Suchergebnisse

The use of sanctions as means of coercion and motivation is not always effective. Ruling elites have an ability to shift the burden on less protected population of the country despite the risk of social unrest. The paper aims to perform an empirical analysis of the impact of economic sanctions on the population of the target countries in general and its individual groups in particular. We test three hypotheses: about the negative impact of economic and financial sanctions on the welfare of the poorest people, about the nonlinear relationship between economic growth and income inequality, and about the impact of country characteristics and the duration of sanctions on income distribution. Having applied econometric modelling to panel data, we found that economic and financial sanctions are detrimental to the low-income population and inappropriate for policies aimed at reducing income inequality. Indicators of economic growth can be linked with both an increase and a decrease in economic inequality due to the nonlinear form of their dependence. Regional characteristics of the countries of Africa, North America and South America determine their propensity to a higher level of inequality, as well as the long duration of sanctions. Finally, sanctions are not harming the richest people, as they are able to shift the burden of sanctions on the rest of the population. The research is relevant in practice, as its results can be taken into consideration when developing a sanctions policy to minimize harmful consequences for the civilian population. © 2020 Institute of Economics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. ; Применение санкций как инструмент стимулирования и принуждения работает не всегда эффективно. Правящие элиты могут перекладывать нагрузку на менее защищенное население страны, принимая на себя риски социальных волнений. Целью данной работы является эмпирический анализ влияния санкций на население стран-объектов в целом и его отдельные группы. Мы тестируем гипотезы о негативном влиянии экономических и финансовых санкций на благосостояние беднейших слоев населения, о нелинейности взаимосвязи экономического роста и неравенства в доходах, а также о влиянии индивидуальных страновых характеристик и продолжительности санкций на распределение доходов. Применяя эконометрическое моделирование на панельных данных, мы находим, что экономические и финансовые санкции наносят ущерб беднейшим слоям населения и нецелесообразны для политики сокращения неравенства в доходах. Показатели экономического роста могут быть связаны как с увеличением, так и со снижением экономического неравенства ввиду нелинейной формы их зависимости. Региональные особенности стран Африки, Северной и Южной Америки определяют предрасположенность этих стран к высокому уровню неравенства, равно как и большая продолжительность санкционных мер. Наконец, санкции не причиняют вреда богатейшим группам населения, так как они способны перекладывать бремя санкций на остальное население. Практическая значимость работы состоит в том, что ее результаты могут быть использованы в качестве рекомендаций при разработке санкционной политики, а именно − при минимизации ущерба необеспеченным слоям населения в результате применения санкций. ; This article has been prepared with the support of Russian Science Foundation, the project No 19-18-00262 "Empirical modelling of balanced technological and socioeconomic development in the Russian regions". ; Исследование выполнено при поддержке гранта РНФ (проект № 19–18–00262 «Моделирование сбалансированного технологического и социально-экономического развития российских регионов»).

Abstract Background Cholera mainly affects developing countries where safe water supply and sanitation infrastructure are often rudimentary. Sub-Saharan Africa is a cholera hotspot. Effective cholera control requires not only a professional assessment, but also consideration of community-based priorities. The present work compares local sociocultural features of endemic cholera in urban and rural sites from three field studies in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (SE-DRC), western Kenya and Zanzibar. Methods A vignette-based semistructured interview was used in 2008 in Zanzibar to study sociocultural features of cholera-related illness among 356 men and women from urban and rural communities. Similar cross-sectional surveys were performed in western Kenya (n = 379) and in SE-DRC (n = 360) in 2010. Systematic comparison across all settings considered the following domains: illness identification; perceived seriousness, potential fatality and past household episodes; illness-related experience; meaning; knowledge of prevention; help-seeking behavior; and perceived vulnerability. Results Cholera is well known in all three settings and is understood to have a significant impact on people's lives. Its social impact was mainly characterized by financial concerns. Problems with unsafe water, sanitation and dirty environments were the most common perceived causes across settings; nonetheless, non-biomedical explanations were widespread in rural areas of SE-DRC and Zanzibar. Safe food and water and vaccines were prioritized for prevention in SE-DRC. Safe water was prioritized in western Kenya along with sanitation and health education. The latter two were also prioritized in Zanzibar. Use of oral rehydration solutions and rehydration was a top priority everywhere; healthcare facilities were universally reported as a primary source of help. Respondents in SE-DRC and Zanzibar reported cholera as affecting almost everybody without differentiating much for gender, age and class. In contrast, in western Kenya, gender differentiation was pronounced, and children and the poor were regarded as most vulnerable to cholera. Conclusions This comprehensive review identified common and distinctive features of local understandings of cholera. Classical treatment (that is, rehydration) was highlighted as a priority for control in the three African study settings and is likely to be identified in the region beyond. Findings indicate the value of insight from community studies to guide local program planning for cholera control and elimination.

