1 separador y 47 fichas que forman unidad. El separador, orlado en rojo, lleva por título "Español en Francia". El conjunto trata sobre Felipe II y el españolismo, sobre préstamos del español al francés, como las palabras "palabre", "hâbler", sobre el hispanismo en Francia durante el siglo XVI (divido en dos etapas: 1490-1530 y 1530-1585), sobre la letra "ñ", sobre la traducción al francés del "Amadis" hecha por Nicolás de Herberay des Essarts, sobre la influencia de Pedro Mexía en Michel de Montaigne, sobre el lenguaje fonológico francés calcado sobre el español o italiano, sobre Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme, el primer hispanista francés, sobre la opinión que se tenía sobre el español, sobre las rodomontadas, sobre el sufijo "-ade" francés, que parece proceder del sufijo italiano "-ata" o del español y provenzal "-ada". Explica que a comienzos del siglo XVII es la época de rápida y grande difusión de las ficciones españolas, que durante el siglo XVI el español era mejor acogido en Francia que el italiano por los puristas, puesto que el influjo del último era mayor, que en las voces cultas derivadas de otras italianas o españolas se conservaba la "s" + consonante que en el francés se había perdido hacia mucho. Lista palabras francesas e italinas que son calco de otras españolas y palabras alemanas derivadas de francesas, derivadas, a su vez, de españolas. Las fuentes usadas o mencionadas en el conjunto son: Brunot, F. (1905-1953): "Histoire de la langue française des origines à 1900", 13 tomos, - Accademia della Crusca (1612): "El Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca", - Tommaseo, N. y Bellini, B. (1865-1879): "Dizionario della lingua italiana nuovamente compilato", 4 vols., - Vittori, G. (Hierosme Victor en la ficha) (1606): "Thresor des trois langues: francoise, italiene, et espagnolle", -Bloch, O. y Wartburg, W. von (1932): "Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française", 2 vols., - Montaigne, M. de (1580): "Essais", tomo I (ed. de Firmin Didot Frères, 1833), - Rabelais. F. (ca. 1494-1553): "Oeuvres completes de Rabelais", tomo I: "Gargantua", tomo II: "Pantagruel", tomo III: "Le Tiers Livre" (ed. de J. Plattard, 1929), -Foscolo Benedetto, L. (1912-1913): "Una redazione inedita della legenda degli infanti de Lara", en Studi medievali, vol. IV, pp. 231-270, - Cervantes Saavedra, M. de (1547-1616):"Obras completas de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Persiles y Sigismunda", tomo I (ed. de Rodolfo Schevill y Adolfo Bonilla y San Martín, 1914), - C. Muñoz y Manzano, Viñaza conde de la (1893): "Biblioteca histórica de la filología castellana", - Petit de Julleville, L. (1897): "Histoire de la langue et de la littérature française des origines à 1900", tomo III: "Seizième siècle", -Baist, G. (1903): "Boire comme un templier, Braquemard. Écumeur. Faquin", en "Romanische Forschungen", XIV, pp. 637–637, -Pitollet, C. (1914): "Morceaux choisis de prosateurs et de poètes espagnols", - Hatzfeld, A., Darmesteter, A. y Thomas, A. (1890): "Dictionnaire general de la langue francaise du commencement du XVIIe siecle jusqu'a nos jours: precede d'un traite de la formation de la langue", tomo I: "A-F", -Thierry, J. (1564) "Dictionnaire français-latin", -Ducamin, J. (1907): "Herran ou l'Arlot-qui-pleure Eglogue 4e de Pey de Garros", en "Romanische Forschungen", XXIII, pp. 305, - Nyrop, K. (1899): "Grammaire historique de la langue française", tomo I, -Chasles, Ph. (1876): "Etudes sur le seizième siècle en France", -Menéndez Pelayo, M. (1905): "Orígenes de la novela", tomo I: "Introducción. Tratado histórico sobre la primitiva novela española" y tomo II: "Novelas de los siglos XV y XVI, con un estudio preliminar" (en Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, vols. I y VII), - Seiler, F (1921-1925): "Die Entwicklung der deutschen Kultur im Spiegel des deutschen Lehnworts", tomo IV, - Barbier Fils, P. (1913): "Noms de poisons", en "Revue des langues romanes", tomo LXVI, pp. 172-247, - Morel-Fatio, A. (1913): "Historiographie de Charles Quint", - Godefroy, F. (1892 y 1902): "Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue française et de tous ses dialectes du IXe au XVe siècle", tomos VI y X, - Giovio, P., Domenichi, L. y Simenoni, G.: "Diálogos de las empresas militares, y amorosas, Razonamiento de las empresas militares y amorosas y Devisas o emblemas heroicas y morales" (traducción de A. de Ulloa, 1561), - Ticknor, G. (1849): "History of Spanish literatura" (traducción al castellano "Historia de la literatura española", 4 tomos, 1851-1856), - Valdés, J. de (1535): "Diálogo de la lengua" (ed. de E. Boehmer, 1895, en "Romanische Studien", pp. 339-508), - Morel-Fatio, A. (1888): "Etudes sur l'Espagne", 1.er série (1.ª ed.), - Morel-Fatio, A. (1895): "Etudes sur l'Espagne", 1.er série (2.ª ed.), - Morel-Fatio, A. (1901): "Ambrosio de Salazar et l'étude de l'espagnol en France sous Louis XIV", - Rubió y Lluch, A. (1905): "Discurso en conmemoración del Tercer Centenario de la publicación del 'Quijote'", - "Chansons du XVe siècle" (ed. de G. Paris, 1875, en Société des anciens textes français), -Littré, E. (1863-1877): "Dictionnaire de la langue française", -Lanson, G. (1896): "Etudes sur les rapports de la littérature française et de la littérature espagnole au XVIIe siècle", en "Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France", tomo 3, pp. 45-70, - Saint-Gelais, M. de (1491-1558): "Oeuvres complètes de Melin de Sainct-Gelays", vol. I (ed. de P. Blanchemain, 1873) Se menciona a Aurelio Viñas. La ficha 1 está escrita por una mano no identificada y transcribe fragmentos del "Discurso preliminar" de Lafuente, M. (1877): "Historia general de España: desde los tiempos primitivos hasta la muerte de Fernando VII", tomo I. La ficha tiene escrito en su esquina superior derecha el número "58". Las fichas 4, 5, 7, 18 y 19 están escrita por María Goyri (la 7 también por Menéndez Pidal y la 19, además, por una mano no identificada). Las fichas 22 a 26, 28 están escritas por la misma mano. La ficha 22 tiene una parte manuscrita y otra impresa con el título del libro del que está extraída la información. La ficha 8 tiene partes tachadas. Las fichas 20 y 21 son páginas impresas, por el recto y por el vuelto, de tamaño de un folio y dobladas en cuatro partes. Se trata de la revista "Investigación y progreso", año V, n.º 1 con un artículo de Moldenhauer, G. (1931): "La influencia del español en la lengua francesa". Las fichas 37 y 46 están escritas por el recto y por el verso
Si la guerre de Cent Ans stricto sensu, est depuis des années l'objet de recherches de tout premier plan, la question des expéditions françaises en Italie à l'époque du Grand Schisme d'Occident était restée vierge de toute étude de synthèse, à tout le moins sur le plan qui semble pourtant le plus évident, celui de la guerre, et ce alors même que les implications politiques de ces mêmes guerres italiennes sont étudiées depuis aujourd'hui plus d'un siècle. Au croisement des sources – sources narratives et documents d'archives se sont révélés être le socle sur lequel s'est progressivement construite notre synthèse puisqu'au caractère lacunaire des premières en terme de fiabilité ou de chronologie a fait pièce la précision des secondes qui trouvaient pour leur part dans la confrontation avec les chroniques les éléments de nature à enrayer l'aridité des relevés financiers – fait écho celui des approches, que nous avons souhaitées multiples, de notre sujet d'études. Pour appréhender le fait militaire, nous avons privilégié une vision globalisante, eu égard au fait que, à nos yeux, l'armée représentait un tout qui se doit d'être étudié de la sorte. Les divers éléments qui la composent étant interdépendants, on ne peut connaître l'un sans envisager l'autre. Il ressort de cette approche plurielle plusieurs observations. Alors que l'Europe se cliche au gré des intérêts politiques et spirituels en obédiences rivales, l'on aurait pu s'attendre à ce que des princes français, traditionnellement favorables à la papauté d'Avignon, deviennent les champions des prélats des bords du Rhône. Or, il n'en fut rien. Ce qui intéressa au premier chef les ducs d'Anjou fut non de déposer celui qu'il tenait pour un usurpateur et d'établir le successeur de saint Pierre pour lequel ils avaient opté sur le trône de Rome mais de profiter des ressources financières de la papauté, considérées alors, avec le trésor du roi de France, comme les plus massives de l'Occident. De la même façon, les ressources du duc d'Orléans et celles du roi de France furent, en toute logique, très largement sollicitées par les lieutenants de ceux-ci. Mais, à cette occasion encore, on constate une indépendance certaine des bénéficiaires vis-à-vis de leurs bailleurs de fonds. La mission qui leur est confiée offre un cadre relativement lâche à leurs actions, cadre qui, joint à l'éloignement géographique, facilite l'exercice d'un pouvoir des capitaines ouvertement personnel. Les actions menées en Italie se trouvent tout à fait différer des usages en cours lors de la guerre qui opposait la France à l'Angleterre. Depuis Charles V, en effet, les armées françaises s'étaient vues ordonner l'abandon de la charge de cavalerie au profit d'options tactiques mieux à même de contrer une infanterie adverse qui s'était signalée lors des sanglantes batailles de Crécy et de Poitiers. En Italie, au contraire, si les compagnies fleurdelysées ressemblaient par la taille à leurs homologues cisalpines, leur aspect les en faisait parfaitement différer. La prééminence est à nouveau le fait d'hommes d'armes montés. Le basculement est donc complet et rapide de la part de guerriers qui s'adaptent d'autant plus rapidement à leur nouvel ennemi que celui-ci se révèle être un fervent adepte du choc frontal, du moins lorsqu'il accepte le combat. C'est d'ailleurs un trait marquant des opérations françaises que de n'avoir que rarement produit de grandes batailles. Au vrai, les Italiens s'efforçaient le plus souvent d'éviter tout affrontement d'importance afin de tirer profit de leur établissement dans le royaume de Naples ou dans la République de Gênes. Partant, les Français organiseront leurs campagnes autour d'un objectif prioritaire, la soumission de la capitale adverse et auront donc recours à des moyens moins typiquement « chevaleresques » pour assurer le triomphe de leur cause. Si Louis Ier d'Anjou n'a visiblement pu compter que sur une faible artillerie, ceux qui, à sa suite, prirent le chemin de l'Italie ne semblent pas avoir négligé cette composante de plus en plus importante de l'art de la guerre. D'autres moyens pour emporter des places fortes furent mis en œuvre, qui tous s'éloignaient un peu plus de la morale traditionnellement défendue par cette classe sociale particulière qu'était la chevalerie. Or, ces pratiques étaient loin d'être étrangères aux capitaines royaux et ducaux. L'idée de l'honorable et pur chevalier parangon de vertu confronté à des réalités italiennes qu'il ne peut comprendre car trop ignobles ne résiste pas à l'examen attentif des faits. Les armées médiévales – de terre ou de mer – tiraient évidemment leur puissance de leur importance numérique. Par suite, ce sont les chefs de guerre à la tête des plus nombreuses compagnies qui reçurent le commandement de l'ensemble des troupes. Le recrutement en cascade – les fidèles d'un seigneur conduisant à leurs côtés certains de leurs fidèles et ainsi de suite – explique que, contrairement, une fois encore, à ce que l'on aurait pu croire, le service d'Italie ne s'est pas révélé un accélérateur de carrière chez les gens d'armes. Leur présence dépendait plus de liens personnels les unissant à un chef de guerre que de relations de service ou de vassalité les attachant au souverain commanditaire de l'entreprise. Nulle surprise donc à ce que ce dernier ne juge pas nécessaire de les récompenser à la fin de leur mission. Au contraire, ce sont les techniciens, gens de finances et de lettres, qui bénéficièrent de promotions à leur retour d'Italie. La guerre dans la Péninsule n'était qu'une étape de plus dans la carrière d'un homme d'armes alors qu'elle prouvait les capacités des « petites mains » de l'armée à affronter des situations auxquelles l'on ne pouvait se préparer. Si la délégation de pouvoir est importante, il n'en reste pas moins que l'on assiste tout au long de ces campagnes à la négation de la personnalité du capitaine dans le domaine pourtant si important des symboles politiques. L'armée demeure ainsi un instrument de pouvoir aux mains du souverain. Au-delà de l'aspect spécifiquement politico-militaire, elle exprime l'excellence de ce dernier, qu'il s'agisse des ducs d'Anjou et d'Orléans ou du roi de France, lequel prouve par le succès des armes et la qualité – sociale aussi bien qu'esthétique – de son armée la valeur et la justesse de ses prétentions. Au vrai, si c'est la noblesse qui, logiquement, compose les armées françaises et occupe les principales charges de gouvernement, elle est subjuguée par l'État qu'elle sert. Elle en retire un prestige certain mais renonce aussi, simultanément, à son indépendance. Ici encore, l'état moderne en construction se bâtit sur et grâce à une aristocratie relais des intérêts ducaux ou royaux. De la même façon, la présence de Français au sein de ces administrations locales trahit l'importance prise par les liens sociaux dans l'exercice du pouvoir et sa délégation. Ce sont leur proximité et leur amitié qui font des lieutenants du capitaine les officiers du roi. La fidélité personnelle intervient donc comme ciment d'un pouvoir étatique. La noblesse, bien qu'elle soit en Italie moins soumise au pouvoir royal en Italie qu'en France, constitue le véritable cœur de l'armée, tout comme cette dernière est le noyau de l'état princier que l'on développe outremonts grâce au cadre fourni par le modèle royal.
Przedmiotem niniejszej publikacji jest analiza przedstawień kobiecego ciała w powieściach współczesnej algierskiej pisarki, Leïli Marouane. Przez okres kolonizacji, ciało kobiety, uznawane za symbol algierskości, było przedmiotem rozgrywek politycznych pomiędzy kolonizatorem a Algierczykami, w konsekwencji czego stawała się ona ofiarą podwójnej opresji. Wychodząc z tego założenia, autorka stawia sobie za cel zbadanie, w jaki sposób współczesna maghrebska kobieta pozycjonuje się w stosunku do tego podwójnego dziedzictwa kulturowego, zaś w centrum zainteresowania znajdują się kwestie związane z cielesnością i seksualnością kobiecą. Praca składa się z dwóch części, z których pierwsza stanowi swoiste wprowadzenie w badany krąg kulturowy i poświęcona jest historii społeczno-politycznej Algierii oraz historii maghrebskiej literatury kobiecej. W drugiej części, zasadniczej, autorka skupia się na wybranej pisarce oraz jej dziele powieściowym, a następnie poddaje analizie zagadnienia cielesności i seksualności kobiecej. ; MAROUANE Leïla, 1996 : La Fille de la Casbah. Paris, Éditions Julliard. ; MAROUANE Leïla, 1998 : Ravisseur. Paris, Éditions Julliard. ; MAROUANE Leïla, 2001 : Le Châtiment des hypocrites. Paris, Éditions du Seuil. ; MAROUANE Leïla, 2005 : La Jeune Fille et la Mère. Paris, Éditions du Seuil. ; MAROUANE Leïla, 2007 : La Vie sexuelle d'un islamiste à Paris. Paris, Éditions Albin Michel. ; BORDELEAU Francine, 1998 : « L'écriture au féminin existe-t-elle ? ». Lettres qué¬bécoises : la revue de l'actualité littéraire, 92, 14–18. Disponible sur : https://www. erudit.org/culture/lq1076302/lq1185148/37885ac.pdf (consulté le 14 décembre 2015). ; CIXOUS Hélène, 1975 : « Le rire de la Méduse ». L'Arc, 61, 39–54. ; CIXOUS Hélène, 1976 : « Le sexe ou la tête ? ». Les Cahiers du GRIF, 13, 5–15. ; DIDIER Béatrice, 1981 : L'Écriture-femme. Paris, Presses universitaires de France. ; KŁOSIŃSKA Krystyna, 2010 : Feministyczna krytyka literacka. Katowice, Wy¬dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. ; LAFONTAINE Dominique, LORENT Geneviève, 1978 : « Si l'écriture des femmes ». Les Cahiers du GRIF, 23–24, 153–156. ; EL KHAYAT Rita, 2001 : Le Maghreb des femmes : les défis du XXIe siècle. Rabat, Éditions Marsam. ; EL KHAYAT Rita, 2008 : « La maternité aujourd'hui dans le monde ara¬bo-islamique. (Approche anthropologique et psycho-psychanalytique) ». Lectora: revista de dones i textualitat, 14, 31–49. ; FERHATI Barkahoum, 2007 : « Les clôtures symboliques des Algériennes : la vir¬ginité ou l'honneur social en question ». Clio. Femmes, Genre, Histoire, 26, 169– 180. Disponible sur : http://clio.revues.org/6452 (consulté le 25 avril 2014). ; FORTIER Corinne, 2010 : « Le droit musulman en pratique : genre, filiation et bioéthique ». Droit et cultures, 59, 15–40. Disponible sur : http://droitcultures. revues.org/1923 (consulté le 26 août 2014). ; HUUGHE Laurence, 2001 : Écrits sous le voile : romancières algériennes francophones, écriture et identité. Paris, Editions Publisud. ; THÉORET France, 1987 : Entre raison et déraison. Montréal, Les Herbes rouges. ; KATEB Kamel, 2011 : « Scolarisation féminine massive, système matrimonial et rapports de genre au Maghreb ». Genre, sexualité & société, 6, 979–995. ; KRÉFA Abir, 2011 : « Corps et sexualité chez les romancières tunisiennes: Enjeux de reconnaissance, coûts et effets des « transgressions ». Travail, genre et socié¬tés, 26(2), 105–128. ; LACHHEB Monia, 2012 : « Le corps voilé entre séduction et sédition. L'expé¬rience de femmes tunisiennes ». In : LACHHEB Monia (dir.) : Penser le corps au Maghreb, 171–180. Paris, Tunis, Éditions Karthala, IRMC. ; LACOSTE-DUJARDIN Camille, 1985 : Des mères contre les femmes. Maternité et pa¬triarcat au Maghreb. Paris, Éditions La Découverte. ; DETREZ Christine, 2012 : Femmes du Maghreb, une écriture à soi. Paris, Snédit La Dispute Éditeurs. ; LACOSTE-DUJARDIN Camille, 2008 : « La maternité en Islam ». Lectora: revista de dones i textualitat, 14, 13–29. ; LAGRANGE Frédéric, 2008 : Islam d'interdits, islam de jouissance. Paris, Éditions Téraèdre. ; LINANT DE BELLEFONDS Yvon, 1962 : « La répudiation dans l'Islam d'au¬jourd'hui ». In : Revue internationale de droit comparé, vol. 14, n°3, juillet–sep¬tembre 1962, 521–548. Disponible sur : https://www.persee.fr/doc/ridc_0035- 3337_1962_num_14_3_13419 (consulté le 19 avril 2014). ; MEDDEB Abdelwahab, 2009 : « La burqa et le cercle des idiots ». Le Monde, le 26 décembre 2009. Disponible sur : http://www.lemonde.fr/idees/ article/2009/12/26/la-burqa-et-le-cercle-des-idiots_1285142_3232.html (consulté le 19 avril 2014). ; MERCADER Patricia, HOUEL Annik, SOBOTA Helga, 2009 : « Le crime dit 'passionnel' : des hommes malades de l'appropriation des femmes ». Empan, 73(1), 40–51. Disponible sur : www.cairn.info/revue-empan-2009-1-page-40. htm (consulté le 10 octobre 2015). ; MERNISSI Fatima, 1983 : Sexe, idéologie, Islam. Trad. BROWER Diane, PELLETIER Anne-Marie. Paris, Éditions Tierce. ; WELTMAN-ARON Brigitte, 2015 : « 'Il y a de la différence' : Hélène Cixous et la différence sexuelle ». In : REGARD Frédéric, REID Martine (dir.) : Le rire de la Méduse. Regards critiques, 73–86. Paris, Honoré Champion Éditeur. Disponible sur : http://www.e-sorbonne.fr/sites/www.e-sorbonne.fr/files/colloque-me¬duse-en-sorbonne/Mises%20en%20ligne/3.Weltman.pdf (consulté le 7 avril 2014). ; MERNISSI Fatima, 1992 : Le Harem politique. Le Prophète et les femmes. Paris, Éditions Complexe. ; ALI BENALI Zineb, 2003 : « Le roman, cet archiviste de l'histoire ». Insaniyat, 21, 19–35. Disponible sur : http://insaniyat.revues.org/7320 (consulté le 22 no¬vembre 2015). ; ARNAUD Jacqueline, 1986 : La littérature maghrébine de langue française. Tom 1 : Origines et perspectives. Paris, Publisud. ; FEBEL Gisela, 1999 : « Préface ». In : TORRE Marie-Christine : Un Maghreb au féminin-pluriel : contexte d'un champ littéraire et analyse de deux romans contempo¬rains francophones, 9–12. Bremen, Universität Bremen. ; BAFFET Roselyne, 1999 : « Écriture de l'urgence – Urgence du lien social ». In : BONN Charles, BOUALIT Farida (dir.) : Paysages littéraires algériens des an¬nées 90 : témoigner d'une tragédie ?, 41–51. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; BENDJELID Faouzia, 2014 : « L'écriture en Algérie est tributaire de l'Histoire ». Interview accordée au quotidien algérien Liberté, le 15 avril 2014. Disponible sur : http://www.liberte-algerie.com/culture/lecriture-en-algerie-est-tribu¬taire-de-lhistoire-204191/print/1 (consulté le 30 mars 2016). ; BENDJELID Faouzia, 2017 : « La poétique du divers dans le paysage romanesque algérien actuel. Cas de quelques écrivains ». Didactiques, 10, 159–181. Dispo¬nible sur : http://www.univ-medea.dz/ldlt/web/_topic/enligne/02/dwn/12.pdf? (consulté le 18 septembre 2017). ; BONN Charles, KHADDA Naget, 1996 : « Introduction ». In : BONN Charles, KHADDA Naget, MDARHI-ALAOUI Abdallah (dir.) : Littérature maghrébine d'expression française, 5–21. Vanves, Edicef. ; BOUALIT Farida, 1999 : « La littérature algérienne des années 90 : 'Témoigner d'une tragédie ?' ». In : BONN Charles, BOUALIT Farida (dir.) : Paysages lit¬téraires algériens des années 90 : témoigner d'une tragédie ?, 25–40. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; BOUGUERRA Mohamed Ridha, BOUGUERRA Sabiha, 2010 : Histoire de la litté¬rature du Maghreb. Paris, Éditions Ellipses. ; CHEURFI Achour, 2004 : Écrivains algériens : dictionnaire biographique. Alger, Cas¬bah éditions. ; DUGAS Guy, 2001 : « Dix ans de littérature maghrébine en langue française ». Notre librairie, Revue des littératures du Sud, 146, 60–65. Disponible sur : www. berberemultimedia.fr/litterature/jeune%20liitt%20maghreb.rtf (consulté le 22 novembre 2015). ; FISHER Dominique, 2008 : Écrire l'urgence, Assia Djebar et Tahar Djaout. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; GHALEM Nadia, 2004 : « Le Maghreb ». In : NDIAYE Christiane (dir.) : Intro¬duction aux littératures francophones, 197–267. Montréal, Presses de l'Université de Montréal. ; FONTAINE Jean, 1994 : Écrivaines tunisiennes. Tunis, Éditions Gai Savoir. ; GOES Jan, 2002 : « Littératures francophones du monde arabe ». Romaniac, 86, 20–31. Disponible sur : http://www.vlrom.be/pdf/022goes.pdf (consulté le 29 décembre 2011). ; GOES Jan, 2003 : « Littératures francophones du monde arabe – 2 – La littérature beur ». Romaniac, 90, 2–8. Disponible sur : http://www.vlrom.be/pdf/032goes2. pdf (consulté le 2 octobre 2011). ; MILIANI Hadj, 2002 : Une littérature en sursis ? Le champ littéraire de langue fran¬çaise en Algérie. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; MOKHTARI Rachid, 2006 : Le nouveau souffle du roman algérien. Essai sur la litté¬rature des années 2000. Alger, Chihab Éditions. ; NOIRAY Jacques, 1996 : Littératures francophones. I. Le Maghreb. Paris, Éditions Belin. ; SALHA Habib, 2000 : « Une écriture exaltée : l'exemple de la littérature maghré¬bine de langue française ». In : SALHA Habib (dir.) : La Tentation du divers. Mélanges offerts au Professeur Abdelkader Mhiri, 177–186. Tunis, Publications de l'E.N.S. ; SOUHEKAL Rabah, 2003 : Le roman algérien de langue française, 1950–1990. Paris, Publisud. ; BARRADA Samia, 2007 : « La nouvelle féminine arabe ou les petites filles de Shérazade ». Synergies Monde arabe, 4, 91–102. ; BEKRI Tahar, 1999 : « Femmes écrivains de Tunisie ». In : BEKRI Tahar : De la littérature tunisienne et maghrébine, et autres textes, 31–41. Paris, L'Harmattan. ; BENAMARA Nasser, 2010 : Pratiques d'écritures de femmes algériennes des années 90. Cas de Malika Mokkedem (thèse de doctorat). Béjaïa, Université Abderrahmane Mira. ; GARCÍA VERDÚ Lydia, 2007 : « Redouane, Najib (2006) 'Écritures féminines au Maroc. Continuité et évolution' », Francofonía, 16, 262–268. ; BOUHASSOUNE Farida, 2000 : « La littérature marocaine féminine de langue française : la quête de nouvelles valeurs ». Littératures Frontalières, X,2, 47–53. ; BRAHIMI Denise. 1996 : « Sebbar, Leïla ». In : MAKWARD Christiane P., COTTENET-HAGE Madeleine (dir.) : Dictionnaire littéraire des femmes de langue française : de Marie de France à Marie Ndiaye, 553–556. Paris, Éditions Karthala-ACCT. ; BUENO ALONSO Josefina, 2004 : « Femme, identité, écriture dans les textes francophones du Maghreb ». Thélème. Revista Complutense de Estudios Franceses, 19, 7–20. ; CHAULET-ACHOUR Christiane, 1991 : « Femmes-écrivains d'Algérie. Corps, gestes, mémoires ». In : TOSO RODONIS Giuliana (dir.) : Le Banquet maghré¬bin, 37–57. Roma, Mario Bulzoni. ; CHAULET-ACHOUR Christiane (réd.), 1991 : Diwan d'inquiétude et d'espoir. La littérature féminine algérienne de langue française. Alger, ENAG. ; CHAULET-ACHOUR Christiane, 1998 : Noûn : Algériennes dans l'écriture. Biarritz, Atlantica. ; CHAULET-ACHOUR Christiane, 2000 : « Les stratégies génériques des écri¬vaines algériennes (1947–1999) conformités et innovations ». Palabres, Revue d'Études Africaines, III,1, 233–245. ; CHAULET-ACHOUR Christiane, 2003 : « Algérie – Littérature des femmes. Leur pesant de mots ». In : Europe, n° hors série : Algérie – Littérature et arts, 96–110. Disponible sur : http://christianeachour.net/images/data/telechargements/ articles/A_0133.pdf (consulté le 23 septembre 2015). ; DÉJEUX Jean, 1989 : « La littérature féminine de langue française au Maghreb ». Itinéraires et contacts de cultures, 10, 145–153. ; DÉJEUX Jean, 1994 : La littérature féminine de langue française au Maghreb. Paris, Éditions Karthala. ; GHEDIRA Aïcha, 2003 : « Le roman féminin tunisien d'expression française ». Littératures Frontalières, 26, spécial : Littérature maghrébine : interactions cultu¬relles et méditerranée, vol.3, 187–204. Disponible sur : http://www.openstarts. units.it/dspace/bitstream/10077/7017/1/Ghedira_LF_2003_2.pdf (consulté le 25 septembre 2015). ; DETREZ Christine, 2010 : « L'écriture comme résistance quotidienne : être écrivaine en Algérie et au Maroc aujourd'hui ». Sociétés contemporaines, 78(2), 65–85. Disponible sur : http:// www.cairn.info/revue-societes-contempo¬raines-2010-2-p-65.htm (consulté le 18 août 2015). ; LIMAM-TNANI Najet. 2013. : « Bouraoui, Nina ». In : DIDIER Béatrice, FOUQUE Antoinette, CALLE-GRUBER Mireille (dir.) : Le dictionnaire universel des créa¬trices, vol. 1, 619–620. Paris, Éditions des femmes. ; MOHAMMEDI-TABTI Bouba, 2003 : « Regard sur la littérature féminine algé¬rienne ». Algérie Littérature / Action, 69–70, 109–122. Disponible sur : http:// www.revues-plurielles.org/_uploads/pdf/4_69_11.pdf (consulté le 18 août 2015). ; MOSTEGHANEMI Ahlem, 1985 : Algérie : femme et écritures. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; NAHLOVSKY Anne-Marie, 2010 : La femme au livre : les écrivaines algériennes de langue française. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; REDOUANE Najib, 2006 : Écritures féminines au Maroc. Continuité et évolution. Pa¬ris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; HADDAB Zoubida, 1999 : « En Algérie ». Clio. Histoire' femmes et sociétés, 9. Dispo¬nible sur : http://clio.revues.org/639 (consulté le 24 novembre 2014). ; SCHUCHARDT Beatrice, 2010 : « La langue de la chair comme lieu de rencontre de l'altérité dans Les Nuits de Strasbourg d'Assia Djebar ». In : DE TORO Alfonso, ZEKRI Khalid, BENSMAÏA Réda (dir.) : Repenser le Maghreb et l'Europe : hybri¬dations, métissages, diasporisations, 183–200. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; SEGARRA MONTANER Marta, 1996 : « Stratégies narratives et identité chez les romancières maghrébines ». In : MARTINEZ Jeronimo, PALACIOS Concep¬cion, SAURA Alfonso (éds) : Aproximaciones diversas al texto literario, 215–222. Murcia, Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Murcia. ; SEGARRA Marta, 1997 : Leur pesant de poudre : romancières francophones du Maghreb. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; SEGARRA Marta, 2002 : « Le roman féminin en Algérie ». Littératures Frontalières, 24, spécial : Littérature maghrébine : interactions culturelles et méditerranée, vol. 1, 255–267. Disponible sur : https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/6997/1/ Segarra_LF_2002_2.pdf (consulté le 25 août 2015). ; SEGARRA Marta, 2010 : Nouvelles romancières francophones du Maghreb. Paris, Éditions Karthala. ; VAN DEVENTER Rachel, 2010 : L'Agentivité et la naissance de la femme-sujet dans la littérature algérienne contemporaine (thèse de doctorat). Université d'Ottawa. Disponible sur: https://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/20069/3/Van_ Deventer_Rachel_2010_these.pdf (consulté le 18 août 2015). ; EL NOSSERY Névine, 2012 : Témoignages fictionnels au féminin. Une réécriture des blancs de la guerre civile algérienne. Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi. ; EPSZTEIN Pierrette, 1997 : « Vient de paraître : «La fille de la Casbah» ». Algérie Littérature / Action, 7–8, 189–191. Disponible sur : http://www.revues-plurielles. org/_uploads/pdf/4_7_23.pdf (consulté le 4 janvier 2013). ; LONGOU Schahrazède, 2009 : Violence et rébellion chez trois romancières de l'Algérie contemporaine (Maïssa Bey, Malika Mokeddem et Leila Marouane) (thèse de doctorat). University of Iowa. Disponible sur : http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=1586&context=etd (consulté le 27 août 2013). ; MERTZ-BAUMGARTNER Birgit, 2001 : « La violence et son contrepoids es¬thétique dans Ravisseur de Leïla Marouane ». In : BECHTER-BURTSCHER Beate, MERTZ-BAUMGARTNER Birgit (dir.), Subversion du réel : Stratégies esthétiques dans la littérature algérienne contemporaine, 185–196. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; HELLER Michel, 1990 : « Femmes au Maghreb ». Cahier d'études maghrébines, 2 : Littérature algérienne de femmes, 13–21. Köln, Romanisches Seminar der Uni¬versität Köln. ; MERTZ-BAUMGARTNER Birgit, 2003 : « 'Algérie sang-écriture' (A. Djebar) : violence et écriture(s) dans la littérature algérienne contemporaine ». Fran¬cofonía, 12, 93–108. Cadiz, Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Cádiz. ; MERTZ-BAUMGARTNER Birgit, 2009 : « Leïla Marouane ou l'Art de la provo¬cation ». In : REDOUANE Najib (dir.) : Diversité littéraire en Algérie, 207–220. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; MOKHTARI Rachid, 2011 : « Leïla Marouane : la langue d'une femme libre ». Le Matin DZ, le 19 octobre 2011. Disponible sur : http://www.lematindz.net/ news/5893-leila-Marouane-la-langue-dune-femme-libre.html (consulté le 19 août 2014).214 ; REDOUANE Rabia, 2006 : « Reseña de La Jeune Fille et la Mère de Leïla Marouane ». Francofonía, 15, 275–277. ; TEMLALI Yacine, 2007 : « La vie sexuelle d'un islamiste à Paris de Leïla Marouane », le 8 octobre 2007. Disponible sur : http://www.babelmed.net/article/2234-la-vie-sexuelle-dun-islamiste-a-paris-de-leila-marouane (consulté le 5 janvier 2013). ; VAN DER POEL Ieme, 2001 : « Leila Marouane et Rachid Boudjedra : le ro¬man franco-algérien entre farce et tragédie ». In : BECHTER-BURTSCHER Beate, MERTZ-BAUMGARTNER Birgit (dir.) : Subversion du réel : Stratégies esthétiques dans la littérature algérienne contemporaine, 173–183. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; YACINE Rémi, 2007 : « Leïla Marouane : sans chaînes ni maître », interview avec Leïla MAROUANE. El Watan, le 13 août 2007. Disponible sur : https://www. elwatan.com/archives/france-actu-archives/leila-marouane-sans-chaines-ni-maitre-13-08-2007 (consulté le 5 janvier 2013). ; YACINE Rémi, 2009 : « Le bilan des femmes est triste mais la lutte ne doit pas s'arrêter », interview avec Leïla MAROUANE. El Watan, le 11 mai 2009. Disponible sur : https://www.elwatan.com/archives/entretien/le-bilan-des-femmes-est-triste-mais-la-lutte-ne-doit-pas-sarreter-11-05-2009 (consulté le 5 janvier 2013). ; YACINE Rémi, 2013 : « Leila Marouane-Mechentel. Écrivaine : 'J'ai embrassé le tarmac, c'était bon' », interview avec Leïla MAROUANE. El Watan, le 11 juin 2013. Disponible sur : https://www.elwatan.com/archives/france-actu-achives/ leila-marouane-mechentel-ecrivaine-jai-embrasse-le-tarmac-cetait-bon-11- 06-2013#main-content-section (consulté le 18 janvier 2019). ; AGERON Charles-Robert, 1999 : Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine. Paris, Presses universitaires de France. ; HOURIA Sadou, 2007 : « Scolarisation – Travail et Genre en Algérie ». Afrique et développement, XXXII,3, 121–130. Disponible sur : http://www.ajol.info/index. php/ad/article/viewFile/ 57205/45594 (consulté le 19 janvier 2015). ; ALGÉRIE PRESSE SERVICE, 2019 : « Présidentielle du 12 décembre : premiers résultats préliminaires du scrutin », le 13 décembre 2019. Disponible sur : http://www.aps.dz/algerie/98918-presidentielle-du-12-decembre-premiers-resultats-preliminaires-du-scrutin (consulté le 13 décembre 2019). ; ALILAT Farid, 2014 : « Algérie : Bouteflika, un 4e mandat pour quoi faire ? ». Jeune Afrique, le 25 avril 2014. Disponible sur : http://www.jeuneafrique.com/133685/ politique/alg-rie-bouteflika-un-4e-mandat-pour-quoi-faire/ (consulté le 2 janvier 2015). ; DRIS Cherif, 2012 : « La nouvelle loi organique sur l'information de 2012 en Algérie : vers un ordre médiatique néo-autoritaire ? ». L'Année du Maghreb, VIII, Dossier : Un printemps arabe ?, 303–320. Disponible sur : http://anneema¬ghreb.revues.org/1506 (consulté le 1er août 2014). ; DRIS Nassima, 2005 : « Habiter le patrimoine : monde en marge et identité ur¬baine. La Casbah d'Alger ou le refuge des exclus ». In : GRAVARI-BARBAS Maria (dir.) : Habiter le patrimoine. Enjeux, approches, vécu, 93–104. Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes. ; ÉTIENNE Bruno, 1977 : L'Algérie, cultures et révolution. Paris, Éditions du Seuil. ; KHELIFI Ghania, 2008 : « Violences contre les femmes en Algérie : un calvaire qui n'en finit pas », le 17 avril 2008. Disponible sur : http://www.babelmed. net/cultura-e-societa/98-algeria/3150-violences-contre-les-femmes-en-alg-rie-un-calvaire-qui-n-en-finit-pas.html (consulté le 13 janvier 2015). ; LACOSTE Camille et Yves (dir.), 1994 : L'État du Maghreb. Paris, Éditions La Découverte. ; Loi n° 84-11 du 9 juin 1984 portant code de la famille (JORA N° 24 du 12/06/1984). Disponible sur : https://www.joradp.dz/TRV/FFam.pdf (consulté le 22 novembre 2014). ; MAHIEDDIN Nahas M., 2007 : « L'évolution du droit de la famille en Algérie : nouveautés et modifications apportées par la loi du 4 mai 2005 au Code al¬gérien de la famille du 9 juin 1984 ». L'Année du Maghreb, II, Dossier : Femmes, famille et droit, 97–137. Disponible sur : http://anneemaghreb. revues.org/93 (consulté le 18 mai 2014). ; MELLAH Salima, 2004 : « Les droits de l'Homme dans la crise politique algé¬rienne ». Confluences Méditerranée, 51(4), 11–22. Disponible sur : www.cairn. info/revue-confluences-mediterranee-2004-4-page-11.htm (consulté le 5 avril 2015). ; IMACHE Djedjiga, NOUR Ines, 1994 : Algériennes entre islam et islamisme. Aix-en- Provence, Éditions Edisud. ; MONTAGNON Pierre, 2012 : Histoire de l'Algérie. Des origines à nos jours. Paris, Édi¬tions Pygmalion. ; RABIA Said, 2011 : « Que reste-t-il du "printemps algérien" ? ». El Watan, le 13 octobre 2011. Disponible sur : http://www.courrierinternational.com/ aticle/2011/10/13/que-reste-t-il-du-printemps-algerien (consulté le 30 juillet 2014). ; Rapport annuel 1998–1999 du Collectif 95 Maghreb Égalité : « Maghrébines entre violences symboliques et violences physiques : Algérie, Maroc, Tunisie ». Disponible sur : http://www.retelilith.it/ee/host/maghreb/htm/magh9.htm (consulté le 28 février 2016). ; RIDHA Khaled, 2014 : Le Capitalisme, l'Islam et le socialisme. Paris, Éditions Publibook. ; Statuts du Parti du Front de libération nationale 1980. Disponible sur : http://www. vitaminedz.com/ articlesfiche/1195/1195595.pdf (consulté le 22 novembre 2014). ; STORA Benjamin, 2004 : Histoire de l'Algérie depuis l'indépendance (1962–1988). Paris, Éditions La Découverte. ; ANDREZ Emmanuelle, 2001 : « Une reconnaissance de fait de la répudiation ? ». Plein droit, 51(4), 14–16. Disponible sur : www.cairn.info/revue-plein-droit- 2001-4-page-14.htm (consulté le 16 février 2016). ; BARSKA Anna, 2012 : Świat kobiet w krajach Maghrebu. Wokół tradycji i nowoczesności. Opole, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. ; BEN ACHOUR Sana, 2007 : « Le Code tunisien du statut personnel, 50 ans après : les dimensions de l'ambivalence ». L'Année du Maghreb, II, 55–70. Dis¬ponible sur : http://anneemaghreb.revues.org/89 (consulté le 18 janvier 2015). ; GRABA Ghania, HADDAB Zoubida, 2007 : « Femmes-objets ou femmes-sujets : les enjeux du Code de la famille en Algérie ». In : SOW-SIDIBÉ Amsatou, BADJI Mamadou, MBONDA Ernest-Marie, OTIS Ghislain (dir.) : Genres, iné¬galités et religion, 37–48. Paris, Éditions des archives contemporaines. ; JURQUET-BOUHOUNE Baya, JURQUET Jacques, 2007 : Femmes algériennes. De la Kahina au Code de la famille. Pantin, Le Temps des Cerises Éditeur. ; GUILMOTO Christophe Z., 2015 : « La masculinisation des naissances. État des lieux et des connaissances ». Population, 70(2), 201–264. Disponible sur : www. cairn.info/revue-population-2015-2-page-201.htm (consulté le 25 février 2016). ; LALAMI Feriel, 2012 : Les Algériennes contre le code de la famille. La lutte pour l'égalité. Paris, Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques. ; LALAMI Feriel, 2013 : « Le combat des Algériennes pour un nouveau code de la famille, entre féminisme et syndicalisme ». Interview aaccordée à Camille Sarret pour TV5 Monde, le 15 avril 2013. Disponible sur : http://information. tv5monde.com/terriennes/le-combat-des-algeriennes-pour-un-nouveau-code-de-la-famille-entre-feminisme-et (consulté le 22 novembre 2014).217 ; LAMCHICHI Abderrahim, 1991 : Femmes et Islam : l'impératif universel d'égalité. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; LAMCHICHI Abderrahim, 2006 : « Une bataille ardente et obstinée ». Confluences Méditerranée, 59(4), 11–21. Disponible sur : www.cairn.info/revue-confluences-mediterranee-2006-4-page-11.htm (consulté le 18 décembre 2014). ; PRUVOST Lucie, 2002 : Femmes d'Algérie. Société, famille et citoyenneté. Alger, Édi¬tions Casbah. ; SAINT-MARTIN Lori, 1997 : Contre-voix. Essais de critique au féminin. Québec, Nuit blanche. ; REBZANI Mohammed, 1997 : La vie familiale des femmes algériennes salariées. Paris, Éditions L'Harmattan. ; SAÏDI Kamel, 2006 : « La réforme du droit algérien de la famille : pérennité et rénovation ». Revue internationale de droit comparé, 58–1, 119–152. ; SURKIS Judith, 2010 : « Propriété, polygamie et statut personnel en Algérie co¬loniale, 1830–1873 ». Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle, 41, 27–48. Disponible sur : http://rh19.revues. org/4041 (consulté le 7 janvier 2014). ; ABBASSI Zohra, 2012 : « La position du corps dans la doctrine musulmane ». In : LACHHEB Monia (dir.) : Penser le corps au Maghreb, 153–169. Paris, Tunis, Éditions Karthala, IRMC. ; AÏT SABBAH Fatna [pseudonyme de Fatima MERNISSI], 2010 : La femme dans l'inconscient musulman. Paris, Éditions Albin Michel. ; ALIX Florian, 2014 : « Isabelle Charpentier. Le Rouge aux joues. Virginité, inter¬dits sexuels et rapports de genre au Maghreb ». Afrique contemporaine, 250(2), 135–137. Disponible sur : www.cairn.info/revue-afrique-contemporaine-2014- 2-page-135.htm (consulté le 6 décembre 2015). ; AOUATTAH Ali, 2007 : « De quelques résistances à la pratique psychanalytique dans la culture arabo-musulmane ». Cahiers de psychologie clinique, 29(2), 161– 191. Disponible sur : www.cairn.info/revue-cahiers-de-psychologie-clinique- 2007-2-page-161.htm (consulté le 13 décembre 2015). ; BENGHRIBIL Chams, 1999 : « La décomposition sociale du djihad dans un quar¬tier populaire d'Alger ». Annuaire de l'Afrique du Nord, XXXVIII, 137–147. Paris, Éditions du CNRS. ; BENKHEIRA Mohammed H., 1997 : L'amour de la loi. Essai sur la normativité en islam. Paris, Presses universitaires de France. ; BOUHDIBA Abdelwahab, 1982 : La sexualité en Islam. Paris, Presses universitaires de France. ; SLAMA Béatrice, 1981 : « De la 'littérature féminine' à 'l'écrire-femme' : différence et institution ». Littérature, 44, 51–71. Disponible sur : http://www.persee.fr/ doc/litt_0047-4800_1981_num_44_4_1361 (consulté le 16 octobre 2015). ; BOULARD Claude, 1976 : « Islam et sexualité ». Études, 344(3), 463–465. ; BOURDIEU Pierre, 1972 : Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique, précédé de Trois études d'ethnologie kabyle. Genève, Paris, Droz. ; BOURDIEU, Pierre, 1998a : La domination masculine. Paris, Éditions du Seuil. ; BOUTIRA Elisabeth, 1993 : « Voile, Maghreb et amour ». Cahiers ethnologiques, 15 : L'amour, 25–31. ; BOZON Michel, 1999 : « Les significations sociales des actes sexuels ». Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, 128, 3–23. ; BRION Fabienne, 2004 : « Introduction ». In : BRION Fabienne (éd) : Féminité, minorité, islamité : questions à propos du hijab, 7–16. Louvain-La-Neuve, Acade¬mia Bruylant. ; CEBULA Magdalena, 2015 : "Kobieta a seksualność w kulturze muzułmańskiej i w dyskursie o Islamie". In: JĘDRZEJEWSKI Przemysław, SZLĘZAK Karolina, SZUSTER Gabriel (red.) : Ciało, seksualność, pornografia – kontekst historyczny, 21–35. Kraków, Wydawnictwo Kasper. ; CHARPENTIER Isabelle, 2012a : « Les nouveaux habits du tabou de la virgi¬nité féminine en Algérie : oeuvres et témoignages d'écrivaines algériennes et franco-algériennes d'expression française ». Autrepart, 61 : Les nouvelles figures de l'émancipation féminine, 59–80. ; CHARPENTIER Isabelle, 2012b : « Rituel de protection de la virginité féminine et nuit de sang dans la littérature (franco-) algérienne ». In : LACHHEB Monia (dir.) : Penser le corps au Maghreb, 201–214. Paris, Tunis, Éditions Karthala, IRMC. ; CHARPENTIER Isabelle, 2013 : Le rouge aux joues : virginité, interdits sexuels et rapports de genre au Maghreb : une étude d'oeuvres et de témoignages d'écrivaines (franco)-algériennes et (franco)-marocaines d'expression française. Saint-Étienne, Publications de l'université de Saint-Étienne. ; STISTRUP JENSEN Merete, 2000 : « La notion de nature dans les théories de l''écriture féminine' ». Clio. Femmes, Genre, Histoire, 11, 165–177. Disponible sur : http://clio.revues. Org/218 (consulté le 15 mars 2014). ; CHARPENTIER Isabelle, 2015 : « De la difficulté (sexuelle) d'être une femme célibataire au Maghreb : une étude de témoignages et d'oeuvres d'écrivaines algériennes et marocaines ». Modern & Contemporary France, 23–4, 435–455. Disponible sur : http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09639489.2015 .1037726 (consulté le 15 novembre 2015). ; CHEBEL Malek, 2002 : « Sexualité, pouvoir et problématique du sujet en islam ». Confluences Méditerranée, 41(2), 47–63. Disponible sur : http://www.cairn.info/ revue-confluences-mediterranee-2002-2-page-47.htm (consulté le 17 mai 2014). ; CHEBEL Malek, 2003 : L'esprit de sérail. Mythes et pratiques sexuels au Maghreb. Paris, Éditions Payot et Rivages. ; CHEBEL Malek, 2012 : L'Islam, de chair et de sang. Paris, Éditions Flammarion. ; DENIEUIL Pierre-Noël, 2012 : « Avant-propos ». In : LACHHEB Monia (dir.) : Penser le corps au Maghreb, 9–11. Paris, Tunis, Éditions Karthala, IRMC.
