie des régions, nous développons une méthode de prévention de blocage ayant un bon compromis entre l'optimalité du comportement et la complexité de calcul. De plus, nous proposons une méthode de synthèse d'un contrôleur maximal permissif pour une sous-classe de réseaux notée b-nets.Enfin, nous proposons dans cette thèse une méthode de conception d'un superviseur de systèmes de production automatisés où les ressources ne sont pas toutes fiables et particulièrement efficace pour la classe des S3PR (Systems of Simple Sequential Processes with Resources).