The British government notoriously conducted a series of atomic bomb tests in South Australia's Maralinga lands during the 1950s and 1960s. The traditional owners were moved to Yalata, within a kilometre or so of the main highway from Adelaide to Perth. Estranged from their lands and unable to visit their sacred sites or attend to the ritual obligations owed to the lands, the Yalata community became a troubled one. A legal battle began in 1980 to enable these past injustices to be remedied. Young lawyer Garry Hiskey, senior solicitor for the Aboriginal Legal Rights Movement, was assigned to the case. This is his story of the fight to return the Maralinga lands to their original owners, helping them gain an inalienable freehold title to some 76,000 square kilometres of land. It's a story of intrigue, divided loyalties, political controversy, voting rights, and of a mining company finding itself the meat in the sandwich in a battle of wills as to who should be permitted to explore and mine the lands on which the customs and beliefs of Anangu were based

<p align="center"><strong>Referees Index</strong></p><p>The academicians listed below have acted as referees since November 2015 for manuscripts in which the review process of which have been completed, as well as for those paper submissions which have been cancelled by the authors for some reason and for those that have been rejected. The editorial board members are grateful to all referees who have contributed to GJS.</p><table width="509" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"><tbody><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Hasan Alicik</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>International Cyprus University, Cyprus</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Kobus Maree</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>Pretoria University, South Africa</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Orhan Çiftçi</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>Near East University, Cyprus</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Pervin Yigit</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>Near East University, Cyprus</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Chin-Chun Yi</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>Academia Sinica, Taiwan</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>John Round</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>University of Birmingham, UK</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Kalpana Kannabiran</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>Council for Social Development, Hyderabad, India</p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="230"><p>Gianfranco Poggi</p></td><td valign="top" width="278"><p>Universita di Trento, Italy</p></td></tr></tbody></table><p> </p>

One of the hallmarks of the last decade has undoubtedly been the rise to prominence of a group of five emerging economies – Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa - that have come to be known collectively as the 'BRICS bloc'. As a direct result of the increasingly prominent role of the BRICS bloc in global politics and economics, there has been a consequent increasing demand for improved infrastructure within these rapidly industrialising powers. This has compelled multilateral development banks to develop innovative funding solutions. Among these mechanisms is project finance, a relatively novel legal and financial structure typically used to fund public and private capital-intensive facilities and utilities. Multilateral development banks' (MDBs) participation in large-scale public-sector infrastructure projects financing is primarily governed by the loan agreements they conclude with governments, other financial institutions, and private sector entities. However, projects of this nature have predictably widespread effects, particularly on stakeholders not party to the contractual scheme – they frequently involve resettlement of local populations, transformation of indigenous lands, deforestation, pollution, and employment of labour for heavy industrial tasks. This far-reaching impact has necessitated increased accountability for MDBs' financing practices, particularly where the actions of MBD lenders impact on human rights and have broader social and environmental effects. This thesis examines two mechanisms to achieve accountability. The first of these solutions lifts the veil and entails reconceptualisation of how MDBs are held accountable at domestic level by reconfiguring the role of domestic judicial forums. The second is the formation of what is termed an independent 'super mechanism', an international body which would be created by agreement among all participating multilateral development banks and would serve to provide effective oversight and enhanced accountability. This thesis ultimately focuses on advancing a novel contribution on the establishment of a super mechanism and it does so with reference to the interface between global administrative law principles and domestic administrative law principles. It addresses how supranational regulatory mechanisms should render the exercise of discretion and authority at the international level more transparent and accountable for the benefit of stakeholders in the developing world. The thesis formulates four benchmark criteria against which the development of an effective and successful super mechanism should be measured, it should: (i) be empowered with jurisdiction to conduct comprehensive investigations; (ii) provide remedies that are effective; (iii) be empowered to monitor and enforce remedies and corrective measures at MDBs; and (iv) operate in a manner that does not directly or indirectly contribute to undermining the national sovereignty of developing states. The thesis takes this further by examining how a super mechanism aligns with the core objectives and values of the BRICS bloc, and then advances a proposal to establish a BRICS super mechanism. It does this with reference to the practical challenges that may arise around the implementation of a BRICS-specific super mechanism, and it interrogates measures that the bloc has already implemented that may mitigate some of the theorised challenges.