This paper will first define the words and terms applicable to the topic of light infantry that appear in eighteenth-century literature so that there is an understanding of how an eighteenth-century soldier conceived of warfare. After establishing this connection, this paper will follow a chronological chain of events that focuses on the creation of regular light infantry in European armies in Europe and North America from the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) until the beginning of the Revolutionary War (1740-1775), how those events influenced Washington, the first use of light troops during the Revolutionary War, and how the Continental light infantry developed through the war. This paper will not delve into the intricacies of battles because historians have well-examined the few notable battles involving the Continental light infantry. However, this paper will draw from battles the tactics that highlight the regular and irregular methods used by the light infantry and highlight details from campaigns and battles that depict how Washington and other leaders employed the light infantry. This paper argues that Washington recognized that trained, properly equipped, and competently led light infantry was more effective against regular and irregular enemies, rather than other American irregular light troops that often proved ineffective against those same enemies. Washington based his decision first, by drawing from his military experiences on the North American frontier, and second from European theory and practical application of regular light infantry forces in European armies. ; Master of Arts in Military History ; "The Picked Corps of the American Army": The Light Infantry of the Continental ArmyBrian K. GerringA paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for theMaster of Arts in Military HistoryNorwich UniversityMH 562D Capstone PaperDr. John RocheAugust 23, 2020 Gerring 1This position is only twenty miles from New York island; and was accordingly occupied by the van guard, consisting of light infantry; that is to say, the picked corps of the American army.—Marquis de Chastellux, Travels in North-AmericaThe history of the War of American Independence is replete with studies of military campaigns, leaders, weapons, and tactics. Historians frequently focus on particularmilitary units that have becomeingrained into American folklore concerning the war, such as the minutemenmilitia or Daniel Morgan's riflemen. Even the broadtopicof the Continental Army receives an adequate amount of scholarly consideration. However, one element within the army's structure that does not receive significant attention is the light infantry. Writing in 1900, Henry Johnston noted this absence of research concerning the Continental light infantry, concluding that "our books contain little about them."1In 1926, John Wrightsimilarly noted that the Continental light infantry suffered from scholarly neglect.2There has been minimal scholarly research into the Continental light infantry nearly a century later. When scholars do mention the Continental light infantry, they relegate those forces to a paragraph or two containing some form of exposition.This paper will begin to fill that scholarly voidby providing abroad overview of the history of the Continental light infantry.The inattention from historians towards theContinental light infantry likely stems from the seemingly insignificant role these forces played in the Revolutionary War's overall outcome.While onlybriefly touching on that topic, this paper arguesthat the Continental light infantry did fulfill a unique role for the army during the war. The Continental light infantry wasso unique that John Wright assessed them asthe first elite unit created within the regular American army 1Henry P. Johnston, The Storming of Stony Point (New York: James T. White, 1900), 68.2John W. Wright, "The Corps of Light Infantry in the Continental Army," The American Historical Review31, no. 3 (1926): 461. Gerring 52perception proved that the regular light infantry wassuddenly the preeminentelite force within the Continental Army.Wayne also advocated for a distinct uniform for the light infantry, which again indicatestheir status as elite troops. Contemporary troops considered as elite wore something unique, either headgear or uniforms—the most notable examples were the tall grenadier caps covered in bear fur and leather helmets of the British dragoons and light infantry.252Wayne wrote to Washington,expressing that as the commander of the corps, he should "have it in our power to Introduce Uniformity among the Light Corps belonging to the Respective States, andInfuse a Laudable pride and Emulation into the Whole."253He further concluded that the light infantry should have:an Elegant Uniform & Soldierly appearance—so much so that I would much rather risque my life and Reputation at the Head of the same men in an attack Clothed & Appointed as I could wish, with a Single Charge of Amunition—than to take them as they appear in Common with Sixty Rounds of Cartridges.254However, Washington opposed the outfitting of the light infantry with distinctive uniforms, noting that "the Light Infantry being only considered as detachments from the line ought to bear the uniform of the Regiments from which they are taken."255Despite this, Wayne did order the light infantry under his command to adorn their caps with hair, which was not a regular standard for the army's headgear.256252Cuthbertson's suggestion that light infantry should wear "jackets made from old coats . . . and snug little caps composed from old hats, and the pairing of the coat skirts" is evident in the British light infantry uniforms during the Revolutionary War. Bennett Cuthbertson, Cuthbertson's System for Management for the Complete Interior of a Battalion of Infantry, rev. ed. (Bristol: Rouths and Nelson, 1776), 190-191.253"From Brigadier General Anthony Wayne," July 4, 1779, Fort Montgomery, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-21-02-0289[accessed 28 Jun 2020].254Ibid. 255"To Brigadier General Anthony Wayne," September 14, 1779, West Point, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-22-02-0353[accessed 28 Jun 2020].256Robert Gamble, "The Orderly Book of Captain Robert Gamble[. . .]," in Collections of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society[. . .] (Richmond: T. W. White, 1833), 256. Gerring 53Congruent with the light infantry under Wayne in the main army was the light infantry operating with MajorGeneral John Sullivan. Washington tasked Sullivan to engage and destroy most of the Indians of the Six Nations, including any Tory allies and any British troops,in western New Yorkin late spring of 1779. Washington originally devised that a quarter of the troops participating in this campaign would "harrass and distract the enemy, and create diversions, in favor of the principal operation," which are known aspects of lapetite guerre.257However, Washington's later conception of the campaign involved Sullivan operating in the irregular tactics of the Indians, coupled with regular tactics. Washington suggested to Sullivan:as general rules ought to govern your operations—to make rather than receive attacks attended with as much impetuosity, shouting and noise as possible, and to make the troops act in a loose and dispersed a way as is consistent with a proper degree of government concert and mutual support—It should be previously impressed on the upon the minds of the men when ever they have an opportunity, to rush on with the warhoop and fixed bayonet—Nothing will disconcert the Indians more than this.258This reflects that Washington relied on his experiences because he understood howto engage and defeat Indians using proven combat-tested methods. Sullivan began his campaign on June 18, 1779 after months of extensive preparations. During Sullivan's Expedition, there was a designated light corps composed of various troops under the command of BrigadierGeneral Edward Hand.259Some of these troops were regular light infantry companies. Captain Leonard Bleeker—the Major of the Brigade for BrigadierGeneral James Clinton—records that each of the four regular regiments in Clinton's brigadehad 257"To Major General Horatio Gates," March 6, 1779, Middlebrook, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-19-02-0391[accessed 07Jun 2020].258"To Major General John Sullivan," May 31, 1779, Middlebrook, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-20-02-0661[accessed 07Jun 2020].259Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,164; Adam Hubley to Hand, June 22, 1779, Sunbury, in Linn and Egle, Pennsylvania in the War, 2:11. Gerring 54light infantry companies.260Bleeker notes that these light infantry companies operated in conjunction with riflemen under Hand.261Therefore, these light infantry soldiers operated more in-line with the light troops at Saratoga, which were a combination of riflemen and designated light infantry troops. It is unlikely these light infantry troops receivedthe same training as Wayne's troops because the two bodies of troops were separate from each otherand Wayne was actively conducting operationsduring Sullivan's Expedition. Despite this, Hand's corps did containsome troops with experiencein light operations, such as some remnants of Morgan's Regiment.262During movement, Hand's light corps acted as the forward element, staying a mile in front of Sullivan's troops.263If attacked on the move, the light corps acted as a maneuver element to either surround the enemy or move through the regular troop formation to form a rear-guard.264The light corps routinely operated well in advance and detached from the main force.265Due to their ability to move quickly, Hand's light corps also operated as a quick reaction force.266On one occasion after Sullivan's troops repelled an ambush, the light infantry chased the fleeing Indians three miles.267On August 13, Hand led a portion of the light infantry in advance of the armyoutside the village of Chemung; Indians ambushed this force, and the light 260Leonard Bleeker, The Order Book of Captain Leonard Bleeker, Major of Brigade[. . .] (New York: Joseph Sabin, 1865), 104-105, 128. The Major of the Brigade was the Brigade Inspector, which operated under the auspice of the Continental Army's Inspector General, see Bleeker, Order Book,11-12. The four regiments under Clinton were the 3rd, 4th, 5th New York, and the 7th Massachusetts, see Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,165n28. 261Bleeker, Order Book, 128.262Richard B. LaCrosse, Revolutionary Rangers: Daniel Morgan's Riflemen and Their Role on the Northern Frontier, 1778-1783(Westminster, MD: Heritage Books, 2007), 46-48, 119.263Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,165.264Ibid., 166-168.265Linn and Egle, Pennsylvania in the War, 2:17.266Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,186; Adam Hubley, "Journal of Lieutenant-Colonel Adam Hubley," in Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, ed. Frederick Cook (Auburn, NY: Knapp, Peck, Thomson, 1887), 150.267Ibid., 178. Gerring 75Martin, James Kirby and Mark Edward Lender. "A Respectable Army:" The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763-1789. 3rd ed. West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons, 2015.Massey, Gregory D. John Laurens and the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000.Paret, Peter. Yorck and the Era of Prussian Reform, 1807-1815. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966.Peterson, Harold L. Arms and Armor in Colonial America, 1526-1783. New York: Bramhall House, 1956.———. The Book of the Continental Soldier. Harrisburg: StackpoleBooks, 1968.Phelps, Glenn A. "The Republican General." In George Washington Reconsidered, edited by Don Higginbotham, 165-197. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001.Posey, John Thornton. General Thomas Posey: Son of the American Revolution. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1992.Preston, David L. Braddock's Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.Prucha, Francis Paul. The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier, 1783-1846. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969.Rogers, H. C. B. The British Army of the Eighteenth Century. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1977.Ross, Steven T. From Flintlock to Rifle: Infantry Tactics, 1740-1866. 2nd ed. London: Frank Cass, 1996.Showalter, Dennis. Frederick the Great: A Military History. London: Pen & Sword Books, 2012.Spring, Matthew H. With Zeal and Bayonets Only: The British Army on Campaign in North America, 1775-1783. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.Steele, Ian K. Guerillas and Grenadiers: The Struggle for Canada, 1689-1760. Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1969.Stillé, Charles J. Major-General Anthony Wayne and the Pennsylvania Line in the Continental Army. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1893.Strachan, Hew. European Armies and the Conduct of War. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1983. Gerring 76Taaffe, Stephen R. Washington's Revolutionary War Generals. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.Urban, William. Bayonets and Scimitars: Arms, Armies and Mercenaries 1700–1789. London: Frontline Books, 2013.Urwin, Gregory J. W. The United States Infantry: An Illustrated History 1775-1918. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1991.Ward, Harry M. When Fate Summons: A Biography of Richard Butler, 1743-1791. Bethesda: Academica Press, 2014.Wright, Robert K. The Continental Army. Washington, DC: Center of Military History United States Army, 1983.Wulff, Matt. Ranger: North American Frontier Soldier. Westminster, MD: Heritage Books, 2008.Secondary Sources: JournalsBirtle, Andrew J. "The Origins of the Legion of the United States." The Journal of Military History67, no. 4 (2003): 1249-1262.Buchan, Bruce."Pandours, Partisans, and Petite Guerre: The Two Dimensions of Enlightenment Discourse on War." Intellectual History Review23, no. 3 (2013):329-347.Carroll, Brian D. ""Savages" in the Service of Empire: Native American Soldiers in Gorham's Rangers, 1744-1762." The New England Quarterly85, no. 3 (2012): 383-429.Danckert, Stephen C. "A Genius for Training Baron von Steuben and the Training of the Continental Army." Army History, no. 17 (1990/1991): 7-10.Hall, John W. "An Irregular Reconsideration of George Washington and the American Military Tradition." The Journal of Military History 78 (2014): 961-993.Heuser, Beatrice. "Small Wars in the Age of Clausewitz: The Watershed Between Partisan War and People's War." Journal of Strategic Studies33, no. 1 (2010): 139-162.Kite, Elizabeth S. "Lafayette and His Companions on the "Victoire"." Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 45, no. 1(1934): 1-32.Laqueur, Walter. "The Origins of Guerrilla Doctrine." Journal of Contemporary History10, no. 3 (1975): 341-382.Lovett, Gabriel H. "The Semantic Evolution of Spanish "Guerilla"." Romance Notes10, no. 1 (1968): 186-195. Gerring 77Mahon, John K. "Anglo-American Methods of Indian Warfare, 1676-1794." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45, no. 2 (1958): 254-275.McCulloch, Ian. ""Within Ourselves": The Development of British Light Infantry in North America during the Seven Years' War." Canadian Military History7, no. 2 (2012): 41-55.Nicolai, Martin L. "A Different Kind of Courage: The French Military and the Canadian Irregular Soldier during the Seven Year's War." Canadian Historical Review 70, no. 1 (1989): 53-75.Owen, Jack E. "The Influence of Warfare in Colonial America on the Development of British Light Infantry." Army History, no. 44 (1998): 20-30.Paret, Peter. "Colonial Experience and European Military Reform at the End of the Eighteenth Century." Bulletin of the Institute for Historical Research37 (1964): 47-59.Pleasants, Henry. "The Battle of Paoli." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 72, no. 1 (1948): 44-53.Rink, Martin. "The Partisan's Metamorphosis: From Freelance Military Entrepreneur to German Freedom Fighter, 1740 to 1815." War in History17, no. 1 (2010): 6-36.Robson, Eric. "British Light Infantry in the Mid-Eighteenth Century: The Effect of American Conditions." The Army Quarterly43 (1952): 209-222.Russell, Peter E. "Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740 to 1760." The William and Mary Quarterly 35, no. 4 (1978): 629-652.Sanborn, Paul J. "The Battle of Brandywine: An Intelligence Evaluation of General George Washington's Tactical Operations During the Battle Along the Brandywine, 11 September 1777." American Intelligence Journal16, no. 2/3 (1995): 69-80.Selig, Robert A. "Light Infantry Lessons from America? Johann Ewald's Experiences in the American Revolutionary War as Depicted in his Abhandlung über den Kleinen Krieg (1785)." Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 23 (1994): 111-129.Spaulding, Oliver L. "The Military Studies of George Washington." The American Historical Review29, no. 4 (1924): 675-680.Starkey, Armstrong. "Paoli to Stony Point: Military Ethics and Weaponry During the American Revolution." The Journal of Military History58, no. 1 (1994): 7-27.Williams, Glenn T. "The Battle of Newtown, 29 September 1779: An Aggressive Attack Carried Out with Audacity." On Point12, no. 2 (2006): 8-15. Gerring 78Wright, John W. "The Corps of Light Infantry in the Continental Army." The American Historical Review31, no. 3 (1926): 454-461.York, Neil L. "Pennsylvania Rifle: Revolutionary Weapon in a Conventional War?" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography103, no. 3 (1979): 302-324.Web SitesNeville, Gabriel. "The "B Team" of 1777: Maxwell's Light Infantry." Journal of the American Revolution. Last modified April 10, 2018. https://allthingsliberty.com/2018/04/the-b-team-of-1777-maxwells-light-infantry/.
This 26th dossier d'Agropolis is devoted to research and partnerships in agroecology. The French Commission for International Agricultural Research (CRAI) and Agropolis International, on behalf of CIRAD, INRAE and IRD and in partnership with CGIAR, has produced this new issue in the 'Les dossiers d'Agropolis international' series devoted to agroecology. This publication has been produced within the framework of the Action Plan signed by CGIAR and the French government on February 4th 2021 to strengthen French collaboration with CGIAR, where agroecology is highlighted as one of the three key priorities (alongside climate change, nutrition and food systems).
Invariablemente, y aunque no haya sido su propósito, en muchas ocasiones, en distintos estudios que hay sobre narrativa criminal, policíaca, el espionaje y el thriller se observa un hecho innegable: una confusión teórica sobre lo que son estas cuatro literaturas. Esto ha derivado en una prolongada discusión que no ha ayudado a disipar dicha confusión, sino todo lo contrario, la ha acentuado. Como bien apunta Rodríguez Joulia Saint Cyr (1970: 9) gran parte de los críticos y teóricos reúnen bajo la denominación de una serie de géneros y subgéneros que no corresponden a él. De ahí que dentro de la literatura hispanoamericana se considere novelas policíaca a Ensayo de un crimen (1943-1944) de Rodolfo Usigli, El túnel (1948) de Ernesto Sábato, Yo maté a Kennedy (1972) de Manuel Vázquez Montalbán, La cabeza de la hidra (1978) de Carlos Fuentes o Linda 67: historia de un crimen (1995) de Fernando del Paso, cuando ninguna de ellas lo es. Pero ¿por qué se da esta situación de confusión? Este conjunto de textos, junto a otros más, poseen un gran intercambio de tipologías discursivo-textuales criminales, policíacas, de espionaje y del thriller traspasando las fronteras de estas cuatro literaturas y provocando la ruptura del límite entre lo criminal, policíaco, espionaje y thriller, lo que, finalmente, lleva a toda una serie de confusiones y dudas: si un texto tiene como investigador a un criminal ¿es policíaco? Es indudable que la confusión entre estas cuatro narrativas tiene causas que van más allá de una lectura inadecuada por parte de los lectores: el problema se encuentra a un nivel profundo, en la enorme dificultad por delimitar las fronteras genéricas de ellos y de analizar debidamente las fluctuaciones de los elementos genéricos de cada una. Por tanto, se abre la posibilidad de estudiar el problema del límite entre lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller. Sin embargo, ¿es necesario un estudio de este problema? El problema de la ruptura de las fronteras de las literaturas criminal, policíaca, de espionaje y thriller ha sido estudiado de manera secundaria y casi desapercibida, ya que el denominado «género policíaco» ha «monopolizado» buena parte de los estudios como podemos ver a continuación "The Art of the Detective Story" (1924) de Austin Freeman, Le detectitte novel, et l'influence de la pensée sciéntifique (1929) de Regis Messac, Le roman policier (1941) Roger Caillois, The Art of the Mystery Story (1946) de Howard Haycraft, Petite histoire du roman policier (1956) de Fereydoun Hoveyda, Breve storia del romanzo poliziesco (1962) de Alberto del Monte, Le roman policier (1964) de Thomas Narcejac y Pierre Boileau, "Typology du roman policier" (1966) de Tzvetan Todorov, The Pursuit of Crime (1981) de Dennis Porter o Histoire du roman policier (1996) de Jean Bourdier, entre muchos otros. Mientras tanto, en lengua española se observan trabajos como "Leyes de la narración policial" (1933) y "Los laberintos policiales y Chesterton" (1935) de Jorge Luis Borges, Ensayo sobre la novela policial (1947), el prólogo a Los mejores cuentos policiales mexicanos (1955) y "Qué es lo policíaco en la narrativa" (1987) de María Elvira Bermúdez, Biografía de la novela policíaca (1956) de Juan José Mira, La novela policíaca: síntesis a través de sus autores, sus personajes y sus obras (1973) de César E. Díaz, De la novela policíaca a la novela negra (1986) y La novela policíaca en España (1993) de Salvador Vázquez de Parga, La novela policíaca actual (1990) de Carmen García Pardo, La novela criminal española (1991) de José Valles Calatrava, así como su prólogo "La novela criminal" que realizó Sánchez Trigueros, La novela policíaca española. Teoría e historia crítica (1994) de José T. Colmeiro, El cadáver en la cocina: la novela criminal en la cultura del desencanto (1997) de Joan Ramón Resina, Los héroes de la novela policíaca (2006) de Sergi Echaburu Soler o Poética del relato policíaco: de Edgar Allan Poe a Raymond Chandler (2006) de Iván Martín Cerezo, entre otros. Sin embargo, es posible apreciar investigaciones sobre lo criminal, el espionaje y el thriller: La novela de intriga (1970) de Carlos Rodríguez Joulia St.- Cyr, Bloody Murder. From the Detective Story to the Crimen Novel (1972) de Julian Symons, Thrillers, la novela de misterio (1978) de Jerry Palmer, Le Roman d'espionnage (1983) de Gabriel Veraldi, Panorama du roman d'espionnage contemporain (1986) de Jean-Paul Schweighaeuser, Diccionario de la novela negra norteamericana (1986) y La novela negra (1986) de Javier Coma, The literature of crime and detection: an illustrated history from antiquity to the present (1988) de Waltraud Woeller y Bruce Cassiday o La novela de espías y los espías de novela (1991) de Juan Antonio de Blas. Ahora bien, ya sea en lo criminal, policíaco, espionaje o thriller una gran parte de estas investigaciones se orientan a revisiones historiográficas –sobre todo de lo policíaco– e intentos por definir estas literaturas. Si bien, es cierto que en algunos de ellas existen análisis socio-críticos, semánticos y pragmáticos, sin olvidar algunos hermenéuticos, intertextuales o paratextuales. Realmente son pocos los estudios, y algunos muy desconocidos, respecto a las continuas fluctuaciones de elementos entre lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller. Su evolución ha propiciado que los límites establecidos en ellos se hayan ido desdibujando, en gran medida por el «realismo noir norteamericano», el polar y «neopolar francés» y por disrupciones entre las cuatro narrativas que ha llevado a la aparición de vertientes como la literatura policíaca metafísica, la narrativa psicológica crimino-policíaca, el nuevo realismo socio-crítico criminal o policíaco, el thriller político o la nueva narrativa de espionaje, pero también por narrativas nacionales como la alemana, la escandinava, la italiana, la española, la japonesa, la mexicana, la argentina, entre muchas otras, las cuales han aportado o variado los elementos de lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller a tal punto que difícilmente se percibe una marca divisoria clara y precisa entre ellos cuatro. El hecho concreto es que con estas nuevas vertientes en lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller, los distintos elementos discursivo-textuales que los componen van a transitar libremente entre uno y otro género, violando continuamente la «frontera genérica» entre ellos. El enigma ya no se referirá exclusivamente a quién era el asesino o si el espía/agente secreto podría trastocar los planes del enemigo. Las motivaciones psicológicas, la crítica social, lo fantástico o la metafísica influirán notablemente en ellos. Ahora bien, el propósito de esta investigación se centra en varios objetivos. Primero, un estudio que incluya lo criminal, policíaco, espionaje y thriller dentro de un concepto que hemos denominado «narrativa sensacional de suspense», aunque este esfuerzo no es el primero que se realiza. Ya en el 1970, Carlos Rodríguez Joulia St.- Cyr lo había intentado con La novela de intriga, un estudio de lo policíaco, lo criminal, el espionaje y el misterio, en el cual el propio investigador deja ver un hecho indiscutible: la confusión en torno a qué es lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el misterio, y la cercanía que hay entre estas cuatro narrativas. Sin embargo, Rodríguez Joulia St.- Cyr se concentra de manera exclusiva en buscar los orígenes literarios, así como su desarrollo a nivel histórico. Dos años más tarde, el británico Julian Symons en Bloody Murder realiza interesantes apuntes y acotaciones en torno a lo que llama «sensational literature» y que engloba a textos con "violent ends in a sensational way" Symons (1992: 4) y en el que encontramos textos criminales, policíacos, de espionaje y thrillers, así como nuevos híbridos literarios. Desgraciadamente, Symons no lo estudió con mayor detalle. Hay que precisar que son los estudios de este investigador y autor británico los que sirven como punto de arranque de este estudio. El diseño y empleo de un término como «narrativa sensacional de suspense» no es al azar, responde a una necesidad que aparece debido a una serie de confusiones que se dan alrededor de las definiciones que hay en torno a lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller. En más de una ocasión se hace mención al denominado «género negro» sin especificar debidamente qué es o confundiéndolo: ¿Se trata de la literatura sensacional norteamericana de la primera mitad del siglo XX que incluye la obra de autores como Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler, James M. Cain o Mickey Spillane? ¿O, tal vez, es un híbrido literario, producto de las fluctuaciones y combinaciones tipológicas criminales, policíacas, del espionaje y del thriller? El hecho es que ese clima de confusión ha llegado a tal punto que, incluso, se ha llegado a considerar la obra de autores clásicos, como Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, como olvidando el verdadero significado que Todorov (1966) acuña y que se relaciona directamente con la literatura norteamericana sensacional de la primera mitad del siglo XX. Es decir, se cae en un grave error al denominar la obra de Poe, Gaboriau, Christie o Wallace como novela negra, ya que no poseen ninguna característica de esta. A esta confusión se le suma el desconcierto que plantea la narrativa de espionaje y el thriller: ¿dónde incluirlos, en lo policíaco o en la llamada «novela negra» como varios estudios hacen, o es posible plantear que se trata de narrativas con características históricas, semánticas, pragmáticas y genéricas propias? El segundo objetivo es dejar de lado las confusiones en torno al empleo del término «novela negra» al cual sustituiremos por «realismo noir norteamericano». El primero hace referencia a esa literatura norteamericana sensacional que comienza a gestarse a principios de los veinte, y se ajusta al concepto de «realismo» que Raymond Chandler señala en su artículo The Simple Art of Murder (1950) y hace referencia directa a la denominación noir acuñado en la Série Noire, dirigida por Duhamel, a finales de la década de los cuarenta del siglo pasado. El tercer objetivo se centra en una serie de necesidades de la teoría literaria que solo en ocasiones, y de manera secundaria y casi desapercibida, han sido analizadas: la distinción conceptual entre lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller que lleva, inexorablemente a otro objetivo: al problema del límite y las fluctuaciones fronterizas en la «narrativa sensacional de suspense», es decir entre lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller, sin olvidar los nuevos híbridos literarios tales como el thriller de espionaje o policíaco o la narrativa psicológica crimino-policíaca. A través de un grupo de obras estudiadas observaremos cómo lo que denominamos «límites fronterizos genéricos» son traspasados en dichos textos por las continuas fluctuaciones comunicacionales de los elementos genéricos canónicos que componen lo criminal, policíaco, espionaje y al thriller. No obstante, es necesario establecer ciertos límites al conjunto de textos por analizar, ya que de lo contrario se correría el riesgo de exceder la propia investigación. Son siete las novelas elegidas: El complot mongol (1969) de Rafael Bernal, Noviembre sin violetas (1995) de Lorenzo Silva, Plenilunio (1997) de Antonio Muñoz Molina, Deudas pendientes (2005) de Antonio Jiménez Barca, Ojos de agua (2007) de Domingo Villar, El baile ha terminado (2009) de Julián Ibáñez y La soledad de Patricia (2010) de Carles Quílez, las cuales comparten un elemento temático en común: la investigación. La obra del mexicano Rafael Bernal se extiende a lo largo de más de veintiocho años de trabajo y en él queda constancia de sus grandes inquietudes: el mar, al cual plasma en el libro de relatos Gente de mar (1950) y en El gran océano –inédito hasta 1992–; la selva, la cual cobra vida en el libro de relatos Trópico (1946), en las novelas Su nombre era muerte (1947), Caribal, el infierno verde (1955) y en Tierra de gracia (1963); y lo policíaco, aunque, paradójicamente, este fuera una simple distracción para este autor, ya que solo le dedicaba ciertos momentos para descansar de proyectos más serios, desde su punto de vista. No obstante, Bernal puede ser considerado, con toda justicia, como una de las piedras fundamentales en la aparición y desarrollo de la narrativa policíaca mexicana, sin olvidar el crimen, el thriller y el espionaje, comenzando su periplo en la revista mexicana Selecciones Policías y de Misterio, fundada en 1946 por Antonio Helú, donde se publicarían relatos suyos como La muerte poética o La muerte madrugadora, sin olvidar otros cuentos como Un muerto en la tumba (1946) y La media hora de Sebastián Constantino (1946). Asimismo, Bernal nos presenta a uno de los primeros personajes investigadores amateurs mexicanos: Teódulo Batanes. En Un muerto en la tumba (1946) se descubre en la zona arqueológica Montealban el cadáver de un senador con un puñal de pedernal clavado en el pecho. Uno de los antropólogos, Batanes, es el encargado de resolver el misterio. Resulta curioso observar a este detective miope, desgarbado y que tiene el vicio de usar sinónimos de cuanta cosa dice. Un personaje basado, indudablemente, en la figura del padre Brown de G.K. Chesterton y que aparecería, nuevamente, en la novela corta De muerte natural (1948), en donde Batanes esclarece el homicidio, en un hospital, de una adinerada viuda. Otros textos policíacos de Bernal son El extraño caso de Aloysius Hand y El heroico Serafín, ambas incluidas, junto a De muerte natural, en el libro Tres novelas policíacas, las cuales observan ese estilo clásico de la «novela enigma». Es en 1969 cuando Bernal cambia radicalmente su estilo, alejándose de los esquemas clásicos gracias a la influencia del «realismo noir norteamericano», ofreciendo la obra maestra del thriller de espionaje mexicano: El complot mongol. Respecto a Lorenzo Silva su nombre es ya reconocido dentro de la literatura policíaca gracias a la pareja de guardias civiles conformada por el brigada Rubén «Vila» Bevilacqua, y la sargento Virginia Chamorro, una singular pareja de frustrados: el primero, un psicólogo que jamás logró ejercer como tal; la segunda, hija de un militar, que no logró acceder a ninguna de las academias de los ejércitos –tierra, mar y aire– y que encontró en la Guardia Civil el único resquicio para salvar la tradición militar familiar. El lejano país de los estanques (1998) es el nacimiento de la sociedad conformada por el entonces sargento «Vila» y la novata guardia Chamorro que deberán esclarecer el asesinato de una adinerada joven austriaca en los ambientes nocturnos de un pequeño centro turístico de Mallorca. La pareja aparece de nuevo en El alquimista impaciente (2000) en donde exploran el tema de la corrupción urbanística. En La niebla y la doncella (2002) Vila y Chamorro parten hacia la isla canaria de La Gomera para resolver el asesinato de un joven y que destapará un escándalo para la Guardia Civil. En la antología de cuentos Nadie vale más que otro (2004) Vila y Chamorro se enfrentan a cuatro distintos asesinatos que lo único que les demuestra es que el crimen se da por las situaciones más simple y absurdas. En La reina sin espejo (2005) la pareja de guardias civiles se enfrentan a un caso multipublicitado: el asesinato de una célebre periodista de Barcelona casada con un consagrado escritor catalán. Un caso que abandona los terrenos del crimen pasional y que lleva a Vila y Chamorro por los entresijos de la pornografía, la prostitución y la trata de blancas en Barcelona. La estrategia del agua (2010) nos enseña a un Rubén Bevilacqua ya ascendido a brigada, pero también profundamente decepcionado del sistema judicial español, que tiene que investigar, junto a la también ascendida sargento Virgina Chamorro, el asesinato de un criminal de poca monta y que entraña profundos lados oscuros que deberán averiguar los dos guardias civiles, acompañados de un nuevo compañero: el guardia Arnau. Sin embargo, el contacto de Lorenzo Silva con lo policíaco, y en general con la , no se da exclusivamente con la serie protagonizada por Vila y Chamorro. En La sustancia interior (1996) observamos un thriller histórico, mientras que en Muerte en el "reality show" (2007) dos nuevos investigadores aparecen: la juez Tortosa y el comisario Fonseca, los cuales deberán esclarecer un asesinato cometido «en directo». Asimismo otro texto del escritor madrileño sobresale enormemente: su primera novela Noviembre sin violetas (1995) la cual mantiene un pulso intertextual con La llave de cristal (1931) de Dashiell Hammett. Beatus Ille (1986), la primera novela de Muñoz Molina, recorre ampliamente los terrenos policíacos gracias a su discurso de investigación. No obstante, el texto no pertenece al género policíaco. La interdiscursividad que se presenta en este caso, por sí sola, no es elemento de peso para considerar Beatus Ille una novela policíaca. Hacen falta personajes, temática, ambientación, atmósfera y otros elementos para considerar el texto dentro de lo policíaco. Todo lo contrario sucede en El invierno en Lisboa (1987). Esta novela presenta características mucho más cercanas a lo criminal y a lo policíaco: hechos, acciones, personajes y temática, entre otros elementos, van construyendo una historia que, sin embargo, presenta serias dificultades: ¿es criminal o policíaca? Indudablemente la novela recuerda mucho los antiguos textos del «realismo noir norteamericano», como Cosecha roja o El halcón maltés de Dashiell Hammett, que, en muchas ocasiones, son tan difíciles de definir y clasificar. Una situación que se repetirá en Beltenebros (1989) solo que con mayores dificultades: el texto discurrirá entre lo policíaco, lo criminal, el thriller político y la narrativa de espionaje. En el caso de Los misterios de Madrid (1992) Muñoz Molina ofrecerá una parodia de lo policíaco a partir de un investigador –Lorencito Quesada– que poco o nada tiene que ver con los legendarios private eyes del «realismo noir» o del polar francés. El dueño del secreto(1994) regresa a la problemática presentada en El invierno en Lisboa y Beltenebros: ¿es un texto criminal o policíaco? Cualquier afirmación tajante puede estar errada, ya que, aunque posee algunos elementos propios de ambos géneros, como el discurso, la ambientación y la atmósfera, la novela está en estrecho contacto con la narrativa de espionaje y el thriller político, haciendo muy difícil una clasificación. Dentro de la obra de Muñoz Molina relacionada con lo criminal y lo policíaco, así como con otros géneros afines, encontramos los cuentos Te golpeare sin cólera (1983), El hombre sombra (1983), La colina de los sacrificios (1993), La poseída (1993), Borrador de una historia (1993), La gentileza de los desconocidos (1993) y la novela corta Nada del otro mundo (1993). Pues bien, con Plenilunio (1997) el escritor giennense explora el relato criminal y policíaco de un modo complejo: se adentra en el conflicto psicológico del investigador y del criminal, como lo lleva a cabo el norteamericano Thomas Harris en El dragón rojo (1980-1981) y El silencio de los corderos (1988), pero enlazando también elementos del thriller, el espionaje y el terrorismo. Por lo que se refiere al periodista Antonio Jiménez Barca su obra literaria se traduce en una sola novela: Deudas pendientes (2006), un texto que encierra ciertas complejidades propias del thriller y de lo policíaco. Domingo Villar es un autor gallego que saltó a la palestra en el año 2006 con la publicación de Ojos de agua, protagonizada por el inspector de policía Leo Caldas. Un texto que, como la siguiente aventura de Caldas, La playa de los ahogados (2009), mantiene un esquema clásico: un crimen se ha cometido y es necesario investigarlo y solucionarlo. No es de llamar la atención que este esquema siga siendo popular en la narrativa policíaca en general, ya que dicho esquema es actualizado por los escritores y adaptado a las necesidades de cada texto. Finalmente, la narrativa policíaca en este siglo XXI sigue manteniendo la máxima clásica de . Así pues, tanto en el caso del asesinato del músico Luís Reigosa como el del marinero Justo Costelo, el inspector Caldas continúa con los esquemas clásicos, pero lo interesante es que Domingo Villar le ofrece al lector una visión del complejo entramado psicológico gallego. Es interesante señalar dentro de la obra de Villar el cuento Las hojas secas, incluido en la antología de cuentos La lista negra (2009), compilada por Àlex Martín Escribà y Javier Sánchez Zapatero. En pocas ocasiones se tiene la oportunidad de escribir sobre el personaje-arquetipo del testigo. Pues bien, Domingo Villar es de los pocos que logra hacerlo a través de un ex-presidiario, testigo involuntario de un crimen que lo acosará hasta el día de su muerte. El santanderino Julián Ibáñez comienza en 1980 su andadura por el «sensacional de suspense» con la novela La triple dama, protagonizada por Ramón Ferreol, una antigua estrella de fútbol, un texto que se mueve entre el thriller y lo policíaco. Al año siguiente Ibáñez entregaría La recompensa polaca, pero es en 1983, con No des la espalda a la paloma, cuando Ramón Ferreol vuelve a aparecer en medio del suicidio de un agente de aduanas. En 1986, con Tirar al vuelo, Ibáñez sorprende con un investigador que se aleja totalmente de las convenciones policíacas respecto al personaje del investigador, ya que Novoa no se acerca en lo mínimo a ello. Él es un simple ciudadano común y corriente, un contable, que ve cómo el peligro se aproxima y tiene que tomar cartas en el asunto. Un personaje que protagonizaría Llámala Siboney (1988), Mi nombre es Novoa (1994) y ¿Y a ti, dónde te entierro, hermano? En la década de los noventa, Julián Ibáñez abordaría el espionaje gracias a Bar Babilonia (1991) y continuaría con otras dos novelas policíacas: Doña Lola (1991) y No hay semáforos para los pumas (1995). Ya en el año 2001, Ibáñez ofrece dos nuevos textos. En Manuela Scarface el escritor santanderino aborda la temática criminal de los asaltos bancarios a través de Paco Peña, un joven que trabaja en una sucursal de la Caixa, que una mañana de finales de agosto se ve sorprendido, junto al resto de empleados y clientes, por unos atracadores, por una banda de asaltantes. Pero la verdadera sorpresa de Paco será la de reconocer, a pesar de los disfraces de los delincuentes, a su novia Manuela. Una situación que puede hundirlo, ya que la policía y sus compañeros lo considerarían un cómplice. Mientras tanto, en Entre trago y trago observamos el bajo mundo del crimen, con sus ambientes turbios y corruptos, a través de Maza, un delincuente de poca monta que regenta El Oasis, un club de mala muerte perdido en una carretera de la Mancha. Un texto que nos recuerda los ambientes sórdidos del «realismo noir norteamericano» y el polar francés de los cincuenta. Resulta interesante ver esos ambientes deprimentes en la siguiente novela de Ibáñez: La miel y el cuchillo (2003), de la mano de otro delincuente menor, Florín, un cuarentón con humor crudo perteneciente a ese Madrid tenebroso, por el que este personaje deambulará golpeando y robando. En Los gorilas no bromean con la corbata (2006) observamos a Viriato Ansorena Ruiz, un chico común y corriente que por las noches se transforma en un fotoperiodista de sucesos que busca la noticia que lo encumbre a él y a su padre, sin pensar siquiera que ese descubrimiento puede costarle la vida. Por su parte, Que siga el baile (2006) es un regreso a esa temática policíaca híbrida, en la que el policía Barquín, testigo directo del extraño robo al bar Boom Boom, se verá implicado en una peligrosa investigación, en la búsqueda de las dos extrañas atracadoras. Con Crimen supertranquilo (2007), Ibáñez parece adoptar las convenciones del best-seller: quinientos años después de la expulsión de los judíos de Sefarad –la España hebrea– Rebeca viaja con su padre a Toledo en busca de la casa de sus antepasados. Pero, sorpresivamente, el hombre muere en el Servicio de Urgencias del Hospital. La historia se complica ya que existe la posibilidad de que el padre de Rebeca haya sido asesinado por causa de una antigua llave de oro que se encontraba entre sus pertenencias, robadas, supuestamente, por Pedro, el celador del hospital donde murió el viejo judío. El baile ha terminado (2009) muestra a Ruano Peredo, un policía del Grupo de Localización de Fugitivos, con sede en Gijón, que se verá envuelto en una compleja trama de espionaje en el que estarán involucradas la Guardia Civil, la Ertzaintza y ETA. En El beso del samurái (2009) la temática policíaca continúa dentro de la obra de Ibáñez. Pedro, el ayudante del detective de un hotel, se hace amigo de Helga, una joven alemana. Una amistad que le llevará a involucrarse en una misteriosa trama criminal. La búsqueda de Julián Ibáñez por romper los esquema y paradigmas policíacos la encontramos en Perro vagabundo busca a quién morder (2009) un extraño relato policíaco que, aparentemente, no encierra ningún crimen dentro de la forzada investigación que realiza el misterioso . En 2010, Ibáñez entrega tres nuevos textos en donde la investigación y el crimen se entrelazan de la mano de policías corruptos y delincuentes pragmáticos: Giley, un relato que explota al personaje del sospechoso, encarnado en el policía Cobos; Calle intranquilidad, un viaje hacia ese Bilbao testigo del tráfico de inmigrantes y el negocio de la prostitución y El invierno oscuro, la visión de un joven inmerso en el peligroso mundo de la kale borroka etarra. Por lo que respecta al barcelonés Carles Quílez, su acercamiento a lo «sensacional de suspense» comienza con Atracadores (2002) una antología en la que se observan once distintos cuentos basados, en clave periodística, en los crímenes de las principales bandas de atracadores de Barcelona en los últimos veinticinco años. Una interesante antología que nos enseña una ciudad oculta y sombría, que nada tiene que ver con el destino turístico que de ella se presenta. En Asalto a la virreina (2004), Quílez saca a relucir su identidad periodística al reconstruir un evento criminal sucedido en Barcelona en 1991: el intento de robo de la colección de monedas del Gabinet Numismàtic de Catalunya, instalado en el palacio de la Virreina. Ese rasgo del escritor barcelonés por reconstruir historias a partir de una visión periodística se repite en dos de sus siguientes novelas: Psicópata: un relato basado en personajes y situaciones (2005), en donde un periodista recibe el encargo de componer la historia de un psicópata encarcelado, un trabajo que se transforma en un sombrío reto que nos acerca a la problemática psiquiátrica de los asesinos seriales y su complejo mundo interno y La soledad de Patricia (2010), un texto que se mueve entre el espionaje y el thriller. Piel de policía (2006) se ajusta más a lo policíaco. Lacruz, ex policía que regenta un bar de mala muerte en Barcelona, ve cómo su vida cambia radicalmente a partir del asesinato de Castán, su ex compañero en la policía. Así pues, la elección de El complot mongol (1969), de Rafael Bernal, Noviembre sin violetas (1995), de Lorenzo Silva, Plenilunio (1997), de Antonio Muñoz Molina, Deudas pendientes (2005), de Antonio Jiménez Barca, Ojos de agua (2007), de Domingo Villar, El baile ha terminado (2009), de Julián Ibáñez y La soledad de Patricia (2010), de Carlos Quílez, no es al azar, sino meditada. En estas novelas se puede observar el traspaso de las diferentes fronteras que «separan» lo criminal, lo policíaco, el thriller y el espionaje, es decir la «narrativa sensacional de suspense», lo cual plantea la posibilidad de que no exista alguna frontera. Y, aunque en Ojos de agua se aprecia el esquema policíaco clásico, esto se debe a una razón: es necesario un texto policíaco para que pueda compararse este con uno criminal, un thriller o uno de espionaje y se ponga en evidencia las diferencias entras estas narrativas. Ahora bien, ante la situación de traspaso de fronteras genéricas por parte del grupo de novelas seleccionadas, surge una duda en especial ¿cómo llevar a cabo esta investigación? Una gran cantidad de hipótesis aparecen de inmediato, pero lo cierto es que lo más importante es poseer un método. Generalmente, muchos estudios de lo criminal y lo policíaco, sin olvidar los del espionaje y el thriller, son históricos, compendios a través de los cuales observamos la historia literaria de ambos géneros, así como su desarrollo y evolución. Investigaciones interesantes y valiosas, dado que rastrean obras y autores que habían sido olvidados o estaban ocultos bajo algún seudónimo. Sin embargo, una visión histórica no es suficiente para abordar un problema como el del límite entre lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller que se plantea a partir de El complot mongol, Noviembre sin violetas, Plenilunio, Deudas pendientes, Ojos de agua, El baile ha terminado y La soledad de Patricia. Para ello son necesarias más herramientas de investigación y por eso emplearemos directrices y pautas de análisis histórico, pragmático-hermenéutico, discursivo-textual, semántico y de la teoría del género. En el primer capítulo reflexionaremos sobre los aspectos históricos y para eso se llevará a cabo una revisión histórica literaria de lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller, solo que de una manera algo distinta: separando estas cuatro narrativas Como ya hemos señalado, existe una confusión entre ellas que puede llevar a pensar, como de hecho ocurre, que criminal es sinónimo de policíaco o viceversa, o que el espionaje está supeditado a lo policíaco, todo esto falso. A partir de esta visión histórica apreciaremos cómo se gesta cada narrativa de manera independiente haciendo ver que se trata de manifestaciones literarias distintas. Esto nos permitirá, por un lado, ver dónde se sitúan las novelas estudiadas, es decir, de dónde vienen, cuáles han sido los antecedentes históricos, sus antepasados literarios. Por otro lado, vamos a observar cómo una idea que venimos gestando desde hace varios años ve la luz. La inmensa mayoría de los críticos e investigadores consideran a Edgar Allan Poe como el padre de la novela policíaca, pero se olvidan o no le dan la importancia a un nombre clave sin el que el género, muy probablemente, no habría comenzado a popularizarse y establecerse: Charles Dickens. La labor de Dickens es enorme y, aunque desgraciadamente no podemos analizar su obra criminal y policíaca, es un objetivo claro revalidar su enorme labor haciendo mención de su trabajo. En el segundo capítulo emplearemos la pragmática-hermenéutica como uno de los pilares de análisis del problema del límite de la «narrativa sensacional de suspense» y la fluctuación tipológica en las novelas estudiadas, lo cual hará ver cuáles de estos textos se acercan más a formas híbridas. De igual modo, la pragmática-hermenéutica nos ayudará en otros dos objetivos: analizar las relaciones intratextuales de las novelas de Rafael Bernal, Lorenzo Silva, Antonio Muñoz Molina, Antonio Jiménez Barca, Domingo Villar, Julián Ibáñez y Carles Quílez, pero también las extratextuales, aquellas en las cuales se puede generar la confusión, en las relaciones que mantendrá el texto no solo con el lector, sino con mediadores que pueden resultar nocivos en el proceso comunicacional al generar dicha confusión. Asimismo, y aunque no realizaremos un profundo análisis comparativo, estableceremos relaciones comparativas entre los siete textos elegidos con el fin de evidenciar las diferencias entre lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller. Por lo que se refiere al capítulo dedicado al discurso y al texto es necesario aclarar que se transita por terrenos en los que no hay acuerdos respecto a la definición de ambos conceptos. No es nuestro propósito buscar una definición de ellos, sino reflexionar sobre ambos en base a las definiciones de un grupo de especialistas, y de este modo abordar el problema del límite en base a una confusión ya algo antigua: ¿existe un discurso policíaco, uno criminal o uno de espionaje? ¿Si es así ¿por qué un texto con un discurso policíaco como El maestro de San Petersburgo (1994) de Coetzee, no puede ser catalogado como policíaco? Nuestro interés se centrará en analizar el discurso criminal, policíaco, de espionaje y del thriller y ponerlo en referencia a El complot mongol, Noviembre sin violetas, Plenilunio, Deudas pendientes, Ojos de agua, El baile ha terminado y La soledad de Patricia junto a otros textos para observar cómo aparece el problema del límite, de la mano de una serie de elementos textuales que se mueven de una narrativa –lo policíaco– a otra –el thriller–. Otro pilar fundamental para esta investigación es la semántica. Empleando la semántica de «mundos posibles» y dos teorías de ella, la de Tomás Albaladejo y Lubomír Doležel, se observará cómo se va construyendo un texto ficcional, en este caso las novelas estudiadas, a partir de parámetros comunicacionales. Gracias a este análisis se confirmarán las impresiones pragmáticas: las novelas de Bernal, Silva, Muñoz Molina, Jiménez Barca, Villar, Ibáñez y Quílez se construyen a partir de eventos diametralmente opuestos: el crimen e investigación, terrorismo y espionaje contraterrorista, amenaza y seguridad, pero no bajo regímenes estrictos, sino como un texto en el que dos submundos, de acuerdo a la terminología de Albaladejo, el de los protagonistas y antagonistas de las obras estudiadas se enfrentan. Es imposible cerrar esta investigación sin tocar un tema espinoso en el que no hay grandes acuerdos: el del género. En el último capítulo tenemos el propósito de señalar los elementos genéricos de lo criminal, lo policíaco, el espionaje y el thriller y ver cómo se combinan, ofreciendo las señales del desplazamiento de la frontera entre estas narrativas y el problema de la confusión. También, y gracias a dos modelos genérico-comunicacionales, el de Kurt Spang y el de Jean Marie Schaeffer, tendremos la ocasión de vislumbrar cómo, de manera genérica, tratamos de ubicar las obras estudiadas y de confirmar su carácter híbrido. No obstante, es inevitable que en este capítulo hagamos mención al problema de la definición del género. Es claro que no se pretende dar una respuesta a dicho problema, ya que esto es imposible, pero lo que sí se llevará a cabo será, gracias a las propuestas de Spang, Schaeffer, García Berrio y Huerta Calvo, construir una definición que sea práctica para esta investigación. Igual de importante será observar en este último capítulo un concepto diseñado para esta investigación: el «sensacional de suspense». En ningún momento buscaremos defenestrar a la «novela negra», pero sí analizaremos el problema que aparece al utilizar dicho término, y las bondades que hay en torno al concepto «sensacional de suspense». Hay que aclarar que este estudio no está divido en dos secciones, una de metodología y otra de aplicación. Por el contrario, lo llevaremos a cabo in sito, es decir realizando la metodología y la aplicación conjuntamente. El motivo de esta elección es de carácter práctico, pues en anteriores trabajos de investigación nos ha funcionado correctamente.
Book co-funded by the Minister of Science and Higher Education (No 713/P-DUN/2014) ; Karol Łopatecki: k.lopatecki@uwb.edu.pl ; Uniwersytet w Białymstoku ; Akta unii Polski z Litwą 1385–1791, eds S. Kutrzeba, W. Semkowicz, Kraków 1932. ; Auteroche J.Ch., Memoire du passage de Venus sur le soleil, Petersburg 1762. ; Auteroche J.Ch., Voyage en Sibérie: fait par ordre du roi en 1761, t. I, Paris 1768. ; Białystok oczami kartografa, ed. by A. Gawroński, Białystok 2011. ; Biłgorajski F., Pamiętnik szlachcica podlaskiego, "Czas" 1876, no. 275. ; Biłgorajski F., Pamiętnik szlachcica podlaskiego, "Czas" 1876, no. 279. ; Biłgorajski F., Pamiętnik szlachcica podlaskiego, "Czas" 1876, no. 269. ; Biłgorajski F., Pamiętnik szlachcica podlaskiego, "Czas" 1877, no. 19. ; Bogusławski W., Dzieje Teatru Narodowego na trzy części podzielone, Warszawa 1965. ; Büsching A.F., Geografia Krolestwa Polskiego y Wielkiego Xięstwa Litewskiego tudzież innych Prowincyi do nich należących, Warszawa 1768. ; Bykowski P.J., Dwór królewski w Grodnie. Epizod biograficzny (1795–1797), Warszawa 1884. ; Kopczyński M., Studia nad rodziną chłopską w Koronie w XVII–XVIII wieku, Warszawa 1998. ; Kosztyła Z., Bitwa pod Białymstokiem w dniu 13 lipca 1769 r., "Rocznik Białostocki" 2 (1961). ; Kosztyła Z., Dzieje wojskowe Białegostoku w XVIII wieku, [in:] Z dziejów wojskowych ziem północno-wschodnich Polski, part I, ed. Z. Kosztyła, Białystok 1986. ; Kosztyła Z., Wojskowa szkoła budownictwa i inżynierii w Białymstoku, "Wojsko Ludowe" 1960, no. 3. ; Kościelniak K., Źródła dochodów oficerów jazdy polskiej w pierwszej połowie XVII wieku, [in:] Organizacja armii w nowożytnej Europie: struktura – urzędy – prawo – finanse, ed. K. Łopatecki, Białystok 2011. ; Kotula F., Warownie chłopskie XVII w. w ziemi przemyskiej i sanockiej, "Studia i Materiały do Historii Wojskowości" 8 (1962), 1. ; Kowalczyk J., Nurt klasyczny w polskiej sztuce późnobarokowej, [in:] Klasycyzm i klasycyzmy. Materiały Sesji Stowarzyszenia Historyków Sztuki, Warszawa 1994. ; Kowalski M., Księstwa Rzeczypospolitej. Państwo magnackie jako region polityczny, Warszawa 2013. ; Kowecka E., Dwór "Najrządniejszego w Polszcze magnata", Warszawa 1991. ; Haura J.K., Skład albo skarbiec znakomitych sekretów oekonomiey ziemiańskiey, Kraków 1693. ; Choińska M., Powinności mieszczan w mieście królewskim a w mieście prywatnym: przykład Tykocina w XVI–XVIII wieku, "Studia Podlaskie" 18 (2009–2010). ; Koziarski S., Sieć kolejowa Polski w latach 1842–1918, Opole 1993. ; Kozica K., Pezda J., Imago Poloniae, t. II: Dawna Rzeczpospolita na mapach, dokumentach i starodrukach w zbiorach Tomasza Niewodniczańskiego, ed. T. Niewodniczański, Warszawa 2002. ; Kozłowska-Świątkowska E., Maroszek J., Hasbachowie. Z rodzinnego sztambucha, Białystok 2011. ; Krahel T., Od parafii do stolicy metropolii. Z kościelnych dziejów Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 14 (1999), 1. ; Krahel T., Zarys dziejów parafii Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Maryi Panny w Białymstoku, s.l. 2009, http://digital.fides.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=575&from=pubstats. ; Krassowski B., Polska na mapach wydawców norymberskich i augsburskich z XVIII wieku, "Studia i Materiały z Historii Kartografii", Warszawa 1985. ; Krug L., Betrachtungen über den Nationalreichtum des preußischen Staats und über den Wohlstand seiner Bewohner, Bd. I, Berlin 1805. ; Kryński I., Obiekty osadnicze kultury ceramiki kreskowanej z dziedzińca wstępnego pałacu Branickich w Białymstoku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 11 (2006). ; Kryński I., Osada ludności kultury ceramiki kreskowanej w Białymstoku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 12 (2006). ; Kryński I., Sprawozdanie z badań wykopaliskowych na dziedzińcu wstępnym pałacu Branickich w Białymstoku, "Podlaskie Zeszyty Archeologiczne" 1 (2005). ; Chorobińska-Misztal A., Z dziejów Siemiatycz drugiej połowy XVIII wieku. Działalność reformatorska Anny Jabłonowskiej, Białystok 1978. ; Holsche A.K., Geographie und Statistik von West- Süd- und Neu- Ostpreußen: nebst einer kurzen Geschichte des Königreichs Polen bis zu dessen Zertheilung, Bd. 1, Berlin 1800. ; Kryński I., Stankiewicz U., Początki osadnictwa, [in:] Historia Białegostoku, ed. A.Cz. Dobroński, Białystok 2012. ; Krzymkowiak-Kostrowiecka A., Środowisko geograficzne Białegostoku i okolicy oraz jego przemiany, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. I, eds J. Antoniewicz, J. Joka, Białystok 1968. ; Kublin L., "Regni Poloniae (.) Jakuba Kantera z 1770 r., "Zabytki Polskiej Kartografii" 2 (1980). ; Kuklo C., Demografia Rzeczypospolitej przedrozbiorowej, Warszawa 2009. ; Kuklo C. (ed.), Izabela z Poniatowskich Branicka. Życie i działalność publiczna, Białystok 2014. ; Kulesza-Woroniecka I., Cudzoziemcy w Białymstoku w osiemnastym wieku, "Studia Podlaskie" 19 (2011). ; Kulesza-Woroniecka I., Dwór Izabeli Branickiej w Białymstoku 1771–1808, [in:] Izabela z Poniatowskich Branicka. Życie i działalność publiczna, ed. C. Kuklo, Białystok 2014. ; Kulesza-Woroniecka I., Współpracownicy Izabeli Branickiej w latach 1771–1808, "Studia Podlaskie" 20 (2012). ; Kusiński W., Przemiany funkcji Białegostoku w przeszłości, "Rocznik Białostocki" 6 (1966). ; Chyczewska A., Marceli Bacciarelli: życie, twórczość. Dzieła, t. II, Poznań 1970. ; Lankamer T., Mapa J. C. Textora pod tytułem "Nowe Prusy Wschodnie" z lat 1795– 1800, "Rocznik Białostocki" 7 (1967). ; Inwentarz b. Wileńskiego Archiwum Centralnego, ed. by I. Sprogis, Wilno 1929. ; Laszuk A., Duża i średnia własność ziemska na Podlasiu w II poł. XVII w., "Zeszyt Naukowy Muzeum Wojska" 9 (1995). ; Laszuk A., Ludność województwa podlaskiego w drugiej połowie XVII wieku, Warszawa 1999. ; Laszuk D, Teatr hetmana Branickiego w Białymstoku, [in:] Z badań Katedry Historii Architektury, z. 3, Białystok 2001. ; Lech M., Białystok – miasto i jego mieszkańcy w XVIII w., "Rocznik Białostocki" 6 (1965). ; Lechowski A., Zeller-Narolewska E., Ratusz w Białymstoku, Białystok 2003. ; Leszczyński A., Żydzi ziemi bielskiej od połowy XVII w. do 1795 r., Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk 1980. ; Lindner L., Bogutsky A., Gozhik P. et al., Correlation of main climatic glacial-interglacial and loess-palaeosol cycles in the Pleistocene of Poland and Ukraine, "Acta Geologica Polonica" 52 (2002), 4. ; Łopatecki K., Białostockie władze miejskie w okresie staropolskim, "Miscellanea Historico-Iuridica" (in press). ; Chyczewska A., Marcello Bacciarelli 1731–1818, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1973. ; Łopatecki K., Blaski i cienie funkcjonowania rodzin w nowożytnych wojskach Europy Zachodniej, "Białostockie Teki Historyczne" 5 (2007). ; Łopatecki K., Cywilna jurysdykcja wobec wojskowych w Koronie na przełomie XVI i XVII stulecia, [in:] "Miscellanea Historico-Iuridica" 5 (2007). ; Inwentarz majętności Białegostoku z należącymi folwarkami. Słów kilka o dworze i folwarkach białostockich w 1645 roku, ed. by M. Sokół, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 15–16 (2012). ; Łopatecki K., Ideowa wymowa ozdób armatnich z przełomu XVI i XVII wieku, [in:] Nad społeczeństwem staropolskim, t. I: Kultura–instytucje–gospodarka w XVI–XVIII stuleciu, eds K. Łopatecki, W. Walczak, Białystok 2007. ; Łopatecki K., Muzycy wojskowi w Rzeczypospolitej – zarys problematyki, [in:] Nad społeczeństwem staropolskim, t. II: Polityka i ekonomia – społeczeństwo i wojsko – religia i kultura w XVI–XVIII wieku, ed. D. Wereda, Siedlce 2009. ; Łopatecki K., Nabożeństwa wojskowe w Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej: zarys organizacyjno-prawny, [in:] Rzeczpospolita państwem wielu narodowości i wyznań. XVI–XVIII wiek, eds T. Ciesielski, A. Filipczak-Kocur, Warszawa–Opole 2008. ; Łopatecki K., Organizacja, prawo i dyscyplina w polskim i litewskim pospolitym ruszeniu (do połowy XVII wieku), Białystok 2013. ; Łopatecki K., Plan przebudowy twierdzy w Tykocinie z 1708 roku, "Zapiski Historyczne" 74 (2009), 2. ; Łopatecki K., Specyfika fundacji szpitali wojskowych w Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej na tle europejskim, [in:] Fundator i mecenas. Magnateria Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku, eds E. Dubas-Urwanowicz, J. Urwanowicz, Białystok 2011. ; Łopatecki K., Sprzedaż dóbr białostockich przez spadkobierców Jana Klemensa Branickiego. Z badań nad prawem dziedziczenia na przełomie XVIII i XIX w., "Studia Podlaskie" 22 (2015), (in press). ; Ciesielski T., Armia koronna w czasach Augusta III, Warszawa 2009. ; Łopatecki K., Walczak W., Wstęp, [in:] Pałac Branickich w Białymstoku, vol. 1: Inwentarze z wieku XVII–XVIII, cz. 1, ed. by K. Łopatecki, W. Walczak, Białystok 2012. ; Łopatecki K., Wojna o szkoły wojskowe – czyli rzecz o kształceniu żołnierzy w Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej do połowy XVIII wieku, "Gryfita. Białostocki Magazyn Historyczny" 28 (2008). ; Łopatecki K., Zalewska E., Najazd na dobra białostockie w 1598 roku. Z badań nad najstarszymi dziejami Białegostoku, "Studia Podlaskie" 19 (2011). ; Jabłonowska A., Porządek robót miesięcznych ogrodnika na cały rok wypisany i na miesiące podzielony, Siemiatycze 1786. ; Łukasiewicz J., Białystok w XIX wieku, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. III, ed. J. Joka, Białystok 1972. ; M. Lech, Dzieje i obraz Białegostoku w XVIII wieku, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. I, ed. J. Antoniewicz, J. Joka, Białystok 1968. ; Maisel W., Sądownictwo miasta Poznania do końca XVI wieku, Poznań 1961. ; Makiłła D., Artykuły henrykowskie (1573–1576). Studium historyczno-prawne, Warszawa 2012. ; Makowiecki T., Archiwum planów Tylmana z Gameren, architekta epoki Sobieskiego, Warszawa 1938. ; Małek A., Białystok pod zaborem pruskim 1795–1807, "Białostocczyzna" 14 (1999), 4. ; Ciesielski T., Armia koronna w czasach Augusta III, Warszawa 2009. ; Małek A., Kamera Wojny i Domen Departamentu Białostockiego Nowych Prus Wschodnich 1796–1807. Monografia zespołu archiwalnego, Warszawa 2007. ; Małek A., Mieszkańcy Białegostoku pod zaborem pruskim, "Zeszyt Naukowy Muzeum Wojska" 10 (1996). ; Marchesano L., Michel Ch., Printing the Grand Manner: Charles Le Brun and Monumental Prints in the Age of Louis XIV, Los Angeles 2010. ; Maroszek J., Białystok i Knychówek – dwie realizacje tego samego projektu kościoła parafialnego w pierwszej połowie XVII wieku, "Białostocczyzna" 7 (1992), 4. ; Jabłonowska A., Ustawy powszechne dla dóbr moich rządców, t. I–VII, Siemiatycze 1783–1785 (pierwsze wydanie) oraz t. I–VIII, Warszawa 1786. ; Maroszek J., Dzieje Białegostoku w latach 1547–1692, [in:] Historia Białegostoku, ed. A.Cz. Dobroński, Białystok 2012. ; Maroszek J., Dzieje województwa podlaskiego do 1795 roku, Białystok 2013. ; Maroszek J., Najstarszy dokument uposażeniowy kościoła farnego w Białymstoku z 4 grudnia 1581 r., "Białostocczyzna" 11 (1996), 2. ; Maroszek J., Pogranicze Litwy i Korony w planach króla Zygmunta Augusta. Z historii realizacji myśli monarszej między Niemnem a Narwią, Białystok 2000. ; Maroszek J., Ponowienie praw miejskich Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 13 (1998), 3. ; Ciesielski T., Garnizony państwowe w miastach koronnych w latach 1717–1763, [in:] Studia historyczno-wojskowe, t. III: Armia i społeczeństwo, ed. T. Ciesielski, Zabrze 2009. ; Maroszek J., Pożary w miastach podlaskich do końca XVIII wieku, [in:] Ars historiae – historia artis, eds E. Dubas-Urwanowicz, J. Maroszek, Białystok 2012. ; Maroszek J., Prawo polskie na Podlasiu do 1569 roku, [in:] O prawie i jego dziejach księgi dwie. Studia ofiarowane Profesorowi Adamowi Lityńskiemu w czterdziestopięciolecie pracy naukowej i siedemdziesięciolecie urodzin, vol. I, eds M. Mikołajczyk, J. Ciągwa, P. Fiedorczyk, A. Stawarska-Rippel, T. Adamczyk, A. Drogoń, W. Organiściak, K. Kuźmicz, Białystok–Katowice 2010. ; Maroszek J., Przykahałek żydowski w Białymstoku 1658–1795, [in:] Białystok Mayn Heym, ed. D. Boćkowski, Białystok 2013. ; Maroszek J., Rewelacyjne odkrycie nieznanych najstarszych dokumentów dla Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 14 (1999), 1. ; Maroszek J., Rzemiosło w miastach podlaskich w XVI–XVIII w., [in:] Studia nad produkcją rzemieślniczą w Polsce (XIV–XVIII w.), eds M. Kwapień, J. Maroszek, A. Wyrobisz, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk 1976. ; Kalendarz półstuletni 1750–1800, ed. by B. Baczko, H. Hinz, Warszawa 1975. ; Maroszek J., Siemiatycze jako ośrodek dóbr ziemskich w XV–XVIII w. (do 1801 r.), [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów Siemiatycz, ed. H. Majecki, Warszawa 1989. ; Maroszek J., Tajemnice białostockiego pałacu, "Medyk Białostocki" 78–80 (2009). ; Maroszek J., Targowiska miejskie w Koronie Polskiej w drugiej połowie XVIII i XVIII wieku, Białystok 1990. ; Maroszek J., Własność cerkiewna na terenie Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 7 (1992), 3. ; Ciesielski T., Problematyka badań nad skarbowością polską i litewską czasów saskich (lata 1717–1764), "Miscellanea Historico-Archivistica" 12 (2000). ; Maśliński A., Architektura antyku w interpretacji baroku, Lublin 1962. ; Mączak A., Nierówna przyjaźń. Układy klientalne w perspektywie historycznej, Wrocław 2003. ; Michaluk D., Granice województwa podlaskiego i postrzeganie obszaru Podlasia w latach 1513–2013, [in:] Podlasie nadbużańskie. 500-lecie województwa podlaskiego, ed. O. Łatyszonek, Ciechanowiec 2013 ; Michałowska A., Gminy żydowskie w dawnej Rzeczypospolitej. Wybór tekstów źródłowych, Warszawa 2003 ; Mikołajczyk M., Proces kryminalny w miastach Małopolski XVV–XVIII wieku, Katowice 2013. ; Mikuła M., Zakres przedmiotowy spadkobrania testamentowego w statutach litewskich, "Krakowskie Studia z historii państwa i prawa" 3 (2010). ; Kitowicz J., Opis obyczajów za panowania Augusta III, introduction by M. Dernałowicz, Warszawa 1999. ; Miłobędzki A.J., Tradycja średniowieczna w polskiej rezydencji nowożytnej, "Kwartalnik Architektury i Urbanistyki" 24 (1979), 4. ; Mironowicz A., Nieznane dokumenty do dziejów cerkwi Białostockich z początku XIX wieku, "Białostocczyzna" 14 (1999), 4. ; Mossakowski S., Tylman z Gameren. Architekt polskiego baroku, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk 1973. ; Czaplińska M., Orzelska Anna Katarzyna, [in:] Polski słownik biograficzny, t. XXIV, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk 1979. ; Moszyński J.A., Podróż do Prus, Saksonii i Czech odbyta w roku 1838–1839, t. I, Wilno 1844. ; Mościcki H., Białystok – zarys historyczny, Białystok 1933. ; Mościcki H., Branicka Aleksandra, [in:] Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. II, Kraków 1936. ; Muszyńska-Hoffmannowa H., W Wersalu Podlaskim, Białystok 1978. ; Neale R.S., Bath 1680–1850: a social history, or, a valley of pleasure, yet a sink of Iniquity, London 1991. ; Nieciecki J., "Polski Wersal" – Białystok Jana Klemensa Branickiego, "Biuletyn Historii Sztuki" 63 (2001). ; Nieciecki J., Apoteoza Augusta III w białostockim pałacu Jana Klemensa Branickiego, "Roczniki Humanistyczne" 47 (1999), 4. ; Kościoł katolicki na Podlasiu. Zbior dokumentow erekcyjnych i funduszowych, v. 3: Białystok, introduction and edition J. Maroszek, Białystok 1999. ; Nieciecki J., Avant-cour białostockiej rezydencji, [in:] Rola oświaty i szkolnictwa w procesie kształtowania się świadomości narodowej na pograniczu polsko-litewsko-białoruskim, ed. W. Śleszyński, Białystok 2007. ; Nieciecki J., Białostockie założenie przestrzenne w XVIII wieku, [in:] Ogród Branickich w Białymstoku. Badania – Projekty – Realizacja, Warszawa 1998. ; Czapska A., Zasady sytuowania założeń barokowych w miasteczkach podlaskich od połowy XVII po wiek XVIII, "Rocznik Białostocki" 9 (1970). ; Nieciecki J., Ceremoniał powitania królewicza Karola na białostockim dworze Jana Klemensa Branickiego w 1758 roku, "Acta Academiae Atrium Vilnensis" 54 (2009). ; Nieciecki J., Dwór Jana Klemensa Branickiego w Białymstoku, [in:] Ogród Branickich w Białymstoku. Badania – Projekty – Realizacja, Warszawa 2000. ; Nieciecki J., Kalendarium prac Antoniego Herliczki, "Białostocczyzna" 6 (1991), 2. ; Nieciecki J., Kim był Antoni Herliczka?, "Białostocczyzna" 6 (1991), 3. ; Nieciecki J., Monument serc Stefana Mikołaja i Katarzyny Aleksandry Branickich w Białymstoku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 3 (1997). ; Nieciecki J., Opowieści o "Podlaskim Wersalu". O tym jak zwiedzano piękności parków i okolic Białegostoku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorskich Województwa Białostockiego" 4 (1998). ; Nieciecki J., Opowieści o "Polskim Wersalu", "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Białostockiego" 2 (1996). ; Nieciecki J., Opowieści o "Polskim Wersalu". O tym jak ogród przenikał do pałacu, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 5 (1999). ; Krótka nauka budownicza dworów, pałaców, zamków podług nieba i zwyczaju polskiego, ed. by A. Miłobędzki, Wrocław 1957. ; Nieciecki J., Opowieści o "Polskim Wersalu". O tym, jak król August III na niedźwiedzia polował, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Białostockiego" 4 (1998). ; Cellarius A., Regni Poloniae, regionumque omnium ad id Pertinentium Novißima descriptio, Amsterdam 1659. ; Nieciecki J., Pałacyk Gościnny w Białymstoku – propozycja wystroju wnętrz i zagospodarowania otoczenia, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 6 (2000). ; Nieciecki J., Pałacyk Gościnny w Białymstoku, Białystok 2006. ; Nieciecki J., Plan rezydencji białostockiej w czasach Jana Klemensa Branickiego, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 7 (2001). ; Nieciecki J., Pomnik na serca matki i syna, "Białostocczyzna" 6 (1991), 4. ; Nieciecki J., Testament Jana Klemensa Branickiego, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. V, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 2001. ; Nieciecki J., Wystrój snycerski z XVIII w. kościoła pw. Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Marii Panny w Białymstoku, [in:] Studia nad sztuką renesansu i baroku, ed. A. Maśliński, t. I, Lublin 1989. ; Nowak J., Zając M., Optyka elementarna, Wrocław 1998. ; Ochmański J., Biskupstwo wileńskie w średniowieczu, Poznań 1972. ; Oleksicki A., Socjotopografia Białegostoku w XVIII w. w świetle inwentarza miasta z 1771/1772 r. i planu Beckera z 1799 r., [in:] Studia i materiały z dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. IV, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 1985. ; Kuczyński W., Pamiętnik 1668–1737, compilation under the supervision of J. Maroszek. ; Czyżewski P., Najstarsza białostocka księga miejska, "Białostocczyzna" 10 (1995), 4. ; Oleksicki J., Spław zboża rzeką Narwią w XVI wieku, [in:] Studia nad społeczeństwem i gospodarką Podlasia, ed. A. Wyrobisz, Warszawa 1981. ; Oleńska A., "Sekretne treści" pałacu w Białymstoku. O Figurze Rotatora na klatce schodowej, [in:] Artyści włoscy w Polsce. XV–XVIII wiek, Warszawa 2004. ; Oleńska A., Analiza kompozycji i dekoracji ogrodu przy pałacu Jana Klemensa Branickiego w Białymstoku, [in:] Ogród Branickich w Białymstoku. Badania–projekty–realizacja 1998. Studia i materiały, Ogrody 4 (10), Warszawa 1998. ; Oleńska A., Jan Klemens Branicki. Sarmata nowoczesny. Kreowanie wizerunku poprzez sztukę, Warszawa 2011. ; Oleńska A., Tykocin – pomnik chwały rodu Jana Klemensa Branickiego, [in:] Fundator i mecenas. Magnateria Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku, eds E. Dubas-Urwanowicz, J. Urwanowicz, Białystok 2011. ; Oleńska A., Wątki heroiczne w programie dekoracji białostockiej rezydencji Jana Klemensa Branickiego, [in:] Dwory magnackie w XVIII wieku. Rola i znaczenie kulturowe, eds T. Kostkiewiczowa, A. Roćko, Warszawa 2005. ; Olszewicz B., Kartografia polska XVIII wieku. Przegląd chronologiczno-bibliograficzny (dokończenie), "Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny" 10 (1932). ; Opas T., Własność w miastach szlacheckich województwa lubelskiego w XVIII w., "Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne: 22 (1970), 1. ; Pałucki W., Nazwy miejscowe typu Białystok, Górnystok, Ponikłystok, "Onomastica" 7 (1961) ; Paszkowski W., Wątki gotyckie pałacu Branickich w Białymstoku, "Ochrona Zabytków" 5 (1952), 4. ; Czyżewski P., Wasilków – przykład renesansowego rozplanowania miasta i starostwa, [in:] Małe miasta. Przestrzenie, Supraśl 2004. ; Lietuvos Metrika, Knyga Nr. 523 (1528), Viešujų reikalų knyga 1, parengė A. Baliulis, A. Dubonis, Vilnius 2006. ; Pawlata L., Problematyka i stan badań archeologicznych na obszarze miasta Białystok, "Podlaskie Zeszyty Archeologiczne" 3 (2007). ; Pelc J., Ceny w Gdańsku w XVI i XVII wieku, Lwów 1937. ; Piwarski K., Stefan Mikołaj Branicki, [in:] Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. II, Warszawa–Kraków–Łódź–Poznań–Wilno–Zakopane 1937. ; Płosiński J., Potop szwedzki na Podlasiu 1655–1657, Zabrze 2006. ; Popławski T., Droga Chodkiewiczowska i Bazyliańska – najstarsze trakty Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 10 (1995), 4. ; Popławski T., Errata do "Moskiewskiego planu Białegostoku" [in:] "Białostocczyzna" 8 (1993), 2. ; Popławski T., Przestrzeń współczesnego miasta Białegostoku na tle historycznych podziałów, "Białostocczyzna" 11 (1996), 2. ; Prayetfuss (Breitfus, Bretfus, Prefusz) Hiob, [in:] Polski Słownik Biograficzny, vol. XXVIII, 2, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk–Łódź 1985. ; Prószyńska Z., Zegary Stanisława Augusta , Warszawa 1994. ; Ćwiek Z., Z dziejów wsi koronnej w XVII wieku, Warszawa 1966. ; Putkowska J., Wpływ sztuki Andre Le Notre'a na kształtowanie otoczenia rezydencji w Polsce w końcu XVII i 1. połowie XVIII wieku, [in:] "Biuletyn Historii Sztuki" 63 (2001), 1–4. ; Łubieński W.A., Swiat we wszystkich swoich częsciach większych y mnieyszych, to iest: w Europie, Azyi, Affryce y Ameryce, w monarchiach, krolestwach, xięstwach, prowincyach, wyspach y miastach, geograficznie, chronologicznie y historycznie okryslony, t. I, Wrocław 1740. ; Rachuba A., Konfederacje wojska litewskiego 1655–1663, Zabrze 2010. ; Reychman J., Orient w kulturze polskiego oświecenia, Wrocław 1964. ; Rolnik D., Kasztelan krakowski Antoni Jabłonowski i inni "możnowładcy". O roli politycznej magnaterii w czasach panowania Stanisława Augusta, [in:] Wobec króla i Rzeczypospolitej. Magnateria w XVI–XVIII wieku, Kraków 2012. ; Rolnik D., Szlachta koronna wobec konfederacji targowickiej (maj 1792 – styczeń 1793), Katowice 2000. ; Romaniuk Z., Drukarstwo w Białymstoku do 1915 r., "Białostocczyzna" 14 (1999), 4. ; Romaniuk Z., Dubno – zapomniana rezydencja Sapiehów, [in:] Rezydencje Sapiehów w Dubnie, eds A. Andrzejewski, H. Karwowska, Białystok 2007. ; Romaniuk Z., Kilka uwag o początkach osady i miasta Białystok, [in:] Szkice do dziejów Białegostoku, eds M. Kietliński, W. Śleszyński, Białystok 2003. ; Romaniuk Z., Straty na Podlasiu w czasie "potopu" na przykładzie starostwa brańskiego, "Białostocczyzna" 12 (1997), 1. ; D. Korolczuk, J. Maroszek, T. Popławski, Wartość przestrzeni i środowiska kulturowego dzielnicy Bojary, "Białostocczyzna" 9 (1994), 3. ; Romaniuk Z., Źródła do początków obwodu białostockiego w zbiorach Biblioteki Narodowej PAU i PAN w Krakowie, "Białostocczyzna" 16 (2001), 1–2. ; Romaniuk Z., Żydzi białostoccy do 1915 roku, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. V, Białystok 2001. ; Mapa Polski z podziałem na województwa z 1770 r. oraz kilku ważniejszych okresów, ed. by J.M. Bazewicz, Kraków 1895. ; Rostworowski E, Poniatowski Andrzej, [in:] Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. XXVII, Wrocław 1983. ; Rutkowski H., Okres Stanisława Augusta w badaniach Karola Buczka nad kartografią dawnej Rzeczypospolitej, [in:] Karol Buczek (1902–1983), człowiek i uczony, ed. D. Karczewski i in., Kraków–Bydgoszcz 2004. ; Rutkowski M., Przywilej cechowy Jana Klemensa i Izabeli z Poniatowskich Branickich z 1769 r., "Rocznik Białostocki" 17 (1991). ; Rutkowski M., Uwarunkowania oraz bilans handlu zagranicznego Królestwa Polskiego wczesnej epoki paskiewiczowskiej, "Wschodni Rocznik Humanistyczny" 5 (2008). ; Rychlikowa I., Bojarzy pancerni na pograniczu moskiewskim XVI–XIX wieku, "Przegląd Wschodni" 3 (1994). ; Ryżewski G., Stara Kamienna – opis rezydencji Wiesiołowskich z 1712 r., "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 8–9 (2003). ; Ciara S., Senatorowie i dygnitarze koronni w drugiej połowie XVII wieku, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1990. ; Danieluk J., 500 lat województwa podlaskiego. Historia w dokumentach, Białystok 2013. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Bd. XXXII, Leipzig 1891. ; Samusik K., Samusik J., Pałace i dwory Białostocczyzny, Białystok 1998. ; Sekunda W., Płyty kominkowe z pałacu w Choroszczy pozyskane do zbiorów Muzeum Okręgowego w Białymstoku, "Rocznik Białostocki" 15 (1981). ; Semkowicz W., Wywody szlachectwa w Polsce w XIV–XVII w., "Rocznik Towarzystwa Heraldycznego" 3 (1913). ; Materiały do architektury polskiej, t. I: Wieś i miasteczko, z. 3, Warszawa 1916. ; Sikora D., Ogród Branickich w Białymstoku i jego rewaloryzacja, "Ochrona Zabytków" 2006, nr 1. ; Skrodzki E., Partia wolanta z dyplomatą, "Tygodnik Ilustrowany" 11 (1881), 263. ; Skrok Z., Kościoł parafialny pod wezwaniem Wniebowstąpienia [!] NMP w Białymstoku. ; Słownik terminologiczny sztuk pięknych, ed. K. Kubalska-Sulkiewicz, Warszawa 2002. ; Sobczak J., Sejmiki województwa podlaskiego po reformie w r. 1791, "Studia Historyczne" 29 (1986), 4. ; Sokół M., Krzyże i kapliczki przydrożne w krajobrazie miejskim Białegostoku – wczoraj i dziś, [in:] Zeszyty dziedzictwa kulturowego, eds K. Łopatecki, W. Walczak, Białystok 2007. ; Dąbkowski P., Prawo prywatne polskie, t. II, Lwów 1911. ; Sosna G., Doroteusz F., Orla na Podlasiu. Dzieje Cerkwi, miasta i okolic, Bielsk Podlaski–Ryboły–Białystok 1997. ; Sprawozdanie z badań archeologicznych, Białystok 1983, (the typescript kept at the Białystok Branch of National Heritage Board of Poland). ; Srogosz T., Żołnierz swawolny. Z dziejów obyczajów armii koronnej w XVII wieku, Warszawa 2010. ; Stankiewicz U., Pałac Branickich w Białymstoku – źródła archeologiczne z lat 2001–2002, "Podlaskie Zeszyty Archeologiczne" 3 (2007). ; More Precious Than Gold. Treasures of the Polish National Library, ed. H. Tchórzewska-Kabata, Warszawa 2003. ; Straubel R., Biographisches Handbuch Der Preubischen Verwaltungs- und Justizbeamten 1740–1806/15, München 2009. ; Strzelecki S., Czy Białystok pamięta o Izabeli Branickiej?, "Bibliotekarz Podlaski" 15–16 (2007–2008). ; Szczuka N., Białostocka rezydencja Jana Klemensa Branickiego (1689–1771) jako jeden z ośrodków kultury muzycznej Rzeczypospolitej XVIII wieku, "Białostocczyzna" 10 (1995), 4. ; Sztachelska A., Białostocki ośrodek miejski w okresie działalności Jana Klemensa Branickiego. Zagadnienia prawno-ustrojowe, sądownictwa i zabudowa miasta, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. IV, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 1985. ; Sztachelska A., Białystok w korespondencji Branickich, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. III, ed. J. Joka, Białystok 1972. ; Dąbrowska M., Kafle i piece kaflowe w Polsce do końca XVIII wieku, Wrocław 1987. ; Sztachelska A., Białystok w okresie działalności Jana Klemensa Branickiego. Zagadnienia prawno-ustrojowe, sądownictwo i zabudowa miasta, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. IV, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 1985. ; Sztachelska A., Trzy księgi miejskie białostockie, "Archeion" 50 (1968). ; Sztachelska A., Źródła do dziejów miasta Białegostoku w XVII i XVIII w. (do 1795 r.), "Rocznik Białostocki" 11 (1972). ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., "Kwadrat Rynku" jako centrum handlowe Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 5 (1990), 3. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Antoni Wroczyński – landwójt Białegostoku, "Echa Bojar" (2001), 4. ; Neue Erdbeschreibung, T. 1, Bd. 2: A.F. Büsching, Welcher das ganze russische Reich, Preußen, Polen, Hungarn, und die europäische Türkey, mit den dazu gehörigen und einverleibten Ländern, enthält, Bohn 1760. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Białystok w czasach Branickich (lata 1708–95), [in:] Historia Białegostoku, ed. A.Cz. Dobroński, Białystok 2012. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Białystok za pałacową bramą, Białystok 2009. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Jan Klemens Branicki (1689–1771), "Białostocczyzna" 4 (1989), 4. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Kartki z życia Elżbiety (Izabeli) z Poniatowskich Branickiej (1730–1808), [in:] Izabela z Poniatowskich Branicka. Życie i działalność publiczna, ed. C. Kuklo, Białystok 2014. ; Dąbrowski S., Teatr hetmański w Białymstoku w XVIII w., Białystok 1938. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Magnackie dobra Jana Klemensa Branickiego, Białystok 2006. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Nieznany fragment lustracji mostu pod Ploskami, "Białostocczyzna" 1 (1986), 2. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Prawa miejskie Białegostoku, "Białostocczyzna" 4 (1989), 4. ; Sztachelska-Kokoczka A., Stefan Mikołaj Branicki, [in:] Słownik biograficzny białostocko-łomżyńsko-suwalski, z. 3, Białystok 2005. ; Szyburska T., Białystok. Zespół pałacowy d. Branickich. Dokumentacja historyczno-architektoniczna, Warszawa 1972 (typescript). ; Szymańska I., Średzińska A., Pałac Branickich. Historia i wnętrza, Białystok 2011. ; Neu-Ostpreussisches Intelligenz-Blatt of 5 VII 1799. ; Śmiałowski J., Zarobkowanie pozarolnicze ludności rolniczej w Królestwie Polskim w latach przeduwłaszczeniowych (1815–1864), Łódź 1973. ; Tazbir J., Arianie w Białymstoku i okolicach, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. I, eds J. Antoniewicz, J. Joka, Białystok 1968. ; Teodorczyk J., Żygulski Z., Dwugłos o bitwie pod Kircholmem. Historia i ikonografia, "Rocznik Historii Sztuki" 24 (1999). ; Dmowska-Grabiasowa H., Działalność kulturalna Izabeli Branickiej w świetle korespondencji, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. IV, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 1985. ; Tęgowski J., Wróbel W., Dzieje Białegostoku w okresie średniowiecza i wczesnej nowożytności, [in:] Historia Białegostoku, ed. A.Cz. Dobroński, Białystok 2012. ; Tomalska J., Artyści na dworze hetmana Branickiego, "Białostocczyzna" 4 (1989), 1. ; Trzebiński W., Działalność urbanistyczna magnatów i szlachty w Polsce XVIII wieku, Warszawa 1962. ; Trzoska J., Gdańskie młynarstwo i piekarnictwo w II połowie XVII i w XVIII wieku, Gdańsk 1973. ; Turecki A., Plan du chateau et de la ville de Białystok avec ses environs, [in:] Ochrona reliktów urbanistycznych Białegostoku, eds J. A. Włodarczyk, G. Dąbrowska-Milewska, A. Turecki Białystok 1996. ; Tykiel B., Kilka uwag historyczno-statystycznych o guberni augustowskiej, "Biblioteka Warszawska" 4 (1857). ; Uruszczak W., Ustawodawstwo sejmowe w sprawach Żydów z lat 1496–1572, [in:] Rzeczypospolita państwem wielu narodowości i wyznań XVI–XVIII wiek, eds T. Ciesielski, A. Filipczak-Kocur, Warszawa–Opole 2008. ; Niemcewicz J.U., Pamiętniki czasów moich, t. I, ed. by J. Dihm, Warszawa 1957. ; Urwanowicz J. (ed.), Władza i prestiż. Magnateria Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku, Białystok 2003. ; Urwanowicz J., Stefan Mikołaj Branicki – szkic do portretu (z kłopotami z urzędem wojewody podlaskiego w tle), [in:] O prawie i jego dziejach księgi dwie. Studia ofiarowane Profesorowi Adamowi Lityńskiemu w czterdziestopięciolecie pracy naukowej i siedemdziesięciolecie urodzin, t. I, eds M. Mikołajczyk, J. Ciągwa, P. Fiedorczyk, A. Stawarska-Rippel, T. Adamczyk, A. Drogoń, W. Organiściak, K. Kuźmicz, Białystok–Katowice 2010. ; Dobroński A.Cz., Białystok Izabeli Branickiej, pruski i rosyjski, [in:] Izabela z Poniatowskich Branicka. Życie i działalność publiczna, ed. C. Kuklo, Białystok 2014. ; Walicki M., Rembrandt e Polsce, "Biuletyn Historii Sztuki" 18 (1956), 3. ; Wasilewski T., Białystok w XVI–XVII wieku, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. I, eds J. Antoniewicz, J. Joka, Białystok 1968. ; Wasilewski T., Kształtowanie się białostockiego ośrodka miejskiego w XVII i XVIII w., [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. IV, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 1985. ; Wasilewski T., Powstanie miasta Białegostoku, [in:] Studia nad społeczeństwem i gospodarką Podlasia w XVI–XVIII w., ed. A. Wyrobisz, Warszawa 1981. ; Wątroba P., Trzy ogrody Podlasia w świetle rysunków Pierre'a Ricaud de Tirregaille'a odnalezionych w Bibliotheque Nationale de France, "Biuletyn Historii Sztuki" 63 (2001), 1–4. ; Wernerowa W., Ocena "ankiet parafialnych" jako źródła wiedzy Karola Perthéesa o fizjografii Rzeczypospolitej przedrozbiorowej, [in:] Karol Perthées (1739–1815), fizjograf Pierwszej Rzeczypospolitej. Życie oraz działalność kartograficzna i entomologiczna, ed. J. Pawłowski, Warszawa 2003. ; Wilkiewicz-Wawrzyńczykowa A., Spory graniczne polsko-litewskie w XV–XVII w., Wilno 1938. ; Wiśniewski J., Początki Białegostoku i okolicznego osadnictwa, [in:] Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku, t. IV, ed. H. Majecki, Białystok 1985. ; Niemcewicz J.U., Pamiętniki czasów moich. Dzieło pośmiertne, Lipsk 1868. ; Wójciuk M., Urzędnicy ziemscy województwa brzesko-litewskiego w czasach saskich, "Wschodni Rocznik Humanistyczny" 2 (2005). ; Centralny Katalog Zbiorów Kartograficznych w Polsce, z. 5: Wieloarkuszowe mapy topograficzne ziem polskich 1576–1870, cz. 2, ed. by T. Paćko, W. Trzebiński, Wrocław 1982. ; Wójtowicz G., Wójtowicz A., Historia monetarna Polski, Warszawa 2003. ; Wróbel W., Działalność Stefana Mikołaja Branickiego herbu Gryf w Białymstoku w latach 1689–1709, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 14 (2008). ; Wróbel W., Działalność Stefana Mikołaja Branickiego herbu Gryf w Białymstoku w latach 1689–1709, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 14 (2008). ; Wróbel W., Klasztor brygidek w Grodnie – największa fundacja sakralna rodu Wiesiołowskich, "Zeszyty Naukowe Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Historyków Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku" 2 (2009). ; Wróblewska G., Rozplanowanie nowożytnych miast w Wielkopolsce od XVI do końca XVIII wieku, Warszawa–Poznań 1977. ; Wyczański A., Historyk wobec liczby, [in:] Metody i wyniki. Z warsztatu historyka dziejów społeczeństwa polskiego, ed. S. Kalabiński, in cooperation with J. Hensel, I. Rychlikowa, Warszawa 1980. ; Wyczański A., Wieś polskiego odrodzenia, Warszawa 1969. ; Wyrobisz A., Spław na Bugu w XVI i pierwszej połowie XVII wieku, "Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej" 32 (1984), 4. ; Zasławska D.N., Chinoiserie w Wilanowie. Studium z dziejów nowożytnej recepcji mody chińskiej w Polsce, Warszawa 2008. ; Opisy parafii dekanatu knyszyńskiego z roku 1784, ed. by W. Wernerowa, "Studia Podlaskie" 1 (1990). ; Dobroński A.Cz. (ed.), Historia Białegostoku, A. Cz., Białystok 2012. ; Zdrójkowski Z., Teodor Ostrowski (1750–1802). Pisarz dawnego polskiego prawa sądowego, Warszawa 1956. ; Zeller E., Ratusz w Białymstoku, "Białostocczyzna" 4 (1989), 2. ; Zeller-Narolewska, Pałac Branickich w Białymstoku w XIX i XX w. Przemiany i problemy konserwatorskie, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 7 (2001). ; Zielińska T., Klientela w otoczeniu Jana Klemensa Branickiego kasztelana krakowskiego i hetmana wielkiego koronnego około połowy XVIII wieku, [in:] Patron i dwór. Magnateria Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku, eds E. Dubas-Urwanowicz, J. Urwanowicz, Warszawa 2006. ; Zielińska T., Magnateria polska epoki saskiej: funkcje urzędów i królewszczyzn w procesie przeobrażeń warstwy społecznej, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk 1977. ; Żórawska-Witkowska A., Muzyka na dworze Jana Klemensa Branickiego, [in:] Dwory magnackie w XVIII wieku. Rola i znaczenie kulturowe, eds T. Kostkiewicz, A. Roćko, Warszawa 2005. ; Żurkowa R., Z dziejów organizacji Departamentu Białostockiego w 1807 r., "Rocznik Białostocki" 2 (1961). ; Żyłko E., Mecenat artystyczny hetmana Jana Klemensa Branickiego i Elżbiety z Poniatowskich Branickiej (1709–1809), Warszawa 1963, Biblioteka Jagiellońska, Przyb. 565/06. ; Высоцкая Н.Ф., Жывапіс Беларусі XII–XVIII стагоддзяў, Мінск 1980. ; http://bn.org.pl/download/document/1236004326.pdf http://www.rcin.org.pl/igipz/dlibra/docmetadata?id=282 ; Dobroński A.Cz., Białystok garnizonowy, "Medyk Białostocki" 2012, no. 107. ; Ostrowski T., Prawo cywilne albo szczególne narodu polskiego, t. I, Warszawa 1784. ; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Izabela_Branicka.JPG ; https://jbc.bj.uj.edu.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=229083&from=pubstats ; http://leb.nlr.ru/ ; https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuriany ; https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadania_praw_miejskich_w_Polsce_po_1900 ; https://rcin.org.pl/dlibra/show-content/publication/edition/460?id=460&from=FBC ; http://rcin.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=289&from=&dirids=1&ver_id=&lp=51&QI=1839E235687D009648366B54E33F0E6D-33 ; http://rcin.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=408&from=&dirids=1&ver_id=&lp=1&QI=255C6F045CD617D330752E0301CE29BF-5 ; https://pl.pinterest.com/pin/256001560040580731/ ; Dobroński A.Cz., Białystok w latach 1795–1864, [in:] ed. A.Cz. Dobroński, Białystok 2012. ; https://poranny.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20131124/ALBU-MB/131129821 ; Pałac Branickich w Białymstoku, vol. I: Inwentarze z XVII i XVIII stulecia, parts 1–2, ed. by K. Łopatecki, W. Walczak, Białystok 2012. ; https://www.wrotapodlasia.pl/pl/region/historia/rezydencja.htm ; https://www.facebook.com/Wschodzacy.Bialystok/posts/491680020901665 ; Pinkas kahal Tiktin 381–566. Haskamot, hachlatot we-takanot kefi szehetikan min ha-pinkas ha-mekori sze-awad be-Szoa Israel Halperin, t. I, ed. by M. Naday [M. Kacykowicz], Jeruszalajim 1996. ; Polska stanisławowska w oczach cudzoziemców, vol. I–II, ed. by W. Zawadzki, Warszawa 1963. ; Potocka A., Pamiętniki, t. I, Warszawa 1898. ; Potocka-Wąsowiczowa A., Wspomnienia naocznego świadka, ed. by B. Grochulska, Warszawa 1965. ; Prawa i przywileje miasta i dóbr ziemskich Zabłudów XV–XVIII w., ed. J. Maroszek, Białystok 1994. ; Projekt konstytucji dla Galicji z 1790 r. ("Charta Leopoldina"), ed. and translated S. Grodziski, A. S. Gerhardt, Warszawa–Kraków 1981. ; Dobroński A.Cz., Lechowski A., Izabela Branicka w 200-lecie śmierci, Białystok 2008. ; Projekt prawa prowincjonalnego Obwodu Białostockiego z 1811 roku, ed. by K. Łopatecki, M. Piłaszewicz-Łopatecka, Białystok–Oświęcim 2015. ; Pruskie opisy miast polskich z końca XVIII wieku. Departament białostocki, ed. by J. Wąsicki, Poznań 1964. ; Radziwiłł A.S., Pamiętnik, t. II: 1637–1646, trans. and ed. by A. Przyboś, R. Żelewski, Warszawa 1980. ; Regestra thelonei aquatici Vladislaviensis saeculi XVI, published by S. Kutrzeba, F. Duda, Kraków 1915. ; Rulhiere C., Histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne, "Edinburgh Review" 14 (1809). ; Sapiehowie. Materiały historyczno-genealogiczne i majątkowe, t. II, Petersburg 1892. ; Schulz F., Podróże Inflantczyka z Rygi do Warszawy i po Polsce w latach 1791–1793, transl. by J.I. Kraszewski, ed. by W. Zawadzki, Warszawa 1956. ; Starowolski Sz., Polska albo opisanie położenia Królestwa Polskiego, ed. by A. Piskadło, Kraków 1976. ; Starzeński M., Na schyłku dni Rzeczypospolitej. Kartki z pamiętnika Michała Starzeńskiego (1757–1795), ed. by H. Mościcki, Warszawa 1914. ; Statut krakowskiej gminy żydowskiej z roku 1595 i jego uzupełnienia, ed. by A. Jakimi, Kraków 2005. ; Dubas-Urwanowicz E., Koronne zjazdy szlacheckie w dwóch pierwszych bezkrólewiach po śmierci Zygmunta Augusta, Białystok 1998. ; Sysang J.Ch., Le Comte Branizki Petit General de la Couronne, [Paris after 1727]. ; Święcki T., Opis starożytney Polski, t. I, Warszawa 1816. ; Urzędnicy centralni i dygnitarze Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego XIV–XVIII wieku. Spisy, ed. by H. Lulewicz, A. Rachuba, Kórnik 1994. ; Urzędnicy centralni i nadworni Polski XIV–XVIII wieku. Spisy, ed. by K. Chłapowski, S. Ciara, Ł. Kądziela, T. Nowakowski, E. Opaliński, G. Rutkowska, T. Zielińska, Kórnik 1992. ; Urzędnicy podlascy XIV–XVIII wieku. Spisy, ed. by E. Dubas-Urwanowicz, W. Jarmolik, M. Kulecki, J. Urwanowicz, Kórnik 1994. ; Volumina Constitutionum, part II, vol. 1: 1550–1585, ed. by S. Grodziski, I. Dwornicka, W. Uruszczak, Warszawa 2005. ; Volumina Constitutionum, part II, vol. 2: 1587–1609, ed. by S. Grodziski, Warszawa 2008. ; Volumina Legum, t. II, issued by J. Ohryzko, Petersburg 1859. ; Volumina Legum, t. III, issued by J. Ohryzko, Petersburg 1860. ; Volumina Legum, t. IV, issued by J. Ohryzko, Petersburg 1860. ; Dubas-Urwanowicz E., Urwanowicz J. (ed.), Fundator i mecenas. Magnateria Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku, Białystok 2011. ; Volumina Legum, t. V, issued by J. Ohryzko, Petersburg 1860. ; Volumina Legum, t. VII, issued by J. Ohryzko, Petersburg 1860. ; Volumina Legum, t. VIII, issued by J. Ohryzko, Petersburg 1860 ; Volumina Legum, t. IX, Kraków 1889. ; Wyrwicz K., Geografia powszechna czasów teraźniejszych, Warszawa 1770. ; Zabawy przyjemne i pożyteczne, vol. V, no. 1, Warszawa 1772. ; Zawisza K., Pamiętniki, ed. by J. Bartoszewicz, Warszawa 1862. ; Описане рукописнаго отделения Виленской Публичной Библютеки, вып. IV, Вильнo 1903. ; Полное собраніе законов Россійской Имперіи, Т. XLIV: Книга штатов, Ч. 2: Штаты по духовной и по гражданской части. Штаты по гражданской части (1809–1811), Санкт-Петербург 1830. ; Aftanazy R., Dzieje rezydencji na dawnych kresach Rzeczypospolitej, vol. V, Wrocław 1994. ; Dubas-Urwanowicz E., Urwanowicz J. (ed.), Patron i dwór. Magnateria Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku, Warszawa 2006. ; Alexandrowicz A., "Mappa szczegulna województwa podlaskiego" Karola de Perthées z 1795 r. Uwagi wstępne, "Studia Podlaskie" 1 (1990). ; Alexandrowicz S., Powstanie i rozwój miast województwa podlaskiego (XV – 1 poł. XVII w.), "Acta Baltico-Slavica" 1 (1964). ; Andrzejewski A., Karwowska H., Kamienica wielka rezydencji Sapiehów w Dubnie, gm. Boćki, woj. podlaskie, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 14 (2008). ; Baczkowski M., Garnizon Krakowa w latach 1796–1815. Struktura, finansowanie, stosunki z mieszkańcami, [in:] Zamki, twierdze i garnizony Opola, Śląska i dawnej Rzeczypospolitej, ed. T. Ciesielski, Zabrze 2010. ; Bałaban M., Ustrój gminy żydowskiej w XVI–XX w. (nowe badania naukowe), "Głos Gminy Żydowskiej" 1 (1937). ; Banach J., Herkules Polonus: studium z ikonografii sztuki nowożytnej, Warszawa 1984. ; Bandtkie J.W., Prawo prywatne polskie, Warszawa 1851. ; Bania Z., Pałac w Podhorcach, "Rocznik Historii Sztuki" 13 (1981). ; Bartczakowa A., Jakub Fontana, architekt warszawski XVIII wieku, Warszawa 1970. ; Baszanowski J., Przemiany demograficzne w Gdańsku w latach 1601–1846, Gdańsk 1995. ; Dubas-Urwanowicz E., Urwanowicz J. (ed.), Wobec króla i Rzeczypospolitej. Magnateria w XVI–XVIII wieku, Kraków 2012. ; Bąkowski J., Kronika kościoła parafialnego w m. Białymstoku położonego w diecezji wileńskiej, guberni grodzieńskie, powiecie i dekanacie białostockim. 1849, ed. by J. Maroszek, "Białostocczyzna" 8 (1993), 2. ; Bentkowski F., Spis medalów polskich lub z dziejami krainy polskiej stycznych, Warszawa 1830. ; Bernatowicz T., Alba. Od renesansowej willi do kompozycji krajobrazowej. Z badań źródłowych nad architekturą ogrodów na Kresach, Warszawa 2009. ; Bieńkowska K., Wyniki nadzoru archeologicznego prowadzonego w zachodniej części Rynku Kościuszki w Białymstoku, "Podlaskie Zeszyty Archeologiczne" 3 (2007). ; Bończak-Kucharczyk E., Maroszek J., "Pawilon Pod Orłem" w Parku Branickich w Białymstoku, "Białostocczyzna" 7 (1992), 4. ; Bończak-Kucharczyk E., Maroszek J., Kucharczyk K., Katalog parków i ogrodów zabytkowych dawnego województwa białostockiego. Część ogólna, Warszawa 2000. ; Bończak-Kucharczyk E., Maroszek J., Kucharczyk K., Katalog parków i ogrodów zabytkowych dawnego województwa białostockiego. Część szczegółowa, Białystok 2000. ; Bremer-David C. et. al., Masterpieces of the J. Paul Getty Museum. Decorative Arts, London 1997. ; Buczek K., Kartograf króla Stanisława Augusta. Życie i dzieła, [in:] Karol Perthées (1739–1815), fizjograf Pierwszej Rzeczypospolitej. Życie oraz działalność kartograficzna i entomologiczna, ed. J. Pawłowski, Warszawa 2003. ; Buczek K., Kartograf króla Stanisława Augusta. Życie i dzieła, ed. by H. Rutkowski, [in:] Karol Perthées (1739–1815), fizjograf Pierwszej Rzeczypospolitej. Życie oraz działalność kartograficzna i entomologiczna, ed. J. Pawłowski, Warszawa 2003. ; Dunin-Borkowski J.S., Polacy, dygnitarzami Austrii, t. I: Podkomorzowie i paziowie (1750–1890), Lwów 1890. ; Buczek K., O kilku mapach Polski z czasów Stanisława Augusta, "Kwartalnik Historii Nauki i Techniki" 18 (1973), 1. ; Bukowska K., Tomasz Drezner polski romanista XVII wieku i jego znaczenie dla nauki prawa w Polsce, Warszawa 1960. ; Dunin-Kozicki Z., Białystok w XVIII wieku, "Kwartalnik Litewski" 3 (1910). ; Centralny katalog zbiorów kartograficznych w Polsce, z. VI: Mapy ziem polskich przeglądowe i jednoarkuszowe topograficzne wydane w latach 1764–1814 i wybór map z lat 1815–1870 z uwzględnieniem zbiorów Biblioteki Polskiej w Paryżu, ed. by T. Paćko, W. Trzebiński, Warszawa 2000. ; Dziubecki T., Programy symboliczne i funkcje ceremonialne rezydencji magnackich. Puławy – Białystok – Radzyń Podlaski – Lubartów w latach 1730–1760, Warszawa 2010. ; Encyklopedyja powszechna, t. VII, Warszawa 1861. ; Ertman A., Rękopiśmienna mapa woj. podlaskiego K. Pertheesa z r. 1795. Jej źródła, metoda opracowania, znaczenie dla badań historycznych, "Analecta" 16 (2007), 1–2. ; Fiedorowicz T., Kietliński M., Maciejczuk J., Białostockie ulice i ich patroni, Białystok 2012. ; Filipczak-Kocur A., Skarbowość Rzeczypospolitej 1587–1648, Warszawa 2006. ; Filipow K., Herby białostockie, "Białostocczyzna" 4 (1989), 1. ; Gembarzewski B., Rodowody pułków polskich i oddziałów równorzędnych od r. 1717 do r. 1831, Warszawa 1925. ; Gieysztorowa I., Wstęp do demografii staropolskiej, Warszawa 1976. ; Glinka J., Herb miejski Białegostoku, "Miesięcznik Heraldyczny" 17 (1938), 2. ; Glinka J., Kaplica i cmentarz pod wezwaniem św. Marii Magdaleny w Białymstoku, "Rubieże" 1 (1992). ; Coxe W., Travels In Poland Russia and Denmark, Londyn 1802. ; Glinka J., Prace Jana Zygmunta Deybla w ramach mecenatu Jana Klemensa Branickiego, "Biuletyn Historii Sztuki" 23 (1961), 4. ; Glinka J., Ród Klasucia w wiekach XIII–XVI. Ze studiów nad kształtowaniem się i różnicowaniem społecznym bojarstwa litewskiego, cz. 1, "Studia Źródłoznawcze" 4 (1959). ; Glinka J., Ród Klausucia w wiekach XIII–XVI. Ze studiów nad kształtowaniem się i różnicowaniem społecznym bojarstwa litewskiego, cz. 2, "Studia Źródłoznawcze" 5(1960). ; Glinka J., Zamek obronny w Białymstoku na przełomie XVI i XVII wieku, "Rocznik Białostocki" 2 (1961). ; Gloger Z., Encyklopedia staropolska, t. II, Warszawa 1901. ; Gmiterek H., Komisja graniczna z 1623 roku. Przyczynek do dziejów sporów granicznych polsko-litewskich w XVII wieku, "Rocznik Bialskopodlaski" 11 (2003). ; Gołaszewski Ł., Zakrzewski A.B., Ustrój województwa podlaskiego XVI–XVIII wiek. Wybrane problemy, [in:] Podlasie nadbużańskie. 500-lecie województwa podlaskiego, ed. O. Łatyszonek, Ciechanowiec 2013. ; Gołębiowski, Gabinet medalów polskich oraz tych, które się dziejów Polski tyczą, ed. by E. Raczyński, Wrocław 1843. ; Górski K., Historia piechoty polskiej, Kraków 1896. ; Grassmann M., Wróbel W., Pierwszy raport z badań piwnic pałacu Branickich, "Medyk Białostocki" 2012, no. 109. ; Coxe W., Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark: Interspersed with Historical Relations and Politucal Inquires, vol. 1, Dublin 1784. ; Grycel J., Współczesna architektura mieszkaniowa polsko-białoruskiego pogranicza na przykładzie Białegostoku i Grodna, http://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/resources/i3/i4/i2/i4/r3424/GrycelJ_WspolczesnaArchitektura.pdf. ; Guldon Z., Zaludnienie Polski w 1629 r., "Zapiski Historyczne" 33 (1968), 4. ; Guldon Z., Zniszczenia gospodarcze w królewszczyznach sandomierskich w dobie rokoszu Zebrzydowskiego /1606 – 1609/, "Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej" 30 (1982), 3–4. ; Guzowski P., Chłopi i pieniądze na przełomie średniowiecza i czasów nowożytnych, Kraków 2008. ; Helmut G., The history of photography from the earliest use of camera obscura in the XI c up to 1914, London 1974. ; Herbst S., Potrzeba historii, czyli o polskim stylu życia: wybór pism, t. II, Warszawa 1978. ; Herszberg A.S., Pinkas Bialistok, vol. 1–2, New York 1950. ; Jabłonowski A., Podlasie, cz. 1, [in:] Źródła dziejowe, vol. XVII, part I, Warszawa 1908. ; Jabłonowski A., Podlasie, cz. 2, [in:] Źródła dziejowe, t. XVII, cz. II, Warszawa 1909. ; Jabłonowski A., Podlasie, cz. 3, [in:] Źródła dziejowe, t. XVII, cz. 3, Warszawa 1910. ; Der königlichen Republik Polen Woiwodschaft Podlachien mit dem obern Theile der Woiwodschaft Lublin oder Klein Polens nördlicher Theil. Nro. 43, hrsg. F. J. J. von Reilly, Wiedeń 1789. ; Jakimowicz T., Dwór murowany w Polsce w wieku XVI. Wieża – kamienica – kasztel, Warszawa–Poznań 1979. ; Jarmolik W., Gryzelda Wodyńska – przybrana córka Wiesiołowskich, "Białostocczyzna" 7 (1992) 4. ; Jarmolik W., Pierwsza lokacja miejska na Podlasiu (Sokołów Podlaski – 1424 r.), "Studia Podlaskie" 1 (1990). ; Jaroszewicz-Pieresławcew Z., Ideał biblioteki ziemiańskiej w siedemnastowiecznym dziele Jakuba Kazimierza Haura a rzeczywistość, [in:] Między barokiem a oświeceniem. Edukacja, wykształcenie, wiedza, ed. S. Achremczyk, Olsztyn 2005. ; Jučas M., Unia polsko-litewska, tłum. A. Firewicz, Toruń 2004. ; Kacperczyk M., Założenie pałacowo-ogrodowe Branickich w Białymstoku w XIX i XX w. – przemiany, zniszczenia, praktyka konserwatorska, [in:] Zeszyty dziedzictwa kulturowego, eds K. Łopatecki, W. Walczak, Białystok 2007. ; Kalyada V., Mobilizacja służby ziemskiej w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim w XVI stuleciu, [in:] Organizacja armii w nowożytnej Europie: struktura–urzędy–prawo–finanse, ed. K. Łopatecki, Zabrze 2011. ; Kałamajska-Saeed M., Dom Sapieżyński, cz. II: Ikonografia, Warszawa 2008. ; Kamiński Cz., Żukowski J., Katalog monet polskich, 1697–1763: epoka saska, Warszawa 1980. ; Karpińska M., Badania dziejów kobiet w Polsce w epoce nowożytnej (wiek XVI–XVIII), [in:] Dzieje kobiet w Polsce. Dyskusje wokół przyszłej syntezy, ed. K.A. Makowski, Poznań 2014. ; Faden W., A map of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Dutchy of Lithuania with their dismembered provinces and the Kingdom of Prussia, London 1793. ; Karpowicz M. Sztuka polska XVIII wieku, Warszawa 1985. ; Kasprzak A.J., O szkle na pańskim stole. Przyczynek do rozwoju szklanej zastawy stołowej w czasach saskich, [in:] Zastawy stołowe XVI–XX w. Materiały z sesji towarzyszącej wystawie "Splendor stołu" w Muzeum Sztuki Złotniczej Kazimierz Dolny 26–27 października 2006 [http://www.mnkd.pl/files/userfiles/files/Zastawy.pdf]. ; Kaźmierczak R., Kola A., Archeologiczne badania wykopaliskowe na terenie ogrodu Branickich w Białymstoku w 2000 roku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 7 (2001). ; Kaźmierczyk A., Żydzi w dobrach prywatnych: w świetle sądowniczej i administracyjnej praktyki dóbr magnackich w wiekach XVI–XVIII, Kraków 2002. ; Kirchner T., Le héros épique: peinture d'histoire et politique artistique dans la France du XVIIe siècle, Paris 2008. ; Kocójowa M., "Pamiątkom ojczystym ocalonym z burzy dziejowej". Muzeum Emeryka Hutten Czapskiego (Stańków–Kraków), Kraków 1978. ; Kola A., Archeologiczne badania wykopaliskowe na terenie ogrodu Branickich w Białymstoku w 1998 roku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 5 (1999). ; Kola A., Archeologiczne badania wykopaliskowe na terenie zabytkowego ogrodu Branickich w Białymstoku w 2001 roku, "Biuletyn Konserwatorski Województwa Podlaskiego" 8–9 (2003). ; Kołodziejczyk R., Kształtowanie się burżuazji w Królestwie Polskim (1815–1850), Warszawa 1957. ; Kondratiuk M., Nazwy miejscowe południowo-wschodniej Białostocczyzny, Wrocław 1974. ; Głuchowski J., Ikones książąt i królów polskich, Kraków 1605. ; Konopczyński W., Jan Klemens Branicki, [in:] Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. II, Warszawa–Kraków–Łódź–Poznań–Wilno–Zakopane 1937.