This dissertation engages with the perennial question of 'how lecturers learn to teach' and 'students learn to learn', through engaging with the development of one lecturer in the process of learning how to teach undergraduate students to do research in Information Systems at a Higher Education Institution in South Africa. Teaching and learning stand at the core of Higher Education, yet at the University where this research was conducted, 86% of the academics in the Faculty have no formal qualification in teaching and only extended programme students are enrolled in academic literacy courses. Teaching and learning are also not typical competencies that are included in discipline-specific curricula. Because lecturers are appointed as educators, it becomes a moral imperative for them to become proficient in teaching and learning. This thesis takes the position that adult educators and learners are able to teach themselves under the right circumstances. The research was based on a case study of learning to teach three groups of third year students over a consecutive period of three years in a research methods and philosophy course in Information Systems at a historically disadvantaged University in SA. Political imperatives of free and open access to higher education and the associated growth in student numbers, together with constrained financial resources and increasing academic workloads provide the context for this research against the Universities strategy to transition from a teaching to a research-based institution. These imperatives require new and innovative ways of teaching large groups of underprivileged students with minimal resources for doing research. Furthermore, the widespread adoption of the internet by students as their primary source of information has exposed a critical need for these kinds of academic literacies in discipline specific curricula. It is suggested that these skills can only be developed through practical experience and not as a theoretical curriculum. Praxis is guided by the Greek concept of phronēsis; which is the moral disposition to do what is right depending on the circumstances. By analysing the course reflections of 60 students using Aristotle's dialectics, this dissertation provides empirical evidence of 'how students learn', 'how to teach' students to be self-directed as well as 'how' academics are able to learn to teach themselves. It is suggested that the current practice of prescribing to students what, when, where and why they should learn is harmful to their long-term self-directing capabilities. By fostering students' independence through enabling them how to learn, the lecturer reflexively becomes free to learn how to teach for him/herself. More importantly, this research has highlighted the absence of a knowledge component in contemporary models of experiential learning. These findings have implications for the broader sphere of teaching of research in Information Systems as well as developing students' critical and self-directed faculties. This is of value in preparing students for postgraduate research in any discipline, for developing students as lifelong learners, and in developing lecturers as critically reflective educators who know 'how' and 'why' to teach.