Issue 14.6 of the Review for Religious, 1955. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1955 Jnfecjration . Joseph P. Fisher Community Workshop . ¯ Sister Mary Joselyn Renovation and Adaptation . Joseph F. Gallen Book Reviews Questions and Answers Index to Volume XIV VOLUME XlV NUMBER RI:::VIF::W FOR RI:::LIGIOUS VOLUME XIV NOVEMBER, 1955 NUMBER 6 CONTENTS INTEGRATION--Joseph P. Fisher, S.J . 281 COMMUNITY WORKSHOP OF THE DULUTH BENEDICTINES-- Sister Mary Joselyn, O.S.B . 287 SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENTS . 292 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION---Joseph F. Gallen, S.J . 293 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS-- Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 319 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . . 328 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 29. Tax on Religious Houses for General Expenses . 329 30. Salaries of Religious to be Assigned to Province . 329 31. Indulgence in the Form of a 3ubilee' . . 330 32. Order 'of Procedure for Former Mothers General . 330 33. Matter for Questioning in Canonical Inquiry . 331 34. Modesty of Eyes . 332 35. Bowing to Superior's Chair . 333 36. Illegitimacy, When an Impediment . 333 INDEX TO VOLUME XIV, 1955 . 334 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 19550 Vol. XIV, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, .by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15. 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J., Adam C. Ellis, $.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Literary Editor: Edwin F. Falteisek, Copyright, 1955, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. Int:egrat:ion Joseph P. Fisher, S.J. ALL good Catholics cry out against secularism--the divorce of God from His world. They rightly insist that God must be made a part of a man's daily life, that God must be brough~t into education, business, government, entertainment--all the pursuits of human life. Men who insist on keeping God out of public life will make shipwreck of human life. If God is kept, so to speak, in church and not allowed to go out into the market place, the business world, the motion-picture halls, the places of government, then man will live most of his life without God and that is sure to be fatal. Although a religious is not likely to be tainted by secularism in the sense in which it is used above, there is a possibility of a some-what similar division in his life between the spiritual and ordinary life. How often a spiritual director finds that young religious going forth from the novitiate or from a period of some concentration.on the spiritual life into the active life feel very uncomfortable in their new surroundings and activities., Often enough they feel as if their spiritual life has evaporated almost overnight. At least it seems to them that they have suffered a great setback in their progress in the life of the soul; and that--naturally for good religious-~causes them concern. They then look upon their present way of life with some-thing like suspicion or even distrust, and they hanker, as it were, for the fleshpots of Egypt. It must be admitted that often, when such transfers are made, there actually is a loss of interest in spiritual things because of the, many distractions that duty and, perhaps, desire of relief bring into the lives of such religious. But much of the difficulty can be traced back to a wrong outlook on the spiritual life. In a sense it is alm0st inevitable that young, inexperienced minds develop a certain attitude on the spiritual life because of the way they approach it. Before they entered a seminary or convent, al-though they had been good Catholics, they had not worked sys-tematically on the spiritual life or used the various spir.itual exer-cises standard among religious. As a consequence, when they are. fa.ced .with a whole .new field of life, the spiritual life, and read. about it in books and hear about it in talks and retreats, they look. upon it as something different from what their lives have been, as 281' JOSEPH P. FISHER Ret~iew for Religious something superadded to ordinary life, as even opposed to ordinary life, as unable to be mixed with ordinary life. It seems a life apart, a sanctuaried life. It is 'lived in quiet, and solitude; it grows by prayer and penance; its natural habitat is the chapel or oratory; it is a plant easily wilted by exposure to the winds of the world. And so, when they do go forth from the warmth of novitiate fervor into the cool atmosphere of the classroom or hospital, they feel a chill. And to their minds there naturally seems a split between ~he spiritual life as they knew it and life as they are living it. But is not all this true? To a certain extent it is and has to.be. But frequently there is a ne'edless and harmful exaggeration, an over-emphasis on certain truths to the neglect of others. We can admit once and for all that the common insistence on silence and solitude and recollection is necessary especially for a beginner in the spiritual !ife. Before entering, religion he probably lived among many dis-tractions, engaging in sports, attending dances and parties, going to mdvies, and in general occupying himself with many such matters; and his life to a 'large extent was sustained by these things. Ob-viously, if they were continued, he would go on being supported by them and would never come to lean on the truths of the faith, the truths of the spiritual life. It is only when these false supports are removed and the noise of the world has faded away that he will be forced, so to speak, to lean on God and the things of God. He will either have to swim in the waters of the spirit or sink; or, of course, remove himself. With this admitted, let us turn to the question of how the harmful exaggeration can be handled. The main element in the exaggeration is that it sets up a di-vision in the life of man. Instead of life's being a whole, it becomes a thing of diverse and even antagonistic parts, parts which are held" together rather mechanically and awkwardly. On the one hand there is the spiritual life, needing its sl~ecial atmosphere, nourishment, and care. On the other hand there is ordinary, natural life with its entirely different needs and demands. Some hold them together rather forcefully; some give up the fight in favor of ordinary life; some, we hope, work out a satsifactory integration. The main error consists in thinking that a man is spiritual, is engaged in super-natural activity, only at certain restricted places and times--for example, at prayer, in chapel. If he is not in such places or doing such things, he is regarded as being away from the spiritual, super-natural life. He may be, but he need not be. So the ideal would be if the whole of life were spiritual, super- 282 November, 1955 INTEGRATION natural, if the whole of life were of a piece, if a man were~always about his Father's business. Is this possible? Can a man conceiv-ably be in such a posltxon that he regards a11 things, no matter what they are, as spiritual, supernatural? Whether he eats, plays, talks, suffers-~can it all, in a true sense, be the same? It seems 'that it was for the saints. St. Paul certainly lived out his exhortation: "Therefore, whether you eat or drink, or do anything else, do all for the glory of God" (I Cor. 10:31). ' The biographer of Brother Lawrence of the Resurrection, a discalced Carmelite lay brother, states: "Everything °was the same to him-~every place, every employment. The good Brother found God everywhere, as much while he was repairing shoes as while he was praying With the community. He was in no hurry to make his retreats, because he found in his ordinary work the same God to love and adore as in the depth of the desert" (Brother Lawrence, The Practice of the Presence of God, p. 53). And it has been told of Jerome Jaegen, whose process .of beatification has begun, that he combined attention to external things and to God in a wonderful way: "It is quite remarkable that just when he was campaigning for office and acquainting himself with his new duties, he was pass-ing through what he calls the first phase of the 'Mystical Marriage.' In this phase, to find her Groom, the soul need only turn to Him within her 'where the seat of consciousness is,' where He is always present. While he was a Deputy to the Diet his mystical life reached its full development. He attained to that condition in which one can simultaneously pay attention both to external things and to God manifesting His presence within the soul" (REVIEW FOR RE-LIGIOUS, II (1943), 359). Such, to a greater or less degree, must have been the outlook of all real saints. Life, theft, can be one, can all be spiritual, supernatural. A man does not have to pass arti-ficiall); from one part of his life to the next; does not have to leave for a time his warm spiritual world and run out, holding his breath, as it were, into the cold world of everyday life, then hasten back before his spiritual life has disappeared. It is true that we have been speaking of the saints, and saints could do what we cannot. Assuredly, but, if there is one thing in which ordinary men can well imitate the saints, it is, in this ideal of an integral life, where all is part of a whole. " . By what means, then, can a religious grow in this integrated way of life? The grace of God, of course, has much to do with it; but, as in most other matters concerning the spiritual life, we must 283 ~JOSEPH P. FISHER Revib~V for . Religiohs do our part. Various means can be suggested which are standard matter in books on the ascetical life. However, we shall endeavor to put them in a way that fits our purpose. The first and most obvious means of making the whole of life spiritual, supernatural, is to have what is called a "good intention." With the proper intention, a man in the state of grace can make all his good or indifferent voluntary acts a source of supernatural merit. Theologians dispute about the precise requisites of this in-tention; but all agree that the more explicit and actual the intention, the better. Fbr our purpose the thing to be insisted on is this:'a man should try to grow in the realization of this really very im-portant truth about the power of intention. He has to see it as an integrating factor in his life, as a unifying principle that assimilates whatever it touches into the supernatural life he leads. In this way a man is aware that all is supernatural, that no matter where he is; what he is doing, he has not left the spiritual world but is busy building it. It is clear that this ability to realize all things as super-natural through the means of a good intention requires a more" penetrating and active faith than is required to accept as spiritual such actions as prayer, visits to the Blessed Sacrament, and the like. The next means that suggests itself is the practice of the presence of God. This subject has been treated at length in several previous articles in the REVIEW 'FOR RELIGIOUS. Here I want to emphasize a certain point of view. For our purpose--a means of integration-- the practice of the presence of God remains a rather ineffective means if viewed in the following manner. (However, .there is a place even for it in the case of those who are learning the practice and know what is the further end they should have in mind.) A person is thought of as going along his ordinary life and then at the sound of a bell or at some stated interval as turning away for a moment from what he is doing and thinking of God. Then back to his ordinary life. A rather crude image may give a clearer idea of this method. It will be obvious how the image applies to our matter. A fish's normal element is water--it is at home in water.' But oc-casionally a fish jumps into the air, an entirely different element from water and one in which the fish is not perfectly at home. The forced leap into the higher and lighter element is for only a ~ery slight bit of time. Then the fish relapses into the medium congenial to it. Certainly such a manner of practicing the presence of God, if it goes no farther, would not help integration. On the.'other hand there is a way of practicing it which would be immensely helpful. 284 November, 1955 INTEGRATION As has been well said, we do not really put ourselves into the presence of God--we are actually there, always there. We cannot get away from God--He is closer and more pursuing than the air we breathe. But, of course, we have to know the facts, realize them, act on them. To this end it is suggested that we read matter on the presence of God and often make a meditation such as the Contem-plation for Obtaining Divine Love. It is only when God becomes, so to speak, the element in which we live our lives--in Him we live and move and bare our b.eing--tbat the presence of God will be an integrating force in our lives. It is important to point out that this practice is not only or even chiefly a matter of the mind; for, obviously, we cannot have God in the focus of our minds con-stantly. However, after much work on our part, He can be, as it were, aIways.on the fringe of our attention--but this must be with-out strain or violent effort. And best of all He can be at the end of all our loves; for in all things we can, if we so wish, love God. God, then, can be the unifying principle in our life, making all our living a whole, and enabling us to pass from prayer to play, from play to work, with the conviction and consequent peace that we are always about our Father's business and our soul's sanctifica-tion. It was no doubt with this ideal in mind that St. Ignatius "came to the following conclusion, stated in a letter he caused to be written to some young students and quoted by Father Lindworsky in The Ps~Icbolog~ of Asceticism: " 'Ou_r father holds it for better, ~hat in all things one should endeavor to find God, rather than that long continuous periods of time should be applied to prayer.' In-stead of devoting themselves to prolonged prayer, the students were exhorted to exercise themselves 'in finding God our Lord in all things, "in conversation, in walking, seeing, tasting, bearing, thinking, and in fact in all kinds of activity, for of a truth the majesty of God is in all things' " (p. 68). When a man has come to such a familiarity with God as St. Ignatius implies in this passage, it is hardly right to speak of the "practice" of the presence of God as if it were one practice more or less in the spiritual life. Really it is a man's spiritual life or at least has the function of a barometer in its regard. "Where thy treasure is there is thy heart also." There can be no doubt about it. Although in treating recollection we shall cover somewhat the same ground we did when treating the question of the presence of God, it seems worthwhile to examine the subject in its relation to integration. A rather common way of looking at recollection is in- 285 ~OSEPH P. FISHER dicated in some such expression, as, "He made an act of recollection." This suggests that the person in question is, for the most part, un-recollected, and then briefly recollects himself. This act of recollec-tion would consist of turning away from the distracting, perhaps absorbing, unspiritual business of the moment and turning to the thought of something pious unrelated to the matter at hand. As was said in connection, with the practice of the presence of God, there is a' place for this kind of thing, but it is not at all the ideal. There would seem to be something strange about the idea that a man i's recollected who recollects himself for brief, flashing moments; and for the rest of the time, most of the time, he is anything but recollected." Would it not be better to regard recollection as some-thing capable of being more pervasive, more continual? Perhaps at least at the beginning of one's endeavor to practice recollection it would be well to change the sense in which the word recollection is commonly used, that is, calling up a spiritual thought of some kind. Would it not get us closer to what we want if we would have it mean the gathering of our powers on what the will of God puts before us.?. My imagifiation, my mind, my will often tend away from what for me is expressly God's will. Holding them to what is God's will for me from the right motive--it is God's will and I wish to fulfill it--would seem to be a fine form of recollection. If I am supposed to pray, I call together my powers and bend them this way; if I am supposed to study, I marshal them on my books; if I am supposed to recreate, I turn them to this end--the motive always being to do God's will, to find God in all things. It is plain how this.again would make for integration. As one grow.s in the power of recollection, one would approach more and more the prac-tice of the presence of God as indicated above. Then God would come to be all in all. It would seem that the form of recollection proposed is espe- ¯ cially import~lnt for and adapted to active religious. If their activity is divorced from their spiritual life, sad, indeed, is their-lot. The harder they work, the farther they withdraw from spiritual progress. But they ought to sanctify themselves by their apostolate. This quires real effort, a real desire for spiritual progress. An integrated life will bring power and peace and spiritual ad-vancement. It is an ideal all religious should work for. It will. not come without effort and the grace of God. Life seems almost too short to mak~ a whole out of the many parts. But here, as in all things, there is a shortcut--the love of God.- 286 Communi .y orkshop ot: t:he .Dulu :h enedict:ines Sister M. Joselyn, O.S.B. i N the fall of 1954, Mother Martina Hqghes, Prioress of the Bene-dictine Sisters of Villa Sancta S~holastic~, Duluth, Minnesota, first projected .the plan ofa workshop for the sisters in which any problem of the community would receive a frank, orderly, and serious discussion under the leadership of an experienced priest. All the sisters were urged to give thought to matters they would like to consider or have ~onsidered. at the workshop; aJad ar.rangemenrs wi~re made to bring a large group--as it happened, about half the community, which numbers more thah four hundred members--to the mother house for a two-d~y institute during the Christmas holi-days. In due time, Father Louis Putz, C.S.C., of the Department of Religion of Notre Dame University, .was engaged as the workshop moderator; and a committee of eight sisters representing different age and occupation groups in the community was appointed to plan the sessions with Father Putz. From a considerable correspondence between Father Putz, Mother Martina, and the committee members prior to the arrival of Father Putz at the mother house, and from a half-day planning session of the committee and the leader after his arrival, evolved the subject matter of the discussions: "the spiritual and temporal good of the commu.nity, with emphasis on the relations between superibr and subjects." It was believed that the over-all subject for discussion should be definite but not too narrowly restricted, should represent some hierarchy of values, yet not be a mere string of non-debatable principles. All the workshop members attended the first general session, which was held in the auditorium. At this time, the ~hairman of the workshop committee sketched the procedure for the remainder of the day's sessions, and Father Putz presented his view of the value and method of.such a workshop, adapting in fact both the technique and the major emphasis of the Catholic Action cell movement :o this group. Father Putz stressed the necessity of rethinking certain practices of religious life in the light of prese.nt day temper but with relation to traditional and tried principles. He also urged that the observe-d.iscuss-act method of the cell movement be applied by the 287 SISTER M. JOSELYN Review ~or Religious sisters in a manner calculated to deepen and intensify the loving union of the community members functioning as a family or ecclesiola within the Mystical Body of Christ. At this time, the committee distributed to all members of the workshop an outline to guide the day's discusssion. The outline (which is appended) was to be regarded as a set of signposts, rather than as "material to be covered." The group was then divided into fourteen small sections by an" ingenious use of colored slips which had been handed out at the door. (Thus the divisions were abso-lutely random.) A meeting room was designated for each small group, most of which numbered about ten to fifteen. Within the groups, a leader and a recorder were informally appointed. The first discussion lasted about forty-five minutes, tending to begin rather timidly but to gain momentum through full participation as time went on. Throughout the session, Father Putz acted as "floating delegate," stopping in at various subgroup meetings. At the end of the morning session, each recorder presented to the entire group the findings of the subgroup to which she belonged. In this manner, conclusions or resolutions or questions were pooled; and it was possible to determine which problems were common to all subgroups as well as to ascertain the different views of a large num-ber of sisters on one general subject. At the conclusion of the first half-day session, certain questions arising from the morning's meet-ings were directed to Father Putz and to Mother Martina, both of whom aimed to focus attention on the general principle (rather than the specific practice) involved. The procedure for the afternoon session of the first day was the same as that for the morning session. At the end. of the first d~iy's discussions, Father Putz and the planning committee worked for several hours preparing permanent recommendations from the recorders' reports, evaluating the pro-cedures, and outlining the second day's program. It was decided that the large outline of the subject for the second day, "the temporal good of the community," instead of being given as a whole to each subgroup, would be divided into fourteen sections, each group re~ ceiving one segment of the topic, as designated on each sister's copy of the outline. (This outline is also appended.) On the second day, sisters engaged in hospital work held (at their own request) special sessions within the larger group, still following, however, the outline given to all. In every other respect, the second day's sessions were conducted" like the first day's. Since tb.e outlines of content are included in this article, it will Nooember, 1955 COMMUNITY WORKSHOP. not be necessary to describe iff detail the development of these topics in the small groups. Mother Martina did state at the closing session that "the discussion has pqinted up four areas which I have under consideration at present: delegation of authority, care of the aged, training of the young, and local and major superior relations." Effort was made by the~ planning committee to obtain an over-all picture of the participants' reaction to this first community work-shop; to this end the committee prepared and distributed at the last session a short questionnaire (appended) to be answered anony-mously by all who wished to do so and left in a designated place. The fact that many sisters had only a-few moments between the close of the workshop and their departure from the mother house may have a relation to the number of questionnaires turned in. Ac-cording to the committee's digest of the returned sheets, the seventy-nine respondents stated unanimously that they liked the workshop. Seventy said they would like another workshop (nine others did not answer- the question). More than thirty sisters suggested that they liked the workshop because it was an opportunity for each " sister to present her opinions and to hear the thinking of others on common problems, resulting in an intensified community spirit and a unity of effort for the common good. Others thought that "the earnest and high ideals so generally manifested among all the sisters gave a boost to one's courage and spiritual striving." Thus, the workshop "gave a real stimulus to live the ideal life of a religious, and it served as a fine personal examination. It stressed the idea that each individual sister, as a member of the Mystical Body, must help to make our Benedictine family a happy, ideal one." Others answer-ing the questionnaire noted that they liked the facts that "topics and discussion were handled objectively" and that "respect for the personality of each individual sister was stressed." Thirty-four sisters thought the qualifications of a superior had been adequately dis-cussed; forty-four= thought the relations between superior and sub-jects had been adequately discussed. In the appropriate sect!0n of .the questionnaire, many valuable, constructive suggesti~ons for improving future workshops were in-dicated by the participants. Adverse criticism~ of the workshop gen-d~ ally i~ciffd~d t~orelated t~oint.si in'light 6f th.e tjm'.e, available, too many topics were listed for. d!~.c~ssion,: .a.n.~do,. c.onsequently, some of the discussions were {6b general. A "desire whs manifested to con-tinue discussion of these subjects at a future date.~ It was also.sug-gested :.that,, the,, recommendations.,-of., the. ,-w. orksl-;£i~,] b~ ". ~:.m~riz4d 289 SISTER M. JOSELYN Reuiew for Religious and distributed to each sister and that'in the.coming year each mem-ber of the community take.note of "topics for future workshop dis, cussions. Among suggestions for future workshop subjects, the majority of sisters included the discussion of "the greater spiritual growth of our community through an interpretation of the Holy Rule and how to apply it to our daily life in modern times," "how we can better fulfill our end in religious life," and "how to balance the active and contemplative aspects of .our life." THE SPIRITUAL COMMON GOOD HOW TO PUT THE SPIRIT OF CHARITY INTO OUR RELIGIOUS FORMATION A, Prayer in general I, How to make the necessary ada.ptations to our community exercises a) Normal times b) Vacation time c) In sickness 2. .How to teach goqd prayer and help 'others to pray well. a) Piling up non-essential devotions which interfere with the true spirit of prayer 3. Penitential obligations at times of ember days and fast days a) How to keep in the spirit of the Church b) Charity iri fulfilling our obligation c) Humility to ask for dispensation0if we n~ed it 4. Obligation of silence and recollection in view of charity a) Maintaining silence outside of recreation time b) Charity toward those who must talk during silence time to relieve tension B. Spiritual formation in terms of.spiritual reading 1. H6w to translate the Gospels into life and action 2. How to make our life liturgical 3. \Vhat kind of spiritual reading makes the'liturgy richer and unifies our life as a community and as an, individual II. SACRAMENTS ¯ A. Eucharist 1. How do we prepare as a community to celebrate thoughtfully the Sacrifice? B. Penance 1. How to make an intelligent use of the sacrament of penance OUR RELA;FIONSHIP TO THE COMMUNITY A. How to promote in the community the unity of charity 1. Attitude toward one another 2. Toward superiors 3. Particularly to speak up where, it is necessary and calied for in Chapter and outside of Chapter TEMPORAL COMMON GOOD Groups 1, 2, 3, 4 I. THE SUPERIOR A. Do we look at the office of~superior as an honor and not a service? 29O November, 1955 COMMUNITY WORKSHOP Bo Is the superior submissive to her higher superior, or is she jealous of her own responsibility ? Is she choosey in observance o~ canon law? Distribution.of house duties, assignments, etc, 1. Prudence and fairness in distribution of house duties 2. Partiality or favoritism--allowing cliques to develop 3. Keeping peace by letting sisters do as they please 4. Playing up to flattery 5. Regarding sisters only as subjects who must obey 6. Suspicious of actions of sisters, judging interior sentiments 7. Overloading the willing Groups 5, 6, 7, 8 ' E. Does the "superior take the trouble to know all abou~ "each sister, her temperament, aptitudes, interests, in order to help her? 1. Does she try to develop the personalities of the sisters? 2. Does she have confidence in the sisters? 3. Does she lack discretion with the sisters? 4. Does she have objective rather than subjective attitude? F. Does the superior make herself inaccessible to the sisters? G. Is the superior w!lling to rethink the'function of the community? H. Are'subjects prepared technically and spiritually for their responsibilities? 1. Do you think obedience will cover inc'ompetence? 2. Do you act as though the office of superior gave universal competence? 3. Are young religious allowed to come to responsibilities for which they may be capable? 1. Spending" money for luxuries or extras and not buying the essentials for school or mission !. Confusing the spirit of economy with spirit o~f poverty 2. Being overconcerned about food, clothing, rooms Groups 9, 10, 11 II. CHOICE OF SUBJECTS A. ~ccepting postulants without sufficient health, intelligence, or social ap-titudes B. Accepting religious into profession who are not fitted for community life C. Minimizing obligations of religious life for sake of attracting vocations 1. Spirit of sacrifice, motive for entering 2. Appeal to generosity 3. Indiscretion in fostering vocations. Groups 12, 13, 14 III. IV. RELATIONSHIP WITH THE CLERGY A. B. C. Do Relationship between principal and pastor Relationship between subjects and priests ¯ Willingness to advise clergy of indiscreet giving of gifts as tokens of ap-preciation Pastors and subjects channel activities through superior or principal Money collecting in Catholic schools 1. Red Cross, Red Feather, Sales, contributions, etc., etc., etc. 2. Sisters going into business for themselves RELATIONS WITH EXTERNS A. Civil law 1. Expecting privileges because we are religious 291 SISTER M. ,JOSELYN 2. Untruthfulness---cheating in filling out blanks, etc. 3. Apathy toward voting or in political affairs Parishioners 1. Making our friends on basis of prestige and money 2. Asking them for favors--rides, etc. 3. Hanging on to them after you are removed from the mission a) Writing to them b) Visiting them, etc. Are you a Superior__ or Subject~ EVALUATION FORM 1. Did you like the workshop? Yes. No. Why? 2. Do you think the qualities of a superior were adequately discussed? List qualities unmentioned. 3. Was relationship between superior and subject adequately discussed? 4. Give suggestions how you think ideas gained from the workshop can be put into practice in the community. I. 2. 3. 5. List any topics on superior-subject relationship of interest to you which were not discussed at this workshop. 6. Would you like future workshops? If so, suggest topics. 7. How could future workshops be improved? 8. Would you be interested in starting a study group on your mission? SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENTS t:ather Gerald Kelly, S.J., editor-in-ch~e~ of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS suf-fered a severe heart attack on October 4. He is slowly recovering from it in St. Joseph's Hospital, Kansas City, Mo. Prayers for his successful recovery will be welcomed. In September, 1931~ a hurricane and the subsequent tidal wave destroyed St. John's College, Belize, British Honduras, and took the lives of eleven Jesuits and twenty-two.of the students. Considerable other damage was done in this mission of Missouri Province Jesuits. In October, 1955, the hurricane Janet brought fur-ther disaster to the mission. Kindly remember the Belize mission in your prayers. The Dominican Rural Missionaries, whose work in Louisiana was described in our July, 1954~, number, page 217, were victims of another kind of tragedy. On January 16, 1955, the entire' community of their convent at Grosse Tete, Louisiana (three sisters and an aspirant), were killed when their statio._n wag'on was struck by a freight train. The three sisters were killed instantly; the aspirant sur-vived one day. This congregation is interested not only in prayers a'nd in more vocations to their own institute but also in finding young women who would be inte'rested in" helping t~em as ~ay al~ostles. " If ~U hav~ "pertinent information' for them or wish further information ~igm th~'m~" ~vrite tS: Si~'ter Marie Elisabeth, O.P., Our L~dy of Father Titus Cranny S.A has prepar~ed a small volume entitled Father Paul, Apostle o~ !.Tn~t~l. Th,s paper-bound volume" would make good background read-ing for the Chair of Unity Octave, 2anuary 18-25. Graymooe Pre~, Peekskill, Renoval:ion and dapt:at:ion Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. THoEf imtphoer traenlicgeio oufs tlhifee mmoevr~eimtse anntd o rfe rqeuniroevsa rteiopnea atendd pardeasepntatatitoionn. The purpose of the present article is to give a synthesis.of the movement, to clarify its concepts, and to emphasize its principles, spirit, and more practical headings. The originality of the article, if any exists, will thus be in its arrangement, not in content. The article is directed more particularly, but not exclusively, to lay in-stitutes of brothers, sisters, and nuns. I. RENOVATION The concepts of renovation and adaptation, as usually expressed by authors, partially coincide. If we separate them, renovation is to be conceived as the intensification of the entire ~eligious life of every individual religious and of every institute. This implies a greater personal conviction, esteem, and practice of the life of re-ligious sanctity, a more universally active zeal, a deeper sense of re-sponsibility, and a greater consciousness of the necessity of progress in the works.of the institute. In a word, renovation is a universal renewal of fervor; the movement under this aspect is primarily inspirational to a more perfect realization of the ideals of the re-ligious life. Renovation is more important than adaptation. It is idle to expect that a mere change of laws and observances will make an institute holier or more effective in its apostolate. Renovation is a prerequisite to adaptation. It has been well said that only the fervent can adapt. Proper adaptation demands clear spiritual visiqn and the humility to admit that something may be better than what we have been doing in the past. A conspicuously universal renova-tion is also difficult of attainment. An anonymous Camaldulese monk may be guilty of the exaggeration of pessimism, but he is not completely lacking in realism when he writes: "From experience we know that the exhortations of superiors, circular letters, conferences, constant vigilance, rewards, and corrections are very infrequently effective. Older religious have habits that are too deeply rooted; with difficulty they return to the path of full observance, even when convinced of their mistakes. The young more readily follow the 293 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious careless, the mediocre, who ordinarily are in t~e majority, while the fervent are everywhere pretty much a small minority.''1 II. ADAPTATION Adaptation is change. A law, regulation, custom, practice, ob-servance, or manner of thinking and acting should be changed when it has become harmful or useless for the end for which it was in-tended, when a certainly better means can now be found for~that end, or when another means is demanded by the sound progress, necessities, or problems of our age. The/fundamental necessity for adaptation is that the world in which we live and for which we work has changed greatly in practically every aspect. Hospitals of today are vastly diffe~erit from those of a hundred years ago. We have adapted in the care of the sick and in many other things; the goal now is to extend the principle of intelligent and prudent adap-tation to every aspect of the religious life. Adaptation is not reform, mitigation, or relakation. What it excludes is the principle of un-swerving material conformity to everything done in the past. It presumes that the old is good but does not refuse to abandon the old for something certainly better; it does not identify the modern with the good nor does it hold that the modern or new is necessarily evil it believes and emphasizes that there are immutables in religion but also that not all thing~ are immutable. Adaptation is life and recognizes that the la'w of life is gradual change and a mixture of the old and the new. The two evident errors in this matter have been expressed bY Plus XII as the childish and immoderate hankering after novelty and the solidifying of the Church in ~a sterile immutability.2 The errors are thus excessive conservatism and the desire of change for itself, a blind attachment to tradition and the scorn of tradition, no ~hange whatever and intemperate and imprudent .change. Authors describe the former as a scelerosis, a lack of life, incipient death, the latter as worldliness and naturalism. Adaptation is thee responsibility primarily of higher superiors. It should be accomplished according to the general norms g, iven by the Holy See, but it is not to be ex-pected that the Holy See will take upon itself and impose the hdapr tations necessary in each institute. Adaptation should be carried out prudently and in a spirit of calmness, peace, and unity. How- 1. Acta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Perfectionis (Editiones. Paulinae), III, 603. 2. Ibid., I, 33. 294 Nooember, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION ever, the good of the institute is to be the supreme norm of action; and it is a fact of experience ,that some religious will oppose the most evidently necessary changes. III. WHAT CANNOT BE CHANGED The following are of their very nature excluded from adap-tation : 292 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The general purpose of the religious life of complete evan-gelical perfection. The three religious vows and their essential objects, purpose, and spirit. The mortification and prayer necessary for the attainment of the purpose of the religious life. Anything commanded or forbidden by the law of the Church. The distinctive and solid spirit of the particular institute. Anything certainly essential or fundamental in, the pa.rticular institute. IV. MATTERS TO BE EXAMINED FOR POSSIBLE ADAPTATION It would be an evident exaggeration to say that eve.rything listed below should be matter for change in every instifute, All the mat-ters listed have been mentioned and more frequently emphasized in the discussions on adaptation. The list is a~range~ in the order of the concrete importance of the topics in the judgment of the writer. 1. Greater care in the admission of candidates arid more de-cisiveness in the early elimination of the unsuitable before perpetual profession. 2. The establishment ofa juniorate for sisters immediately after the noviceship, in which the young professed will com-plete their undergraduate education or training and continue their spiritual formation. 3. A sounder doctrinal formation in the postulancy, novice-ship, and juniorate. 4. The elimination of the prominent externalism and for-malism. 5. Proper concept of the founder or foundress. 6. Greater attention to the purpose and spirit of the vows rather than to their mere obligation. 7. A schedule of prayer that gives proper~ emphasis to mental 29,5 JOSEPH 1=. GALLON Reoieto for Religious prayer, is sufficiently liturgical, and not excessive in the quantity or in the importance placed on vocal pra~yer. 8. The direction of the works of the institute to the n~eds of our time, which in most institutes will consist of an emphasis on the works for the poor and the working class. 9. A horarium that is less contributory to tension and pro-vision for proper daily, weekly, and annual rest. 10. Greater care in the selection of and a previous training, if possible, of local superiors and novice masters and mistresses. 11. A government that is more spiritual, individual, paternal or maternal, and not lacking in the necessary firmness. 12. Establishment of a tertianship and, perhaps, 'of a period of recollection before perpetual profession. 13. Greater emphasis on maturity, a sense of responsibility, dependability, efficiency, and proper initiative in the train-ing of religious. 14. Simplification of the religious habit. 15. Higher intellectual standards in continued study and prepar-ation for classes. 16. Elimination of the continuous rotation of the same superiors. 17. Greater mutual knowledge, cooperation, and attention to the interests of other religious institutes. 18. Possible extension of the period of temporary vows to five years. 19. Pertinent canonical matters.' V. EXPLANATION OF MATTERS OF ADAPTATION 1. Greater care in admission. The principle of St. Plus X that there is no greater cause of the weakening of religious discipline than the careless admission of candidates ~s of universal validity.3 The fundamental defect here is the failure to grasp and act on the evident principle that anyone lacking the suitability for the life and works of the institute does not possess a vocation for that institute. The grace of the omniscient God is not moving anyone to a state of life for .which he is not fitted. Therefore, the need for religious is never a justification for the admission or retention in the pro-bationary states of those who do not possess the capabilities for the particular institute. The modern innovation proposed under this heading is that 3. Epistle, Inter Plura, May 31, 1905, to the.Abbot General of the Order of Re-formed Cistercians, Ench&idion de Statibus Perfectionis, n. 248. ~ 296 November, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION of psychological testing. A principle of adaptation is that we should be wil.ling to accept all that is, good in modern progress. Such test-ing, when practicable, can be an aid; but it will never exclude the necessity of the considered and experien,,~ed judgment and proper ¯ firmness of a competent higher superior. To me it is also a certain fact of experience that the great majorityI at least of the outstand-ingly difficult cases were sufficiently evident to such a judgment either before admission or at the latest during the probationary states of the religious life. 2, 18. Establishment ot: a juniorate for sisters and extension ot: temporarg profession. The completion of the undergraduate studies of sisters immediately after the noviceship is necessary for their own spiritual, intellectual, psychological, and physical well-being, and for the maintaining and elevating of the standards of Catholic edu-. cation. Plus XII manifested to superiors his keen desire that the schools taught by sisters be the very best and also stated that the training of all sisters should put them on an equal footing with their secular colleagues: The Sacred Congregation of Religious af-firmed that it is rash to expect a subject immediately after the almost exclusively religious formation of the postulancy and noviceship to be a teacher and much less a serious educator, even for very young children. This demands suitable preparation, and the S. Congre-gation insisted that such training was to be given despite the im-mediate need for teachers. It is evident that the assignment of postu-lants and second-year novices as regular teachers is an even greater abuse. ~ This heading reveals another distinctive principle of the move-ment of adaptation, which is that of the elevation of the spiritual, intellectual, cultural, and professional equipment of religious. It is also a very apt illustration of an even more fundamental norm of the movement--we cannot reasonably continue to do everything in a particular way just because it was done that way in the past. Educational and professional demands are much greater today; they must be met with much better preparation. The entire matter of the juniorate in this country is 'being ad-mirably promoted by the Slster-Formatlon Conferences of the Na-tional Catholic Educational A~sociation. This also exemplifies a principle of the movement. Adaptation is vital action; it is life, action, and progress from within. The attention given to the intellectual and professional train-ing should n'ot obscure the even greater necessity of continued spit- 297 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review ~or Religious itual formation in the juniorate. An equally urgent need of young professed is that of-competent and prudent guidance in the difficult adjustment of the first'years in" the acti~ce life. This will demand the continuation of the office of a mistress of junior professed for at least two years after the juniorate. The juniorate will consume all or most of the u~ual three-year period of temporary vows, and thus the question :can arise whether this period gives sufficient testing in the active life before perpetual profession. The ready solution is an extension of temporary pro-fession to five years. In such a system the Code of Canon Law per-mits a prolongation of only one year. This is a change in the con-stitutions and should be decided upon only after serious reflection. It demands the approval of'the Holy See in~ pontifical institutes and that of all ,the ordinaries in whose dioceses the congregation has houses in the case of diocesan.institutes; 3. Sounder doctrinal spiritual formation. Sufficiently common defects .in American novitiates are the application of' the postulants and second-year novices to the external works of the institute, the excessive employment of both classes in domestic duties, the small amount of instruction given in the religious life, an overemphasis of secular studies; and the prominent tendency to confine the religious life to mere externals and to external regularity and conformity. The modern generation is decidedly factual and can readily fall into disillusionment and even cynicism from such a postulancy or novice-ship. The master or mistress of novices should give an instruction of at least forty-five minutes on all days except holidays. These in-structions are not to be confined to the vows but should cover the entire field of ascetical theology during the postulancy and novice-ship. The concepts and principles are to be presented solidly, not sentimentally nor with, mere devotionalism, and not in mere prac-tical illustrations that are not reduced to principles. Solid presen-tation demands that the theological foundation of principles be given. The movement of renovation and adaptation contributes several valuable principles in this field. The first is that no spirituality is lasting unless based on personal conviction. The second is that we can no longer be content with a mere collective presentation; the emphasis must be on individual guidance. The third is that there must be an active participation by the postulants and novices in this work of their own instruction. They should be permitted freely to ask questions and to propose difficulties; they should be. aptly November,, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION questioned on their grasp of spiritual principles; there should be discussions, brief papers on :some spiritual topic, on the ideas ac-quired from the reading of a spiritual book, or on some spiritual prob-lems or difficulties. Other techniques and methods will be found by a real teacher. The purpose, however, must always be to lead the will to action, notthe mere acquisition of knowledge.;~and there must never be any doubt that the master or mistress is in charge. We must abandon the unsound pedagogy that an idea once presented to a group is understood by all. This is true of no teaching and much less of spiritual teaching. ~Fhere must be an adequate spiritual li-brary, sufficient time °for spiritual reading, and proper guidance in this reading. One author l~as aptly expressed a .very practical truth by stating that the poverty of a spiritual life is very frequently the poverty of proper and constant spiritual reading. Proper instruction, individual and competent guidance, and patience will usually succeed in directing the tendencies and defects of the modern generation into good qualities. For example, their independence of judgmen.t and ac.tion, .demand for reasonableness and sincerity, and 'desire for personal initiative can be developed into a profound and lasting.conviction of spiritual values. Their realism, sincerity, and generosity will be ultimately docile to a spiritual for-mation that is interior, solid, individual, that makes legitimate al-lowance for different personalities, is not bent on crushing them, and is not dominated by a multitude of petty details.and formalities. 4. Externalism and [ormalism. This is the most.frequ~,ent topic in the discussions on adaptation. The problem is found principally in the ,customs, observances, and practices, written and unwritten, of 'religious institutes. A certain amount of ,regulation is obviously necessary for order and efficiency. Apart from this, external ob-servances have no place in the religious life merely for themselves; their purpose must be the cultivation of the interior virtues of the ~eligious life, for example, love of God, humility, chastity, mortifi-cation, obedience, prayer. Consequently they must be of such a. nature as to constitute apt means for the fostering of such virtues. The first principle of adaptation here is that the purpose 6f observances ,is not being realized. This defect is very universal, especially, but not solely, in institutes of women. Religious forma-tion has been too narrowly confined to externals, external disci-pline, external regularity and conformity; there has been too little; training in the interior life and interior ~'irtue. The moral value of an external act consists in the fact that it proceeds from an interior 299 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Reliqiotts act of virtue of the will or that it leads to or intensifies such an act. Sincere interior virtue will produce the proper external act; the religious who is sincerely poor in heart will be poor in act. It is very possible to de-emphasize and even to ignore in fact this pur-pose both in formation and in our own personal lives. Instead of saintly religious, we may be tending to train spiritual robots. Modesty of the eyes is not a virtue because I never see the leaves of the trees unfold in spring or do not know the color of the ceiling; it is a virtue only if it proceeds from the consecration of my heart to God, protects that consecration, and lead~ me ultimately to greater love of God. The profit of silence is not precisely in the low score of the examen book but in the increase of my spirit of prayer. A similar defective tendency is the attitude towards "our h01y rule." The rule is really not holy in itself; its holiness is verified only insofar as, it contains and leads to a love of and assimilation to Jesus Christ. It is basically misguided formation to propose the rule independently of this assimilation and especially to extol it above such assimilation or the laws of God. The overemphasis on externals has led to their excessive multi-plication. They extend to all and to the.smallest details of life. We .may be wearing a tight harness of sanctity that will not allow us to move or to breathe; we are praising the observant religious and have forgotten the saintly religious. Excessive observances are a dry diet of spiritual shredded wheat. The soul lacks a richness of spirituality, is superficial, and dulled to the great truths and person of Jesus Christ. It is not a satisfying diet, and usually a few years suffice for the loss of spiritual appetite and the symptoms of a lowered and even critical spiritual vigor and tone. Another defect of very many observances is that they either were never apt or have lost their aptness for their purpose. Why should sisters be forbidden to eat in a dining car but be allowed to request a waiter to set up a table in another railroad car that will make them even "more conspicuous? I think it is reasonable to avoid the expensive dining car whenever possible, but I can see no reason for a prohibition of eating there when~ necessary. Why should sisters be forbidden to eat even with sisters of other communities? Why is it a violation of cioister to enter the home of your family but meritorious to sit in a car outside their home. and talk to them? Are such artificialities in keeping with the saneness of sanctity, with the majesty of the doctrines and person of Jesus Christ? Reverefice and politeness are to be fostered; but are all the profound bows of 300 November, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION the head and Of the body, all the kissing of hands, and all the kneel-ing to superiors apt means today of expressing this reverence and politeness? Why in a life whose spirit is that of humility and of a family must there be precedence in the refectory and community room? These are only a very few examples of a very Widespread defect. Observances should be the external expression of the spirit of the institute and of the founder. In the thought of one author they should possess the perpetuity~ of real life transmitted from gen-eration to generation but not the perpetuity of fossilization. Obedience and submission are evidently due to prescribed ob-servances, but superiors should examine whether their number is excessive and their nature now apt for their purpose. There is also too much legalism, the material satisfaction of the mere wording of the law, in institutes of both men and women; and too little at-tention to the purpose of the law, its more perfect fulfillment, and to motivation. Legalism is clearly destructive of an interior life. Religious discipline is also frequently enforced with an unreasonable rigidity. Religious know that it is possible to be excused or dis-pensed from the laws of the Church, for example, from Sunday Mass or from fasting; but observances are often proposed as if they never admitted an excuse or dispensation. I am not encouraging laxity but discouraging rigorism; there must be a proportionate reason for an excuse or dispensation. Observances are the field of conduct that demands the most searching examination by superiors. It is the field of which Pius XII said: "In this crisis of vocations make sure that nothing in your customs, your manner of life, or the ascetical practices of your religious families is an obstacle or a cause of loss of vocations. We mean certain usages which, if ever suited to another cultural context, are out of place today, so that even a really good and courageous girl would find them only an obstacle to her voca-tion." 4 5. Concept of a founder. The concept of a founder or foundress has been too narrowly that of a lawgiver and ofimmutable laws. The Pope has stated .that founders frequently .conceived their in-stitutes to meet the needs of their own age and thus erected their institutes on the principle of adaptation. He concludes from this that lo.yalty to the founder requires constant observance of the prin- 'ciple of adaptation and the acceptance of all that is good in the be-liefs, convictions, and conduct of our contemporaries. This dem~inds 4. Acta Apostolicae Sedis~ XXXXIV ('1952), 825. ¯ '30.1 JOSEPH, F. GALLEN 'Reoiew for Religious that we distinguish the essential and immutable from the'_accidental and changeable in the words and works of the founder and that we do not follow as a rigid norm what the founder, did but rather the pliable norm of what he would do in any aspect of life if he were faced by our own age. Furthermore, the founder is not a mere giver of 'laws but also and primarily ~a giver of life to his "institute. ~ That life is his distinctive spirit, which consists in his approach to the spiritual life, his characteristic virtues, the principles he emphasized, his manner of approaching life and its problems, and the general types of works of zeal that he favored. Our fidelity to our founder is to be yerified in the repr, oduction of his life and spirit, not in the mere unwillingness to change even the slightest detail of his least law. 6, 13. The uows and training in maturity. The movement of renovation and adaptation finds in the vows one of the conspicuous fields of juridicism, that is, the overemphasis on laws to the detri-ment of the theological elements of the purposfi and spirit of the vows and their efficacy for the acquiring of many interior virtues. To secure permission is important; but it is more important to ad-vance by poverty in the love of God, to be detached from the love of material things for themselyes, to make progress in trust in divine providence, patiegce, meekness, humility, and the spirit, of mortifi-cation. The vow of chastity has not attained its purpose,unless it is increasing the .love of God, 'love of other human beings in and for God, devotion to prayer and the interior life with God, affection and intimacy with God in prayer, and .making life less materialistic. Obedience is a sterile vow unless it is intensifying especially love of God, faith, and humility,, and also docility to grace,~zeal, the spir~'t of self-denial, and generosity. In a word, obedience is effective to the degree that a theocentric has'supplanted an egoistic life. The obligation of the vow and of the laws of the Church on poverty is confined to external actions. It is, however, a "field of conduct that demands the constant vigilance of superiors. The coun-sels of Plus XII in this matter are that the life of religious ~hould b~ truly simple a~id poor, their houses should be simple, and their actions in poverty should not contradict nor ddstroy their profession of it in word. The buildings of religious, even those used for ex-ternal works, should be efficient, sanitary, not unattractive, but simple, and devoid of even the appeararice of luxury, "indulgence, extravagance, or needless expense. It is surprising holy. often this point has been emphasized by authors on adaptation. One of them has called the propensity~ to expensive buildings and .renovations ~302 Nooember, 1955. RENOVATION AND ADKPTATION "stone disease"; it could also be termed "Gothic poverty." Such bhild=. ings create the impression of hav!ng been erected to" attract the rith. and thus tend to the tragic tonsequence of alienating the pobr:~ Authors follow the Pope in' stressing the need of a truly simple and poor life in everything--buildings, lodging, furniture, fbod,' medical care, all personal accessories, amusements, vacations, journeys, and means of travel. Modern material developments are to be used insofar as they increase efficiency, preserve or promote health; bu( they are to be rejected" when their purpose is on.ly comfort, indul-gence, luxury. / Pius XII has reaffirmed the validity and supreme value of the traditional concept of the vow of obedience. He has also implied or stated that the modern apostolate requires one. who can face boldly the gigantic tasks of our age, one able to meet its d~ngers, overcome its spiritual destitution, competent to .think for himself, and formed to maturity of judgment. These are not the tasks nor th~ endow-" ments of a child. The modern evils of communism, atheism, and secularism are not trembling at the child_ishness of their foes. The purpose of obedience is to develop the good in man, to eliminate the" evil. The ability to think for oneself, to get a new idea at least oc.casionally, maturity of judgment and action, the power of de-cision, legitimate self-initiative, efficiency, dependability, and a sense of responsibility are not evils and are necessary for success in any state of life. Obedience should not be presented nor authority exer, cised in a way that destroys or fails to develop these necessary capa-bilities. Obedience is too often presented as the mere order of a superior and the submission of a subject. Ancient comparisons that illustrate the perfection of external obedience unfortunately have the defect of connoting a passive reaction on the part of the subject. Obedience is p.rimarily an instrument of personal sanctification, and no one except the infant is sanctified in passivity. Insistence on the purpose and spirit of the vow will bring out that this vow demands a truly tremendous vital reaction of love of God, faith, and humility. The subject gains the merit of the vow by having it as his motive, and such a motive is to be presumed in the actions of a religious. The superior should govern sufficiently but not excessively; a~ad it is certainly not necessary, profitable, prudent, or formative for him to step into or order every detail of an action or work. If you want the child to walk, you have to allow him to fall a few times. This mellow proverb is true in work, study, and also in the spiritual .life. The religious life is not a democracy; religious are subjects, n6t 303 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review [or Religious associates, of the superio~ They are also human beings. They should be allowed and encouraged to get new ideas. The superior is the competent authority to accept or reject and also to,encourage such ideas; but he should not confine all ideas in the house, province, or institute to his own. A religious or novice may find a better way of doing an-assigned duty or work, or he may do it in his own in-dividual way.' In most cases this can be permitted. Everything does not have to be done always in the same way. The counsels of per-fection are not the freezing point of human endeavor and ingenuity. A religious or novice should be given the necessary instructions for an assigned duty or work; if he does it childishly, inefficiently, care-lessly, he should be firmly checked. The religious life must not be the cradle of ineptitude. The qualities described above should be formed continuously in all aspects of the religious life, spiritual, in-tellectual, and the life of work. The childishness of many religious is an actual problem and one that cannot be ignored. The Pope has praised the great things that obedience accomplishes by uniting the forces of the members of the institute. The efficacy of this union is in fact greatly diminished by the childishness that makes a member unable to handle his assignment or his proportionate amount of the effort. Instead of united effort, the union of. obedience is too often that of the few carrying the many. 7. Pra~ter. In a previous article in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, I tried to explain the principles of adaptation with regard to prayer~ A few added comments will s~uffice here. The spirit of prayer and habitual self-denial will always be the distinguishing marks of the sincere religious. Both have been emphasized by Plus XII. He has insisted on the necessity of an interior life, that it should main-tain a constant balance with external activity, and has reprobated as the heresy of activity the intense apostolate that is not constantly nourished by the use of the ordinary means of personal sanctification. These emphatic words of His Holiness evidently imply an equally emphatic obligation of superiors to insist on the use of these means by their subjects. The errors of men and women in this matter are not the same. The woman tends to the misdirected prayer of de-votionalism rather than to the prayer of sanctity; the danger of man is of infidelity to his religious exercises. The latter is certainly fre-quently caused by valuing work over prayer and even more fre-quently by the simple omission and neglect of prayer. Excessive activity is not the only cause of a feeble interior life. It must be 5. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XIII (1954), 125-37. 304 November, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION remembered that the idle apostle is rarely the mystic of the monas-tery. The diagnosis of external idleness is most infrequently that of a local infection. It is an anemia of the person that extends to all activity. W'hy are so. many. superiors disturbed at violations of religious discipline and yet completely unconscious of so basic an evil as idleness? A fundamental principle of adaptation is the hier-archy of values. ~rriters on adaptation are quite insistent on the value of litur-gical prayer. There should be sufficient liturgical prayer, but the, choral recitation of the Office should not be urged to a degree or quantity thfit is !mpracticable in so many congregations of lay re-ligious. I also cannot see the all-sufficiency of the Office, for example, that it can supply for regular mental prayer in a life dedicated to sanctity. One or two authors bemoan the ignorance of Latin in lay religious, who thus do not understand so much of their prayer. The remedy suggested is a sufficient study of Latin. Is there any real hope that this remedy will be generally effective? It is not contrary to th~ present spirit of the Church to be more attentive to the use of the vernacular as the language of prayer. In some institutes the prayers are in a foreign language, usually that of the country of origin of the institute. When this is no longer a spoken language of the majority of those entering the part of the institute in question, isn't it time at least to begin to think of changing the language to that of the country? Plus XII stated that the missionary possesses no office of transplanting a specifically European culture to mission lands.6 Religious institutes likewise should not impose the nation-ality of the country of their origin on members of other nations. 8. Works of the institute. A study of the documents of Piu~ XII leads to the opinion that his basic motive in promoting the movement of renovation and adaptation is the apostolate. An under-lying thought can be sensed in his words that communism, atheism, secularism, paganism, and materialism would not be strong and belligerent today if religious had measured up to their exalted voca-tion in both prayer and an enlightened and laborious zeal. He urges a laborious zeal, since he has not only reprobated the heresy of ac-tivity but has also warned of the dangers of an idle and indolent life. He has emphasized the necessity of an enlightened zeal. This de-mands the i~se of all appropriate new forms and methods of the apostolate and of all modern developments for the spread of the 6.Acta Apostolicae 8edis, XXXVI (1944), .21'0, . 