Globalisation is the penetration of the global market into the life of the countries, caused by the strengthening international financial markets, rising world trade, creation of multinational businesses and progress in telecommunications.The present analysis of globalisation and the new opportunities and challenges it presents to businesses and the population attempts to take a broader view of the issue. We have tried to take a look at both sides of the globalisation process and assess not only the huge changes it brings to the world but also to review the contradictory impact it makes on man and the world inhabited by him.The benefits of globalisation are obvious: it is faster growth, higher standards of life and new opportunities. Yet far from all countries and all people are able to use the advantages offered by globalisation.Globalisation does not give heed to borders; it progresses every day and involves an increasing number of people. President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa, speaking at the World Summit for Sustainable Development held from August 26 to September 4, 2002, in Johannesburg, called the wealthy countries "islands of welfare", surrounded by an "ocean of poverty", and urged to stop the "global apartheid" of the poor countries. "Poverty, underdevelopment, inequality among countries and within countries together with the aggravating global ecological crisis throw a dark shadow on the whole world," said President Mbeki.In analysing the new environment and the changes that are brought about by the unstoppable phenomena of globalisation spread more or less throughout the whole world, we have only two possibilities: we may rejoice at the new breathtaking prospects of new discoveries, or cringe in fear of drowning.The experience of most developed countries clearly indicates that the speed of social and economic development in any country is directly dependent on the education of its people, on the focused and constructive, creative energy in developing business and accumulating financial expertise. This is why education should doubtlessly be the priority in Lithuania.While the results of the ongoing changes may become evident only in several months or even several years, we should be always prepared to new challenges. The time has come to make use of what we have already accumulated, assess our strengths and weaknesses and model our actions, our place and ability of our business and people to compete in the European Union and other markets of the increasingly globalised world. ; Straipsnyje nagrinėjama globalizacijos kaip naujos, nuolat besikeičiančios aplinkos ir jos teikiamų verslui bei žmonėms naujų galimybių ir iššūkių tema. Bandoma šią problemą apžvelgti plačiau, siekiant apčiuopti abi globalizacijos proceso esmės puses, ne tik vertinant pasauliui atnešamus milžiniškus pokyčius, bet ir bandant atsižvelgti į prieštaringą jų poveikį žmogui bei pasauliui. Jame plačiai apžvelgiami pasaulio finansų sektoriuje vykstantys pokyčiai ir Lietuvos finansų sektoriaus veiklos ypatumai. Straipsnio pabaigoje pateikiamos išvados, paremtos įsitikinimu, kad gilesnis globalizacijos ir jos įtakos aplinkai įvertinimo požiūris leidžia tiksliau įdentifikuoti vykstančius procesus, realiau vertinti jų keliamus pokyčius ir iššūkius bei geriau modeliuoti ir koreguoti savo veiksmus.

The members of the Library Committee vary. ; Imprint varies slightly. ; Title from added t.p.; each part also has special t.p. ; The volume numbers in this set have been assigned from the "Summary of the series", v. 61, p. viii-xv. ; memoirs. Annals, by J.W. von Goethe.--[51] The Divine comedy of Danta Alighieri.--[52] Jerusalem delivered, by T. Tasso.--[53] The Nibelungenlied.--[54-56] History of the popes, by Leopold von Ranke.--[57] History of Florence, by N. Machiavelli.--[58] The republic of Plato.--[59] The Federalist.--[60] Ideal commonwealths; comprising More's Utopia, Bacon's New Atlantis, Campanella's City of the sun, and Harrington's Oceana.--[61] Index. ; [36-37] The literature of Persia. The literature of Japan.--[38] The literature of India.--[39] The literature of China. The literature of Arabia.--[40] Sacred books of the East.--[41] Moorish literature. Malayan literature.--[42] Egyptian literature.--[43] Turkish literature.--[44] Hebrew literature.--[45] Babylonian and Assyrian literature. Armenian literature.--[46-47] Chronicles of England, France, Spain and the adjoining countries, by Sir J. Froissart. History of Charles XII, by F.M.A. Voltaire.--[48-50] Classic ; Aristotle.--[18] Advancement of learning and Novum organum, by F. Bacon.--[19] Critique of pure reason, by I. Kant.--[20] The philosophy of history, by G.W.F. Hegel.--[21] Orations of Demosthenes.--[22] Orations of M.T. Cicero.--[23-24] Orations of British orators.--[25-26] Orations of American orators.--[27] Essays of French, German and Italian essayists.--[28-29] Essays of British essayists.--[30] Essays of American essayists.--[31-32] Plays, by Greek, Spanish, French, German and English dramatists.--[33-35] History of English literature, by H.A. Taine. ; [1] Ancient history, by G. Rawlinson.--[2-4] History of Europe during the Middle Ages, by H. Hallam. Modern history, by J. Michelet.--[5-7] A short history of the English people, by J.R. Green. History of civilization in Europe, by F.P.G. Guizot.--[8-9] The French revolution, by T. Carlyle.--[10] Decisive battles of the world, by E.S. Creasy.--[11-12] The spirit of laws, by Baron de Montesquieu. Physics and politics, by W. Bagehot.--[13-14] Principles of political economy, by J.S. Mill.--[15-16] Democracy in America, by A. de Tocqueville.--[17] Dialogues of Plato. The politics of ; Mode of access: Internet.