305 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Re~,iew "f~o~ Religiods Kingdom 6f Jesus¯ Christ. An enlightened zeal also directs its ef-forts primarily t6' combat' the great evils of the age and to prevent their'diffusion. Various documefits of Pius XII lead to the belief that he considers the dechristiafiization of the poor and the working class as the great danger of our age. Other classes' are not to be ignored, but the distinctive impression of the apostolate of r~lig_ious institutes in general should be that it is directed to the poor and the working class. This is also the spirit of the life and teaching of Jesus Christ. Most religious institutes were born of a love of the poor and unfortunate. The preservation Of such a solid spirit is one of the immutables of the religious life. A work such as the parish school is not only a glorious and niost necessary apostolate but also a pr6: tection of this spirit. Several authors have commented on the ten-dency'of some institutes founded for thd poor gradually to orientate themselves towards the higher classes and the rich. They draw-away from the poor, and the poor draw away from them. In speaking of the apostolate for the poor and the working class, the present Pope has instructed priests to become brothers to brothers and to mix their apostolic Sweat with that of the.working men.7 Religious also must exercise this apostolate in a spirit of understanding, com-panionship, closeness to the poor and their problems, and not in that of a generous and kind but aloof and superior caste of society. Religious poverty has the apostolic purpose "of enlightening and impelling mankind to.the proper evaluation and use of material things. We have to live, but this purpose demands that we exclude com-mercialism and the motive of gain from our apostolate. It is cer, tainly not against poverty to keep accurate accounts, but the spirit of 'poverty and its apostolic purpose require also that we examine ourselves frequently as individuals .on how much we are doing for nothing and as institutes on how much we are giving away. All institutes, especially of sisters, should refuse new works when their overworked members can scarcely carry out their present en-gagements. In taking new works, congregations of sisters should be more attentive to the missions. Pius XII stated: "The apostolate of the Church today is scarcely conceivable without the cooperation of religious women in works of c.harity, in the school, in assistance to the pries.tly ministry, in the missions,s " 9. Horariurn. The horarium should be in conformity .with the customs and de,m.ands of the age, the place, and the work. The 7. Ibid., XXXXI (1949), 65. ~8. Ibid., XXXXI (1949), 41). November, 1955 RENOVATION AND-ADAPTATION horarium is frequently a most evident proof of the excessive and tenacious attachment to tradition. It is not reasonable to insist that the meals be at the same hours as during the life of a founder who died several centuries ago or.to leave the horarium unchanged for more than a centu~ry. A religious house is not a fortified island of anachronism in a changing world. The test of a horarium is not its antiquity but its ~uitability and efficiency. Admittedly the life of religious should be one of laborious zeal, but the work can be excessive and can hinder or even exclude ade-quate prayer. One author has pointed out that the amount of work of some religious clearly excludes the nature of the mixed ,life, the proportionate union of the contemplative with the active life. S~- periors are to do everything possible to make a life of. praye~ ade-tqhuea toenllyy poobssstiabcllee ftoor parlal ytehre:i rit s iusb ajuegctms.e Tntheed tbeyn stihoen. toefn wsioonrk o ifs t h.neot horarium. There is a minimum of calm, quiet, and peace necessary for a prayerful life. The habitually excited religious cannot be a .prayerful religious. The daily life of too many lay religious is a scurrying, headlong, excited, and feverish rush from duty to duty. There are difficulties in adjusting, the horarium, but some adjust-ment is possible. It must be less minute, 'less oppressive, less insistent on e.verytbing in common; there must be more breaks, more free time, more attention to rest, and more easing of the tension. Re; ligious should be give.n adequate time for their meals, and 'the time immediately before and after meals should not be one of' compressed activity. The religious life is not a tight winding of the human mechanism. The prolonged day of many lay religious demands a physical strength and emotional stability that may be desirable but are rarely attainable. That "a sister nurse should not be given a weekly holiday is one of the inexplicable facts of the religious life, especially when we reflect that her immediate superior has a knowledge of medicine and may. even be meritoriously dabbling in psychoso-matic medicine. The same is true of sisters in institutional work. The week end should not be considered the natural depository for all 'spiritual and qther duties that cannot be squeezed into the week. Other contributing factors to the constant nervous strain are an exaggerated notion Of common life and an excessive, number' of permissions. Common life does not forbid private rooms nor that religious study in their roc~ms. It does not demand tl~at everythifig be done together nor that religious be always together. Life becomes too tense when religious may never go to their rooms, without: the- 307 JOSEPH F. GALLEN / Reoieto for Religio-s permission of the superior, except for the night's sleep. Express per-mission should be necessary for relatively important matters and to the degree that is necessary to .keep obedience reasonably active, but express and particular permission should not be required for the most ordinary and usual actions of everyday life. The number of permissions necessary in many institutes is unreasonable. Local superiors of houses that are not extraordinarily large have admi~tted that practically their whole day consists in sitting in their office and handing out permissions. Such a life is,not only tense; it is imma-ture and an immature exercise of authority. The overworked lives of lay religious demand a proportionate annual vacation. Each in-stitute should strive to have an appropriate vacation place for its members. This will also eliminate the individual vacations that are not conducive to the religious spirit and much less to religious poverty. 10. Selection of local superiors. In my opinion, nothing is more valuable and necessary to religious institute's than outstandingly capable higher superiors, general and provincial. However, the ef-forts of the most talented higher superiors can be frustrated by inept local superiors; and there are few higher superiors who do not re-alize the shortage of capable local superiors. I think we should ad-mit the actual scarcity of the talents required for this position. The sincere admission of this fact has led several authors to suggest a school or previous training for local superiors. I do not see the practicability of the suggestion of a school. It is not impractical to emphasize that one of the most important duties of a higher superior and his or her council is to make a thorough investigation and to give most careful and prolonged thought to the appointment of local superiors. Some previous instruction is possible, especially when all the local superiors in any one year go into office on the same day. They can be brought to the mother house a few weeks before they are to take office, can study the constitutions, and other laws of the institute, be given conferences on government and its problems by the higher superior, on points of the constitutions by the master or mistress of novices, on financial and material matters by the general or provincial treas.ure.r, and on the works of the institute by the various supervisors of these works. One of the real obstacle~ to proper local government is that the local superior is overworked. In some institutes all local government and administration is personally discharged hy the local superior. All government," discipline, "permisSions, finances, m~iterial n(cessiti~s, and" direction of ~he work of th~ h6us~'~re~un'der'him' alone. The 308 November, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION superior would be relieved of overwork, the government could be more spiritual and efficient, and greater opportunity for training others in the exercise of authority would be realized by giving the local superior some help, for example, by having the local assistant take care of ordinary matters of discipline, ordinary permissions, and the material nee~ls of the house and its members. The same question of preparation arises with regard to masters and mistresses of novices. The suggestion of a school is not so im-practicable here, but the general necessity of a prolonged and con-tinuous course of preparation can also be exaggerated. The religious chosen for this position should be of solid spirituality, prudence, mature judgment, and of more than average intelligence and learn-ing. If the institute is clerical, I do not see why such personal qual-ities and his background of dogmatic and moral theology would not enable a priest to master and to present properly the principles of the spiritual life from his own private study. Brothers and sisters also are now more frequently being given theological train-ing. Such training is to be taken into account in making this appoint-ment. It is evident also that theological knowledge alone is not sufficient for the appointment. Brothers and sisters could also at-tend summer courses in ascetical theology or the various institutes on the religious life now being held during the summer. 11. Government. There are few sincere religious who do not sympathize with superiors in their difficult and burdensome duties. Everything in the religious life depends in some way on superiors, and thus the movement of renovation and adaptation will be in-efficacious without their comprehension, cooperation,, and personal participation. The aspect of renovation demands that the govern-ment of superiors be more universally spiritual. Their first duty is to direct their subjects to the essential and universal purpose of the religious state, sanctity of life. It is a certain fact of experience that they will fail in this duty if they themselves are mediocre, indiffer-ent~ or not striving at all for sanctity of life. Superiors who are mere executives, financiers, expert in public relations, good managers, skilled directprs of external works, and those who have lost famili-arity with spiritual principles or are spiritually illiterate have al-ready failed in their first essential duty. Their talents can be em-ployed in other posts; they should not be superiors of religious com-munities. The movement of adaptation strives to intensify, not to lower, the primacy of the essential purpose of the religious life. A not infrequent complaint of subjects is. that their superiors are in- JOSEPH, F. GALLEN ~: Review for? Religious competent or simply not interested in spiritual problems and ques~ tions. The field of religious government and that of conscience hav, e already been explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS.9 In talking to subjects on matters within the field of go(~ernment, ,superiors are certain.ly not forbidden to speak of such things as the necessity and importance of the irlterior life or to suggest supernatural motives or practices. They may also speak freely on general spiritual~matters, for example, the necessity, value, methods, and difficulties of prayer. Canon law forbids that a manifestation of conscience be commanded .or induced; it does not forbid any religious superior, including those of lay institutes, to receive a voluntary manifestation of conscience. This law of the Church has been misunderstood. The superior is not to intrude himself into the field of conscience but he is not for-bidden to listen to and to. give advice 'on any such matter that is freely and spontaneously proposed to him. Such manifestations will not be realized unless the superior is sufficienly spiritual himself, spiritually competent with regard to others, and able to inspire their confidence. It is to be equally emphasized that subjects are always free in this matter. Superiors have two practical advantages in spir-itual directiofl that are of no small value in many cases, external knowledge and observation of the subject and the authority to take effective action to aid the subject. ~ Spiritual direction in general is a sufficiently frequent topic in the discussions on adaptation. It 'seems evident enough that habitual spiritual direction is necessary for young religious in the states of formation, adjustment to the active life, and that of the tertianship or period of renovation of spirit. There can be differences of opinion in this sufficiently delicate matter. My own opinion is that any spiritual formation should strive to produce within a reasonable period a formed religious. I conceive a formed religious as one who habitually, with the grace of God, can direct himself or herself. The necessity of spiritual direction for such a religious should be occa-sional, for ~xample, two to four times a year, not habitual., Such a necessity is often satisfied at the retreats or in some cases by the religious superior. Habitual direction is necessary for those who have peculiar problems, and here also the prudent director strives as soon as possible at least to diminish the problem. To me it is by -no means evident that greater sanctity of life necessarily, demands 9. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XII (1953), 30-31. ¯ '3~10 November, 1955 RENOVATION'AND ADAPTA~IION habitual special direction. M~ ~xperience of such religious is that they-have common sense and are merely doing the ordinary things in a more perfect and constant' manner. I am aware of the religious proverb that it is dangerous to,run along .witho'ut the advice of the elders. Most proverbs are only partial truths. Excessive dependence on others is also an evil. Religious are adults; they should live an adult life. No one can live another's life or shoulder another's re-sponsibility before God. Spiritual formation should prepare for life, and the irrefutable fact of the life of the soul is that it must be lived for the most part alone.Relatively very few decisions of the life of the soul can await consultation with a director. There should also be hope of reasonable and proportionate profit in spiritual di-rection. Does experience show any such profit from the habitual direction of chronic mediocre and indifferent religious? Isn't too much direction being "expended in their behalf? No one denies that there should be as much liberty of confession as is possible. This wisdom is evident in the laws and spirit of the Church, but spiritual direction and confession are not identical. The Pope has manifested the necessity of maternal government in instit~tes of women. The same thing has been emphasized by authors as also the need and value of paternal government in insti-tutes of men. This demands no small capabilities in the superior. He must put aside personal and natural indifferences, attractions, and repugnances, and have a supernatural love and interest in all his sub-jects. He has to put off th~ smallness of a vision confined to little things and of a mere prefect of religio~s discipline. He must possess the humility to realize that the office is not for himself; he is not to impose his will but to find the will of God 'for his subjects. Paternal government is a giving, not a receiving; it is selflessness, not self-interest or self-indulgence. The office of superior cannot be one of personal aggrandizement; the superior has no right to material concessions and indulgences or to freedom from religious discipline al~ove his subjects. The superior cannot be cold, harsh, or unfeeling; he must be outstanding in divine charity, mercy, gentle-ness, humility, calmness, politeness, and the capability of guiding a community not so much by ~the tables~of the law as by creating the spirit of a family, of confidence, and cooperation. Paternal gov-ernment is individual. The subject is not a numbered soldier; a community is not a¯mere total of subjects. The religious is to be treated as a son or daughter~. The superior, should know the sub-ject'} individual deficiencies and~ make appropriat& .allowance 311 JOSEPH F. GALLEN them. He~ should also know his individual abilities and strive to assign him to the work for which he is suited. There must be de-tachment in the religious life, but it is not sane government to con-ceive detachment as the nullification of all natural and acquired abilities. Pater~aal government can also be misunderstood by both su-perior and subject. It is certainly to be lavished especially on the aged and really sick. It is also to be extended to the odd, the trouble-some; the mediocre, the indifferent, the weak, the insincere, the lazy, and the childish, but it is not to be confined to them. I wish to break my frail lance in favor of the hard-working, the fervent, the normal. I suspect that many religious cannot meditate on the prodi-gal son without crushing a great sympathy for the elder son. These religious also are to be treated as sons and daughters of the house-hold, not as cousins twice removed from their weaker and childish brethren. Paternal government is not sentimentality, softness; nor is it weakness. It is not to be understood in the sense that the superior always yields to the will of the subject. It is not an exaggeration to sa.y that quite a few communities are ruled by the subjects, and in such circumstances it is not the exemplary subjects who grasp the dragging reins or ease them from the nerveless fingers of the superior. It will not be without profit or interest to study the pertinent com-ments of some eminent and experienced authorities. Father Alberione, superior general of the Society of St. Paul, writes: "In institutes of men superiors sense the need of more means for securing obedience and of a wider path of dismissal. In too many institutes there are religious, especially priests, who do their own will and secure their own indulgence in almost everything; they spend the entire day in idleness and indolence or devote their time to criticism . Greater means would be necessary for the effective attainment of observance and religious activity.''1° Father Suarez, the late master general of the Dominicans, stated: "There should be greater facility in dis-missing religious as on their part the freedom of leaving. The rest, freed of the bad example and of seriously disobedient religious, could devote themselves more peacefully to the religious life.''11 Father Janssens, father general of the Society of Jesus, makes his own the words of an octogenarian of forty years of laudable experience as a superior: "They [superiors] do not nowadays dare to give an 10. Acta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Perfections, I, 267-68. .11. Ibid., I, 257. 312 November, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION order; if they should, they do not dare to demand an account of its execution; if they do demand an account, they do not dare to sanc-tion negligence with. penances.''12 Finally, Father Creusen, S.J.: "In superiors of men it is not unusual to observe the lack of authority and government; in superiors of women, the contrary. The former~ should be impressed with the necessity of demanding observance of the rule, of fostering the virtues that correspond to the'vows, of not granting excessive liberty to subjects, "and so forth; to superiors of women one should rather emphasize the need of maternal govern-ment, of appealing to supernatural motives, not to their personal authority, and so forth.''13 A similar topic is that there should be more, though not ex-cessive, government by higher superiors. Too frequently these ap-pear to be insulated in their offices except for the annual appoint-ments and the canonical visitation. The latter can also readily de-generate into little more than a formality. One somewhat modern-means of accomplishing this necessary contact and government is by meetings, for example, with the superiors and appropriate offi-cials of the houses of formation, with all the local superiors or those ,of a particular territory, with those in charge of the external works in local houses, with the general or provincial supervisors of these works. Such meetings will further religious discipline, proper uni-formity, general progress, and help to prevent the perpetuating of the same problems. 12. Tertiansl~ip. In this matter clarity and distinction of con-cepts are desirable. Spiritual formation is begun in the postulancy and noviceship: it is continued in the juniorate. There should also be special guidance during the period of adjustment to the active life. When a juniorate is in existence, there seems to be little need of a prolonged period of spiritual formation before perpetual pro-fession. Most institutes have only three years of temporary vows, ¯ and thus perpetual professton will follow .shortly after the comple-tion of the juniorate. I can see the reasonableness of prescribing a relatively brief period of greater recollection before perpetual pro-fession. The tertianship is rather a period of renovation of spirit, the re-enkindling of the religious spirit and fervor that may hay( grown cold in the active lifeof the institute, a more profound ac-quisition of the genuine spirit of the institute, and a more mature and deeper spiritual formation. I personally think that the appro- 12. Ibid., I, 258. 13. Ibid., I, 254. 313 JO;EPH F. GALLEN Revieu) [or.'R6ligious priate time for the tertianship in lay .institutes is about ten years after the first profession, when the religious is about thirty to thirty-five years of age. Sufficient time has then been spent in the active life, and the age level does not preclude the required docility. Several congregations of sisters in the United States have al-ready instituted a tertianship, dr renovation, as they are more apt to call it, for about six weeks during the summer. This should be the minimum time. My own opinion is that it should not continue longer than six months in lay institutes. The tertianship has been highly praised by Pius XII, warmly recommended by several authors, and is favored but not imposed by the S. C~ngregation of Religious. This whole matter was previously explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS.14 "14. Simplification of the religious habit. Plus XII recommended this simplification to religious women and praised institutes that had taken such action. He nowhere affirmed the fairiy common mis-apprehension that this was the only thing to be adapted, that it was the most important or urgent matter of adaptation, or that the 'l~abit should be fundamentally and completely changed. He stated ~bat the habit should express the consecration to Christ and should be appropriate, hygienic, not affected, simple, and religiously modest. Roman C9ngregations had previously manifested that the habit of religious women should be dignified, grave, in keeping with poverty, riot. likely to arouse adverse comment or ridicule, suited to the cli-. mate, and efficient. The question of the habit aptly illustrates one of the great ob-stacles to all adaptation, the excessive attachment to externals. The purpose of the religious habit is that it should be a symbol of, and should express the separation from, th~ world and the consecration to Christ and not that it should do this in any excessively individual or peculiar manner. Attachment 'to the symbol is more tenacious than to its purpose. It appears to be unfortunately true that ex-cesslve attachment to the present habit increases in direct proportion to its evident need of change. On the other hand, this change should be made slowly, prudently; t-be proposed habit should be worn in all the houses by a few religious for a sufficient time of trial; and there should be freedom of suggestion. The change should beoto something better and satisfactory¯ I have seen changes that were 'not improvements. It seems to me also that congregations with 14. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XII (1953), 267. 31~4 Nouember, 1955 RENOVATION AND ADAPTATION a common founder should strive, if at all possible, to retain their identity or at least similarity of habit. It is strange that women should not know how to dress" and their men should have to instruct them. The Pope has done it, the Roman Congregations, authors, and I now attempt it again.15 Ap-parently the only hope of success is to be very direct and explicit. The habit should be examined on the following points: peculiarities, imprisonment of the face, starch/ ruffles, pleats, quantity of-cloth, number of articles of clothi.n~, capability for the necessary change of clothing, time in laundering,i efficiency, and the existence of summer and winter. As is evident f.rom some simple habits, it .is possible toeliminate all the starch and the imprisonment of the face and ,still have a religious' habit, i The starch, ruffles, and pleats are not simple, unnecessary, and crehte a truly awesome laundry problem. Countlessnovices are being .grounded in spirituality in a 1.aundry. ¯ It must take hours merely tb iron some habits.The poor do not buy such articles of clothing.i Modesty must be preserved but it does not demand the number of a~rtlcles or the quantity of clgthing now worn by most religious women. To take the mildest of examples. If the ordinary sleeves reach [~ the hand, why does modesty demand the ever present wide outer tsleeves?. The Pope said that the habit ~hould be hygienic. This o~viously requires, and it is but one ex-ample, that the waist and sleeves' should be detachable, readlly~ " .change-able, readily laundered. Toiignore this is to prescind from elemen-tary hygiene. Anything that even appears to be odd or peculiar should be ruthlessly eliminated. Jesus Christ was not peculiar in His earthly life, and peculiarity is not an apt symbol of con~ecra-' tion to Him. The modesty iof the habit does not require that it be a mere blessed sack. If all the headings given above are properl~r considered, the resulting habit will be suitable for work and effi-cient. We must remember, ,finally, tl~at no religious institute is or Can be exempt from the cold of winter and the heat of summer. Secular men and women stil! bow to this fact of nature at least by wearing an overcoat during~the winter and, outside of a very few highly nervous lndlwduals, ,thFy do not wear the same coat duriilg the summer, 15. Higher intellectual standards". This topic has also been explained completely in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS.15 All religious 15. Ibid., XII (1953), 256-57. i6. ~bid., X~I (1953), 268-69. ./ JOSEPH F. GALLEN Reuieto /:or Religious and particularly those engaged in teaching should beintellectual and cultured men and women. ~This certainly implies that they have in-tellectual tastes and are constantly reading and studying. Such ~ habit is to be inculcated and emphasized~ from the beginning. It is surprising how often a supposed education, also Catholic, fails to produce a habit of reading. There must also be something to read, and we can finish this topic by emphasizing again the .need of ade-quate libraries in all religious houses. Higher superiors should in-sist that a sufficient outlay for books be part of the annual budget of all houses and they should also 'inspect the libraries during their canonical visitation. 16. Rotation of the same superiors. This matter is both im-portant and practical, but it has been completely explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS.17 17~ Mutual knowledge and cooperation with other institutes. All religious should have a sincere and deep reverence, love, and loyalty for their own institute. All are to be real sons and daughters of their institute. ~'They expect paternal government; they should give filial deportment. Modern generations can be justly accused of a greater deficiency in these precious qualities than the generations of the past. In casting off romanticism for realism they may also be putting off love and devotion for cynicism. It is more erroneous to act as if all that is good, holy, and zealous were confined to our own institute. This induces a very repulsive caste pride and is also an evident obstacle to renovation and adapta-tion. We cannot reasonably maintain that all human progress ceased at the death of our founder. The Italians have a good name for par-ticularism; they call it "'iI campanitismo.'" We may freely translate this as a vision narrowed to the village steeple and a life confined to its shadow. Narrowness is a discordant quality in a life supposedly dominated by the limitless truth and good that is God. Religious cannot be lacking in love and reverence for the Church, of which their institute is only a very small and very subordinate part, nor for the diocese, the parish, and other institutes. They should bare a sincere conviction of the good, the greatness, and the accomplishments of other institutes. This demands primarily that they do not harm other institutes, for example, by inaugurating works that are not'necessary in a locality and that can onl~ harm the established works of other institutes. The movement of ad.~ilSta- 17. Ibid., X (1951), 193-200. November, 1955 RENO~CATION AND ADAPTATION tion goes further than the mere avoidance of injury; it emphasizes and promotes cboperation. This has been a primary motive for the various congresses of religious, the permanent commission of mothers general established in Rome, the associations instituted in France and Italy for sisters engaged in the same activities, the con-federations or permanent conferences of higher superiors in France, Portugal, Spain, Brazil, and Canada. The Sacred Congregation of Religious has inspired, fostered, and approved sucl~ associations. It may be maintained that this purpose, is fulfilled in the United States by the National Catholic Educational Association and the Catholic Hospital Association. The Sister-F0rmation Conferences and the meetings of superiors and officials promoted by the Catholic Hospital Association are apt means of accomplishing renovation and adaptation. Seriou~ consideration at least should be given to the formation of a permanent association of higher superiors of religious women in the United States. Common discussion and effort would be very helpful to their common purpose, difficulties, and problems. The formation of all such associations should be a vital movement from within; and the sisters themselves must give practically all the talks, lead, and carry on the discussions. They alone are fully ac-quainted with their life and problems; they can and should solve their own problems and supply their own initiative. Or,hers can at times help or contribute some ideas, but in all such associations and meetings the principal part should be left to the sisters themselves. Adapta-tion is life, not passivity or forced movement; and passive partici-pation is rarely satisfactory or permanent. 19. Pertinent canonical matters. It seems incredible that a re-ligious institute would not have conformed its constitutions to the Code of Canon Law, but it is still possible to encounter such a situ-ation in congregations of sisters. _Quite a few of these congregations retain what is called the direct vote, i. e., all the professed, at least of perpetual vows, vote directly in the general elections. This is contrary to the practice of the Holy See, which demands the system of delegates. Many diocesan congregations are unaware of the fact that their diocesan state, according to canon law and the practice of the Holy See, is only. temporary and probationary and that they should become pontifical. Canon law and the practice of the Holy See also favor the extension of diocesan congregations to many dio-ceses and are opposed to their confinement to the diocese of origin. Some congregations have a structure of government that is intended for a monastery of nuns, not for a congregation of sisters. Several ¯ 317 authOrs have" advised° small and struggling institutes, especially of women, to unite with larger and flourishing institutes and preferably with one of the same origin. This suggestion is practical for a few institutes in the United States. Orders of nuns that certainly cannot observe even minor papal cloister should become congregations. Papal cloister.cannot be ob-seryed~ by institutes that are almost wholly occupied in such works as parish schools. Some congregations of sisters have a strictdr cloister by the law of their constitutions. This cloister should not be ob-structive of the special purpose of the institute. Monasteries of nuns should present any real problems or diffi-culties on papal cloister to the Holy See. If engaged in education, they are to be attentive to the fact that this demands their own proper education. These same monasteries should realize that the Holy See has for a lbng time promoted federations of monasteries of men. The same principle is now merely being extended to monasteries of women. The advantages of federations were authoritatively listed in Sloonsa Christi. Nuns have been isolated from practically all in-novations in" the religious life, and this has riot always been to their advantage. They are also included in the present moxiement of renovation and adaptation and should study especially the advan-tage~ of federations. Those engaged in the mote scientific teaching of religion and who read ~panish will no doubt like to know that the Salesiafis in Argentina publish a monthly magazine entitled Didascalia, devoted to the teaching of' religion. Agents in the United States: Don Bosco College, Newton, New Jersey; in Canada: Salesian of St. John'Bosco, Jacquet River, New Brunswick. In our November, 1954, number, p, 289, we described Volume III of th~ Canon Law Digest, by T. Lincoln Bouscaren, S.J., and on p. '306 of the sam~ number we announced that annual loose-leaf supplements to the Digest would be published. The Supplement of 1953 appeared shortly afterwards; and very recen[- ly the Supplement through 1954 has been published. In the valuable work of pre-paring these annual supplements, Father Bouscaren ¯is being aided by Jame~ I. O'Connor, S.J., professor of canon law at West Baden College. Like the Digest itself, the annual supplements are published by The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. An important letter of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities on the Proper Training of Clerics to an Appreciation of the Divine Ot~ce (Feb. 2, 1945) has been translated into English by T. Lincoln Bouscargn, S.J., and is now published in convenient pamphlet form. The pamphlet includes an excellent bibli-ography by Owen M. Cloran,,S.J. Price, ten cents. Grail Publications, St. Mein-rad, Indiana. 318 ook eviews [All material for this department should be sent to: Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] SEEDS OF THE DESERT. The Legacy of Charles de Foucauld. By R. Voilluame. Translated and adapfed by Willard Hill. Preface by John LaFarge, S.J. Pp. 368. Fides Publishers Assbciafion, Chicago, IIIinois. 1955. $4.50. Any priest or religious will read this book with a sense of ex-hilaration. Its spirit is aggressive and optimistic and so inexplicable on natural grounds that one cannot help but think that it brings him into direct contact with the life-stream of the Church. The English title~ while'more poetic, is less revealing than the original: Au Coeur des Masses: La Vie Religieuse des Petits Fr~res du P~re de Foucauld: The Little Brothers of Jesus area Congrega-tion founded by Father Refi~ Voillaume according to a plan sketched at the turn of the century by Father Charles de Foucauld. The Con-grega~ ion.was approved by the Church in 1936. The letters of Father Voillaume to the Little BrotHers, which comprise the bulk of the present work, reveal that the purpose of the congregation has been boldly conceived and is being wisely executed. The brothers, some ordained, some lay, intend to bring Christ in His Church to the poor: to the workers of France, the Moslem Arabs of North Africa, . the colored of the Cameroons, the nomads of Transjordan, the under-proletariat of Chile. The plan is de-signedly lacking in methods of apostolic efficiency. It is decidely not of this world in its "foolish" simplicity. In fraternities of from three to five men, the Little Brothers live the life of the poor whose souls they seek; factory wbrkers, fishermen, shepherds. They do not preach; they do not found social organizations; they do not try to change the living conditions of their fellow-workers. This they leave to others. Their eye is on Jesus at Nazareth and their hope is to bring the modern poor to the fullness of Christian life. Their method is to be a leaven of example anal self-immolation among the masses. The difficulties and dangers facing such .an enterprise are ob-vious; and the author is at pains, in his letters to the br0ther~, to point them out and to chart a safe course. Again and again he tells them that in their circumstances mere formal observance~ are not BOOK REvIEws Review [or Religious enough to guarantee the life of perfection to which they have vowed themselves. Only contact with the vivifying person of Christ is powerful enough to weather the fatigue, the discouragement, and the temptations they will encounter. Though much of the guidance Father Voillaume offers the Little Brothers is necessarily of a particular nature, his letters will never-theless have a widespread appeal, especially among religious. The author's love for the poor, his desire to bring God to them, his con-fidence in the power of Christ, and above all his enthusiasm for the little way of the Gospel in a world which thinks big, are plain on every page. His spirit is infectious and will be caught with profit by those whom it touches. The letters on the vows are par-ticularly good. Written on a familiar subject they have a freshness which reflects the vigor of the author's mind. They stress the psy-chological and po.sitive aspects of" the vows and are noticeably de-void of platitudes. Time alone can adequately test the courageous experiment of the Little Brothers of .Jesus. ]3ut if Father Voillaume can plant deeply in his followers the spirit he has left in his book, success seems assured.-~PAUL F. CONEN, S.d. THE EUCHARIST-SACRIFICE. By Reverend Francis J. Wengier. Pp. 286. The Bruce Publishing Co., Milwaukee I, Wisconsin. 1955. $5.00. Father Wengier has given us in this book a notable addition to the growing number of titles of theology in English. The Eucharist- Sacritice is a defense of the opinion of the Reverend M. de la Taille, S.3., on the essence of sacrifice in the Mass as found in the justly famous volume Mysterium Fidei. It also contains chapters dealing with other controversial aspects of eucharistic doctrine,, such as transubstantiation, the actual offerer of the Mass, the quantity of Mass fruits. The last chapter is devoted to a consideration of the Encyclical Letter of Pope Plus XII, Mediator Dei, and an epilogue is added on "The Blessed Virgin and the Mass." Father Wengier defines the Mass as "A true and proper though unbloody Sacrifice of the New Law, instituted by Christ when He said: 'Do this in commemoration of me,' in virtue of which com-mand the beloved Bride of Christ, the Church, doing through her ordained minister what Christ ~Himself did in the Cenacle, renews Christ's sublime Sacrifice by offering to the heavenly Father the very same formal Supper-Golgotha Victim while picturing the Lord's passion in the consecration of the separated :elements of bread and 320 Nouember, 1955 BOOK REVIEWS wine" (p. 102). This definition, which fairly represents the. opin-ion of De lh Taille, is defended particularly against the opinions, of Abbot Vonier (The Keg to the Doctrine of the ~.ucbarist) and Reverend M. D. Forrest (,The Clean Oblation), though others are not neglected. The book is somewhat marred by the undue acerbity with which the author treats the opinions of adversaries. This particular con-troversy, for some reason, always generates a great deal of heat'. Undoubtedly a partial reason at least is the fact that all sides of the controversy appeal to the very same texts of the fathers and the councils, each interpreting them in support of a particular opinion. The chapter which the author heads: "Various Ways to Swerve from the Genuine Idea of the Sacrifice of the Mass" is not calcu-lated to win friends or conciliate opinion. The opinion that a symbolical immolation cannot at the same time be a real immolation will be favored by few theologians. To assure us that there is a symbolical immolation in the Mass and ~hen say that it is not an immolation but an oblation' is liable to be slightly confusing. If immolation is a constituent element of sac-rifice, then it must be present in the sacrifice of the Mass or else that sacrifice is not true and proper as described and defined by the Coun-cil of Trent. The presence of the immolated victim may be a sign that a sacrifice has been completed in the past, but only immolation can be constituent of sacrifice in the present. Again, the adjectives "bloody" and "unbloody" in the Council of Trent can refer only to the immolation since the oblation, taken in the sense of one of the constituent parts of sacrifice, is always unbloody even in a bloody sacrifice. Consequently only a theory which places an unbloody immolation in the Mass together with the oblation would seem to be consonant with the doctrine of Trent. However opinions differ, this book is sure to find an honored place on the bookshelves of theological libraries. It deserves careful reading to appreciate its many fine qualities.--CARL FIRSTOS, S.J. GOD'S HERALDS, A GUIDE TO THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. By d. Chalne. Transla÷ed by Brendan McGra÷h, O.S.B. Pp. 236. Joseph Wagner, Inc., New York. 1954. $3.95. To one seriously, interested in reading in English a concise, or-thodox introduction to the canonical Hebrew prophets, God's Her-alds will be most welcome. Father McGrath's translation of the late J. Chaine's Introduction a Ia Lecture des Prophetes meets a real 321 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious need for seminarians, religious, and laymen who are interested in th~ prophets whether from an historical, do, ctrinal, or s,ociological v~iewpoint. After a short chaptbr on prophetism and the social milieu, the author considers pairs or groups of the prophets in a reasonably, accurate chronological order. This treatment is calculated to bring out the climax of divine revelation and the historical drama of God's relations with Israel. If the message of Isaias and deremias is diffi-cult to follow, the reason is to be found in the unavoidable "enfilad-ing that results from this chronological approach. '- The style of the book is quite direct; the content, informative and condensed. Passages are paraphrased rather than quoted. In spite of all this, the salient features of many of the prophets, espe-cially of Jeremias and Ezechiel, stand out cl'early in but a few pages. Although God's Heralds is intended to be a non-technical study, it i's, nevertheless, primarily intended as an introduction or pre-lection to private reading or study of the prophets. One feels that this purpose could be better implemented by the addition of a table or chart indicating the chronological order in which the different prophets and their various oracles should be read. Admittedly, this order is frequently problematic. The whole book, however, supposes a rather definite chronological arrangement; and so a tab-ulated abridgment of the prophets treated w6uld ,be of considerable help to private reading. Nevertheless, the index of texts, plus fre-quent cross-references, enables the student to refer back for the his-torical setting as outlined~in this work. As the translator notes in his preface: "The world of the pro-phets is a complicated one, and it takes serious study to become really familiar with it." Monsieur J. Chaine's small volume is not "affective reading." But sound, even if "non-technical" study of the prophets is required if their message is to ring clear. Father McGrath is to be commended for translatin~ a book on the prophets so apropds of the current needs of clerics and laymen alike in these days when we begin to realize that God will judge the nations. --CHARLES H. GIBLIN, S.,J. (:;)UAESTIONES CANONICAE DE JURE RELIGIOSORUM. By Servo ~,oyeneche, C.M.F. Volume I, pp. 536; Volume II, pp. 496. Insfifufum Jurldlcum Clarefianum, Yla Giulla, 131, Rome, Ifaly. 1954; For more than thirty years Claretian Father Servo Goyeneche has been solving canonical problems concerning religious proposed 322 November, '1955 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS under the heading of Consultationes in the Claretian review entitled Cpmmentarium pro Religi~sis. Now this renowned canonist and professor at the Pontifical Institute Utriusque duris in Rome has arranged all these answers in the order of the canons of the Code of Canon Law and has published them in two volumes under the title of Quaestiones Canonicae. The term religious is used in a wide sense; and, besides the canons contained in the second book of the code under the formal title De Religiosis; it includes most of the other° canons of the code touching religious at least indirectly. Hence the valuable:canon index to be found at the enff df Volume II runs from canon 4 to 2408. , Usually the text given is that which appeared originally in Com-mentarium pro Religiosis. However, the author has noted any change of opinion on the part of a writer quoted and. has included, the answers and interpretations given during the past thirty years both by the Commission for the Interpretation of the Code and those of the various Roman Congregations. This valuable compendium of practical questions and answers regarding religious should find a place in all the clerical communities of religious orders, congregations, and societies. Lay religious (broth-ers and sisters) will hardly find the volumes helpful because they are written in Latin.--ADAM C.' ELLIS, N.J. BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ACADEMY LIBRARY (3UILD, Fresno, California. One Hundred Years an Orphan. By John T. Dwyer. The book tells the story of Saint Vincent's, San Francisco's Home for Boys, at San Rafael, which completed the first century of its existence in 1955. It is a well-written book and profusely illustrated with many excellent photographs. Pp. 159. $3.00. THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. The Glor~t of Christ. A Pageant of Two Hundred Missionar~j Lives from Apostolic Times to the Present. Age. By Mark L. Kent, LM.M., and Sister Mary Just of Maryknoll. An arresting, dramatic incident introduces each missionary. An appropriate reflection closes the account of his life. Not all the missionaries chosen for the book are canonized saints, though they would be if the Church would still recognize cahonization by popular acclaim as she once did. An inspiring bbok. If they could do so much for Christ, why can't I? Pp. 282. $3.75. 323 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Retffeto.~ for Religious How to Meditate. By Reverend A. Desbuquoit, B~lrnabite. Translated and arranged by Reverend G. Protopap,as, O.M.I. Not only beginners in mental prayer but also those who have practiced it for many years will find the author's analysis of mental prayer enlightening. I/is chapter on "Tasks of Mental Prayer" is particu-larly ~uggestive and should prove very helpful. Pp. 75. Paper $1.00. Spurs to Meditation. By Reverend Bartholomew g. O'Brien. Just how much of a problem formal meditation can .be for a priest, Father O'Brien knows from personal experience in a very large and busy parish where he served for ten years. Spurs to Meditation is written specifically for those priests and seniinarians who still find meditation a problem. The author hopes with good reason that his book will help to solve that problem for many of his readers. Pp. 116. Paper $1.25. ~ CATHOLIC LIFE PUBLICATIONS, Bruce Press, Milwaukee I, Wisc. The Pierced Heart. The Life of Mother Mary Angela Trusz-kowska, Foundress of the Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Felix (Felician Sisters). By Francis A. Cegielka, S.A.C., S.T.D. The Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Felix now comprises ten prov-inces. Three are in Poland, where the congregation was born, and the other seven are in the United States. There are 4,3-37 sisters in the congregation as of 1955. Of these 3,505 are in the United States. Because the sisters are so numerous here, they are known for the many works in which they are engaged, but little is known about them. This is the first biography in English of the remark-able woman who founded this flourishing congregation. It helps us to get to know the Felician Sisters. It is regrettable that the book is so brief, only 76 pages. May the day come soon when we shall have a fullrlength biography. $2.50. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, 620 Michigan Ave., N.E., Washington 17, D.C. The Catholic Elementary School Program for Christian Family Living. Edited by Sister Mary Ramon Langdon, O.P., M.A. This book embodies the proceedings of the Workshop on the Catholic Elementary School Program for Christian Family Living conducted at the Catholic University Of America, June 11 to June 22, 1954. It is of interest to pastors and sociologists. Pp. 209. Paper $2.25. The Local Superior in Non-Exempt Clerical Congregations. A Historical Conspectus and a Commentary. By Robe,rt Eamon Mc- 324 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Grath, O.M.I. The book is a thesis submitted to the Catholic Uni-versity of America in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Canon Law. Pp. 127. Paper $2.00. CLONMORE AND REYNOLDS, LTD., 29 Kildare St.; Dublin. The Origin of Political Autborit~ . By Gabriel Bowe, O.P. Certainly a very timely book now that so many false theories on political authority are rife. It is based on a thesis which merit.ed for the author the degree of Lector in Sacred Theology at the Angelicum in Rome. Pp. 102. Cloth 12/6. COLLEGE MISERICORDIA, Dallas, Pennsylvania. Lh;fng the Little Office. By Sister Marianna Gildea, R.S.M. A very effective way to make the recitation of vocal prayers of rule easier, more consoling, and more profitable is to take them as the subject of meditation. Sister Marianna has done just that with the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and in this volume she shares the fruit of her labors with the reader. Do you wish to improve the effectiveness of your recitation of the Little Office? If you do, this book will help you. Pp. 167. Paper $2.75. COMITE DES HOSPITAUX DU QUEBEC, 325 Chemin Sainte- Catherine, Montreal~ Morale et M~d;,cine. By 3ules Paquin, S.d. Doctors and nurses are constantly in need of guidance in handling moral problems aris-ing from the practice of their profession. This need is provided for in Catholic medical and nursing schools by courses in medical ethics. Morale et M~dfcfne is intended as a textbook for such a course, though it would also serve as a handy reference book for doctors and nurses in actual practice. Besides giving a clear exposition of the moral principles connected with the many important problems of modern medicine, the book also contains a section dealing with the moral problems of psychiatry. It will be of interest particularly to re-ligious connected with hospital work. Pp. 489.- . DAUGHTER~ OF SAINT PAPAL, Old Lake Shore Road, Derby, N. Y. Jesus" Alp~'al~t for. R'elfgi~Us. Cbmpiled by the Daughters' 6f SaintPahll There"is ~'cldapt~r fore'ach'l~tter of the alphhbe~i" The first l~.l[f.io;f' each "~b~e~; c'onsi~tsof brief cifiot~ioh~ froh~'H61y Scripture oi~ the virtue dealt" ~'i~h ih"that "~l~'~i3~er: ~Tl~e ~c~'fid"hhif comprises brief quotations.:fr0m the~.writings .of.,t.he ~fa.thers of the Cht@ch- a'nd ,the:~sairits on, ~he,' sam~, virtue;., It 'is not a~boolc;to be "read; but ,a.th'e'sautus-of suggestions.for~:meditatibn. :',Pp~. 'l.24,.-Paper 3-25 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Revieta for. Religious $1.00. Cloth $2.00. The Hero of Molokai. Father Damien, Apostle of the L, epers. By Omer Englebert. Translated by Benjamin T. Crawford. Robert Louis Stevenson, who so eloquently defended Father Damien in his open letter to Doctor Hyde, predicted that the Church would raise Father Damien to the honor of the altars within a century after his death. That prediction is. now in process of verification. His cause has been introduced at Rome, and some significant progre.ss has been reported. The present biography of the hero of M61okai is in a popular vein and should hasten the day of his beatification. Pp. 364. Paper $1.50. Cloth $3.00. FIDES PUBLISHERS, 21 West Superior St., Chicago 10, Illinois. The Psalms. Fides Translation. Introduction and notes by Mary Perkins Ryan. This may be called the laymar~'s own edition of the psalms since the introduction and notes by a lay woman were written with him and his difficulties in mind. Pp. 306. $3.95. FOLIA, 55 Beechwood Avenue, New Rochelle, New York. The Augustinian Concept of Authority/. By H. Hohensee. This volume puts "at the disposition of theologians,' philosophers and classical scholars, teachers and students alike, an abundant source-ma~ erlal for the interpretation of Augustinian thought" on the sub-ject of authority. Pp. 77. Paper $2.00. FREDERICK PUSTET COMPANY, INC., 14 Barclay St., N. Y. 8. In the Light of Christ. Through Meditation to Contemplati'on. Pp. 340. $4.50. Hearts Shall be Enlightened. ReHections [or the Examination o[ Conscience. Pp. 179. $2.50. Both volumes are by Mother Mary Aloysi, S.N.D. Religious, particularly religious women, will be pleased with these two volumes, the latest books from the prolific pen of ~he gifted author. Both volumes are intended to make the meditation and the examination of conscience of the monthly day of rec611ection more fruitful. The first consists of forty inspiring meditations; the second, of.an equal number of reflections. There can be no doubt that a religious who makes her own ahd lives according to th~ teaching so eloqtiently pro-pounded in th~se volumes is very dear to the Heart of Christ. GRAIL PUBLIEATIONS, St. Meinrad, Indiana. Blueprint :/or Holiness. "The Christian Mentalit, g. ,By Denis Mooney, O.F.M.This little bookl~t contrasts~ the. Christian men-. 326 . .: .: . November, 1955 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS tality, the effective desire of always, pleasing Go.d, with the natural mentality, the desire of always pleasing self. All our faults and sins have their root in the latter; our virtues spring from the former. The Christian mentality must be expande,.d until it extinguishes the natural mentality. The book is very simply written and~ illustrated with diagrams--something most unusual in aspiritual bool~. Pp. 64. Paper $0.50. ~ The Education of the Religious and Modern Trends. By Rev-erend Manuel Milagro, C.M.F: The author writes specifically for those who are educators of religious destined to become priests. Among [he topics treated are the following: vocation and disci-pline, anticipatory ministerial drills, the educator, the confessor, the superior, the educational formula ora et labora, the ministerial for-mula ora laborando, mental hygiene, rectification of distorted fea-tures. Pp. 97. $0.75. Dedicated Life in the World. Secular Institutes. Edited by Jo-seph E. Haley, C.S.C. The answers to many questions that we are asked about secular institutes are found in this" booklet. We find there their historical background, their canonical status in the light of papal documents, their nature, and finally their present and future status in America. It concludes with a useful bibliography. Pp. 48. $0.25. The Crown of Twelve Stars. Meditations on the Queen of the Universe. By a Ca~rmelite Nun, the Apostolic Carmel, Mangalore, lndia. If you baye been looking for appropriate meditations for the first Saturday of each month, The Crown of Twelve Stars should terminate your search. You may even find that though each indi-vidual meditation is short, it affords enough material for mind and heart for more than one hour of prayer. Pp. 54. $0.35. P. J. KENEDY AND SONS, 12 Barchiy St., New York 8. What the Church Gives Us. By Monsignor James P. Kelly and Mary T. Ellis. Those who have to instruct conveits will welcome this new book on the fundan~entals of the Faith. Though e~senti-ally a catechism, it is not writtefi in question and answer form." Even Catholics could profit by a careful reading of this well-writ-ten book. It deserves a place on the shelf of every lay retreatant's library. Pp. 152. $2.50, ~ The Salt of the Earth. By,Andre Frossard. Translated by Mar-jorie Villiers. Andre Fross,a}d has written a very readable book about the religious life as exemplified in six religiouS.orders, Bene-; BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS dictines, Carmelites, Carthusians, Cistercians, Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans. It was written for people in the world who know little or nothing about religious. It is profusely illustrated with humorous woodcuts. The author is not always accurate about de-tails: The Jesuit General is not appointed by the pope; St. Bernard entered Citeaux with thirty not twenty-five companions; the influx of hermits into theoEgyptian desert began during and not after tbe persecutions. Pp. 160. $2.95. NATIONAL SHRINE OF SAINT ODILIA, Onamia, Minnesota. Odilia, Maid of the Cross. By Bernard C. Miscbke, O.S.C. Would you like to know what life was like in England in those far off days when it was still pagan? What is the historical founda-tion for the legend of St. Ursula and the eleven thousand virgins? Why is St. Odilia the special patron of the Crozier Fathers? You will find the answer to all these questions in Father Mischke's fic-tionalized biography of St. Odilia. Pp. 163. $2.00. SHEED AND WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3. A Rocking-Horse Catholic is the last book that Caryll House-lander wrote before her death on October 12th, 1954. In it she tells the story of her youth. She was baptized a Catholic when she was six, and so characterizes herself not as a "cradle" but a "rocking-horse" Catholic. She lost the. faith in her teens but found her way back to the Church to become a militant Catholic and the author of six books on religious topics. When you begin to read this book, be sure that you have several hours at your disposal, for you will find it difficult to put it down before you have reached the end. Pp. 148. $2.50. Soeur Angele and the Embarrassed Ladies. By Henri Catalan. Something new in detective fiction: a Sister of Charity appears in the role of detective and solves a murder mystery. Pp. 154. $2.50. TEMPLEGATE PUBLISHERS, Springfield, Illinois. The Our Father. By R. H. J. Steuart, S.J. The conferences of Father Steuart on the Lo~d
Issue 8.2 of the Review for Religious, 1949. ; A,M, D.G;. ~ Review for Religious MAR~H 15, 1949 Beginning Men÷al Prayer . Franc;s P. LeBuffe Nearness of God . : Pafr~ck F. Murray Confidence in God . Edward J. Carney Penitential Insfrumen÷s . Winfrld Herbsf The Hundredfold . Edward Sfanfon Prudence . Albed" Munfsch Adapfafion " J. Cre~sen Book Reviews Communications Questions Answered VOLUME VIII NUMBER 2 .,~ RI::VIi::W FOR RI::LI IOUS VOLUME VIII MARCH, 1949 NUMBER CONTENTS BEGINNING BEGINNERS IN MENTAL PRAYER-- Francis P. LeBuffe, S.J . 57 COMMUNICATIONS . 61 FOR YOUR INFORMATION . 62 THE NEARNESS OF GOD--Patrick F. Murray, S.J . 63 CONFIDENCE IN GOD--Edward d. Carney., O.S.F.S . 70 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 72 RE: PENITENTIAL INSTRUMENTS --- Winfrid Herbst, S.D.S. 73 CANONICAL LEGISLATION CONCERNING RELIGIOUS . 79 ~FHE HUNDREDFOLD---Edward Stanton, S.J . 80 PRUDENCE--A NECESSARY VIRTUE--Albert Muntsch, S.J. 82 ADAPTATION~J.Creusen, S.J . 86 BOOK REVIEWS-- The Lord's Sermon on the Mount;' You Can Change the World . . 96 BOOK NOTICES . 99 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 101 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 8. Shortening Canonical Year of Novitiate . 105 9. Postulant Cannot Take Vows on Deathbed . 106 10. Novice under Tw.enty-one Makes Will . , . 107 11. Supplyirig Absence from Meditation . 107 12. Typewritten Annals . 108 13. Use of Cuttings from Altar Breads . 108 14. Published Lists of Apostolic Indulgences . 108 15. Indulgences: for Rosary before Blessed Sacrament; for Renewal of Vows after Holy Communion . 108 16". Negro Candidates for Sisterhoods . 109 17. Trappistine Convent in the United States . 110 REPRINT SERIES . 112 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1949. Vol. VIII, No. 2. Published bi-, monthly: January, March, May, July, September and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's Co!lege, St. Mary's, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Of~ce, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis,'S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J. Copyright, 1949, by Adam C. Ellis.Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be gi~;en this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writln~j to us. please consult notice on inside" back cover. Beginning Beginners in/V en!:al Prayer Francis P. LeBuffe, S.J. MANY of our Sisters, Brothers, and priests know little about" mental prayer, and the majority of them find it difficult. These are facts, and we would do well to face them. It has long been a settled conviction with me that the major cause of thi~ situation is that they have been started off wrongly. This conviction is based on personal observation and on the experience of others, and not on armchair thinking, though I think we might arrive at the same conclusion by that method also. During my thirty-three years of priesthood I have had more or less continual opportunities to know the Sisters and their ways of spiritual living, and have enjoyed the confidencesof many in low and high positions. Moreover for sixteen years it has been my privilege to give a six-hour course .of lectures on mental prayer in the Summer School of Catholic Action. This is a completely elementary course, presup-posing no knowledge of mental prayer and outlining only the bare essentials. Yet time and again trained religious and deeplyspiritually-minded priests have commented on the help they. have gained from it. I always remember the remark of a solidly trained religious, a mem-ber of one of our finest Sisterhoods: "Father, this is the first time I ever knew what it was all about." What a tragedy back of that remark ! I think the major mistakes are that we begin beginners with too long a period of mental prayer, and, secondly, we do not give them adequate or proper instruction about mental prayer before they begin. Let me first discuss the" amount of mental prayer expected of beginners in the postulancy, novitiate, or seminary. Frequently they are asked to begin with a half-hour or even a full hour. It would seem that either is far too long. Why? Because they know little about the principles of religious or seminary life, and not much more than generalities about the life of Our Lord. Being thus ignorant, how can they develop these thoughts and make reasonable application to themselves? Even on the "affective" side, their emo-tions and acts of the will have not solid enough ground on which to be based. i am always reminded of a certain Brother-postulant who had 57 FRANCIsP. LEBUFFE Reoieta for Religious been one of the last pony-express riders of the Rockies. "Points" on th~ Hidden Life had been given the night before by a priest, and the next morning Brother John put in his full hour of meditation. Later on in the day, however, he buttonholed a Brother novice: "Say, let me ask you a question. Father told us last night to ask ourselves three questions in meditation. I remembered the questions and so I asked myself. 'Who done it?' I knew the answer: 'The Lord.' 'What did He do?' I knew that answer too: 'He did carpenter, work.' 'How did He do it?' Well, anybody would know that being the Lord He done it superfine. That took me two minutes. Say what did you guys do with the other 58 minutes?" In mental prayer, we "chew the cud"--I am talking now of dis-cursive prayer, where most beginners begin--and the "cud" to be chewed is our knowledge of things spiritual. Let's face facts and realize that beginners have little or no "cud" to chew--and it is pre-cisely for that reason they are beginners. They are quite in the same position for spiritual meditation as most of us are for a meditation on atom fission. Like Brother John if I w~re to meditate on the atomic bomb, I'd ask myself "What does it mean?" Answer: "Splitting the atom." Period. Because of this, it would seem wise to start" beginners off with the easiest form of mental prayer: meditative reading. Father Lind-worsky, S.J., in his Ps~jcbolog~ of Asceticism, characterizes it as a much-neglected way of .meditating. The advantage of beginning with this simplest form is that it provides the beginner with continuous food for thought; or, to change the metaphor, it provides a continuing anchor for his thinking. From meditative reading the beginner could pass on to that age-. old form of meditation wherein we take each word or phrase of a prayer and try to dig out and spread out the thought that lies hidden therein. Thus we can take the Our Father, meditating on the word "father" and all that it implies, and then checking our findings with all these qualities we find in God. Next, the word "our" with' all "its implications of universal brotherhood. All the while, of course, we warm our hearts and intersperse our thinking with the affective prayer of will and emotions. Of course it is highly advisable to have beginners meditate as soon as possible on the life of Our Lord, for that is truly "the customary food of a devout soul." But here again we must fit the meditation to the one meditating. Most Catholics who have had a Catholic 58 March, 1949 BEGINNING IN MENTAL PRAYER education, can meditate profitably for at least a few minutes on Bethlehem, the Shepherds, the Magi, the Agony in the Garden, the Crucifixion, and so forth. But once they get away from the big, well-known my'steries, their minds are either a completely blank page ¯ or they indulge in specfilations which may be entirely awry or at variance with the true doctrine enshrouded in the mystery. We don't ask high school students to write college essays, and we don't ask college students to write doctorate dissertations. Why then ask of beginners in the spiritual life what can reasonably be expected only of maturer religious? We are not, of course, discounting the workings of grace whereby God can and does freely grant a real gift of prayer to one yet unschooledin asceticism. Nor are we demanding a deal of learned knowledge for meditatiton. Our contention is simply this, that barring an unusual grace from God it is bard to amplify a thought if one hasn't got a thought. The lack of proper instruction preparatory to all attempt at meditation is, as I see it, the second'cause of the deplorable mental-prayer condition among religious and priests. If we begin with the simpler forms of mental prayer, no lengthy instruction is needed. The best way to instruct is to make the medi- ¯ ration out loud with the beginners. Many rules are quite unneces-sary. The instructor meditates aloud with them, always using the personal pronoun "I" and meditating as though he were a postulant, novice, or seminarian himself. This gives "audience identifica-tion" and soon his voice becomes their own audible thinking. ~/Thus Ican beginwithten minutes meditativereading. I read sentence, think it over aloud. Read another sentence and think it over aloud, frequently chatting it out with Our Lord in my own simple way and telling Him exactly how I feel about it. Utter simplicity should be stressed. Time and again I have bad students in the mental prayer classes tell of their suprise and comfortwhen they realized for the first time that they could talk with God exactly as they felt, no matter what their mood, and exactly as they would with mother, father, or any human friend. It makes one wonder whether we have not overformalized our praying and constructed too compli-cated. a machinery for our approach to God. Prayer is truly "rever-ent intimacy with God." I am afraid we have been stressing the "reverent" rather than the "intimacy." That may have been well enough in Old Testament times amid the thunders and lightnings of 59 FRANCIS P. LEBUFFE Revieu., for Rel[qious Sinai, but it does not quite fit in with the called-for approach to the Babe of Bethlehem or the Man of Sorrows. Again, as to the amount of time, it would seem to be wiser to begin with not more than ten minutes a day for at least the first two weeks or longer. Thereafter increase to fifteen minutes a day for another two weeks (or longer). Remember mental prayer is like olives: one must develop a taste and relish for it. In the courses on mental prayer I have always restricted the time of each little medita-tion to three or four minutes. Thus young people are not bored and they find out practically that something worth while can be done in even a few minutes. Only recently I talked on mental prayer to the sodalists of the School of Business Administration of Fordham Uni-versity. I bad time to make only three three-minute meditations with them. The sodallsts were motionless: one could have heard a pin drop. At the end the prefect, a young man, in closing the meeting said: "I never knew prayer could be so warm and natural." Years ago in Chicago at.a S.S,C.A. a U.S. sailor said to me: "Father, this mental prayer is wonderful. It is as refreshing as a glass of cold water from a spring!" The sad result of a bad start in meditat, ing either from an over-dose or lack of proper preliminary instruction is a complete floun-dering in a vacuum of thoughtlessness. And the sadder result is that having made a bad start afloundering, the religious or priest con-tinues for a long time to flounder in a vacuity. It might be well to add two further remarks. The way, of course,, to remedy the beginner's lack of spiritual knowledge is to give him heavy doses of spiritual reading, using only time-tested masters in the spiritual life and lives of Christ which are thoroughly authentic, such as for example, Maas, Fouard, Mescbler,-Le Camus. Fluffy-ruffle spiritual books should find no room on the library shelves of novitiates and seminaries. Spiritually well-read and hence well-fed religious and seminarians will soon have an ample "cud" whereon to chew. Another thing is.to remember that we Americans find thinking difficult. Give us something to do and we are happy. Ask us to remain qui~t and think--well, we soon get restless or go to sleep. (That native trait may be a far deeper cause of our poverty in mental prayer, than the more evident ones I have mentioned.) When thinking of some of our meditations and meditators, I am reminded of the story told by Father William Stanton, S.J. While giving a 6O March, 1949 COMMUNICATIONS mission in a village, he went down to the country store and started chatting with the "regulars" sitting akound the store stove. "What do you men do all day? . Well, Parson, sometimes we sets and thinks, and sometimes we only sets." Wouldn't that label truly many of our meditations? Can't we remedy it? Communica!:ions Reverend Fathers : It occurred to me as I read in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the discus-sions about worldliness in religious communities that a convent is the best place on earth in which to make a study of unworldliness. From the moment the rising bell rings at the unworldly hour of five in all kinds of weather until taps at ten at night the Sisters have been "on. call." Look at the day's agenda: morning meditation, Holy Mass, breakfast in silence, teaching or nursing duties until lunch time and again until afternoon prayer and spiritual reading, supper in silence, a short recreation period in a common room, study, night prayer-- everything on schedule for nine months of the year. Into the summer vacation are crowded an eight-day retreat, six weeks of summer school either as teachers or students, or teaching a vacation school in a rural district preparing children for first Com-munion and confirmation. This is the routine followed by Sisters who live in colleges, academies, hospitals, parochial school residences, orphan homes. Wherever the Sister's assignment is, her day is a long one and entirely out of harmony with the 44-hour week of women in the world. Sisters haven't time to be worldly. They surely are not worldly in their attire. Their uniforms were not designed for either b~auty or comfort. They are not usually known by their worldly names. The names they are known by are often not their choice, and many times they are not euphonious. They do riot attend worldly amusements. They probably see during the course of the year five or six carefully selected movies in their college or academy hall. Their convent parties are strictly exclusive and unworldly. Now all this does not go to prove that Sisters are ready-made saints. They are human; and it is amazing how, living the common life, each one retains her own individuality through all the years allotted to her. It is my firm conviction that the number of worldly Sisters in any community is a small minority. The rank and file of all Sisters are carrying the sweet yoke of Christ bravely and sweetly.~A SISTER (Golden Jubilarian) 61 Your lnr orrnaUon Reprint Series The last page (112) of the present number carries a definite an-nouncement of the reprint series that was suggested tentatively in No-vember, 1948. We delayed in making this announcement ii~ the hope. that we might find a distributor for the booklets, as we are not equipped for that kind of work. Up to this time, however, we have been unsuccessful in our quest for a satisfactory distributing plan; hence we will do the best we can. Because of our lack of facilities, xve must insist that those who order booklets carefully observe the direc-tions outlined on page 11 Please note the differences between the reprints now available and those listed as tentative in November. Number 2 on that list was made up of articles on the novitiate. Requests for those articles were not sufficient to warrant our reprinting them; in their place we are reprinting the articles on Gifts to Religious by Father Ellis. Number 3 on the tentative llst was to consist of four articles by Father Kelly (two on emotional maturity, and two on the particular friendship). As two of these articles are comparatively short, we have decided to add a fifth article (on Vocational Counseling). This first edition of the reprints is merely an experiment. We are printing only a limited number; and we do not intend to print more unless it becomes quite evident that the project is really worth while. If you wish copies, it would be well to send your order immediately. Summer Sessions . The Sisters of St. Francis of Assisi will conduct a six weeks' sum-mer session, under the auspices of the Cardinal Stritch College, Mil-waukee, for Sisters who are interested in. the care and education of mentally handicapped children. Enrollment limited. Apply to: The Psychological Instiiute, St. Coletta School for Exceptional Chil-dren, Jefferson, Wisconsin. Immaculate Heart College, Los Angeles, California, offers the following special summer features: Reading Clinic for Elementary Teachers; Workshop in High School Administration; Series of Courses on St. Thomas Aquinas; Audio Visual Education; Cerema-ics; The Great Books Program; All-day Conference for Teachers of [Continued on 13. II1] 62 The Nearness of God Patrick F. Murray, S.3. iN OUR DAILY religious life, with its care and duties as well as its monotony, it is so easy to lose sight of the grand purpose of our consecrated lives. We know that deep down within our souls there is a quiet and profound love for Our Lord that has ever been, and still is, the motivating power that keeps us going from day to day. "I live, now not I, but Christ liveth in me," as St Paul has expressed it; or again, "The charity of Christ drives us on." But amid the din and confusion a'nd cares that every day brings with it, it is quite easy to become entangled with so many visible duties that they gradually tend to obscure the silent flame of love within our hearts. They would extinguish it altogether if we did .not keep it alive with unrelenting effort in prayer. Constant prayer is the only fuel that can make it burn brightly so that it in turn will continue to motivate our actions in God's service. Great Appeal of Sensible Things The great appeal of things visible is something that everyone who would lead a spiritual life must struggle against constantly. We know that we love Our I, ord. We are eager to work to prove our love, because love proves itself in deeds, But we are so very much creatures of sense. It is so easily possible tolose our clear vision and to become so interested in the work we are doing to prove our love, that soon we come to find ourselves working because we have come to love the task given us rather than because we love our Divine Master. Before we know it, we are seeking praise and honor for our work instead of seeking tl~e praise and the honor of His Divine Majesty, as we started out to do. Our motivation has changed and our super-natural vision has dimmed by constant contact with the visible things around us. With God's gtrace and with constant effort we have to recall painfully that we are not working for a corruptible crown nor for a visible reward; but we are striving for an incorruptible crown from the loving hands of a still invisible Master. Highlg Recommended Practice lOne of the most highly recommended ways of keeping ourselves 63 PATRICK F. MURRAY Re~;iew for Religious on the path of perfection and of keeping our intention pure in God's service is to cultivate the habit of consciously living and working in His divine presence. He is present anyway, whether we think of Him or not; but it will help so very much if we can come to realize His nearness, for "in Him we live, and move, and have our being" (Acts 17:28). There is no point of our spiritual life more important; there is no easier means of personal sanctification : no means that can be more efficacious; no supernatural truth more fruitful in its results than an abiding and vitalizing sense of His divine nearness. Reward of Angels and Practice of Saints The angels in heaven are very fortunate. They stood up under .trial when the rebel angels fell. Now, while Lucifer and his followers burn for all eternity, the faithful angels possess what we are trying attain--the happiness of being with God forever. The saints are there too; and because they stood up under this trial which we call life, they share the bliss of the angels. The happiness of both the angels and saints in heaven consists in actuallyseeing and enjoying the infinite beauty of God in all the splendor of His divine majesty. Our Lord speaking of the angels said, "Their angels see the face of my Father in heaven" (Matt. 18:10). Among the saints of the Old Testament, a common manner of speaking was ever: "A~ the Lord liveth, in whose presence I stand" (III Kings 17:1). This practice was habitual with them as well as with the saints of the New Law. As David put it: "I kept the Lord ever before my eyes, because He is ever at my right hand, that I may not slip" (Ps. 15:8). Our Reward Also God created us so that someday we might come to stand eternally before Him in heaven and enjoy the sight of Him for all eternity. In this life He would have us attain to some kind of resemblance of that eternal happiness. This we can do by consciously walking in His presence, even though as in the twilight rather than in the full bright-ness of the eternal day. "Now I see as in a glass, in a dark manner; then we shall see Him face to face" (I Cot. 13:12). The. clear vision is the reward, the glory, the happiness that we hope for now. Walking in a spirit of faith in His presence, even though as "in a glass in a dark manner," is one of our best guarantees that we shall eventually come to see Him "face to face." Where Is God? The first wrong idea that we must rid ourselves of is that God is 64 March, 19 4 9 THE NEARNESS OF GOD somewhere away up in the heavens beyond the farthest star; or tha~ He is in some unattainable place that we cannot begin to approach in this life; that He is inaccessible. Of all the beings in existence, God is the easiest to contact. He is right here where you are this very moment, and at the same time He is in every conceivable place in the whole vast range of creation. He fills the whole world. "Do I not fill heaven and earth" (Jer. 23:24) ? He is whole in the world, and whole in every part of the world, no matter how large or how small. He is outside us, within us, all about us. We are living in God; not as part of Him (that would beto fall into the error of pantheism), .but as St. Paul tells us: "He is not far from each of us, since in Him we live, and move, and have our being" (Acts 17:27-28). The classic expression of this magnificent truth is David's: "Whither shall I go from Thy spirit; or whithe? shall I flee from Thy face? If I ascend into heaven Thou art there; if I descend into hell Thou art present. If I take wings early in the morning and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea, Even there shall thy hand guide me, and thy right hand sustain me. Perhaps darkness shall cover me . But darkness shall not be dark to Thee, and night shall be as light as day." (Ps. 138:7-12.) God is more intimately present to us than we are to ourselves. He is the source of all life; the basic strength of all power; the source of all being and all existence. If it were not" for His omnipotence sus-taining us and every other creature, we would all fall back into the nothingness from which we were made. We are sustained by God, surrounded by God, encompassed by God. Some Comparisons The whole world is full of His presence. St. Augustine tries to give us some idea of what'this means by the illustration of a sponge in the midst of the ocean. It is surrounded by water; soaked with ¯ water, inside and out. But this comparison falls short of the manner in which God is present to us, because the sponge may sink to the bot-tom or be washed ashore; but we can never, in any way, get out of the presence of God. He is immense and infinite as well as omni-present. He is a pure spirit and penetrates us through and through-- something like light filling every particle of a crystal ball; or like an iron bar that has been thrust into the fire and heated to such a degree that it is almost impossible to differentiate the fire from the heated bar. It is white hot and looks more like a bar of fire than a bar of 65 PATRICK F. MURRAY Review [or Religious iron. But God is still more present within us, and to every one of His creatures. Sucb comparisons merely serve to give us some faint idea of the rehlity. God Is Present to Our Eoer~l Thought It is very difficult for the limited human mind to grasp such a concept. We cannot even begin to imagine the nature of such a Being who can be present at all times to every one of His creatures no matter how far apart they may be. Cardinal Wiseman brings this truth out very strikingly in his book Fabiola. In a beautiful passage Syra, the Christian slave, tries to explain the presence of God to bet young mis-tress, Fabiola. "Simple as light is His nature," she says, "one and the same everywhere, indivisible, ubiquitous, unlimited. He existed long before there was any beginning. He wil, l, exist after all ending has ceased. Power, wisdom, goodness, 16ve,--justice, too, and unerring judgment,--belong to His nature and are as unlimited and unrestrained as it. He alone can create; he alone preserve; He alone destroy." But then Syra goes on to the point that is more intimately con-cerned with our consideral~ion. She tells bet young mistress that to watch and note the l~hougbts and actions of every one of His creatures requires no effort or causes no trouble for this Infinite, Being, far less than the trouble it takes for the sun to light up with its ranis whatever it shines on. God is more intimately present to every one of His crea-tures and to the entire universe than light is to the rays of the sun. After pondering these thoughts, no wonder that Fabiola cries out: "What an awful thought t, hat one has never been, alone, has never had a wish to oneself, has never had a single thought in secret, has never hidden the most foolish fancy of a proud and childish brain from the observation of One who knows no imperfection. Terrible thought,.,that one is living ever under the steady gaze of an all-seeing Eye, of~hich the sun is but a shadow, for the sun never enters the soul!" (Ch. 16.) Source of Strength God, therefore, is everywhere; and yet He is so near. No matter what we think, He knows it. No matter what we say, He hears it. No matter what we do, He sees it. This is a thought that can be as consoling for those who sincerely try to serve Him as it can be terrible forthe most secret sinner. A deep realization of God's presence is a source of strength for souls who are naturally timid. Encircled by 66 March, 1949 THE NEARNESS OF GOD His loving presence they are able to present to the world that won-derful combination of timidity and moral courage which can belong to the Christian heart alone. Frequently, such is the explanation of unexpected strength of character in men and women who are not by nature strong and independent; yet when the occasion arises they are able to stand up under very difficult circumstances. They are quietly strong and self-possessed in their deep realization that of themselves they are nothing, 'but God is their'strength and their power. Special Graces of Saints Some of the great saints received special graces which enabled them to imagine Our Lord ever at their side under one form or another, such as Jesus Crucified, or in the power and glory of His resurrection. It requires special graces to carry on with such efforts of the imagination. But for ordinary souls, such efforts of the imagina-tion are not at all necessary. Spirit of Faith Is Necessary All that is really necessary is to accept in a spirit of simple faith that God is present and interested in absolutely everything we do, for such is the truth. Christ Our Lord, as Man, is present in heaven and in the Blessed Sacrament. But as Man, He is not present everywhere. ¯ As Man, He has a definite form and body, and we can imagine how He must have looked when He was on earth. He is also God as well as Man. But God, as God, cannot be imagined. He is a pure Spirit. "No one has ever seen God at any time. The only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, He has revealed Him." (John 1:18.) "The spirit of the Lord has filled the round of the earth" (Wis. 1:7). There is no need to imagine what is not. All that is necessary is simply to believe what is. Simple faith in God's presence is all that is needed ! How in Actual Practice But how is this to work out in actual practice? In his Epistle to the Hebrews, St. Paul says of Moses: "God being invisible, he con-sidered Him as present as if he saw Him" (Heb. 11:27). It is some-thing like being in a very dark room with another person present. We cannot see him, but we know that he is there. He makes his presence known by his actionsfrom time to time. We can know God by faith and by His works. "We see now in a dark manner"; so we may con-sider in a spirit of simple faith that God is present. It is enough to 67 PATRICK F:. MURRAY know that He is here as our most loving Father and Friend, to rejoice in His presence no matter where we may be, no matter what we may be doing at the moment. We cannot see how He is present because we are still in the darkness of this life. We must live with faith in His presence and with hope that on the morrow of eternity He will discover Himself to us in all the magnificence of His divine majesty; and we shall see Him as He is. "When He shall appear, then we shall be like to Him: because we shall see Him as He is" (I John 3:2). Acts of Desire and Looe Most Necessary It is not enough to know that God is ever present to us. We must let such knowledge flow over into acts of the will, into personal acts of desire and love for Him. When we adore Our Lord present in the Blessed Sacrament we do not spend a lot of time trying to figure out how He is present. It is the same with this exercise of taking advan-tage of God's nearness to us. We take it on faith that He is present and walk lovingly in His company. So we "go about our daily duties with a greater zest and cheerfulness, knowing that we are performing every action of the day in His divine presence; knowing, too, that He realizes we are doing our every act, no matter how big or how little, out of love for Him alone. Our reflection from time to time on His presence is a greater incentive to do all things as perfectly as pos-sible with the help of His grace. "Whether you eat or drink, or what-ever else you do, do it all for the glory of God" (I Cot. 10:31). Pray Atu)a~ls Once Our Lord said: "We must always pray, and never give up" (Luke 18: I). There would seem to be no better manner of carrying out this wish of Our Lord than ever walking in His presence, doing all things out of love for Him alone. As St. Paul expresses it: "You are no longer strangers and for-eigners, but fellow citizens of the saints, and domestics of the house of God" (Eph. 2: 19). By living in such a spirit all our dealings and conversation can become a thing not of this earth but of heaven. And we carry out St. Paul's ~urther advice: "Fixing our gaze not on the things that are seen, but on the things that are not seen; for the things that are seen are temporal, but the things that are unseen are eternal" (II Cor. 4:18). Strength in Temptation Further, we must remember that when we act. in this way, we must not consider God Our Father at some great distance from us, 68 March, 1949 THE NEARNESS OF GOD watching us. He is actually present and interested in everything we do. This makes the practice easy and sweet, and helps us to be on the alert to find new ways to please Him. It is also a great h~lp in temp-tation to realize that He sees us and knows our inmost thoughts and the depths of our souls, reading there the amount of true sincerity we have in trying to overcome the temptations that bother us. He knows our strength and our weakness, and is ever present to help us. It is always a good thing to recall that every temptation takes place in the very presence of God : that every sin takes place right in' His very pres-ence. And when we overcome a temptation and prove our love, we do that, too, right in His very presence; and we are sure of a reward for every battle fought and won for His love. In temptation, call to mind such texts as: "Come to my help, O God; O Lord, make haste to defend me" (Ps. 69:2). Or again, such aspirations as: "O God, my Strength, strengthen me! . Never per-mit me, dear God, to offend Thee." "0 God, may I die rather than offend Thee !" Kinds of Pra~jers to God Present The best and most effectual aspirations, whether in time of temp-tion or in time of loving conversation with God, are those which our own hearts conceive, moved by His grace. In our ordinary prayers or conversations with God so near to us, we should speak about even the most trivial things and the most intimate things as'though with a friend. It is not at all necessary to have a great number of prayers; nor is strain of any kind necessary. One short prayer, provided it expresses the thoughts of our souls, can be r~peated over and over again, and is sufficient. Or again, a Gospel text from the morning meditation repeated over and over again is very pleasing to God, because He knows that you mean it as words of simple and sincere love as you move about on the rounds of your daily life and work in His loving presence. "For what have I in heaven? And besides Thee, what do I desire on earth? For Thee my flesh and my heart have fainted away. Thou art the God of my heart, the God who is my portion forever." (Ps. 72:25-26.) 69 Confidence in God Edward J. Carney, O.S.F.S. WHENEVER his security is threatened, man experiences fear, and he attempts to escape, if possible, the impending evil. Properly controlled this emotion plays an important and use-ful part in developing the 'human personality. For example, one who did not fear the rapidly moving vehicles at a busy traffic intersection would regret his rashness. It is natural, then, for a man to experience fear under certain circumstances. Even Our Lord feared the death decreed for him: "And he took with him Peter and the two sons of Zebedee; and he began to be distressed and discouraged. Theri he said to them, 'My soul is sorrowful unto death.' " (Matt. 26:37- 38.) Fear, however, very frequently exceeds its proper limits. An excellent example of this is the worry and anxiety that trouble many" areligious. In a life dedicated to God through renunciation of the world there must be difficulties. Sometimes these are of great con-sequence; more often than not they are the minor crosses ot~ daily life experienced even by lay people. An improper viewpoint in meeting them, consisting in too little confidence in God, destroys the religious' perspective. Hi~ fear becomes pronounced, manifests itself in worry and anxiety, and makes him doubtful of success in his chosen w'ay of life. Some examples from Holy Scripture will help illustrate these points. Lack of faith in God begets fear. When the storm at sea threat-ened to overwhelm their boat, the disciples awakened Jesus, saying: " 'Lord, save us! we are perishing!' And he saith to them, 'Why are ye afraid, O ye of little faith?' " (Matt. 8:i5-26.) This fear coming from mistrust of God's providence makes a man doubtful of his ability to face a situation. "And Peter answered and said to him, 'Lord, if it be thou, bid me come to thee upon the waters.' And he said, 'Come.' And Peter went down from the boat and walked upon the waters and came unto Jesus. But when he saw the wind, he was struck with fear; and beginning to sink, he cried out, saying, 'Lord, save me.' And straightway Jesus stretched forth his hand and took hold of him, and he saith to him, 'O thou of little faith, why didst thou doubt?'" (Matt. 14:28-31.) 70 CONFIDENCE IN GOD An analysis of excessive fears and anxieties will undoubtedly dis-close that insufficient trust in God is a partial cause. The religious fears the demar~ds of obedience, a new charge, a new assignment. "Why are you fearful, O you of little faith?" Beset by temptations against the vow of chastity the religious questions his strength. "Why are you fearful, O you of little faith?" The mental serenity of the religious is disturbed by daily problems. "Why are you fearful, O you of little faith?" If mistrust of God's providence produces fear and worry, trust in God is accompanied by courage and peace. When the apostles cried out in fear as they saw Christ walking on the sea, 3esus immediately spoke to them, saying: "Be of good heart; it is I, fear not" (Matt. 14:27), After the Resurrection the apostles were gathered together in the upper room. Suddenly 3esus stood among them and said: "Peace be to you! It is I. Be not afraid." (Luke 24:36.) The quality of this faith or trust inGod is also indicated by Christ: "And 3esus answering saith to them, 'Have faith in God. Amen I say to you, whoever saith to this mountain, "Be thou lifted up and cast into the sea," and doubteth not in his heart, but believeth that what he saith is to come to pass, it shall be done for him. Wherefore I say to you, whatsoever things ye ask for in prayer, believe that ye have received them, and they shall come unto .you.' " (Mark 11:22-24.) A religious who allows fear and doubt to color his life may unconsciously make the mistake of believing his problems either too great or too small for God's consideration. If he believes they are too great, he approaches God halfheartedly. Reflection on some passages from the New Testament will convince such a person that the miracles of Christ were performed for those who believed in him. Hence even the greatest difficulties are not insurmountable when a person turns to God in loving faith and confidence. Faith in Christ obtained the cure of the paralytic: "And 3esus, seeing their faith, said to the paralytic, 'Be of good heart, my child; thy sins are forgiven' " (Matt. 9:2). It was a means of res'toring sight to the blind: "And 3esus saith to them, 'Believe ye that I can do this?' They say to him, 'Yea, Lord.' Then he touched their eyes, saying, 'Be it done to you according to your faith.' " (Matt. 9:28-29.) It was required of a father before his child was brought back to life: "But ~lesus, overhearing what was said, saith to the president, 'Fear not, only believe!' . . . And taking the child by the hand he saith to her. 'Maiden, I say to thee, arise!' And straightway the maiden rose and walked." (Mark 5:36-42.) It 71 EDWARDJ. CARNEY won divine pardon for a hardened sinner: "And he said, 'Jesus, remember me when thou comest in thy kingdom.' And he said to him, 'Amen I si~y to thee, this day thou shalt be with me in para-dise.' " (Luke 23:42-43.) Not only .the great events of life but even the smallest detail falls under God's providence. "Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? And not one of them falleth to the ground without your Father. But as for you, the very hairs of your hexd are all numbered. Wherefore fear ye not; ye are of greater worth than many sparrows." (Matt. 10:29-31.) "And he said unto his disciples, 'Therefore I say to you, be not anxious about your life, what ye are to eat; nor for your body, how ye are to be clothed. For the life is more than the food, and the body more than the clothing. Consider the ravens, how th~y sow not nor reap, neither have they store-room or barn, and God feedeth them. Of how much greater worth are ye than the birds~ If then the grass in the field, which today liveth and tomorrow is to be cast into the oven; God doth so array, how much more you, of little faith! Seek ye not therefore what you are to eat and what you are to drink . . . your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of these things. But seek ye his kingdom, and these things shall be added unto you.'" (Luke 12:22-31.) This trust in God presupposes resignation to God's will. It ever bears in mind that God is far more effective in directing human events than man, that what seems an evil on the natural plane may really be a means of advancing in God's grace if accepted with the proper spir-itual dispositions. Thus in turning away from unnecessary fears and worries it does not fall into the fault of presumption. Rather it con-ditions the religious to view all things in their proper perspective and to avoid unnecessary fear by turning to God in confidence and resig-nation. It eliminates doubt, anxiety, and worry, and allows the reli-gious to face life at peace with himself and with God. OUR CONTRIBUTORS EDWARD J. CARNEY is superior of the House of Studies of the Oblates of St. Francis de Sales, Washington, D.C. J. CREUSEN. well-known authority on canon law, is a professor at the Gregorian University, Rome. WINFRID HERBST, writer, retreat master, is on the faculty of the Salvatorian 'Seminary, St. Nazianz, Wisconsin. FRANCIS P. LEBUFFE, for many years on the staff of America, is at present engaged in Sodality work in the East. ALBERT MUNTSCH is a professor of sociology a-nd philosophy at St. Louis University. PATRICK F. MURRAY is a mem-ber of the Jesuit Mission Band of the Maryland Province. EDWARD STANTON is completing his theological studies at Weston College, Weston, Massachusetts. 72 Re: Penitential Instruments Winfrid Herbst, S.D.S. IN A DRAWER in my desk I have a large candy box containing an assortment of penitential instruments, to wit: one large hair shirt made of sterilized horsehair and one hair waistband of the same material; one large and 6ne small discipline made of Spanish hemp as well as one plain and one studded discipline made Of small but e~- cient steel chains; one waist chain and one arm chain made of stainless steel wire, the points of which will bear a bit of filing flat lest they pierce the skin. The set is purely for purposes of study and demon-stration-- visual instruction of a rare kind. Many religious (dare I say "most"?) have never seen the like. I confess that the very feel of some of them makes me shudder; and a young novice who saw them for the first time turned pale, grew weak at the sight, and, knowing that discretion is the better part of valor, sat down on a convenient chair. Among the instruments in this formidable collection (and I sup-pose there are other styles and varieties) I look upon the steel chains and the steel disciplines, especially the studded discipline, as the most dangerous, as apt to cause wounds that in our day of germs could easily lead to infection and medical care. The chains should never be so sharp-pointed as to pierce the skin and should be worn only for brief periods of an hour or so at a time and when one is at ease, as during meditation; and should invariably be removed when one is going to be in any way actively engaged. And the steel-pointed dis-cipline, to my mind, should be used only for display purposes, to show that modern man is not as thick-skinned as his ancestors were. The large hair shirt and the hair band cause me less perturbation. Both can be worn for brief periods, not to exceed an hour, let us say, unless one finds that it is injurious, causing subsequent rash, itch, and so forth. The waistband may be worn over the skin but the large hair shirt is better worn over the underwear or even over the shirt. The one in my collection is a wicked thing and reminds you quite insistently that you are a poor sinner even when worn in this com-promise manner. The hempen disciplines are the simplest and safest instruments in ¯ my interesting collection, provided one reasonably limits the strokes, 73 WINFRID HERBST Ret~iew for Religious both as regards number and force, and lets them fall discreetly on that portion of the body which can best take punishment without real injury, where the proverbial dad (now outdated too) applied the ; strap out in. the woodshed. Those are just my ideas, of course; others may think otherwise but not necessarily so wisely. And I know of religious who have used even the chains (points filed fia!!) regularly several times a week for years and never a bit of harm did it do them, though it was real penance, especially the putting on of the clammy thing on a cold win-ter morning ! Before I go any further, I wish it to be distinctly understood, as shall be several times repeated, that none of the above penitential instruments or others like them may be used without special permis-sion from one's confessor or spiritual director--permission as regard:~ manner of use and length of time--permission that is given only after due discussion of all the factors involved. It is, of course, quite evi-dent that this permission is not necessary in those institutes which prescribe such penances by rule or by legitimate custom, unless it is ,expressly mentioned in the constitutions that one must, even in the case of custom, have the confessor's permission. Nor does this per-mission seem to be necessary for a very moderate occasional use (by way of experiment, for instance), unless.it is evident from the pre-vailing practice of the institute that nothing at all of this nature "may be done without spiritual direction. The question now arises: Is the use of these penitential instru-ments to be recommended at all? That depends. If you are an utterly unmortified religious, an unobservant religious, one who is not even making an attempt to keep the ordinary constitutions-- the answer is, no! You have many more important mortifications to practice before you even attempt these supererogatory practices. You should remember that no source of mortification is more efficacious, universal, and secure than the perfect observance of the holy rule, that its observance is surer and more meritorious than any self-chosen penance. If, however, you are a truly observant religious and are doing all your state of life demands as perfectly as possible--the answer is, yes, with due discretion and the permission of your con-fessor or spiritual director, remembering that these practices are not of obligation. The rules of most religious orderk or congregations do not offi-cially impose any corporal mortification but only suggest ~he idea. 74 March, 19 4 9 RE: PENITENTIAL INSTRUMENTS Thus in various constitutions we read passages like the following: "The chastisement of the body must not be immoderate or indis-creet, in watcl~ing, abstinence, and other external penances and labors, which are wont to do hurt and hinder greater good. Wherefore it is expedient that everyone should lay open to his confessor what he does in this respect." "Since corporal penances contribute much to spiritual advance-ment, their practice must not be neglected by the members." "In the private practice of ordinary mortifications and corporal penances which are not injurious to health the members are guided by the judgment of the confessor alone: for external and public penances, however, they also need the permission of the local Superior." ""With still greater reason each one shall renounce the flesh and its concupiscences, pride and its suggestions, ambition and its intrigues, causing, according to the words of the apostle, 'his members to die,' even though it required fasting, the discipline, and the hair shirt. No austerity, however, is' to be practiced by a religious without the per-mission of his confessor or Director." This last passage, from Directions for Novitiates of the Congre-gation of the Hohj Cross1 by the Very Rev. Gilbert Francais, C.S.C., is commented on at length in that excellent classic. From those pages of comment (40-44) I make the following extracts: "Corporal mortification is more than a humiliation; it is both a humiliation and a physical pain that we very willingly impose on ourselves, either for the purpose of keeping ourselves from sin, or in order to punish ourselves for having sinned, or for the still higher motive of suffering with Christ Who suffered for us. This simple definition places corporal mortification beyond the reach of the silly and unjust ridicule to which the spirit of the world would subject it. The world very readily admits that we may inflict sufferings, may accept sufferings,' or may impose sufferings on ourselves, for the fur-therance of great human interests. It admits, it demands, it requires, that to save the country we shall fast, shall go through painful exer-cises by which the body is worn down and broken; shall accustom ourselves to carry heavy burdens, to make long marches, to put up with hunger, thirst, cold and heat; to sleep on straw or the bare ground, occasionally to pass whole Mgbts without sleep; in a word, to break and discipline ourselves in every way. This is the fate in 1Published by the Ave Maria Press, Notre Dame, Indiana. Quotations with special permission of the editor, Father P. d. Carroll. C.S.C., who writes: "The book, how-ever, is out of print and I do not know where you could obtain copies of it." 75 WINFRID HERBST Revieu~ ior Religious store for all soldiers, and the most beautiful names are given to this spirit of sacrifice and mortification in favor of a noble object. "The world even goes so far as to allow its votaries to suffer, to expose themselves to a thousand sacrifices, to a thousand sufferings, for the object of a sinful passion. Not only does it not laugh at these mortifications, but it reads the history of them in novels with intense interest, and in the theatre it looks upon the representation of them with eager avidity. Those mortifications which the world admits and admires when there is question of defending our country, or even of concentrating on a guilty passion--by a strange perversity it ceases to tolerate them and it mocks them when it is a question of defending one's soul against the powers of darkness, of .saving it for eternity, and of following in the footsteps of Christ . There is a serious lesson for us in this, and we are almost guilty when, at the instigation of this thoroughly wicked spirit, condemned irremediably by Our Lord, we blush at Christian mortifications, and when, on this point, we are tempted to return a smile for its laugh--a laugh both stupid~ and shameless. "Corporal mortification is, therefore, most truly noble. This is not all. There may be circumstances, and especially for the Religious who is called to such delicate perfection even in l~is secret tl~oughts, in which it becomes a moral necessity . "Corporal mortification is useful not merely to triumph over exceptional dangers; it serves to avert them, to remove them further and further from" us, and, in a manner, to render them infrequent. It is an act of manly e, nergy and of higher authority towards a body which should be kept in its place as a slave and made to obey. It is an act of justice by which we ourselves, with our own hands, punish ourselves for having sinned; and not only does God approve of this expiation and recognize its value, but He is pleased with us because of our own accord we execute what His justice would require Him to inflict on us in the flames of Purgatory . " 'No austerity, however is to be practiced without the permis-sion of one's confessor or Director.' This condition is wise and necessary, in order to check indiscreet zeal towards one's self, to be sure of doing" the holy will of God, and to add to the intrinsic, merit of the act by which we mortify ourselves the great merit of obedi-ence." I know there are many kinds of mortification: interior, of imagination, mind, will, heart, the passions; exterior, sight, hearing, 76 March, 1949 RE : PENITENTIAL INSTRUMENTS taste, touch, smell, tongue. I know that the mortification of the senses, as St. Francis de Sales says, is more profitable than the wearing of hair shirts or steel chains or using the discipline. "I know that in addition to taking what God sends in the line of sickness and so forth, in addition to doingone's duty,and in addition to the Church's fast and abstinence, the faithful observance of the prescriptions of modesty and good deportment offer an extensive (and, alas! often uncultivated) field for mortification. But in this article I am lim-iting myself to corporal mortifications of the kind suggested by my collection of penitential instruments. In The Spiritual Life by Tanquerey we read (No. 774) : "There are other positive means of mortification which penitent souls inspired by generosity deIigbt to employ in 'order to subdue their bodies, to temper the importunities of the flesh and give vent to their holy desires. The more customary ones are small iron bracelets clasped to the arms, chains worn about the loins, hairshirts, or a few strokes of the discipline when this last can be done without attracting any notice. As to all such practices one must faithfully follow the advice of one's spiritual director, shun whatever tends to evince any singularity or to flatter vanity, not to speak of whatever would be against the rules of hygiene and personal cleanliness. The spiritual director should not give his sanction to any of these extraordinary .practices except with the greatest discretion, only for a time, and on trial. Should it come to his notice that any inconveniences arise therefrom, he must bring them to a halt." As a footnote to this he says: "To resume the practices of corporal mortification is one of the most effective means of regaining lost joy of spirit and fervor of soul: 'Let us go back to our bodily mortifications. Let us bruise our flesh and draw a littl~ of our blood, and we shall be as happy as the day is long. If the Saints are such gay spirits, and monks and nuns such unaccountably cheerful creatures, it is simply because their bodies, like St. Paul's, are chastised and kept under with an unflinching sharpness and a vigorous discretion.' (Faber, The Blessed Sacra-ment, Book II, Section VII.)" It is perhaps this expression of Father Faber's, "draw a little of our blood," which prompted a religious to say to me, when I cau-tioned that one must never cause a real wound in the flesh when using penitential instruments: "But we were told that corporal penance doesn't really amount to much unless we draw a little blood." I vigorously protest. I do not agree. It does amount to much. 77 WINFRID HERBST Rep~eto for Religiotts And it is against the present-day rules of hygiene thus to d~aw even a little blood. Why, even my favorite author Cappello, Italian and ascetic as he is, gives the following rules to be observed as regards corporal morti- £cations.--Such corporal mortifications (macerations) as are too injurious to health are never permitted. The following are among macerations of this kind: (a) flagellations in which the discipline is applied to the more tender parts of the body or upon wounds not yet healed or by using a discipline studded with sharp points that pierce the flesh; (b) hair shirts made of steel thread so thin that the sharp points penetrate the flesh; or hair shirts that are too tight; or hair shirts that are.constantly worn ; (~). th~ privation of sleep, so that the penitent habitually has less than ~'~vdn hours rest. (Please note, you who burn the midnight oil!) A~ regards corpora/mortifications in genera/, we must distinguish between the case in which the penitent asks permission to employ them and the case in which there is no request for such permission. In case there is no request, the confessor may indeed advise some fasting or some other slight¯penances, but not the hair shirt or the discipline. In case the penitent does ask, the confessor usually puts him off with a view to seeing whether or not he will ask again. If he asks again and very ea'rnestly, the confessor may find it well to grant permission, provided that the penitent is very well grounded in humility and genuine wrtue, in which'case he will at first grant permission to prac-tice such and such a corporal mortification for such and such a length of time on certain days. These are the rules ordir~arily followed by a spiritual director. In case of great necessity and of a penitent disposed to do hard things, he may more easily permit macerations or advise them, but always with due prudence and discretion. (Cf. Cappello, De Sacramentis, vol. 2, No. 573, edition of 1943.) And now, in conclusion, I imagine how some of my readers have been following my ramblings with an amused smile. Perhaps they. are saying within themselves: "Evidently the good man doesn't know that we have to lay it on good and heavy, according to the rule. He seems to think that what he calls macerations are out of date." But I do know. And I do not think so. I bow myself out with the following excerpt from The Catholic Encyclopedia, arti41e "Asceticism," in volume one: "In some of the 78 March, 19 4 9 RE: PENITENTIAL INSTRUMENTS orders the rules make no mention of corporal penance at all, leaving that to individual devotion; in others great austerity is prescribed, but excess is provided against'both by the fact that the rules have been subjected to pontifical approval and because superiors can grant exceptions. That such penitential practices produce morbid and gloomy characters is absurd to those who know the light-beartedness that prevails in strict religious communities; that they are injurious to health and even abbreviate life cannot be seriously maintained in view of the remarkable longevity noted among the members of very austere orders. It is true that in the lives of the saints we meet with some very extraordinary and apparently extravagant mortifications; but in the first place, what is extraordinary, and extravagant, and severe in one generation may not be so in another which is ruder and more inured to hardship. Again, they are not proposed for imitation, nor is it always necessary to admit their wisdom, nor that the biog-rapher was not exaggerating, or describing as continual what was only occasional; and on the other band it is not forbidden to suppose that some of tl~ese penitents may have been prompted by the Spirit of God to make themselves atoning victims for the sins of others. Besides, it must not be forgotten that these practices went hand in hand with the cultivation of the sublimest virtues, that they were for the most part performed in secret, and in no case for ostentation and display. But e;cen if there was abuse, the Church is not responsible for the aberrations of individuals,, nor does her teaching become wrong if misunderstood or misapplied .The virtue of prudence is a part of asceticism." CANONICAL LEGISLATION CONCERNING RELIGIOUS The authorized English translation of that part of the Code of Canon Law which governs religious is now available in the United States under the title Canonical Legislation Concerning Religious. The booklet is published and dis-tributed by the Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. (Pp. 74. Price: 75 cents [paper] .) 79 The I-lundredt:old Edward Stanton, S.J. 44~ND everyone who has left house, or brothers, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name's sake, shall receive a hundredfold, and shall possess life everlasting" (Mr. 19:29). If this expression, "the hundred-fold," is read out of context, it can easily be misunderstood. Actually, in the earlier verses of this same chapter in Saint Matthew's Gospel we read that our Lord had offered "treasure in heaven" to the rich young man on condition that he would accept the invitation to "go sell what thou hast, and give to the poor . and come follow me": there also we read His comparison between a camel struggling through the eye of a needle a'nd a rich man squeezing through the gates of heaven. In the light of these two observations which Christ made on the hazards of wealth, it would seem quite inconsistent to have Him, in verse twenty-nine, speaking primarily of a return in kind of the very things He invited religious to renounce in order to imitate more closely His example of detachment, poverty, submission, and obedience. It may be helpful, then, to consider briefly what various Fathers of the Church and some modern exegetes have had to say about Christ's promise of the hundredfold as it applies to those who have answered His call to the cloister. Saint Jerome, whose opinion in interpreting the hundredfold Venerable Bede followed three centuries later, stresses spiritual goods almost to the exclusion of material pos-sessions. He speaks of peace of heart, joy, divine consolations, and other gifts and graces with which God comforts His servants and which He lavishes upon them. These gifts are the rich rewards of a life of consecration to God's service, "for they surpass all earthly goods and joys far more than a hundred exceeds unity." In much the same way, Saint Ambrose (In Ps. cxix) understands by the hun-dredfold God HimselL and consequently the whole world which is God's possession. To such as leave all things for God's sake God is father, mother, wife, brother, sister, and all things--"because," remarks the saint, "he who has left all things begins to possess God, and He is, as it were, the perfect reward of virtues, which isreckoned not by the enumeration of a hundredfold, but by the estimation of 80 THE HUNDREDFOI.D perfect virtue." He cites the example of the tribe of Levi which by God's command was deprived of its portion of the Holy Land. How-ever, the Lord Himself promised that He would be its portion and inheritance. And from this he concludes: "He who has God for his portion is the possessor of all nature. Instead of lands he is sufficient ¯ to himself, having good fruit, which cannot perish. Instead of hquses it is enough for him that there is the habitation of God, and the temple of God, than which nothing can be more precious. For what is more precious than God? That is the portion which no earthly inheritance can equal. What is more magnificent than the celestial host? What more blessed than divine possession?" Saint Augustine (Epist. 89, quaest. 4) declares: "The whole world is the riches of the faithful." And Saint Gregory (Horn. 18 in Ezecb.) writes in the same vein: "He shall receive a hundredfold becauke God shall take care that such a one shall rejoice far more in his poverty, or his renunciation of his goods for the love of Christ, than rich men rejoice in all their riches and advantages." Father Cornelius a Lapide, referring to a parallel passage in Saint Luke's Gospel, explains the hundredfold as "many times more." More recent commentators, such as Fathers C. L. Fillion. F.C. Ceulemans, J. M. Lagrange, and J. A. Petit, in their com-mentaries on these words of Christ, lay special emphasis on the spir-itual rewards of peace, joy, and consolation even in the midst of sufferings and persecutions. The words of Father Alfred Durand in the Verbum Salutis series are worth quoting: "The hundredfold will not be given without persecutions (Mk. 10:30) ; this is a new proof that in this present life it should be bestowed for a religious purpose and not for a purely earthly advantage. This is what Saint Paul (2 Cor. 6:10) has summed up in a wo~d, speaking of himseIf and of the other Apostles: 'as having nothing, yet possessing all things.' "It goes without saying that the promise of the hundredfold thus understood, comprises . a tacit condition: unless it pleases God to dispose otherwise and that in our personal interest. Is there any need to add that a means given by God for the temporal support of the "ministers of His word' should not be considered as an end in itself? That would no longer mean renouncement but a miserable calcula-tion. Moreover, the hundredfold does not mean wealth." The request the mother of the sons of Zebedee made of Christ: "Command that these my two sons may sit, one at thy right hand, and one at thy left hand, in thy kingdom"; the question the dis- .8l PRUDENCE--,/si NECESSARY VIRTUE ciples put to Christ after His resurrection: "Lord, wilt thou at this time restore the kingdom to Israel?"--and many similar statements in the New Testament appear to us today, to have sprung from a background of ignorance. We conclude immediately that the ones who made these requests had forgotten Christ's words: "The king-dom of God is within you," and again: "My kingdom is not of this world." Yet, are there not some religious who at some time .or other have sighed the lament o-f the disciples on the way to Emmaus: sperabarnus, "we were hoping"? Could it be that we were disap-pointedin our hopes because they were founded on our own fanciful dreams, rather than on the words of Christ? Of this we may be sure, that God, our "reward exceeding great," will infallibly make good His word that those who, in their zeal "for the better gifts," have left house, or brothers, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name's" sake, shall receive a hundredfold, and shall possess life everlasting." Prudence--A Necessary Virtue Albert Muntscb, S.d. DO NOT the very nature of the religious calling and the many safeguards it offers its followers protect the latter from impru-dent ways and methods? Unfortunately, no. In religious life much is left to the good judgment of the individual, and he may easily adopt manners and fall into habits which do not harmonize with the high ideals of his profession. In other words, lack of pru-dence may vitiate well-formed plans and purposes, at least in their execution. Today, especially, when there are many occasions which bring religious persons into freer association with worldlings and worldly practices than was formerly the case, the virtue of prudence should accompany them like a guardian spirit. It is all well to say that new duties demand new methods of approach; but they do not call for laying aside the splendid poise and bearing, the recollection and exterior reserve that should always characterize the soul which has exchanged the trappings of the world for the livery of Christ. Those .who think they have larger privileges to imitate worldly 82 March, 19 4 9 PRUDENCE--A NECESSARY VIRTUE ways and to follow worldly patterns are precisely the ones who need most the protecting strength of Christian prudende. The world bestows an approving smile upon all who fall into its ways and fol-low its changing patterns; but in secret, it ridicules and condemns. Would that this were n~)t so. But the wise and thoughtfM, who hold fast to the way of the rule and regulations sanctiofied by higher wis-dom, need not be convinced by a telltale list of "the preceding proved by example." Prudence is an indispensable part of the armor of every religious. It is required in the classroom. The illustraiions and examples, the applications and iomparisons used to explain texts and principles need not be such as to suggest familiarity with the follies of the idle rich nor the pastimes of the degraded proletariate. No doubt, more than one Christian teacher has been savagely criticized in the home circle precisely for such lack of prudence in the classroom. Prudence is required in caring for the patient in the hospital. The inhibitory powers of tl~e sick and convalescent are often lowered, and they may unwisely and unfairly expect a degree of attention-- perhaps of affectionate care--which is not within the right of any religious to bestow. In such cases guidance by the spirit of the rule, if not by the letter, may be the best preservation from ugly conces-sions. The prudent religious will look at the crucifix in the sick room and will hear the voice of the Master counseIing conduct based on the fear of the Lord. "Blessed is he who offendeth not in speech." Prudence in con-versation with those not of the community, and especially with those not of the household of the faith, is a gift to be prized. Let Christ be our model both in what is to be said and, more especially, in what is to remain unsaid. In the recorded conversations of Christ you find no insinuation of base motives. Only a brave, fearless, outspoken denunciation of hypocrisy, sin, deceit, and hardheartedness; and then only when it was necessary and would prove beneficial to the offender or the bystander. And there is the important matter of friendship--both in and outside of the community. What is of God? What springs from the cravings of lower nature? Is the friendship founded on the real supernatural motive of charity? Would it be approved by Christ if He were present in person and you could lay the case before Him? Weighty questions these, whose answers entail a goodly amount of prudence, prudence based on Christian faith and charity. 83 ALBERT MUNTSCH Review for Religious There remains the vast field of personal attitudes, likes, dislikes, preferences. Is it wise to manifest them to one and all at the slightest provocation? Are others really interested to know of them or do they care to hear of them? Prudence cautions wise restraint. Some religious tell their hearers loudly: "I just hate such a thing and abominate such and such conduct!" Is this confession not apt to act as a boomerang which will bring sharp criticism for the uncalled for manifestation of your attitudes? St. Paul, in his ep!stle to the Ephesians, (chapter 6), describes what has come to be known as "The Christian Armor." This Chris-tian panoply includes the breastplate of justice', the shield of faith, and the helmet of salvation. But can we not say that the virtue of prudence is to guide every Christian in the use of these powerful spir-itual weapons? Prudence is one of the four cardinal virtues, which are defined as, "the four principal virtues upon which the rest of the moral virtues turn." A careful reading of the lives of the saints, as well as recollections of Catholic missionary activity in foreign lands, show how all-important is the virtue of prudence. It was at times the only guide to' success in the Christian warfare, andprepared the way for the entrance of the Gospel of Peace in foreign lands. Take the case of the famous Jesuit missionary Robert de Nobili (1577-1656). He labored in Madura, Mysore, and the Karnatic. In his day the system of caste was perhaps more rigorous than in our time. In order to gain over the Brahmins, he decided to follow some of their ~igorous modes of life. The cry arose that the missionary was adopting pagan customs, and that his example was apt to lead the native Christians astray. In the controversy which followed, one virtue was above all necessary. This was prudence. Should the mis-sionary discontinue his practice and so lose the golden opportunity to convert the higher caste Brahmins? Or should he consult the well'ire of the weaker brethren who would not be able to understand the meaning and motives of his procedure? Prudence justified him in continuing to adopt these foreign customs. He was later officially directed to cease these practices; but in the decision finally given, De Nobili was justified insofar as the customs which he upheld were distinctly cultural and had no necessary connection with worship of the Supreme Being. As stated in a preceding paragraph, the virtue of prudence is per-haps more necessary today when religious have so many opportunities 84 March, 1949 PRUDENCE--A NECESSARY VIRZFUE of coming in contact with people in the world. @he writer recalls a meeting of a scientific society several years ago when a member of a religious community arose several times to present some opinions on the questions under discussion. On one occasion especially this reli-gious embarrassed the audience by presenting views which apparently no one could follow and which seemed to be utterly wide of the mark. Finally, at the suggestion of one of the delegates, the religious ceased from further speaking. We leave it to the judgment of the reader to decide whether or not the virtue of prudence would have prevented this embarrassing incident. Is it not.significant in this connection to recall that one of the great saints of the New Testament--St. Joseph, the Head of the Holy Family--is referred to in liturgical hymns, as "'uir prudens et fidelis." Prudence guided him in his,first associations with the Mother.of God; and the Holy Scripture refers to his embarrassment so delicately, in a delicate situation. It was his prudence that directed him in such a way that won for him the approval of the evangelist. The three great model saints of Catholic youtb--Aloysius, Stanislaus, and John Berchmans--were each one distinguished in his own way for the prac-tice of Christian virtue. Yet each one of these distinguished members in Christ's army wa.s guided by that necessary virtue, prudence. If this virtue bad not been present, they might easily have become offensive to their fellow religious and might have failed to become models for youth in aftertimes, t3ut prudence kept them on a path which exemplified the highest type of spirituality and the greatest love of God, and yet made them dear to and worthy of imitation by those who saw their bright example. These are only a few simple thoughts on a virtue which is apt to be pushed aside like Cinderella in order to give scope to the practice of "heroic virtue." Heroic virtue--that is what we all need and desire-- is to be found in the daily practice of little duties in the spirit of faith, with eyes fixed on God, but above all in the spirit of sweet charity towards all of God's children. Let us then realize that this cardinal virtue is a most potent weapon for shielding us from many pitfalls and for aiding us to a higher degree of perfection in the life of religion. 85 Adapt:at:ion J. Creusen, S.J. Translated from the French by Cla.rence McAuliffe, S.J. [This article first appeared in Reuue des Communaut& Religieuses, XVIlI, 97. It is translated and printed here with the author's permission. The author, though a recognized expert on the religious life, would not want his suggestions to be taken as the last word on the subject of adaptation. Discussion of many of the points in the article, especially as they might apply to the United Sates, is desirable: and we shall welcome communications of this nature.--ED.] ADAPTisAa proTblemIOthatNbesets every age, but- it be- ~omes particularly pressing at times of rapid and,far-reaching social changes. That ours is such a time is beyond all question. When the religious life comes under scrutiny, the probl~m may be posed somewhat as follows: Is it expedient that religious life be adapted to the new circumstances of our times, or must novices and young religious adjust themselves to those demands that are looked upon as essential to genuine religious, life? In this article we intend to try to give the broad outlines of an answer to this extensive question. To adapt oneself means to conform one's life and conduct to a new set of circumstances. If a person travels from one climate to an entirely different one, he must adapt himself to the latter in matters of food, clothing, and work. He must in other words adjust his habits in such things to the requirements of heat and cold. A person must know how to adapt his ways of speaking, of teaching, of nursing the sick, and so forth to the diverse circumstances in which he is placed. Adaptation, therefore, involves change; but not from a mere desire for change in itself, or from fickleness, but from a desire to be able'to live or to act more profitably. Since surrounding circumstances do nor remain fixed, every living thing is compelled to make some adaptations. Just as winter imposes its own special demands, so also does summer. Once a being becomes incapable of adaptation, it is doomed to destruction. Acts that are devoid of adaptation are ineffectual and, as a consequence, usele.ss. Religious life, too, since it is a form of living and acting, cannot be an exception to this law. Apart from the basic applications of sovereign moral and ascetical principles, religious life imposes obliga-tions and norms of conduct that owe their rise to the exigencies or 86 ADAPTATION conditions of special circumstances or of a particular epoch. We need not dwell on this truth which is irrefutable and called into question by scarcely anybody. II The Church, while always remaining faithful to principle, pro-vides us with .striking examples of adaptation. She does not alter by one jot the dogmatic truths which Christ has entrusted to her. Truth does not change with the passage of time. It remains immutable, though the formulas expressing it may vary because of the evolution of human language. For this reason the Church does not alter her moral principles. She condemns contradictory heresies, not only those which unduly exalt human freedom or the worth of creatures, but those also which profess io deny the goodness of the divine work even in material creation. While proclaiming the superiority of per-fect chastit~ over conjugal chastity, she rejects the error of those who condemn marriage. While reminding us of the heroic mortifications practised by the saints, she does not prohibit or dissuade anyone from drinking wine temperately. Did not Christ choose wine as the mat-ter/ from which His greatest Sacrament would spring? ~ta The Church aiso keeps intact, insofar as possible, the fundamen-ls of her liturgy and even of her discipline. To maintain sacerdotal celibacy in the Latin Church, she has had to bear the brunt of recurring attacks. Even within recent memory Pope Benedict XV took occasion to declare that the Holy See would not relax her dis-cipline in this matter even though her failure to do so might prompt some priests to schism. Yet, only an'ecclesistical law is at stake, and its abrogation would imply no loss of essential doctrine. However, bowing to demands arising from circumstances of time and place, the Church does modify, either temporarily or perman-ently, certain disciplinary decrees even though they may date back to the very beginning of her history. Her legislation regarding fast and abstinence both during Lent and on Ember days, and particularly on vigils; has undergone remarkable relaxations. It should be noted, too, that some of these modifications even preceded the war of 1914-1918. Moreover, from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century the secluded or segregated aspect of religious life passed through a total transfor-mation. This was, so to speak, thrust upon the Holy See because many religious congregations had already contributed to it by the adaptations which they themselves had espoused. Again, within 87 J. CREUSEN Relaiew for Religious recent years we have witnessed a considerable extension of the liberty accorded to religious in the choice, at least periodically, of their con-fessors. The Holy See has regarded this as an inevitable consequence rio.wing from the abandonment of rigid seclusion, from a more pro-nounced awareness of freedom of conscience, and from'the new legis-lation about frequent Communion. The first decrees of Plus Xupon this last subject were greeted with vigorous opposition. But even though the highest superiors of some of the most distinguished orders remonstrated, they could not shake his resolve to grant this adapta-tion. Does not the Holy See guide us along the same road when it approves the most diversified forms of religious life? An enormous distance has been traveled from the day when Plus V wanted to oblige all religious to papal enclosure and solemn vows to the present time when approval is extended to religious societies whose members do not even live in community. On the other hand, the Church is prudent in her approach to such adaptations. She undertakes them gradually; she looks about for guarantees of their worth; she often delays until isolated experiments have demonstrated the harmlessness, the usefulness, and the need of the proposed change. Notice, too, how certain devotions, such as the devotion to the Sacred Heart, have passed through progressive stages of approbation. Again, are we not eyewitnesses of the transformation in some liturgi-cal practices? However, in matters liturgical, regardles~ of who may assert the contrary, the Holy See by no means allows priests, bereft as they are of all authority, to introduce changes as they please. Liturgi-cal practices emanate from the authority of the Holy See, which has reserved to itself exclusively the right to pass judgment on their pro-priety. Hence, without special authorization a priest may not cele-brate Mass while facing the congregation. It is no excuse to plead that such an adaptation is required by liturgical progress. III Objects of Adaptation 1. It is perfectly clear that no change can be made in the basic principles of the spiritual life which our Savior taught in His gospel. No matter what development of ideas or of customs may take place, self-abnegation and the way of the Cross will always remain the indispensable means of acquiring and fostering that perfect charity which unites us to God. To prove this we have at hand the explicit 88 March, 1949 ADAPTATION and unequivocal teaching of the gospels, the sum-total of tradition, the testimony and practice of all the saints. Against this solid truth, only specious arguments could be advanced. For instance, someone might contend that a person must necessarily revel in creatures in order to raise himself to God by their instrumentality. The genuine mystics, however, keep telling us that long and rigorous privation and self-denial are the gateway to contemplation and the fruition of God through the enjoyment of creatures. The religious spirit, diametrically opposed as it is to the spirit of the world, must be preserved. The new generation no less than the old must renounce the world--its ease, its dissipation, its spirit of independence and of criticism. The characteristic spirit of each insti-tute is also a treasure that should be jealously guarded. Is not this spirit the handiwork of divine grace operating in the souls of founders and foundresses? Moreover, the primary applications of general prin-ciples of Christian asceticism will remain unchanged or but slightly modified. For instance, certain safeguards of chastity, since they are required by the ingrained weakness of human nature, are always valid and are not out of step with variations in custom. Thus the practice of consulting a retreat director only in the confessional, or possibly in the parlor but not in his private room, will be maintained. Parlors where priests converse with religious women, whether young or old. should have doors panelled with glass. No need or legitimate reason exists for altering this usage. 