In the wake of the structural crisis that hit the European countries of the Soviet Block in the last months of 1989, also the Mongolian communist institutions knew the strong opposition of a part of the population against the state and political system represented by the People's Republic of Mongolia, born in 1924 under the influence of the Bolshevik revolution. The aim of this paper is to analyse the evolution of the opposition movements to the regime, the actions implemented by the reformers and the government reactions in a tense political context that did not result in bloody repressions, but gave rise to a process of gradual political, economic and institutional change, which marked a decade of Mongolian history.

Ulrich Herbert's monography "Geschichte Deutschlands im 20. Jahrhundert" (German History in the 20th Century) is a major coup in the literature on German history. This is particularly striking as it has become almost impossible to keep track of the literature published on this topic. Further, the multi-faceted and contradictory character of German history itself makes such a general work undoubtedly ambitious in itself. Each review essay in this article concentrates on different eras of German 20th-century history. They contain some points of criticism while still marking Herbert's book as a great work, in general. Amongst the reasons for this are that his methods are state-of-the-art and because he continually discusses the overall European context.

• The issue of cigarette smuggling is now high on the agenda of governments and international organizations. It has been estimated that a third of internationally exported cigarettes are lost to smuggling. Total revenue lost by governments due to cigarette smuggling is estimated at US$ 25–30 000 million annually. • Studies of the impact of smuggling show that when smuggled cigarettes account for a high percentage of the total sold, the average price for all cigarettes, taxed and untaxed, will fall, increasing sales of cigarettes overall. • The cigarette companies often blame organized crime for the massive amount of cigarette smuggling worldwide, but much of the organized criminal smuggling that accounts for the vast majority of cigarette smuggling worldwide has occurred with the knowledge of the major cigarette companies themselves, and would not occur without the cigarette companies' compliance. • In the Middle East, the two main target markets for international tobacco companies are the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq. Both the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq represent huge possibilities for international cigarette companies. Indeed, tobacco trade journals, internal tobacco industry documents and documents filed in legal actions make the importance placed on both countries by the entire tobacco industry very clear. • According to trade journals, Cyprus is an important distribution point for American cigarettes going to the Islamic Republic of Iran through traders in Oman. At the same time, some of these cigarettes are sold to traders in Turkey who take them into Iraq. Beirut's imported cigarettes are distributed to traders and merchants in various countries in the Middle East and North Africa. It appears that the major customers for cigarettes distributed from Lebanon are the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq. From Beirut to Dubai or Oman and then on to the Islamic Republic of Iran is the path of some of the American cigarettes destined for Lebanon. Trucks now carry cargo through the Syrian Arab Republic to reach the open-air markets in Iraq. • In their legal action against several international tobacco companies, the European Union (EU) filed in January 2002 documents on cigarette smuggling into Iraq showing that since the early 1990s, American tobacco companies have distributed their products from the United States into Iraq. For example, cigarettes produced in the United States have been shipped to and through ports in the EU to companies in Cyprus for years. Indeed, since 1996, approximately 50 billion cigarettes have been sent by RJ Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR) (and its successor, Japan Tobacco) to Cyprus. Approximately half of these shipments were exported from Cyprus to Turkey in transit. Many of these shipments were destined for Iraq. • On 30 October 2002, the EU and ten Member States launched another lawsuit against RJR. The new EU lawsuit goes far beyond any previous allegations, accusing RJR of direct complicity in facilitating not only money laundering schemes but also other criminal enterprises. Allegations on cigarette smuggling into Iraq were even more detailed. • The EU allegations on smuggling in Iraq are in line with the well known methods of the cigarette smuggling scheme: – Exports of billion of cigarettes from major tobacco manufacturers. – Complex transport routes in order to complicate investigations. – Off-loading and re-loading of containers and removing marks and numbers from products to prevent their being traced. – Frequently switched bank accounts to cover up actions. – Operations led from Switzerland, a country protected by bank secrecy and business privacy laws. – Offshore companies located in Liechtenstein. – Use of tax-free harbours such as Mersin in Turkey. • Internal tobacco industry documents describe in great detail the monitoring of smuggling operations and the illegal character of the transit (smuggling) trade in Lebanon and the Syrian Arab Republic. Several documents stipulate that it is unwise for the tobacco companies to have direct links with the transit trade. • The objective of each company is to sell more products and make higher profits. Penetrating new markets and increasing the market share of its products is part of the strategy to achieve this objective. An obstacle for multinational tobacco companies are trade restrictions and/or embargoes. Some markets are closed to foreign companies or allow imported cigarettes only under certain strict conditions. Where there are high tariffs or a state monopoly, international cigarettes will be smuggled into the country, weakening the position of the state monopoly and delivering the market into the hands of the multinationals. • While illegal imports may be an option in order to penetrate a market, the ultimate goal in the long term is to obtain official imports or production. The strategy of the international tobacco companies in the Islamic Republic of Iran became a success story in 2002, when the state tobacco authority signed an import and production deal with four cigarette companies in a bid to cut down cigarette smuggling. It is a clear example of how successful this strategy of international tobacco companies can be. The stages of the strategy are: 1. Penetrate the market through illegal imports. 2. Weaken the state monopoly by reducing the market share of domestic brands and legal sales. 3. Convince the authorities to privatize or to open the market. 4. Authorize the legal import and/or production of foreign brands. 5. Stop fuelling the illegal market and take over the market in a legal way. • If tobacco smuggling is to be tackled successfully it will require international collaboration. The likeliest mechanism for achieving this is the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC). In the text of the FCTC, article 15 deals with illicit trade of tobacco products, including markings, monitoring, data collection, cooperation, penalties, confiscation and licensing. • Manufacturers should be required to have covert and overt markings on all packages of tobacco products that would identify manufacturer, date and location of manufacture, and another identifier that would show the chain of custody—wholesaler, exporter, distributor and end market. The onus should be placed on the manufacturer (through record keeping, and tracing and tracking systems) to prove that the cigarettes that leave the factory arrive in their intended end market. • The way to combat smuggling is not to reduce taxes, but rather to control the supply of illegal cigarettes.

"Systemic and political hostility against the 'left', real and contrived, has been a key, yet under-recognized aspect of the history of the modern world for the past two hundred years. By the 1820s, the new, exploitative and destabilizing character of capitalist industrial production and its accompanying market liberalizations began creating necessities among the working classes and their allies for the new, self-protective politics of 'socialism'. But it is evident that, for the new economic system to sustain itself, such oppositional politics that it necessitated had to be undermined, if not destroyed, by whatever means necessary. Through the imperialism of the later 19th century, and with significant variations, this complex and often highly destructive dialectical syndrome expanded worldwide. Liberals, conservatives, extreme nationalists, fascists, racists, and others have all repeatedly come aggressively and violently into play against 'socialist' oppositions. In this book, Philip Minehan traces the patterns of such hostility and presents numerous crucial examples of it: from Britain, France, Germany and the United States; the British in India; European fascism, the United States and Britain as they operated in China and Indochina; from Kenya, Algeria and Iran; and from Central and South America during the Cold War. In the final chapters, Minehan addresses the post-Cold War, US-led triumphalist wars in the Middle East, the ensuing refugee crises, neo-fascism, and anti-environmentalist politics, to show the ways that the syndrome within which anti-leftist antagonism emerges, in its neoliberal phase since the 1970s, remains as self-destructive and dangerous as ever"--