2. Some adaptations are absolutel~t necessar~t. A. By reason of changes in ecclesiastical legislation. We have already mentioned the comparatively recent laws dealing with confessions of religious men and women. At first some supe-riors objected to these laws because they believed that this new lib-erty, unknown as it was to the earlier history of their institute, engendered a real danger. Today we can hope that such a state of mind has disappeared. The custom of exposing the Blessed Sacrament during Masses of some slightly greater solemnity than usual had ~o cease when the decree was issued allowing exposition only during Masses within the octave of the Feast of Corpus Christi and during the Forty Hours. Again, the Congregation of the Sacraments has very clearly expressed its desire that freedom to abstain from Holy Communion should be facilitated by every means in those communi-ties or social groups that receive Communion at a specified time. The habit of approaching the Holy Table in order of seniority, whether 89 J. CREUSEN Review for Religious of profession or of age, is certainly an obstacle to such freedom. Moreover, this ancient practice has been eliminated in some of the most famous orders. Communion is received without any regard for the position one occupies in the chapel or in the community. We have nothing but praise for this adaptation. It might even be con- , sidered as obligatory insofar as it can be done, because of the directives of the Sacred Congregation. B. By reason of the growth of the institute. When an institute spreads beyond the borders of its native coun-try and branches out into many foreign lands, the time has come when religious of other nationalities should be granted their rightful place in the government of the institute. This is particularly true when the foreigners outnumber members belonging to the native land of the founder or foundress. The foreigners, therefore, should be represented at general congregations or chapters. Just as the Holy Father chooses cardinals from all countries and from all nationalities, so should a general congregation be truly representative of the entire institute. This procedure, moreover, is necessary in order to forestall the temptation to separation from the institute. When religious bodies of men, and especially of women, find themselves systematically excluded from the government of their institute, they fall an easy prey to this temptation. Unfortunately, too, this temptation is often induced and kept alive by some of the local clergy who are anxious to exert a more direct and more extensive jurisdiction over the religious in their own country. The day may well come when thought must be give'n to forming a new province from a group of houses which have grown in number and importance. Similarly, the wisdom of suppressing a province must also be weighed when it has a dearth of members and cannot anticipate a fresh increase of novices for a long l~ime. If such a prov-ince is not suppressed, a general chapter will not have a jr/st propor-tion of representatives from various sections of the institute. As a result, certain groups get.the definite impression that they are gov-erned by superiors and chapters that ignore or neglect their own special interests. A more delicate question comes up, but we cannot waive it. Some institutes keep their communities stamped with a truly international character. In such cases it should not be surprising to find that the superiors of these communities are not citizens of the country where the house is established. O~her institutes, on the contrary, by reason 90 March, 19 4 9 ADAPTATION of the very necessities of their apostolate, must choose local superiors from persons who are either natives of the country or at least speak its language. It is easy enough to understand why authority should be exercised for a long time by superiors (we speak here particularly of communities of women) who are natives of the country in which the institute had its origin; but this state of affairs should not be pro-longed indefinitely. The time comes when it is fitting to appoint English or Irish superiors in England, American superiors in the United States, Belgians in Belgium, and so on. Omit this adaptation and the institute presents a foreign appearance in the country. This is damaging both to the recruiting of novices and to union of spirit. In addition, it furnishes the clergy of the land with a pretext or reason for inducing the native members to withdraw from their religious family and to found another of exactly the same kind, but one that is independent and better suited to the requirements of local conditions. On the other hand, the hearts of all become attached to the institute when confidence is reposed in those who are foreign to the country of its origin: C. By reason of the swift euolution of ideas and custbms. It is evident that the first condition for the proper direction of novices and young religious is to understand them. This supposes personal contact with, as well as experimental knowledge of, the external conditions in which they have been reared and educated. Sometimes masters and mistresses of novices, though quite elderly, understand modern youth perfectly because they have been in constant touch with it for many years. A true youthfulness of spirit results from this uninterrupted contact. However, when a successor has to be appointed to this office, it is important to select someone who is young enough to have retained memories dating from recent times and also youth's natural gift of facile adaptability. These qualities make it possible to understand the ideas, impressions, reactions, and mistakes of the young souls who are to be guided; and such understanding is a requisite condition for exercising 'influence and inspiring confidence. The same qualities should be found in prefects or directors of studies, and also in the superiors of certain houses. The physical condition of modern youth should enter into our consideration no less than its psychological dispositions. The war has radically affected the nervous systems of most young men and women who knock at the doors of our novitiates. This fact must be taken into account- seriously when matters concerning diet, length of 91 J. CREUSEN Review for Religious sleep, and the amount and kind of recreation are determined. When the garden is not sufficiently extensive, physical exercises can be very much in place.1 They afford relaxation from the overconstraint brought on by the religious habit, the practice of modesty, and a life that is too sedentary. In some countries it is perfectly circumspect for religious to enjoy the refreshment of a bath in a,swimming pool or in a pond located on the conveht grounds. In other countries, however, public opinion will hardly allow religious or clerics to swim even in a pool of their own. It is clear that public opinion must be reckoned with in this matter. D. B~] reason of special local circumstances. Most institutes having houses in hot climates have gradually adapted their religious garb to the climate so as not to wear out their subjects prematurely. Again, doctors scarcely allow religious nurses to enter the operating room unless their clothing is adapted to the functions to be performed there. Some cornets or headdresses have to be ruled out because they hinder freedom of bodily action too much. A white dress or apron will also have to be slipped over the religious habit. We need not insist on this because it causes no difficulty, and all institutes willingly consent to it. 3. Some adaptations though not necessary can be very suitable. Hence they are more or less important or urgent. The rational grounds underlying them resemble those we have mentioned above. A. The Liturgical Movement, for instance, will prompt the taking of a more intimate and active part while assisting at the Holy Sacrifice. All members of the community will be provided with a missal so that they can follow the prayers of the priest. On certain days, perhaps, the dialog Mass will be held. Some of the set prayers recited in common might be profitably replaced by others borrowed from the liturgy. One community, for example, has introduced the custom of reciting Compline as its evening prayer. B. Today quite a few candidates for religious life bring along a personal formation which their elders did not always have. This is explained by the modern abundance of spiritual literature, by more frequent confessions, and by more carefully organized closed retreats. Such candidates, of course, have new needs with regard to partictilar modes of the spiritual life. Would this not be a reason for doing lln the text Father Creusen seems to recommend calisthenics provided religious have not the facilities for other forms of exercises. His recommendation is hardly a sug-gestion to establish a regular regime of calisthenics, obligatory on alI.--ED. 92 March, 1949 ADAPTATION away with the custom, still widely in vogue, of reading the points of meditation every evening for the entire community? Would it not lead at least to the elimination of their rereading in the morning? Complaints about this matter are voiced quite often and they seem to be well-founded. After some time a suitably formed religious soul should be able to prepare for itself the matter of its prayer. It will feel drawn toward~ such or such a subject. Why compel such a one to listen in the morning to an entirely different kind of subject mat: ter? Sometimes even the manner of presentation does not correspond to the state of such a person's soul, to say nothing of its failure tO correspond to the mentality of the majority in the community. It is one thing to supply subject matter for morning prayer to novices for a time, or to provide the same help to the lay Sisters. It is quite a different thing to foist such subject matter' on persons who are already fuIIy formed both intellectually and spiritually. It would be absolutely intolerable, of course, for religious to lose their appreciation for the Rosary or for the beautiful invocations o~ litanies which are approved by the Holy See. But no need exists to' inspire a kind of distaste for these devotions by their overmultiplica-tion. It is hardly necessary to add that superiors should see with jealous care that fidelity is always maintained to the mental prayer prescribed by the constitutions. Sometimes, the length or number of vocal prayers recited in common infringes noticeably on the morning or evening meditation. C. Demands made b~t teachir~g. How many young religious men and women today must prepare for two, three, or four years to take examinations that require a considerableamount of knowledge as well as extensive laboratory exercises. The daily order should be adapted to this kind of work. To repeat certain courses intelligently or to put certain compositions in final form calls for. undisturbed and protor~ged study. Such students, therefore, should have at their disposal quite lengthy periods of study and should not be obliged to interrupt their study to attend to exercises of piety or manual labor. Some daily orders were formulated at a period when the preliminaries before class took practically no time or effort, especially after several years of prac-tical preparation. They are not at all suitable to present-day require-ments in the matter of study. The same holds true of preparation for examinations. Not forgetting, therefore, that some more elderly members may also be included in the dispensation, these young reli-gious will be dispensed from certain observances. Other members of 93 J. CREUSEN Reoieto for Religious the community who have more time either by reason of age or work, can continue to keep them. The Holy See sets the example here, for in the great monastic orders it allows exemption from choir to stu-dents of philosophy and theology. D. Technical progress. In a house of some size a house telephone system saves a considerable 'amount of time and eliminates many fatiguing trips and distractions. Telephones are p'erfectly in order in the rooms of the superior, the assistant, the treasurer, the prefects of study and of discipline, as well as in the kitchen, the infirmary, the tailor shop, and so on. How many runnings to and fro would be avoided, how many conversations shortened, what an asset for con-tinued and peaceful labor! An outside telephone evidently brings up different problems. Its use should not be permitted to the free choice of the members of the community. Simple prudence and sometimes the observance of poverty demand some limitations. Here again a wise adaptation is very much in place. The same should be said of the use of automobiles. A visitor was told in a kind of boasting way that in a house of studies there were at least fifteen typewriters. "How does it happen," he said, "that there are only fifteen? Each professor and most of the students should have their own typewriters." We submit this answer to the reflection of superiors. It is certain at any rate that a typewriter is no longer an object of luxury and can be strictly necessary for a teacher or a writer. Even the organization of work in some religious houses would profit much if it were inspired by the modern methods pursued in enterprises of considerable scope. An industrialist who had become a religious told us one time: "What an extravagance of personnel, what losses of time, what a lessening of the effectiveness of our work because we are not rationally organized." We might mention by way of example lack of adequate space, manual tasks imposed on eminent religious because they do not have secretaries to help them in their work, the lack of suitable instruments for work (furniture, index files, and so forth). E. The growth of the Institute brings up another very delic~ite question: Is it proper and, if so, when is it proper to transfer the gen-eral headquarters of the institute to Rome? To begin with, let us say that, although the Holy 'See wants to see a house of every institute at Rome, the Sacred Congregation does not urge all institutes to transfer the mother house there. When a mother house has been a cradle of 94 March, 19 4 9 ADAPTATION the institute; when it has been sanctified and made famous by the vir-tues and sometimes even the miracles of the founder or foundres~;' when most cherished memories are connected with it; we can readily understand that truly valid reasons are wanting for its removal. This is true even though one of the suggested reasons for removal is the advan'tage of baying the mother house in the center of Christianity. Proximity to the Vatican is not an indispensable condition for fos-teringdeep attachment to the Sovereign Pontiff and for acquiring a truly Catholic spirit. However, it can happen that the mother house by reason of the spread of the institute can lose its prestige in the minds of very many members; whereas the actual presence of the superior general's house in Rome certainIy lends to a congregation a mark of universalism and a feeling of union with the Holy See, both of which promote devotion in all members of the institute to those who govern it. Consequently 'it might be well to ask if such a project should not be submitted to the deliberations of a general chapter. IV How should the adaptation be carried out? 1. With prudence. To adapt means to change; and we know that changes do not always take place without shock. Sometimes they cause surprise. Oftentimes ~they inspire spirits of lesser con-stancy and prudence with a desire to introduce other changes which no good reason counsels or commands. Once a change is made it is often difficult, even impossible, to retrace one's steps. Hence a choice should be made in. the alterations to be introduced. Sometimes the unfavorable aspects of a change are perceived only after it has been made. This is an additional reason for seriously considering all possible consequences beforehand. A religious once suggested to his superior that a door be installed at a certain spot in the coiridor. The superior answered: "My dear father, in such and such a year a door was put there; some time later, another superior had it taken out. Later on it was replaced, and then it vanished again. Don't you think it is better to leave things as they are?" Hence counsel should be sought, but not solely from those who are so set in their ways that they cannot imagine or accept any change. It will be helpful to get information .from religious men or women of other institutes. What works well in one institute of the same kind may prove advantageous and beneficial in similar circum- 95 BOOK REVIEWS Review For Religious stances. When feasible, an experiment should be made without offering the change as permanent. 2. With decision. Prudence does not require an indefinite delay before introducing beneficial or necessary changes. Such delay easily engenders restlessness and regrettable criticism. Once the utility or the need of a change has been recognized, it should be introduced with-out complaints, without laments over the evils of the time, without harking back continually to the advantages of the former system. Such a policy might disco.urage souls of good will, or embitter those less favorably disposed. Above all the principle, "That was never done before and things went along all right" should be avoided. Such reasoning simply and categorically closes the door to all progress. Dis-tinction must be made between healthy tradition, custom, and row. line. The first is, generally spea.king, to be kept; the second can and sometimes should be changed: the third should be unequivocally condemned. ook Reviews THE LORD'S SERMON ON THE MOUNT. By St. Augustine. Translafed from the Latin by John J. Jepspn, S.S. Pp. v~ -f- 227. The Newman Press, Wes÷mlns÷er, Maryland, 1948. $2.75. The editors of "The Ancient Christian Writers" seri?s, Dr. Jo-hannes Quasten and Dr. Joseph Plumpe of Catholic University, have again succeeded magnificently in presenting to the English-speaking world an excellent translation of an important work of. Augustine. The entire work is a pithy, thorough analysis of the most challenging of all messages, the Sermon on the Mount, the party platform of Christianity. The work is divided into two books. Book One delves into the meaning of the sermon. Book Two establishes the truth that it is humanly possible to put the Sermon on the Mount into practice, that this sermon is not a moral code for a select few but a perfect pat-tern of Christian living, that it does not contain only counsels for a better class of Christians but rather also for every follower of Christ. The intimate relation between ethics and religion as it appears in this sermon intrigued the great mind of Augustine, and he set himself 96 March, 1949 BOOK REVIEWS to explore this relationship. As a result, in this volume we meet Augustine the moral theologian rather than Augustine the- dogmatic theologian, the ethics master rather than the metaphysician. As a result too, the book is easier to understand, more pleasant, even more devotional at times, as compared with his heavier dogmatic works. The cases handled and the learned discussions concerning them prove Augustine to be the greatest exponent of moral theology in Christian antiquity. In this work he 'made an impoftant contribution both to the science of ethics in general and to that of moral theology in particular. Several of Augustine's comparisons make for instructive and pro-vocative reading. He compares the Beatitudes with the Gifts of the Holy Ghost; and be concludes his book by comparing them to the seven petitions of the Our Father, saying that the first seven Beati-tudes are stages of grace that correspond to the seven petitions of the Our Father as they ask for the coming of the Kingdom of God. The treatment of the Our Father has excellent material for prayerful reflec-tion. One final asset of the book is the copious notes that clarify difficult passages and correct dubious solutions.--V. P. MICELI, S.J. YOU CAN CHANGE THE WORLD! The Chris÷opher Approach. By James Keller, M.M. Pp. xlx q- 387. Longmans Green and Co., Inc., New York, 1948. $3.00. The opening message of this book is that "the United States is being effectively undermined by less than one percent of the people of our country," who are fired by "a militant hatred for the basic truths upon which this nation is founded," and. who, in order to poison the minds of many, "make it their business to get into one of the four in-fluential spheres of activity which touch and sway the majority of the people." The challenge that immediately follows this message is that an equal number of people, fired by a love of Christian principles, desirous of enlightening the minds of the many, can enter the same influential spheres and save the country. And, since this parallel can be extended from country to country, the Christ-bearers (Christo-phers) can save the world. This, however, is only a part of the chal-lenge, for the emphasis of this whole Christopher movement is on the you (singular) ; and it says to every Christ-bearer, "'You can save the world." I will not attempt to give a complete outline or criticism of Father Keller's book. As a matter of fact, it is not a book in the ordinary 97 ]~OOK REVIEWS Reoiew for Religious sense; and anyone who wishes to read it as a book will very probably punish his-head mercilessly. It is a manual, a detailed plan of action covering the four major spheres of influence--education, government, labor-management, and writing--in which every individual who at least believes in God and in the fundamental moral truths can help to counteract the anti-God campaign that is now wrecking the country and the world. It does not stop, however, at these major spheres. It goes into the library, into business, onto the campus, and into the heart to convince every individual of good will that be can do some-thing and to point the way to do it. Because of this extensive scope and the multiple suggestions contained under each head, You Can Change the World is intended more for piecemeal pondering accbrding to one's own circumstances than for reading straight through. A large percentage of our readers can use Father Keller's book very effectively. It could make a fine basis for a discussion of various apostolic works; also for a consideration of various avocations (~nd sometimes of vocations). _And I might add that one can hardly read the opening chapters without being urged to pray for the world, and particularly for the Communists. One reader of the book said that he had not finished five pages before it suddenly came home to him that it would be better to pray for the Communists than against them. If Father Keller accomplished nothing more than to throw emphasis on conversion rather than destruction, on love rather than hate, his book and the whole Christopher movement would be more than justified. In one respect this book treads on what I might term "theological thin ice." Father Keller's message is addressed to all men who hold to the moral fundamentals, irrespective of their religious affiliations, and he encourages all to communicate what truth they have to others. This is a dangerous message and it must be phrased skillfully. The appeal to all men independently of religious attachments can readily connote-religious indifferentism; and the charge to spread what truth they have can lead to communicating the errors woven into the parr tial truths. On the first stretch of thin ice (the appeal to all men of good will) Father Keller is in the very safe company of Plus XII. The second stretch is more dangerous; yet it seems better to risk a plunge into the cold waters of misinterpretation by a positive and encouraging approach to those outside the Faith than to remain (freezing, more or less) in the so-called safety zone of negativism. As a matter of fact, my general impression is that Father Keller crosses 98 March, 1949 BOOK NOTICES even this very perilous patch with remarkable skill and courage. He makes it perfectly clear that his book and the Christopher movement are under Catholic auspices: he does not water down the fact that only Catholics possess the fullness of God's truth; and, in drawing up a minimum plan for the spiritual life of a Christopher, he wisely lim-its his suggestions to Catbolics.---G. KELLY, S.J. BOOK NATURAL AND SUPERNATURAL WEDLOCK, A LENTEN COURSE OF SEVEN SERMONS, by the Reverend Clement H. Crock, includes the best ideas from many sermons on marriage prepared by the author over a long period of years. Compiled in response to requests of bishops and priests for a series of concise, up-to-date Lenten sermons on matrimony, couched in simple, straightforward language, and pleasantly sprinkled with an abundance of apt illustrative examples, these seven sermons drive home .the fundamental doctrine which should be known by those already married and those preparing for marriage. They are easily adaptable for long or short sermons, and should prove very useful for all preachers. (New York City: Joseph F. Wagner, Inc., I948. Pp. 64.) THE JOY OF SERVING GOD by Dom Basil Hemphill, O.S.B.,con-talus twenty chapters, eacl4 of which deals with some important vir-tue or practice of the religious or priestly life. As usually happens, these time-honored subjects, such as humility, charity, spiritual reading, suffering, obedience, silence, detachment, derive new fresh-ness from their treatment by another personality. The book, there-fore, is worth adding to the community library. It is hard to see. why the author omits chapters on the vows of poverty and chastity since they are basic elements of the religious life. A few inaccuracies mar the book. For instance, very few theologians would want to defend this sentence: "All the venial sins of our past life for which we are sorry are forgiven by every absolution, whether they have been mentioned or not" (p. 162). Neither is it correct to say that one of the constitutive elements of the sacrament of penance is the "performing our penance" (p. 157). The meaning of the "imprimatur" on a book is not expressed clearly enough (p. 170). It is also surprising to find silence described as the "twin" of obedience 99 BOOK NOTICES Reoiew for Religious (p. 15). It is rather an atmosphere in which all virtues flourish. But despite these flaws, which after all take up but a few lines of the vol-ume, the book by its simplicity of style and general soundness will provide enlightenment and inspiration for many. (St. Louis, Mis-souri: B. Herder Book Company, 1948. Pp. x + 194. $2.50.) As its title indicates, OUR LADY'S DIGEST contains Marian articles chosen from Catholic magazines and books. It follows the familiar pattern of the Catholic Digest and other similar magazines, differing from them only in subject matter. The articles are frequently very good; but the stories, which are few in number, are with some excep-tions below average in literary quality as are also the poems. The various issues to date (the magazine has been in publication for almost three years) are uneven in quality, but in general are im-proving. With good editing the publication should develop into a very valuable and interesting magazine. (Olivet, Illinois. 11 issues per year. $2.00.) OUR LADY'S HOURS, by Mary Ryan, discusses the meaning and the beauty of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin. This discussion is preceded by two chapters on "Liturgical Prayer" and "The Divine Office." The book should be of great value to Sisters and others who say the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Book shop, 1948. Pp. xv + 195. $2.50.) THE IMITATION OF MARY contains brief chapters with Marian thoughts selected from the writings of Thomas ~ Kempis and edited by Dr. Albin de Cigala. Each "thought" is followed by applications made by the compiler. The book does not approach the appeal of The Imitation of Christ, but it contains a fair number of interesting thoughts. The attempt to arrange the material to fit the fifteen mys-teries of the Rosary is not successful. The work was translated from the original French by a Dominican Sister. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1948. Pp. 114. $1.00 [paper] : $2.25 [cloth].) RELIGIOUS TEACHING OF YOUNG CHILDREN, by S.N.D., has four parts. The first is historical and highlights the chief events in Our Lord's life. The second is doctrinal, corresponding roughly to the Creed. The third and fourth parts deal with the child's first steps to God: prayer, confession, and Communion. The narratives and instructions are simple and adapted to the tiny capacity of the very young. Religion is presented, not so much as a stern Creed, Code, 100 March, 1949 BOOK NOTICES and Cult but as an attractive and lovable person whom the child is drawn to follow. The copious suggestions and devices after each les-son are practical aids to help the child live, love, and serve Christ, his best Friend, twenty-four hours every day--on Monday as well as on Sunday. Parents and teachers will discover in this charming book the secret of that most difficult of arts--introducing a child to the Lover of little children. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Bookshop, 1947. Pp. 173. $2.25.) BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS. [We have been receiving more books than we can possibly review. Because of this we must make a decided change in our policy. In future we shall list each book received and shall in most cases include a brief descriptive notice of the contents, in so far as this can be estimated from a glance at tbe book, the jacket, and the pub-lisher's announcement. This is the most that we can guarantee for any book. Some books, of course, will be reviewed later or will be given a more complete and critical notice. We can make no guarantee at all for booklets and pamphlets. The list of books announced here supplements the list included in our January number, p. 56. This list, together with the reviews and notices published in this issue, is a complete acknowledgement of all books received up to February 10, 1949, and not previously reviewed.] BENZIGER BROTHERS, INC., 26 Park Place, New York 7, N. Y. Our Lady of Fatima, Queen of Peace. By Joseph Delabays; translated by John H. Askin. Pp. xv + 197. $2.75, A fairly full history of the Fatima story, fol-lowed by nearly fifty pages of prayers to Mary, Five illustrations. BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, 540 N. Milwaukee St., Milwaukee I, Wis. Vade Mecum for Teachers of Religion. By Sister M. Catherine Frederic, O.S.F. Edited by the Rt. Roy. William F. Lawlor. Pp. xvi -'k 344. $4.00. A grade school teacher's reference book containing material on the liturgy, the Mass, a glos-sary of ecclesiastical terms and abbreviations, and brief lives of class patron saints recommended for study. The Watch. By the Most Rev. Alfred A. Sinnott, D,D., Archbishop of Winni-peg. Pp. vii -5 155. 1947. $2.50. Contains fourteen Holy Hours for use each month of the year, for Holy Thursday, and for Forty Hours. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, Washington,-D.C. The Provincial Religious Superior. By Rom~eus W. O'Brien, O.Carm. Pp. x q- 294. Adissertation on the rights and duties of provincials in religious orders of men. EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, INC., Detroit, Mich. No Greater Service. By Sister M. Rosalita, I.H.M. Pp. xx q- 863. The history of the Congregation of the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Mon-roe, Michigan, (1845- 1945), with a foreword by His Eminence, Edward Cardinal Mooney. Achievement of a Century. By the same author. Pp. xiii -Jr 299. An account of the mother house and missions of the congregation. Both volumes pro-fusely illustrated. $15.00 for both volumes. Order From: Publications Office, Saint Mary's, Monroe, Michigan. FATHERS OF THE SACRED HEARTS, 4930 South Dakota Ave., N.E., Washington 17, D.C. 101 BOOK NOTICES Review For Religious Father Damien: Apostle of the Lepers. By the Most Reverend Amleto Giovanni Cicognani. Pp. 47. $.50 (paper). THE GRAIL, St. Meinrad, Indiana. As Others See Us. By Henry Brenner, O.S.B. Pp. 117. $1.25. Presents the Sacred Humanity of Christ as the mirror in which we may see ourselves. The Mass Year. By Placidus Kempf, O.S.B. Pp. 124. $.30. A daily Mass guide for 1949 with liturgical reflections on some of the SeCrets. The Virgin's Land. By the Young .Monks of St. Meinrad's Abbey. Pp. 97. $.50 (paper). B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY, 17 South Broadway, St. Louis 2, Mo. Where We Got the Bible. By th," Rt. Rev. Henry G. Graham. Pp. xii q- 166. Paper. $1.00. Tells how the Catholic Church preserved the Bible. A reprint of a work that has not been available for several years. Meditations For Evergman. By Joseph McSorley, C.S.P. Volume II. Contains. meditations for each day of the liturgical year from Pentecost to Advent; also a handy index of the Scripture texts on which the meditations are based. Pp. vi 211. $2.75. Dante Theologian, A translation of and commentary on The Divine Comedy, by the Rev. Patrick Cummins, O.S.B. Contains an English version of the encyclical on Dante, the text of The Divine Comedy, commentaries, and a dictionary of proper names. Pp. 604. $6.00. The Three Ages of the Interior Life. Volume II. By the Rev. R. Garrigou- Lagrange, O.P. Translated by Sister M. Timothea Doyle, O.P. Pp. xiv -[- 668. $7.50. The present volume discusses the illuminative and the unitive ways and extraordinary graces. Second Latin. By Cora Carroll Scanlon and Charles L. Scanlon. Pp. vi -1- 270. ' $3.50. Intended for students who can devote only two years to the study of Latin and who must be prepared to read Latin textbooks of philosophy, theology, and canon law. The Well of Living Waters. By. Pascal P. Parente. Pp. viii -t- 335. $3.50. Excerpts on spiritual topics from the Bible, the Fathers, and the masters of the spiritual life. P. J. KENEDY ~ SONS, 12 Barclay Street, New York 8, N. Y. Another Tu2o Hundred Sermon Notes. By the Rev. F. H. Drinkwater. Pp. ~ii -t- 210. $4,25. Provides from two to five outlines for each Sunday of the year, as well as a choice of themeS, for a large number of feasts and occasions when a pul-pit talk is in order. L'IMMACULI~E-CONCEPTION, 1844 est, rue Rachel, Montreal (34), Canada. Lumiire et Sagesse. By Lucien Roy, S.J. Pp. 301. A study of mystical grace according to the theology of St. Thomas. LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO., INC., 55 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. You Can Change the World. By James.Keller, M.M. Pp. xix -b" 387. This is the story of "The Christopher Approach"-~of how the ordinary man can do a great job ifi changing the world for the better. $3,00. Transformation in Christ. By Dietrich yon Hildebrand. Pp. ix -b 406. $4.50. The theme of the book is the operation of the supernatural life in the sphere of personal morality. Lord, Teach us to Pratl. By Paul Claudel. Translated b~" Ruth Bethell. Pp. 95. $2.00. De La Salle: A Pioneer of Modern Education. By W, J. Battersby, Foreword by A. C. F. Beales. Pp. xix + 236. $3.50. 102 March, 1949 BOOK NOTICES Sermons and Discourses: (1825-39). Pp. xviii q- 348. $3.50. --- Sermons and Discourses: (1839-57). Pp. xvli-b- 382, $3,50,--Two more volumes of the new series of the works of John Henry Cardinal Newman. Edited by Charles Frederick Harrold. MACMILLAN COMPANY, 60 Fifth Avenue. New York. Mary o[ Nazareth: A True Portrait. By Igino Giordani. Translated by Mother Clelia Maranzana and Mother Mary Paula Wiltiamson. Pp. xlx + 185, $2.75. MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Peace Proposals of Plus Xll in the Writings of David Lawrence. By Sister Cath-erine Joseph Wilcox, S.P. ,Pp. xi q- 95. A dissertation. THE MARYKNOLL BOOKSHELF, Marykn911, N. Message of Fatima. A unit of work for intermediate grades. Lithographed. Pp. 103. How the People o[ the Andes Live. A new unit of study on Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. Assembled in loose-leaf binder. $1.50, .THE MERCIER PRESS, Cork. Communism and Ireland. By Sean P. MacEaoin. Pp. 132. Paper: 3/6d. Westward by Command. By Maire Cotter. Pp. 159. $2.50. A life of Mother Cabrini. THE MISSION PRESS, 1502 West Ashby Place, San Antonio 1, Texas. The True Concept of Literature. By Austin J. App, Ph. D. Pp. v -1- 110. Paper: $1.00. NATIONAL CENTER OF THE ENTHRONEMENT. 4930 So. Dakota Ave., N. E. Washington 17, D. C. Proceedings of the'First National Congress of the Enthronement of the Sacred Heart in the Home. Pp. 92. Paper: $1.00. Contains much conference material. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Ancient Christian Writers, No. 6. This volume comprises The Didache, The Epistle of Barnabas, The Epistles and the Martyrdom of St. Polycarp, The Frag-ments of Papias, The Epistle to Diognetus. Newly translated and annotated by James A. Kleist, S.J. Pp. vi + 235. $2.75. Meditations on Christian Dog.ran. By the Rev. James Bellord, D.D. Vol. I: Pp. xxv--[- 369; Vol. II: xiv -[- 363. $7.50 for the set of 2 volumes. The medita-tions cover the whole of dogma. Two pages for each meditation. They seem very solld. This is a Newman reprint of a work that has not been available for a long time. The Vell Upon the Heart. By George Byrne. S.J. Pp. viii q-- 103. The book treats of private prayer. Thy Light and TbU Truth. By Rev. Robert Nash. S,J. Pp. 197. $2.50. A book of meditations. A selection of the Spiritual Book Associates. The Old Testament and The Future Life. By Edmu, nd F. Sutcliffe, S.J. 2nd. edition. Pp. vii q- 201. $3.50. Surveys the development of the doctrine of the future life as it is found in the Old Testament. The Way of the Mystics. By H. C. Graef. Pp. 160. $2.75. A study of the mystical life in various mystics. Christ ls All. By John Carr, C.SS.R. Pp. 143. $2.25. This is the fourth impression; the Imprimatur is dated 1928. According to the author's preface, the book is of a moral and devotional nature and is intended to make Cath,olics' belief in Our Lord more vivid and practical. The Mystical Body, the Foundation of the Spiritual Life. By Father M. Eugen~ 103 BOOK NOTICES Revieu~ for Religiou,~ Boylan00.Cist.R. Pp. 130. $1.75, cloth: $.90, paper. This was the April (1948) selection of the Spiritual Book Associates. The Liturgical Year. Volume I: Advent. By Abbot Gu~ra, nger, O.S.B. Pp. x + 520. The price of the present volume is $4.00. Subscribers to the entire set of 15 volumes are entitled to a discount of 25 per cent. Another Newman reprint of a classic work. Catechism Stories. By the Rev. F. H. Drinkwater. Pp. xxxv ÷ 480. $3.'50. Contains nearly seven hundred stories, each designed to drive home some point of Catholic teaching. Written originally as a companion to the English catechism, this American edition has references to the appropriate sections of the Revised Baltimore Catechism No. 2. Diocesan Censures "Latae Sententiae" and Reseroed Sins in the United States. Compiled at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md. Pp. 38. Paper: 50 cents per copy; 6 or more copies, 20 per cent discount. A handy booklet for students of canon law and for priests in the ministry. A Retreat Souvenir. By Father Victor, C.P. Pp. 79. Paper: 30 cents. A translation of the French. Intended primarily for girls and young women who have made an enclosed retreat. Platform Replies. By the Very Rev. J. P. Arendzen. Volume 1. Pp. 199. Paper: $1.75. Answers to questions on ethics and religion. Companion to the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius. By Aloysius Ambruzzl, S.J. (Third edition.) Pp. xiv + 348. $3.00. First Steps in the Religious Life. By Bernard J. Kelly, C.S.Sp. Pp. 127. $2.50. A planned series of instructions on the religious life. Hidden Fields. By Sister M. Rosalia, M.H.S.H. Pp. viii + 55. $1.50 (paper). A brief sketch of the life of Mother M. Demetrlas, foundress and first superior gen-eral of the Mission Helpers of the Sacred Heart. The Liturgical Year: (Christmas, Book I, 4th ed.). Pp. vii + 456. $4.00. --The Liturgical Year (Christmas. Book II, 4th ed.) Pp. x ÷ 522. $4.00.-- Both by Abbot Gu~ranger. O.S.B. Translated by Dora Laurence Shepherd. The Lord is mg Jog. By Paul de Jaegher, S.J. Pp. 182. $2.50. Describes the relationship between happiness and holiness. The Mother of Jesus. By Father James, O.F.M.Cap. 'Pp. viii + 159. Chapter Headings: Portrait, Vocation, Immaculate, Pre-Ordained, Virgin-Mother, Media-tion, Queen. Nazareth. By J. K. Scheuber, O.S.B. Translated by the Venerable Archdeacon M. S. MacMahon. P.P., V.F. Pp. xiv + 278. $2.50. A pocket-size book of counsel and prayer for the married. Readings and Addresses. By the Reverend F. H. Drinkwater. Pp. vi + 190. " $2.75. For the Holy Hour and other occasions. Religious Teaching of Young Children. By S. N. D. Pp. 173. $2.25. A book for teachers and parents. A Spiritual Aeneid. By Monsignor Ronald A. Knox. Pp. v + 263. $I.00 (paper) : $3.00 (cloth). The author's account of his conversion. This Age and Marg. By Michael O'Carroll, C.S.Sp. Pp. viii + 158. $2.50. FREDERICK PUSTET COMPANY, INC., 14 Barclay Street, New York 8, N.Y. Ave Maris Stella. By Max F. Walz, C.PP.S. Pp. vii + 70. $1.50. Each chapter handles a stanza of the "Ave Maris Stella" hymn in the manner of the sec-ond- method-of-prayer. The Shepherdess of Souls. By a Sister of Mercy. Pp. ix + 125. $1.50. Each of the thirty-o.ne short considerations consists of a quotation from some book about 104 March, 19 4 9 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Mary, some thoughts about the event in her llfe, followed by a moral application to the reader's llfe, concluded with a prayer to Mary, and an appropriate poem. RADIO REPLIES PRESS, St. Paul I, Minn. The Singing Heart. By Rev. Lawrence G. Lovasik, S.V.D. P. 144. Sto~y of girl named Antoinette Marie Kuhn. ROSARY COLLEGE (Department of Library Science), River Forest, Ill. The Catholic Booklist: 1948. Pp. 110. $.60. The Catholic Booklist: 1949. Pp. 86. $.65 (paper). ST. ANTHONY GUILD PRESS, Paterson, New Jersey. The Book of Genesis. The first of a new set of translations of the Old Testa-ment. Work is done by scholars of the Catholic Biblical Association and is spon-sored by the Episcopal Committee of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine. Pp. vi + 130. THE SENTINEL PRESS, 194 E. 76th St., New York 21, N. Y. The Eucharist and Christian Perfection. Parts I and II, translated from the French of Blessed Julian Eymard by Mrs. Amy Allen. Part I contains two retreats: one given to the Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul: the other to the Servants of the Blessed Sacrament. Part II contains a retreat given to the Blessed Sacrament Fathers. PartI:Pp. vi + 327; PartII, xii + 236. Each, $2.00. Month of St. Joseph. Translated from the French of Blessed Peter Julian Ey-mard. Pp. xxvi -1- 131. $1.50. Contains thoughts for each day of March. In the Liqht of the Monstrance. Translated from the French ol~ Blessed Peter Julian Eymard. Pp. vii + 248. $2.00. This volume contains miscellaneous writings of Blessed Eymard that represent the basic principles of his spiritual doc-trine. The compiler is the
Issue 19.2 of the Review for Religious, 1960. ; Review Prayer for the General Council by The Sacred Apostolic Peniten~tiary The Psychological Possibility of Intellectual Obedience by Thoinas Dub'ay, S.M. Temptation: A ÷ R = S by John Carroll Futrell, s.J. Charity the Unifying Principl'e of Religious Life by Sister Consuela Marie, S.B.S. Neuroticism and Perfection by Richard P. Vaughan, S.J. Survey of Roman Documents Views, News, Previews Questions and Answers Book Reviews 65 67 77 83 93 102 106 109 119 . Prayer for the General Council Sacred APostolic Penitentiary [The following prayer and the declaration of the attached indulgences is translated from Acta Apostolicae Sedis.I DIVINE SPIRIT, who were sent by the Father in ~.he name of Jesus and who remain present in the Church to govern her unerringly, pour forth, we ask of You, the fullness of Your gifts upon the ecumenical council. Tenderest of teachers and of comforters, enlighten the minds of our holy prelates who, in eager allegiance to the Roman Pontiff, will make up the assemblies of the sacred synod. Grant that abundant fruit thay come from this council; may the light and the strength of the Gospel be diffused'more deeply and more widely throughout human society; may the Catholic religion and the diligent work of the missions flourish with increased vigor; and may the happy result be a fuller knowledge of the teaching of the Church and a salutary progress in Christian morality. 0 welcome Guest of the soul, establish our minds in truth and bring our hearts to a ready obedience so that what is determined in the council may be sincerely accepted and promptly fulfilled by us. We also pray to You for those sheep who are not yet of the one fold of Jesus Christ; as they glory in the name of Christian, so may they finally come to true unity under the guidance of the one Pastor. By a kind of new Pentecost renew your marvelous works in this our time; .grant to Holy Church that, unanimously and insistently persevering in prayer together with Mary, the Mother of Jesus, she may, under the guidance of St. Peter, enlarge the kingdom of the divine Savior, a kingdom of truth arid of justice, of love and of peace. Amen. September 23, 1959 By virtue of ~he powers given to it by His Holiness John XXIII, the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary makes the following grants: 1) a partial indulgence of ten years to be gained by the 65 PRAYER FOR THE GENERAL COUNCIL faithful who recite the above prayer devoutly and with contrite heart; 2) once a month a plenary indulgence under the usual conditions if they have :piously recited the prayer for an entire month. All things to the contrary not withstanding. N. Card. CANALI, Penitentiary Major S. de Angelis, Substitute 66 The Psychological Possibility of Intellectual Obedience Thomas Dubay, IF ANYTHING is anathema to our western world it is thought control in whatever guise it may appear. Understandably enough, our democratic horror at the least restriction on freedom of thought and expression strikes a sympathetic note in the heart of the western religious, for even he cannot escape the moods of a pluralistic society. So true is this sympathy for freedom, that not a few religious find the commonly taught doctrine on obedience of the intellect an incomprehensible, if not impossible bit of spirituality. One can encountei good religious whose very constitu-tions carry a stipulation on obedience of the judgment and yet who are almost scandalized by that stipulation, who may even think it a mistaken insertion because they view it either as im-possible of fulfillment or as an unjust attempt to curtail reasonable freedom. In this article we. propose to investigate psychologically the theory and the practice of intellectual obedience, that is, the conforming of one's judgment to the judgment of the superior. We will preface our analysis, however, with a review of the com-monly received doctrine on obedience of the intellect, a doctrine classically enunciated by St. Ignatius of Loyola in his well-known letter on obedience and recently sealed by the strong words of Pope Pius XII in his 1957 address to the General Congregation of the Society of Jesus. What Is Intellectual Obedience? Before answering our question positively, we might with profit dwell for a moment on what intellectual obedience is not. Con- " forming one's judgment to the superior's judgment d~es not mean merely that upon receiving an apparently unwise command, the subject judges that in these concrete circumstances he (the subject) ' intellectually agrees that the superior is to be obeyed. A religious does not make the superior's judgment his own simply by ac-cepting the intellectual proposition that this command must be The Reverend Thomas Dubay is presently stationed at Notre Dame Seminary, 2901 S. Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans 18, Louisiana. 67 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious executed, for that is accepting a solid truth of ascetical theology, not a superior's judgment. Obedience of the understanding is more than an intellectual acceptance of the theory behind religious obedience. Secondly, obedience of judgment does not mean that a religious violates his intellectual honesty by "agreeing" with the superior no matter how patently wrong the latter may be -- and sometimes is. Nor does it mean that a subject must think as his superior thinks on any subject whatsoever. The superior has no infallible authority from God and no universal commission to teach, and so he has no right to expect his subjects to be of one mind with him on free questions unrelated to religious obedience. If intellectual obedience is none of these, what, then, is it? Although a religious can avoid an offense against the virtue or the vow of obedience by a mere execution of the matter commanded, yet perfection adds to execution a full surrender of both the will and the intellect. There are, consequently, three elements nec-essarily included in an act of lJerfect obedience: execution of the superior's directive, wanting to execute it because of the superior's authority, and thinking in its regard as the superior thinks insofar as such is possible. As regards this third element, we can hardly improve on St. Ignatius' explanation, an explanation ratified by the explicit authority of the Sovereign Pontiff: "He who aims at making an entire and perfect oblation of himself, besides his will, must offer his understanding, which is a distinct degree anal the highest degree of obedience. He should not only wish the same as the Superior, but think the same, submitting his own judgment to the Superior's, so far as a devout will can incline the understanding. For although this faculty has not the freedom which the will has, and naturally assents to what is presented to it as true, there are, however, many instances where the evidence of the known truth is not coercive, in which it can with the help of the will favor one side or the other. When this happens, every obedient man should bring his thought into conformity with the thought of the Superior" (Letter on Obedience, translated by William J. Young, S.J. [New York: America Press, 1953], p. 10). It is not our purpose here to develop the idea of intellectual obedience, but rather to analyze its possibility from the psycholog-ical point of view. Our aim, then, can be ~atisfied by two or three illustrations of the Ignatian teaching. Father X, a religious priest, is attached to a parish, and during Lent is charged by his superior to preach a series of sermons on the capital sins. Father X rightly 68 March, 1960 |NTELLECTUAL OBEDIENCE believes he knows the parish and its needs well, and he further thinks that those who come to Lenten devotions need a series of sermons on fraternal charity far more than one on the capital sins. Surely the difference of opinion between Father X and his superior is not~black and white either way. As is the case with most com-mands in religious life, the evidence is not coercive; the matter is at least debatable. If Father X has a "devout will" in the Ignatian sense, he will try insofar as he can to see and accept his superior's judgment about- the advisability of a series on the capital sins. Rather than adduce mental or vocal reasons against the superior's view (and that is his natural inclination), he summons up reasons that support' the superior's position, and he tries to solve his own objections. In other ~words, he makes a serious attempt to judge .the matter as his superior judges it. Sister Y is denied permission to invite to the pa['lor someone she thinks'she could aid spiritually by a word of encouragement or advice. Sister conforms her judgment to her superior's, not merely by agreeing to the proposition that she ought not to invite this person because she has been denied permission, but by trying to agree to the proposition that, all things considered, seeing this individual now is not wise in itself. Brother Z is refused permission to buy tools that he obviously needs to do his job competently. Brother knows clearly that the monastery is not h.ard-pressed financially; and he knows, too, that his present set of tools is simply not adequate. What must Brother's "devout will" do. in this situation? Rest in peace. He need not even try to conform his judgment to his superior's, because the case is clear (in our supposition, at least). Since it is patent that the superior is wrong, even the perfection of obedienc~ does not require Brother to believe that he is right. Nature of Intellectual Assent The difficulties involved in seeing the advisability and even the possibility of a submission of the judgment are prominent in the cases of Father X and Sister Y. Brother Z's situation offers no great problem. If the intellect is a necessary, determined, non-free faculty, how can it be moved to accept one view rather than another? If Father X's intellect is determined by the evidence at hand and if he can see his motives for assent but not his superior's, how can he honestly conform his judgment to his superior's? And the same is true of Sister Y. " 69 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious The intellect, the faculty that knows in an immaterial manner, the faculty whose proper object is the universal idea, is admittedly a non-free cognitive power. It can know only what is given it, for °the knowing intellect is what the scholastics call the possible intellect, and the possible intellect is determined by the impressed species. Though this terminology may be obscure to the non-philosopher,, the fundamental idea is quite simple. Just as the eye is passive and determined in the sense that it can see only what is given to it, so also on the more immaterial plane is the intellect passive and. determined because it can "see" only what is given to it to understand. While we readily grant the non-free character of the intellect's grasp of the idea (the simple apprehension of the philosopher, the knowing of what a thing is), we do not grant that all of his judg-ments are determined or non-free. By a judgment we mean, of course, the attribution of one idea to another or the denial of one idea of another. I attribute white to house in the judgment, "the house is white," or I deny right of James in the judgment, "James is not right.": Some of our judgments are necessary: "seven times four is twenty-eight," or "any being has a sufficient reason for its existence." These propositions are overpowering in their evidence; the intellect must accept them. It cannot do otherwise, for there is no theoretical or practical difficulty in the propositions that could distract the intellect's attention and so render the assent unnecessary. ~ "But--and this is important for religious obedience--most of our judgments are not necessary. Even more, many of our certain judgments are free even though perfectly certain and established by irreproachable evidence. Although the judgment, "God exists," is certain, and metaphysically certain at that, it is a free judgment, for it is not coercively obvious. A man can choose to be unreason-able, to look rather at difficulties practical and speculative, and thus choose to reject a truth that is amply demonstrated beyond any reasonable doubt. Because the intellect is not necessitated by the evidence in these many free certitudes, the will must enter into the picture and decide whether a~judgment is to be made, and, if so, what kind. The fact that the certitude of faith (another example of a free assent) is free is one reason that it is meritorious of eternal reward. And so the will has a decidedly large part to play in our intellectual life--far more than most of us would like to admit. If I am a Democrat (or a Republican), I am such not because 7O March, 1960 INTELLECTUAL OBEDIENCE of clear, cold reason alone. The positions taken by the two parties are by no means obviously right or wrong, at least when considered as two sys~ms. If I am a Democrat, there are intellectual reasons, of course. But there are also a host of factors that have influenced my will quite aside from my desire for efficient government: parental persuasions, educational exposures, attitudes of friends, personality traits of political figures, my home city and state, income bracket (if I had one!), social position, religion. If you wonder whether rural life is superior to urban, whether married women ought to work outside the home, whether your religious superior is right or wrong in a given case, you may be quite sure that your will is going to have an important role in your final yes or no to each question. The will exercises this role in two ways, indirectly and directly. The will indirectly influences our intellect in its act of judgment by determining whether and for how long the intellect is to consider the various pieces of evidence pro and con. If a man refuses to study the evidence for the divine origin of the Catholic Church, his final judgment, "She is not Christ's Church," has been very much determined by his will, even though he might flatter himself that he has been quite intellectual in building up his case against her. If a religious refuses to examine carefully the favorable motives for his superior's decision, his judgment that the superior has erred is shot through with the volitional element. ¯ The will plays a direct role in the formation of a judgment, not because it elicits the very act of judgment (this is a cognitive act and therefore an operation of the intellect), but because it im-perates or commands the intellect to pass judgment, to link one idea with another. This direct role is found in both certain and opinionative assents. Although we have thus far considered chiefly the certain assent, what we have said bears even more pointedly on the opinionative. If certitudes can be free, it is obvious that opinionative assertions.' must also be free. If certain motives often do not determine the intellect, surely probable ones do not. And so because the opinionative judgment is not one forced by the evidence, the will must enter into the matter directly and command the intellect either to assent, not to assent, or to suspend assent altogether. Application to Religious Obedience From all that we have said it appears, then, that a definitive disagreement with one's religious superior is not usually a purely 71 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious intellectual affair. The reader will note that we specify a definitive disagreement, that is, not a mere difficulty in seeing the superior's position, but rather a mental assent, certain or opinionative, that the superior has erred. If we may return to a previous example, our point may be clarified. If Father X makes a judgment that his superior is wrong in directing a Lenten series on the capital sins, Father X's will has probably entered into his~ decision both in-directly and directly. On the first score, Father X's judgment has been influenced indirectly by his will, if he declined to look for and consider reasons supporting his superior's view. If, in addition, he chose only to adduce mental evidence to prove his own view, he chose so to act by his will, not his intellect. On the second score, Father's judgment has been directly influenced by his will, since the evidence is not compelling for either opinion, and in order for him to make an opinionative or a certain assent either way the will must intervene. It now becomes apparent that obedience of the judgment involves both the intellect and the will though in different ways. It is the intellect that is here conformed to the superior's, but it is the will that sees to the conforming operation. However much he might like to think so, the religious is not subject merely to ob-jective evidence in his intellectual reaction to his superior's com-mands. His final assent or dissent is 'very much determined by his desire to assent or dissent, and that desire will be shown probably by both an indirect and a direct influence on the part of his will. We may next inquire into the reasons why the will enters so pronouncedly into a realm that seems no great affair of its own. ¯ Why does the will step into the intellect's own proper sphere and influence its own proper act, the judgment? The underlying answer to this question may be deduced from what we have already said about the indetermination of the intellect in any of its judgments that lack dompelling evidence. In these cases it is the will that must decide finally whether an intellectual assent is going to be made and, if so, what kind: affirmative or negative, certain or opinionative. Without this volitional push the intellect would operate only when the evidence for its assent is overwhelming and bereft of any difficulty, practical or speculative. While the in-tellect's frequent indetermination is the underlying reason for the will's entry into the act of judgment, we may still ask why the will chooses an affirmative assent rather than a negative one (or vice versa) or a certain rather than an opinionative one (or vice versa). 72 March, 1960 INTELLECTUAL OBEDIENCE Why, in other words, do we choose to hold what we do hold? Does our will always follow the objective state of the evidence? To answer this question is to answer also the problem of why we err when we do err. St. Thomas does not hesitate to place the root cause of error in the will, and he therefore finds at least a material sin (one without guilt) if not a formal sin (one with guilt) in our errors of judgment. "Error obviously has the character of sin," points out the Angelic. Doctor. "For it is not without pre-sumption that a person would pass judgment on things of which he is ignorant. Especially is this true in matters in which there is a danger of erring" (De rnalo, 3, 7). Why the sin? Because there is a deordination in the will's extending an assent beyond evidence, in judging without adequate information. We do not err because our senses and/or our intellects deceive us. l Being passive faculties they cannot register except what is given them, any more than a catcher's baseball glove can catch a golf ball if a baseball is thrown at it. If as I ride down the highway I see a peach tree and declare it to be a plum tree, I have erred not because my eyes deceived me (for they indicated precisely what is there), but because through an over-eager will my intellect was pushed to extend its assent, "Look at the plum tree," beyond the given data. An ordered judgment, one supportedby available evidence, would have been, "Look, I think that is a plum tree." In this judgment ~here is no error for it does appear to be a plum tree. In pinning down exactly why the will imperates unjustified assents epistemologists offer a wide variety of causes and occasions. These may be seen in any complete text on the validity of human knowledge. We will apply these same reasons and add some of our own to the subject's judging of a superior's command when the rightness or wrongness of it is not obvious. We may note that in the subject's disagreement with his superior there will often be an inordination of one kind or another. We qualify our statement by the word often because it can also happen with some frequency, and even in matters debatable, that a subject judges his superior wrong for objectively valid reasons. But even in this latter case perfect obedience will prompt the religious to seek to conform his thought to the superi0r's insofar as he can, and that by trying to see the superior's reasons rather than his own. What, then, are the inordinate causes for- a. subject's willed intellectual disagreement with his superior? ~Th~ senses can err, of course, when either they or the medium are defective. Of themselves, they are inerrant. 73 THOMAS DUSAY Review for Religious 1) ,Precipitate judgment due to levity or lack of maturity. Many people, ndt excepting religious, have a tendency to pass judgment on ideas or persons or events on the spur of the moment and without allowing themselves the leisure fo~ mature consideration. This undue haste could be willed insofar as an individual realizes his tendency to ill-considered conclusions and yet does not take adequate means to overcome it. A religious who is wont to have and express an immediate opinion regarding decisions of authority is probably beset with this defect. 2) Innate tendency to disagree. Closely allied with our first cause for a religious' intellectual disagreement with his superior is the odd perversity by which some men almost automatically choose the contradictory pqsition to an expressed proposition. This type of person, when a religious, will find himself sponta-neously thinking that the community should buy a Ford once the superior has decided upon a Chevrolet. 3) Desire to appear informed and/or as having a mind of one's own. To suspend judgment upon hearing a statement or to agree with it can in the first case appear to be due to ignorance of the situation or, in the second, to a lack of intellectual initiative and originality. Sister X may disagree with a ~uperior's directive re-garding classroom procedure primarily because she wants her community to realize that she, too, knows something about matters educational. Brother Y may be at odds with his superior about some extracurricular activity just to let it be known that he still has the use of a good set of reasoning apparatus. 4) An attachment to an idea or to a thing with which the superior' s directive is incompatable. Father X in our above example Gould have been willing his intellectual disagreement with his superior because of an unreasonable clinging to his own idea of what the people need most to hear about in a Lenten series. Although this clinging to an idea may be solidly motivated, it may also spring from an in-tellectual pride or from a self-centered attachment. If we refuse to examine honestly the evidence supporting the superior's view, we have cause for suspecting a self-centered attachment. 5) A preformed set of pseudo-principles. Not unrelated to simple prejudice is the phenomenon by which a religious builds his own cozy living of the religious life upon a set of principles hardly deducible from gospel asceticism. When his superior's directives clash with these "common sense" principles, the 'former are judged to be defective, not the latter. Fit forms of recreation, the amount of money available for a vacation, types and amount of work 74 March, 1960 INTELLECTUAL OBEDIENCE assigned are all illustrations of the kind of material in which intellectual judgment is likely to be mixed with an abundance of will. 6) Dislike for the consequences of the superior's judgment. Even when no principle is immediately apparent, a religious can disagree with his superior's judgment because he can see that it is going to conflict with his own plans and purposes. A teaching sister who wishes secretly to run a particular extracurricular activity can easily be tempted to find intellectual fault with a command whose execution will disqualify her for the job she seeks. If she succumbs to the temptation, her judgment is probably rife with will. 7) Dislike for the person of the superior. If my memory does not fail me, Ovid once observed that love is a credulous sort of thing. And we might add that hatred is incredulous. The same man will strain to put a favorable interpretation on a wild remark of a true friend, while he will unabashedly reject a moderate statement of an enemy. A religious who feels a natural antipathy towards his superior is by that very fact predisposed .to disagree with his judgments on non-intellectual grounds. Because women admittedly tend to judge with their hearts to a greater extent than men do, sisters who note this incllnation in themselves should observe carefully its bearing on intellectual obedience. These, then, are some of the volitional factors that can be present in the religious' failure to conform his judgment to that of his superior. Lest we be misunderstood, we repeat that a lack of conformity of judgment can also be due to solid intellectual reasons held by the subordinate; and in this case he is not at fault, provided he has honestly tried to see the superior's point of vie.w. But we do insist that many of our disagreements can be influenced, perhaps strongly,, by any one .or several of the factors we have outlined. When such be true, our disagreement may not be flattered by the pure name of intellectual. Some Difficulties Does not intellectual obedience smack of the unreal, the dis-honest? Is not a mature man or woman being asked too much in being urged to surrender not only the will but the very intellect itself? Is the religious to enjoy no personal independence at all? These questions almost answer themselves in the asking. Intel-lectual obedience is honest and realistic for the simple reason that it requires only that a subject look frankly at evidence favoring 75 THOMAS DUBAY the superior's viewpoint. Since he already knows his own opinion, the subordinate violates no honesty in trying to see and accept that of God's representative insofar as such is possible. Nor does this ask too much, for every faculty 0f man belongs to God, his intellect included, and they all, therefore, should be surrendered to Him. As regards independence, we must note that no man is independent of God. A religious obeys with his understanding, not because the superior is more intelligent than he,. but because he commands with God's authority. There is an immense difference between the two motives. Would not the faithful practice of intellectual obedience cripple a religious' later ability to rule? Hardly. This difficulty is based on the tacit premise that the subbrdinate's viewpoint on a debatable command is the more correct because it is the subordi-nate's, that he will learn how to rule by attending to his reasonings rather than those of the superior. The contrary seems more ~ikely. A subject already knows how he would judge in a given situation ¯ and why he is inclined to disagree with his superior. It stands to reason, then, that he will be broadened, not narrowed, if he honestly tries to see this same situation from another man's vantage point. I Would expect obedience of judgment to improve a subject's later ability to govern wisely rather than hinder it. After all, who of us. is so brilliant that he has nothing to learn from another? And finally, does not the conforming of one's ju.dgment to that of another tend to smother magnanimit~ and zeal, bigness of mind and aqcbmplishment? I think I might be pressed if I had to give a convincing theoretical answer to this objection, but I find that an adequate concrete answer could scarcely be easier. We need only look at the lives of the saints and then ask whether their perfect obedience of intellect and will smothered their zeal and a~c0mplish-ment. We need only recall, for example, that towering figure of magnanimity, St. Francis Xavier, corresponding with his superior on his knees. The objection melts away. Intellectual obedience, then, is not only psychologically possible; it is logical, helpful, desirable. Without it obedience of execution and will can hardly be perfect. The subject who is at intellectual odds with his superior's directives is likely to murmur, to cut corners, to be lacking in promptness and cheerfulness. With intellectual obedience he is completely subordinated to God. He enjoys peace because his holocaust is entire. 76 Temptation." A÷R--S John Carroll Futrell, S.J. EVEN THE GREAT St. Paul complained that he found himself doing the evil he did not wish to do. Religious men and women, professionally dedicated to the pursuit of perfection, under-stand from their own humiliating experience what the Apostle was talking about. It is one thing to possess and pursue ideals of perfect virtue and high sanctity and quite another to realize them in the heat and rush of daily life. All of us suffer from plaintive moments when we see the embarrassing divide between what we are and what we are supposed to be. "What a rain of ashes falls on him / Who sees the new and cannot leave the old." More often than not it is only in profound moral crises that we find out what values truly shape our character. Men in general tend to live their lives without finding out who or what they really are. Most of the time we can successfully fool ourselves into believing that we are in our souls what we appear in our religious garb. Whether this be due to superb play-acting or to some inner veil we draw across the mirror that would show us ourselves, at least this much is clear: we fight like Tartars against the knowledge of what we really are, barring no holds and respecting no rules. It takes a crisis to reveal us to ourselves, and even then we can sometimes throw off uncomfortable truths by a kind of mental judo. The source of our troubles and the root of our self-deceit, we know, is the old Adam within us all. Man is split; his heart is divided. If, as the Psalmist and the poets have said, he is noble and splendid and but a little less than the angels, if he is of almost .infinite faculty in his mind and in apprehension like a god; still, he is also a mean-spirited reed and his own demon. He is capable of heroic grandeur shining out against the dark magnificence of things; but in the main he is rather ignoble, mean in his pleasures, slavish in his conformity to unworthy standards. We religious share this fallen nature (how well we know it!) and this divided heart. We run the constant risk that we shall live out our lives without really seeing our true face or speaking out our authentic name, who we are, why we are here. When the time comes to us, perhaps only at Judgment, when we will be forced at last to utter The Reverend John Carroll Futrell is presently stationed at the Institut Saint-Bellarmin, W~pion, Belgium. 77 JOHN CARROLL FUTRELL Review fo~ Religious the speech which haslain hidden at the center of our souls for years, we will be abashed and not a little astounded. It will be too late to deceive ourselves. If we have failed to realize our religious ideals, the reason is that we have in one way or another succumbed to temptation. Modern psychoanalysis has taught us that the best way to uncover the authentic self is to dig back under the layer of our surface personality and lay bare the subsoil from which it has emerged. Ultimately, one can do this only for himself. It is helpful, however, to consider how temptation works in general in order to be equipped to analyze its victories in ourselves. The purpose here is to consider how temptation works and why it overcomes us. In his brilliant discussion of the roots of sin St. Thomas Aquinas explains the division man discovers within himself. The philosophers have a dictum that action follows upon knowledge. How, then, can a man do the evil he does not wish to do, follow what is base, when he could write a perfectly accurate analysis of the ideal? How can he act against his own knowledge? St. Thomas gives the answer (Summa Theologiae, 1-2, 77, 2~. We have two kinds of knowledge: a general recognition of moral principles which is habitually possessed by our minds-- for instance, we know that all forms of sensuality are to be avoided- and a practical knowledge in the here and now situation that faces us which governs what we actually do-- we do not recognize that this sensual action here and now ought to be avoided. The process is obvious: we fail to consider here and now what we habitually recognize as true. What is the cause of this crucial failure to call upon our habitual knowledge when we most need it? Why is man divided? According to St. Thomas there are several possible explana-tions of this lack of consideration of moral principles. In a malici-ous man it may simply be the result of an evil intention; he does not want to pay attention to the demands of morality. More often, the source of the trouble is less direct. Some impediment gets in the way and blocks out the habitual knowledge which should step in to save us. This impediment might .be so simple a thing as a very demanding external occupation. We are so busy doing that we have no time for thinking. Or it might be the result of physical weakness. The mind is very much tied to the body. But for most of us most of the time the biggest impediment to moral .considera-tion is the force of our feelings. We are carried away from our ideals by the drive of self-propelled desire. The most insidious wile 78 March, 1960 TEMPTATION; A ~- R = S of feeling is to distract us from our habitual knowledge of what is meet and just by compelling our attention to its own attractive object. Or it may simply set itself openly against the ideal, inclining us away from it and toward the flowers of evil. Fina.lly, (St. Thomas is always thorough) feeling can actually bring about a bodily change in a person, pressing him on so violently that reason is chained and actions are no longer free. Passion can make a man insane. What we face in temptation, therefore, is a here and now compulsion to yield to an evil desire, a craving so intense that it tends to drive from consciousness our habitual intellectual knowledge of right and wrong, our higher ideals and hopes. Man is divided; and if temptation overcomes him he finds himself doing the evil he does not wish.to do. How exactly does this sway of feeling manage to upset moral consideration? What is the psychology of temptation? Perhaps we can express it as a formula: A÷R =S. A stands for appetite. Our problems begin when something catches our attention which shows itself to be highly desirable. It is not good for me, but I want it. Hold out a piece of candy to a little child, then draw it away, and the process will be clear. What feeds appetite? It is a complicated process. The initial cause may be memory of some pleasure experienced in the past, or imagination of some hitherto unknown desirable object. Or it may be that our senses are sur-prised by some unexpected stimulation. What I see or hear makes me want to gain possession. In any case, a circuit has been estab-lished. Like an electric current, desire runs back and forth from imagination to the senses, one strengthening the yearning of the other. What I want in imagination, I decide to look for or reach for, and sense action results. But the action of the senses causes imagination to paint in ever more glowing colors the object I desire, and this results in more definite sense activity. All the while feeling is being fed and is growing stronger. But it runs the risk of being crushed. Reason hastens to the rescue. R stands for rationalization. In a religious, especially, ideals, convictions, habits stand in the way of surrender to appetite. If feeling is to have its way, it must seduce reason into approving the here and now choice of an action which is completely at variance with the religious's habitual knowledge of right and wrong. This requires some ingenuity, playing off against one another various considerations of what ought to. be in general, and what ougl~t to be under these circumstances; when one should strive to be a 79 JOHN CARROLL FUTRELL Review ~or Religious saint, and when one should give a little to weak human nature; what is splendid as a hazy ideal, and what is practical at the present moment. Appetite slowly takes control of reason~ leads it away from consideration of good and evil, brings it around to the judgment that what appetite wants it should have. This step of rationalization is essential to the victory of temptation. It cannot win without it. Man will not act while he is divided; he comes to realize the division only after he has done the evil he did not wish to do. Two forces are at work in the rationalization process which favor the success of temptation. Obviously, the first is self-deceit. We manage to fool ourselves into thinking temporarily that we can be both good religious and self-indulgent at the same time. The more we give was to the onrush of appetite, the easier it becomes, to fabricate logical reasons for satisfying it. Our mood becomes one of great kindliness towards ourselves, paternal under-standing of our weaknesses, and gracious indulgence towards our felt needs. Finally, we convince ourselves that for the moment surrender is the better part of valor. The second force which bolsters up the campaign of ap-petite during rationalization is procrastination. When we manage to retain a toe-hold on reality and have a sneaking suspicion that we cannot sincerely strive to be perfect and holy religious while giving way to self, feeling strikes directly at this resistance. It allows us to admit that what we desire is honestly not the greater good, is truly not consistent withototal consecration to God. Yet, here and now it is needed. No one becomes holy in a day. Even though we surrender to appetite on this occasion, well, we will be striving for perfection all our lives. The particular kind of mortification involved in resisting this temptation can come at a later date. Put it off for the time being. Reason has. the satisfaction of feeling self-righteously honest at the same time that it approves the drive of appetite. Temptation wins again. A variation on the usual campaign of procrastination may be termed the datur tertium feint. If reason p~rsists in protesting that the object of appetite just cannot be squared with religious dedication, then the object is shifted somewhat to make it appear more acceptable. This type of rationalization is most effective when the temptation is not to do something difficult .which the pursuit of perfection clearly demands. Appetite is revolted be-. cause the prospect is painful. Therefore, some less unpleasant act of virtue is proposed. One need not experience the shame of out-right refusal to a call to greater holiness, but neither need he be 8O March, 1960 TEMPTATION: A ÷ R = S quite so extravagant as seems indicated by the movements of grace. Datur tertium -- something else can be done which will serve as a sop to conscience and yet not unduly inconvenience the precious self. Later on, perhaps, it will be possible to ascend to the heights along the highroad of the saints --but not quite yet. Once again, .temptation has its way. S stands for surrender. The circuit is now completed. Appetite, fed by imagination and sense activity, entered into the mind and met all the counterattacks of reason. Having rationalized suc-cessfully, the tempted religious is now able to make the judgment that what is wanted here and now is good, or at least allowable, even though it runs counter to his habitual knowledge of what is right and wrong for one who is pursuing perfection. The choice is made. Temptation has won the battle and in its victory is transformed into sin, or at least into religious failure: A÷R=S. This, it would seem, is a fairly accurate description of the general psychology of temptation. How this general campaign is waged in each individual soul only the individual can say. But given that. this is the way temptation works, what would be the best general strategy of defense against it? The best beginning in a defensive war is to recognize the tactics of the enemy. These we have expressed in a formula -- A +R = S. Now,.a clever general tries to counter the very first hostile move. We must above all, therefore, attempt to overcome appetite before it can advance to the stage of rationalization. Here, one must cultivate awareness of the movements of imagination and the susceptibility of the senses. Since memory and imagination incite sense activity and sense activity feeds imagination, one must be ready at any time to shift his attention from the object, which incites appetite. If the feeling of desire has entered through the imagination, catch the feeling and overcome it before sense action results. If surprised by the senses into awareness of the desirable object, quickly occupy the senses with something else. In either case, the trick is to focus the attention away from what is tempting, and to do it immediately. The very practical and psychologically valid principles underlying the exercise of interior mortification and rules of religious decorum are immediately evident. These are simply helps to cope with our divided hearts. They are the guard over our outer gates. Further, one sees the wisdom of the practice of recollection and the habit of frequent interior aspirations. These. are positive ways of keeping our attentionwhere it belongs-~on God; and they provide a quick and easy way of shifting our atten- JOHN CARROLL FUTRELL tion away from temptation when it surprises us. The practice of corporal mortification, .too, is seen for the healthy thing it is: a means of training our senses to embrace what is painful when the call of grace summons us to higher holiness. Our conscious life is a vital rhythm which the soul itself cannot regulate. It needs power-ful allies on the level ,of sense and imagination. Rationalization is harder to cope with because it means that the enemy is already within the gates. Temptation has advanced beyond the stage of mere appetite. However, some defenses are still available. One can consciously cultivate the disposition for c.omplete honesty with one's self and with God. Then, when rationalization begins, it will be difficult not to recognize self-deceit. No one can give himself heart and soul to one thing while in the back of his mind he cherishes a yearning, a secret hope, for some-thing very different. If we are constantly striving to realize total consecration to God, temptation will conquer us less and less often. The cultivation of this desire demands unswerving fidelity to the practice of spiritual exercises, expecially examination of conscience and contemplation of the meaning of God. Adam failed in con-templation, and ever since the heart of man has been divided. A very practical means to expose temptation for what it really is is suggested by Eric Gill in his Autobiography. When the appetite draws us toward something which seems desirable and promises joy, he advises us to reflect on the true nature of enjoyment. "The only real enjoyment of life is in the memory. However enjoyable this or that activity may have been or have seemed to be at the time of action -- the ecstasy of sensation, the ecstasy of touch and taste and smell, of sight and sound-- unless the memory of it be good' we must, for our own peace, eschew such action" (New York: Devin-Adair, 1942, pp. 221-22). Finally, when we have done the evil we did not wish to do, when temptation has .conquered and we have surrendered, we must hold on with all our faculties to our faith in the mercy and for-giveness of God and our trust in Him at last to deliver us from the body of this death and to lead us home. If fall we must along the way, we know that if we have confidence in Him, He will bring us to victory and holiness in His own good time. Juliana of Norwich expressed it perfectly: "He said not Thou shalt not be tempested, Thou shalt not be travailed, Thou shalt not be distressed; but He said Thou shalt not.be overcome." 82 Charity the Unifying Principle of Religious Life Sister Consuela Marie, $.B.$. SOMETIMES in religious life the minutiae of observance, the multiplicity of regulations and injunctions, the unremitting insistence on the perfec~ observance of the rule may cause us to lose sight of the fundamental obligation of all spiritual living-- the observance of the first and greatest commandment: the love of God and its included second, the love of self and neighbor. Charity in its *unadulterated essence is the root obligation of all moral law; it is of the essence of the morality of religious observance. In this atomic age, religious find themselves caught in the activity whirls of modern living. All the gadgets and electronic time-savers available today somehow do not bring them extra time ¯ or leisure. Whether the religious exercises his activity in a class-room, a hospital, or the homes of the poor, he goes intensely from one activity to another only to find that all he hoped to do in a single day cannot be fitted into the twenty-four hours that bound it. Fortunately for him, there is a definite pattern of prayer around which he builds each day and a definite horarium for'the specific duties of the day that would seem to make for one calm, peaceful whole. But in this statistical age of records and super records, of state requirements and association reports, of development pro: grams, of theatrical productions and .seminars, he finds himself swamped at times as he tries to keep his head above a tide that carries him along whether he will or not. Stress is in the very air we breathe in America today. While the nation works feverishly for bigger and better missiles, we look for more and more mechanical teaching aids, larger and better equipped buildings, new modern motherhouses and participated TV pro-grams. And all of this is good. The far-seeing religious, heeding the many suggestions of His Holiness, Pope Pius XII, realizes that all modern developments, if properly used, are effective instruments for promoting the glory of God. He would be foolish to pass them by and keep to a horse while the rest of the world whirls by in convertibles. Sister Consuela Marie teaches theology and history at Xavier University, New Orleans 25, Louisiana. 83 SISTER CONSUELA MARIE Review for Religious But not for these did the young person enter religious life. Fundamentally, he entered religious life to find God, to live with Him, to carve out, with His grace, a way of life that would bring him into close contact with this God of love for whom his whole being cries out. How often the very force of circumstance will compel him to realize that God is not in the whirlwind; He is not ordinarily found in the blare of feverish activity. There must come to him those moments when he feels there is a roadblock between his activity and his God; .and he dreams of the green fields of the enclosed contemplative and feels himself in an outside barren waste where God seems to have crossed the horizon and left him watching the sun go down not on the glory of Galway Bay, but on ¯ the dried-up barrenness of an overworked field. At this point, however, help is nearer than he knows. He has only to cry out to God to experience new floods of grace poured out on him. Divine selection and abundant grace have set the religious apart for a special kind of efficiency in a special way of living. No human mind devised the religious state. Infinite Wisdom ordained and designed it. The Holy Spirit, breathing forever where He wills, inspired the minds of saints to organize its multiform varieties in the world today. No human need has been overlooked in the long list of religious institutes or the long category of their functions. Primarily, the religious state, whether active or contemplative, is a state of perfection in which one is surrounded by means of at-raining perfection by the observance, in addition to the command-ments, of the religious counsels. Because it implies a special way of approach to God, a special way of directing one's actions to one's last end, which is the eternal possession of God, "it implies a whole ensemble of moral obligations of unequal importance.''1 There is the fundamental obligation to strive for perfection; and this is the soul's direct answer to the challenge: "If thou wilt be perfect . " There is the essential obligation of the vows and their ramifications in the particular institute; there are the secondary obligations of the specific apostolate. Finally, there is the obligation of each professed "of impregnating his soul and his life with the particular spirit of his institute and assimilating its characterigtic virtues.''~ Each of these obligations is assumed under the protecting arms of Holy Mother the Church. It is the Church which puts the seal of approval on the specific rules of the various orders and gives its as- ~L. Colin, C.SS.R., Striving for Perfection (Westminster: Newman, 1956), p. ix. ~Ibid., p. x. 84 March, 1960 CHARITY THE UNIFYING PRINCIPLE surance that sanctity can be attained by the observance of these rules. The apostolates of the institutes become by this approval the apostolates of the Church itself. Underneath the multiplicity of orders and congregations, there is the unity of all religious living in the complete consecration of individual lives to the pursuit of perfection. In the spiritual order is thus achieved that unity in multiplicity so characteristic of all being, so particularly characteristic of the Church to which Christ gave the mark of unity. What striking illustrations of this unity of the Mystical Body of Christ, the Church: membership for every race, every clime, every age; sanctity on every level, married saints, doctor saints, children saints, royal saints, peasant saints, laborer saints, active apostolic saints, silent suffering saints. In his lucid expression, St. Thomas states it thus: "Even in the order, of natural things, perfection, which in God is simple, is not found in the created universe except in multiform and manifold manner; so too, the fullness .of grace, which is centered in Christ as Head, flows forth to His members in various ways for the perfecting of the body of the Church. This is the meaning of the Apostle's words: 'He gave some as apostles and some as prophets, and other some as evan-gelists, and other some as pastors and doctors for the perfecting of the saints.' "~ As in the Church, so too in each single order or congregation there is a leit motif, an underlying unity that binds all duties, all moral obligations in one. How necessary it is that one establish the rock bottom foundation principle of unity for the multiplicity of obligations in religious life: the vows that bind for life, the virtues to be acquired, the particular duties assigned, the diverse activities to be assumed. One element, one principle binds them all together. That element, that unifying force is charity. Once that is clearly grasped, accepted, and allowed to function unhampered, the inner well of peace is safely dug, the heart finds the refreshing inner spring; the storms, the hurricanes crash and lash; but they beat without impress; and the soul walks and talks with God in the quiet of the evening in a garden enclosed. And this is not mere poetry. It is basic theology. It was clearly taught with unerring simplicity by the eternal Word who, in answer to the Pharisee's question as to what was the greatest command-ment, answered: "Thoushalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy whole mind. This is the greatest and first commandment. And the second is like ~Summa Theologiae, 2-2, 183, 2; Eph 4:11. 85 SISTER CONSUELA MARIE Review for Religious it. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" (Mt 22: 37-39). Scripture repeats that declaration, again and again. Nothing sur-passes St. Paul's description of charity. The nature, import, vitality of charity have never been so deftly defined and so superbly summarized as in his classic encomium. The Corinthians were evidently interested in the startling and visible charisms granted freely to the new-born Church. But St. Paul urges them to strive for the greater gifts and points out to them a "yet more excellent way." All the charisms, tongues of men and angels, gifts of proph-ecy, knowledge of all mysteries, and strength to move all mountains ¯ . all are as nothing without charity. Three groups of dominant ideas in St. Paul's treatment of charity are pointed out by Father Fernand Prat.4 St. Paul, he tells us, establishes it first as the queen of virtues since all other gifts are as nothing unless they are ruled by charity. Secondly, he makes it the summary of the commandments: "Love is the fulfilling of the law" (Rom 14:10). Finally, he establishes it as the bond of perfec-tion. Fifteen different virtues are listed by St. Paul as the compan-ions of charity in his exhortation to the Corinthians (1 Cor 13). In his Epistle to the Colossians, he urges the practice of mercy, humility, kindness, meekness, patience (Col 3: 12-13), all of which are included in the list of companions of charity. But whereas in the first listing St. Paul breaks charity up into its component. virtues, in this second listing he holds them securely together by, making charity their bond. "But above all these things have charity which is the bond of perfection" (Col 3:14). At the outset of religious life, when the young person is being orientated into a new type of living, when new obligations and moral responsibilities are being explained, might it not be well to posit a course (new or review as the previous education of the aspirant would determine) on the theological virtues with strong emphasis on charity? With this theological knowledge, the balance of other moral obligations can be definitely determined. At the beginning the .air is cleared, the moral emphasis properly placed and perfectly poised. With St. Thomas for his teacher, the. young religious will know that "primarily and essentially the perfection of the Christian life consists in charity, principally as to the love of God, secondarily as to the love of our neighbor, both of which are the matter of the chief commandments of the Divine Law.''~ In discussing the question whether perfection consists in the observ- ~The Theology of St. Paul (Westminster: Newman, 1927), 2, 333. ~Sumrna Theologiae, 2-2, 184, 3. 86 March, 1960 CHARITY THE UNIFYING PRINCIPLE ance of the commandments or of the counsels,-St. Thomas makes very clear this distinction between primary, essential perfection and secondary, accidental perfection. After stating the primacy of charity, he goes on to explain: "Secondarily and instrumentally, perfection consists in the observance of the counsels, all of which like the commandments are directed to charity; yet not in the same way."" The commandments, he explains, direct us in clearing away those things opposed to charity; while the counsels direct us to remove things not contrary to charity themselves, but which could hinder it. He quotes the Abbot Moses: "Fastings, watches, med-itating on the Scriptures, penury and loss of all one's wealth, these are not perfection, but means to perfection, since not in them does the school of perfection find its end, but through them it achieves its end." Here we have obligations in their proper focus; we have the obligations of religious life in their exact and proper proportion. The obligation of charity-is primary and without measure or limit. Its boundaries are all the energy of heart, mind, and will. Faith and hope, it is true, as theological virtues, have God° as their end. But in faith, it is the knowledge of God on the authority of His revela-tion; in hope, it is confidence in God to be possessed in future beatitude. In charity however, the end is the immediate possession of God here and now, the possession of infinite Love whereby God infuses His love into the soul, and the soul loves God with I-Iis own love. "It amounts to this, that endowed with the actual love with which the Father loves the Son, and the Son loves the Church ('I am in the Father and you in "me, and I in you . He that loveth me shall be loved of my Father, and I will love him') we find within ourselves the strength to keep the commandments, to live the life of faith, and -- most blessed of all -- to love back.''7 Charity, we must remember, is infused; we cannot create it; we cannot increase or decrease it though we can posit the actions, we can set the conditions under which, or on a~ccount of which, God will pour deeper infusions. On the other hand, we can, by our neglect of grace, dry up the streams and eventually, by our own free act, lose this infused gift by mortal sin. Charity and grace go hand in hand. They grow together; they increase together. When we lose one, we lose the other. They are distinct but inseparable. Since on the authority of God, the testimony of Scripture and 6Ibid. 7Dom Hubert VanZeller, The Inner Search (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1956), p. 165. 87 SISTER CONSUELA MARIE Review for Religious the writings of the Fathers and the explanations of the Summa, charity is the first moral obligation of all Christian living, a clear concept of its theological implications serves not only as rock base for the spiritual structure; but, far and beyond the foundation, it provides the beginning and the end, the end and the means, the joy and the crown, the reduction to simplicity and unity of the many facets of religious observance and obligations. Once this foundation virtue of charity takes its proper place, all other virtues take their form from it; all other virtues are only so many ways of loving God. No one of them has any meritorious value before God unless.it is informed by charity. What a delight religious life should be if this is our first duty, this the prime obligation of our whole existence -- to love God and our neighbor as ourselves in Him. And all this because God has.first loved us. Before the uni-verse was created, God is love. He created the universe and man in an act of love. When man turned aside from His love in sin, God the Father decreed the redemption by His only-begotten Son; and the Holy Ghost, in an act of love, overshadowed the im-maculate Virgin and with her consent effected the Incarnation. "The free deliberate self-oblation of Jesus on earth is the realization in time of the eternal decree of redemption in Heaven which springs from the inmost sources of Love." 8 We were created in love; we are destined to be entirely pos-sessed by love. We have only to clear the way, to remove the obstacles, to take down the barriers of pride and self love to let the waters of the boundless oceans of love inundate our whole lives. Once the barriers are down and love's passage through us is free, all other virtues follow. Because we love, we find the practice of the other virtues an almost impelling necessity. "I have found my vocation," once exclaimed the Little Flower; "in the Church, I will be love!" Each religious should make the same discovery; and the sooner, the better. To each one is the quotation from Jeremias applicable: "I have loved thee with an everlasting love!" (31:3). What peace, quiet, refreshment in that thought. Ever-lastingly He has loved me; He has brought me into existence primarily to fill me with love, for His glory! Intellectually we should understand the nature of this charity and how it should function in our lives. We cannot build castles in the air or dream of the darts of love or the raging fires we see sur-rounding the pictures of the saints. We must seek the essence, SKarl Adam, Christ the Son of God (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1934), p. 266. 88 March, 1960 CHARITY THE UNIFYING PRINCIPLE not the extraordinary manifestations of it. There are three divisions in this precept of charity: the love of God~ the love of self, the love of neighbor. The human mind staggers when it attempts to analyze the love of God in itself. On God's side, charity is active and creative. According to Sty. Thomas, "It infuses and creates the goodness which is present in things."'~ We love something because we find in it qualities or characteristics that appeal to us. God loves His own reflection in objects pleasing to Him. God is love, so that in Him love is a bottomless spring diffusing itself endlessly to the works of His creation, making them beautiful because of His love poured freely into them. "Our God is a consuming fire" (Heb 12:29). The flames of that fire are eternal and boundless. They transform to white heat whatever they touch. The inner life of the Blessed Trinity is one of complete giving, coraplete giving in love in the eternal generation of the Son by the Father, and the eternal spiration of the Holy Ghost by the mutual love of the Father and the Son. The Incarnation of the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity is the most stupendous demonstration of God's love for man. The Redemption, the establishment of the Church, the order of grace and the sacraments, are all gifts demonstrating a love on God's part so perfect, we can never begin to comprehend it. On our part, charity is a supernaturally infused habit of our souls, a virtue by which we love God as the sovereign good above all else and our neighbor as ourselves in His love. This love for God which is our prime duty must have definite characteristics. It must be a love that is summus, that is, a love of God above all else. This characteristic which ~he theologians label summus has two di-visions: appretiative and intensive. Amor appretiative summus loves God as the sovereign good. "It is a postulate of charity that we must love God as the.infinitely lovable Being above all else, that is more than any other person.''~" Amor intensive summus adds the additional note of loving God ardently. "It is the highest kind of emotional love of which a man is capable.''~ This ardor, however, is not essential. ~t is a gift of God not given to all. True, there have been saints who have experienced sensible darts of love or ardent affections; but there have been many, too, who experienced years of dryness and dereliction. Yet these also loved God with an amor appretiative summus. ~Summa Theologiae, 1, 20, 3. ~°Koch-Preuss, Handbook o[ Moral Theology (St. Louis: Herder, 1928), 4, 78. ~Ibid., p. 79. 89 SISTER CONSUELA MARIE Review for Religious The second characteristic of the love we should bear God is that it be effective. That means it must show itself in good works. Love that merely exclaims, "My God, I love you!" but does not show itself in good works, is ineffective love. Mere affective love is transitory and incomplete unless it ends in effective love. If we really love God, we give proof of the love by the practice of the virtues and. by positive effort to extend the Kingdom of God on earth. The love of. God is the first and greatest commandment, and the second is the love of neighbor as self. Not often is a religious instructed in the love of self, though since God established love of self as the measure of the love of neighbor, there is a perfectly proper love of self. Pope Pius XII has made this very clear. "There exists," he said in his address to psychotherapists (April 13, 1953), "in fact a defense, an esteem, a love, and a service of one's personal self which is not only justified but demanded by psychology and morality. Nature makes this plain, and it is also a lesson of the Christian faith. Our Lord taught 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.' Christ then, proposes as the rule of love of neighbor, charity towards oneself,, not the contrary." This love of self includes the proper love of our spiritual wel-fare before which we can put nothing else, and also in certain circumstances, a concern for our necessary physical welfare. St. Thomas says this explicitly: "When we are commanded to love our neighbor as ourselves, the love of self is set before the love of neighbor.""-' He hastens to add that we should love our neighbor more than our body. A proper uriderstanding of the nature of this love of self is essential. Before all else, we must love our soul's salvation. Before that we can put nothing. We can, however, and should put our neighbor's spiritual welfare before our physical convenience. It is worth noting, too, that God expects a reasonable care and concern for the physical nature He has given us. It has been said that some nuns push themselves too far. That can happen to a religious as well as to a hard-pressed mother or father. But here, a charity for oneself, for the physical health given by God, could help. All religious are well instructed on the third phase of the commandment of charity -- the love of neighbor. Love for others in religious life flowers into the manifold apostolates of the Church at home and abroad. So many dedicated apostles in so many dedicated apostolates, all loving God for Himself, and their neigh-r~ Surnma Theologiae, 2-2, 44, 8, ad 2. 9O March, 1960 CHARITY THE UNIFYING PRINCIPLE bors in. His love, ready to give them all they have, loving them truly as they love themselves! Now and then, however, it is well to recall that the first claimants to this charity toward the neighbor are the members of our respective communities. St. Thomas says so pointedly, "We ought to love most those of our neighbors who are more virtuous or more closely united with us.''1'~ We should wish them well, do good to them before outsiders. Helping them is part of our first moral obligation. Understanding the primacy of place, the primacy of obl.igation, and the formative influence of charity on all other virtues, the in-tellectual concept is clear. Intellectual concepts will help but they will not produce charity. God infuses it. Progress in charity is the lifelong concern of the religious. He is in the way of perfection. Can he attain to perfect charity? Discussing whether one can be perfect in this life,14 St. Thomas explains that absolute perfection is possible only to God, and that absolute totality on the part of the lover so that his affective faculty always tends to God as much as it possibly can, is not possible to human nature this side of heaven. But, he adds, there is a third perfection on the part of the lover with regard ¯ to the removal of obstacles to the movement of love towards God. This perfection, he assures us, can be had in this life in two ways: first, by removing from man's affection all that is contrary to charity, such as mortal sin (this degree is essential for salvation); secondly, by removing from man's affections not only what is contrary to charity but also what hinders the mind's affection from tending wholly to God. In this second area, there are ever-widening possibilities. In avoiding mortal sin, and as far as human frailty will permit, venial sin, there is an ever-deepening union of mind and soul with God. Affective love becomes effective in works of super-erogation assumed for the sake of love. At this point, all the theo-logical virtues, the cardinal virtues and their subsidiary virtues, are so many streams through which the current of charity flows far and wide. The stronger the charity, the stronger these other virtues which receive their merit from charity. This perfection is possible here and now --: that all that is done, is done for love of God at least through a virtual intention even though an actual intention does not precede every ac.t. The aim at this love should be direct and constant. The most important act a religious makes is an act of charity, and it is in his power to renew it actually and briefly countless ~3Ibid. l~Summa Theologiae, 2-2, 184, 2. 91 SISTER CONSUELA MARIE times during the day. Fulfilling all the obligations of his state for the pure love of God, he can still renew frequent acts of charity. "With frequently renewed acts of charity, the soul is capable of doing as much as it can in this life to make the meritorious influence of charity constant and complete.''~'~ Charity is the precious ointment, the sheer essence of all religious living, of all spiritual striving. It is the most precious element in the Church. St. John of the Cross states its position with startling simplicity: "More precious in the sight of God and the soul is a small portion of this pure love, more profitable to the Church, even though it seems to be accomplishing nothing, than are all other good works combined.''~'~ When life is over, faith will end, for we will see; hope will vanish, for the goal will be reached. Charity alone will endure. Before it is our eternal joy, it will be our judgment. St. John of the Cross tells us that in the evening "of life, we will be judged by love. How important that the morning, the high noon, and the late afternoon of life be directed to the perfection of charity! ~SDominic Hughes, "The Dynamics of Christian Perfection," The Thomist, 15 (1952), 268. ~The Works of St. John of the Cross (Westminster: Newman, 1949), 2, 346. 92 Neuroticism and Perfection Richard P. Vaughan, S.J. THE FIRST OBLIGATION of every religious is to seek perfec-tion.~ Generally speaking, the success of a religious as a religious will be measured by the extent to which he or she actually achieves this goal. Since perfec.tion and sanctit~ are synofiomous, every religious is also called to sanctity. This demand presents a special problem for the seriously neurotic religious, since the very nature of his disorder seems to militate against his achieving any degree of perfection or sanctity, and sometimes it even seems to eliminate the possibility of his striving to achieve a relative state of perfection. The question, therefore, arises: Can the neurotic religioug ever hope to attain perfection or sanctity? Or are the debilitating symptoms of almost all seriously neurotic conditi'~ns such as to exclude the possibility of sanctity? Obligation and Nature of Perfection St. Thbmas describes the type of l~erfection whibh is the primary obligation of all religious as "charity, first and foremost in the love of God, and then in the love of'neighb0r.'"-' The 'religiqus is especially called to love God with his whole heart and his neighbor as himself.:' Although few, if any, actually achieve this $odl, many have succeeded to an extraordinary degree. They have devoted the greater part of their lives to loving.God and neighbor. As a resul~, they now live among the saints of heaven. If one stops to analyze the lives of these eminently successful people, it becomes evident that this charity of which Scripture and the theologians speak presupposes many other virtues and counsels. First of all, one cannot fully love .God and his neighbor when the majo~ actions of his life are motivated by self-love. The person who is absorbed in himself finds it extremely difficult to turn his will outward toward God and neighbor. Even those who have achieved a relative state of sanctity on this earth, quickly dis- The Reverend Richard P. Vaugl~an teaches at the University of San Francisco, San Francisco 17, California. 'Code of Canon Law, canon 593. "-'~urnma Theologiae, 2-2, 184, 3. ¯ :~Adolphe Tanquerey, The Spiritual Life (Tournai: Descl6e, 1930), pp. 183-84. 93 RICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review for Religious covered that they must wage a constant battle against self, lest they find Selfish motives tainting that charity which perfection demands. Moreover, the enticements of pleasure turn the religious away from divine love. The man or woman who lives for the pleasures of the world cannot live for God. It is only by curbing the desire for. pleasure through the medium of numerous virtues that a religious will be able to center his full attention upon God. Fu.rther helps are the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. These three vows, shut out worldly interests which distract from the full development of charity. Hence, included in the notion of charity, which is the source of all perfection, is self-sacrifice, the practice of virtues, and fidelity to the three vows. Knowledge of God and Neurosis A thing must be seen as good before it can be loved. The more apparent the goodness, the greater is the possibility of a deep love. Thus, before we can love a person, we must know him. These are philosophical principles which affect our dealings with God as well as with others. In the natural order, all of us have probably ex-perienced at one time or another an initial dislike for a person, only to have this dislike after a number of months or years turn to a positive like or even to love. If we stop to analyze what has hap-pened, it becomes apparent that a new and deeper knowledge of the person makes us see him in an entirely different light. We begin to see him as he actually is and not as we have imagined him to be. When all his good qualities become apparent, we cannot help but" like him. The neurotic frequently ftnds himself in a similar situation in his relationship v~ith God. Due to his disorder and early experiences, he may harbor some v.ery hostile and angry feelings toward God. He is apt to think that God has unjustly persecuted him. He is apt to be resentful. Since all such thoughts and emotions provoke a great amount of guilt, many neurotics repress them. Unfortunately, repressed matter seldom stays fully repressed, but manifests itself in many subtle ways. For example, .a religious who is unconsciously very angry with God might ex-perience almost a compulsion to commit some type of a serious sin, and still never realize that one of the reasons for his actions is a .desire to get even with God. Once the neurotic religious through the medium of psychotherapy begins to realize why he feels as he does toward God, then he can begin to know God as others know Him. 94 March, 1960 NEUROTICISM AND PERFECTION None of us knows God directly. Our knowledge comes from experience. Some of this knowledge is the result of a long reasoning process. However, our initial knowledge of what God is like most probably springs from the attitudes and example of our parents. It is the mother or father who plants the germ of knowledge in the mind of the child. Since small children usually look upon their parents as gods, it should not be startling to. discover that our concept Of what God is like comes in part from experience with our own fathers. If, for instance, early childhood experiences with a father or father-substitute are unfavorable, as so often happens among neurotics, then one's notion of God the Father is not likely to be true to reality. The individual who has had a father who was a stern disciplinarian and unable to express any warmth toward his children is liable to look upon God as the God of ruthless justice, and not the God of love and mercy. This concept.bf God is the product of experience, and in all probability the individual does not realize that it differs from that of anyone else. This is but one example of how the neurotic mind might develop a warped concept . of God. There are numerous others, all of which profoundly affect the pursuit of sanctity. Since true love of God necessarily presupposes a true knowl-edge of God, the neurotic religious may often find himself with limited tools or even without any tools necessary for progress on the way to perfection. Any progress will first demand that the religious abandon his false notion of God. Generally speaking, such a change will require some type of psychological help. Almost all of us during the course of childhood and adolescence . de~velop some fal,se, or at least dubious ideas about God. It is only through meditation and study" that a religious comes to a true, although limited, knowledge of God. One of th~ characteristics of a neurotic' is self-centeredness. He has a tendenc~ to live inside ¯ him, .self. He frequently looks at the events of dail~ life only in so far as they affect his own personal problem.s. Often his morning meditations become mere ruminations over past hurts and failures; real of imagined. He finds it very difficult to consider things as they actually exist apart from his own disordered personality. Such an outlook does not foster that type of meditation which is likely to produce a .more realistic knowledge of God. As a consequence, the love of God which is demanded of those seeking perfection is either weak or completely ladking, since one cannot fully love God if he has an erroneous concept of Him. 95 ~ICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review for Religious Love of Neighbor The second obligation upon all those who are seeking perfec-tion is love of one's neighbor.4 This obligation poses a special prob-lem for the seriously neurotic religious, in so far as one of the major areas affected by a neurotic condition is that of relationship with others. A characteristic often found in a neurosis is an excessive striving for the manifestations of love and attention from others. This striving stems from early childhood frustrations which have been repressed. The neurotic will generally make use of some protective devices so that he is not forced to look at this anxiety-provoking part of his personality. Some handle the problem by creating a wall between themselves and others. They simply tell themselves that they do not need the rest of the community. Their lives are dedicated to God and their work. And so they withdraw deeper into themselves. Other religious make an initial but unsuccessful effort to satisfy their need for affection, but then turn against the very members of the community who have tried to help them. In general, they manifest a good deal of anger and hostility in their relationships with others. And finally, there are those religious who spend their lives seeking any small manifesta-tion of love and concern from the other members of the community or from the laity. They are very dependent. They are always leaning on someone else. Although they seldom show external resentment when others inevitably fair to satisfy their needs, still often they are seething inside with emotional turmoil. It is not only possible to love those whom we. dislike, but it is a commandment of God. "Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you" (Lk 6:27). Still, if one has an almost constant tendency to be hostile and resentful of others, the task of controlling these feelings becomes extremely, difficult. In the case of neurotic reli-gious, the major obstacles for the practice of charity are feelings of the opposite nature which sp~ing from unconscious sources. One can learn to change erroneous attitudes and feelings if he realizes that he has them and can analyze to some degree why he acts accordingly. But when a person is almost entirely unaware of both his uncharitable actions and the source of these actions, then the practice of charity often becomes an almost insurmountable barrier. Over- Sensitiveness Coupled with the above-mentioned problem is the over-sensitiveness which is a part of most neuroses. The neurotic religious ~Ibid., pp. 157-58. 96 March, 1960 NEUROTICISM AND PERFECTION is more easily offended by a slight or a cross word. He takes all the actions and words of others in a personal sense. Thus, he is more apt to be tempted with uncharitable or even revengeful thoughts. Since he is so self-centered, he will probably find it considerably more difficult to resist these temptations. The slight or cross word is. striking at the most vulnerable part of his personality, namely at his self-esteem; the natural reaction is to protect himself by attacking the offender. The second obligation imposed by perfection, namely charity toward others, therefore, proves much more trying for the neurotic religious than for the rest of the community. In the case of the severely neurotic religious who has little or no insight into his hostile behaviour, the effect of the disorder could reach that point where the virtue of charity would seem to be almost impossible. In such instances, the degree of responsibility for the uncharitable-ness must be taken into consideration. The lives of the saints teach us that any advancement on the way of perfection calls for self-sacrifice and self-renunciation,s The person who is almost entirely taken up with himself has little room in his heart for love of God and neighbor. As it has been stated, one of the major characteristics of neurotics is self-centered-ness. Depending upon the degree of severity, being self-centered will present some kind of an obstacle to sanctity. In the case of religious, some become so absorbed in their own interior conflicts and frustrations that they have little time left for God and the members of their community. They are so filled with self-pity that God has but one meaning for them, namely a source of consolation and solace. These souls are unable to give love to God just as they are unable to give love to their fellow religious or to their students. As a result, self-sacrifice and self-renunciation play little or no part in their lives. Pseudo-Virtues A ~urther handicap resulting from a neurotic condition is the development of pseudo-virtues. These are repeated actions which give the semblance of virtue but in reality are just the result of the disordered personality. For example, pseudo-virtues are sometimes found among those who have deep feelings of inferiority and un-worthiness, which for the most part are uncbnscious. Under the guise of humility, some neurotic religious are constantly defacing themselves before others. Unfortunately, they never stop to analyze ~Ibid., pp. 166-69. 97 RICHARD P. VAOGHAN Review for Religious that what they are actually seeking is a word of praise to offset some very distressing feelings of inferiority. The function of this so-called humility is self-centered and not God-centered. Commandments and Counsels Striving for perfection demands the following of the command-ments and, to a degree, the counsels. "If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments . If thou wilt be perfect, go sell what thou hast and give to the poor and thou shalt have a treasure in heaven" (Mt~19:17-21). If a religious is making a true effort to seek perfectio~n, he will strive to keep himself, at the very least, free from serious sin and to observe the demands of his three vows. In addition to grace, this observance of the commandments and following of the vows requires the habit of self-control. Yet one of the first parts of personality to be affected by any kind of mental illness is self-control. Both neurotics and psychotics find that as their disorders become progressively worse, they become less and less able to control their thoughts, feelings, and actions. After an emotional outburst, many a neurotic religious has been shocked and humiliated by his unusual behavior. He will tell himself that he did not act this way before. When he tries to .analyze why he became so angry and lost his temper, he can find no proportionate reason. The reason, however, for his behavior can be attributed to a loss of self-control, resulting from the neurotic disorder. This loss of self-control affects much of the neurotic's behavior. It impairs his pursuit of virtue and fidelity to the vows. The striving for sanctity is further handicapped by continuous periods of depression and fatigue, which seem to mark the path of most neurotics. When a person is unhappy and tired, he becomes an easy prey to temptation. He has less resistance. Pleasure becomes more enticing, since in a moment of darkness any fleeting joy be-comes much more desirable. The start of many a neurotic's escape into sin has begun with a peri6d of depression and unhappiness. Each lapse, especially if the lapses involve sins of a sexual nature, destroys some progress made in the life of virtue. Since repeated sinful actions are apt to become habitual, they make future progress much more difficult. Can a Saint Be Neurotic? What has been said up to this point would seem to indicate that perfection or sanctity is out of the reach of the neurotic religious. The.re are, however, modern authors who maintain that 98 March, 1960 NEUROTICISM AND PERFECTION some of the saints were neurotic. For instance, one states that St. Therese of the Child Jesus suffered from an obsessive-compul-sive neurosis.6 Still, it should be noted that this author says St. Therese appeared to be neurotic at the age of twelve or thir-teen. He does not affirm that she was neurotic when she died. Moreover, he does not state that she was severely neurotic, but that she suffered from a serious case of scruples, which in many cases is considered a neurotic symptom. During the past few decades at' least, it is highly doubtful whether a person could have been severely neurotic and still be considered an apt candidate for canonization. In the Code of Canon Law, we find: "When the cause is that of a confessor (that is, of a servant of God who is not a martyr of the faith), the following question is.to be discussed: whether in the case under consideration there is evidence of the existence of the theological virtues of faith,, hope, and charity (both toward God and toward neighbor) and of the cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, forti-tude, and temperance, and of the subsidiary virtues in a heroic de-gree . ,,7 In view of our analysis of the seriously neurotic per-sonality, it is difficult to see how a religious could attain all the aforesaid virtues to a heroic degree, and thus be worthy of canoniza-tion. It might also be added that, where there is evidence of mental disturbance in a servant of God who is being considered for beati-fication and this disturbance in some way influences the exercise of that servant's freedom, the custom of the Congregation of Rites has been to dismiss or set aside the case. s Spiritual Fate of the Neurotic Religious What, then, is the spiritual fate of the priest, sister, or brother who is severely afflicted with some form of a neurosis? As long as he or she remains in this condition, there would seem to be little chance of attaining a high degree of perfection -- except through the help of a special miracle coming from the hand of God. This handicap, however, does not relieve the particular religious in question of the obligation to seek after perfection. He still has the same obligation as any other religious. He differs from other re-ligious only in so far as he must reconstruct the natural before he 6Josef Goldbrunner, Holiness Is Wholeness (New York: Pantheon, 1955),. p. 25. 7Code of Canon Law, canon 2104. 8Gabriele di Santa Maria Maddalena, "Present Norms of Holiness" in Conflict and Light, edited by Bruno de J~sus-Marie (London: Sheed and Ward, 1952), p. 168. 99 RICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review for Religious can build a solid supernatural life. Most religious have fairly well-balanced personalities when they enter the notiviate. They are, therefore, in a position to take full advantage of the spiritual benefits offered during these years of training. With the neurotic, such is unfortunately not the case. He is frequently so preoccupied with himself and his problems that much of the spiritual fruit offered during the formative years is lost. If a neurotic religious is to advance on the road to sanctity, he must first clear away the natural debris of conflicts, fears, and frustrations. Once this has been accomplished, he will then move ahead as rapidly, if not more rapidly, than the religious who has always had good psychological health. In most instances of severe neurosis, this can only be achieved through some form of psycho-therapy. Protective Devices At the heart of every neurotic condition, no matter how mild or severe, is the development of some kind of a protective device. For example, the individual who feels completely inadequate in his dealings with others may defend himself against having to face this side of his personality by putting on an air of bravado whenever he finds himself in a group of people. Usually the physical and psychological symptoms are merely protective device.s. During the course of our early lives, there is not one of us who does not develop some kind of a personality defect which we cannot bear to manifest, and so we repress it. The way we go about repressing it is to develop a protective device. For this reason, many psy-chiatrists and psychologists say that we are all neurotic to a degree, The difference between the severely neurotic person and the average person is quantitative. The seriously neurotic has many repressed personality defects, and he has built up a very elaborate system of defending himself. This system, however, either fails to give the needed protection, so that he has to face to some extent the repulsive part of himself, or the system itself is such as to prove ankiety-provoking. In the latter case, one could include the religious who uses the defense of compulsive prayer to solve an unconscious conflict. Soon the number of prayers reaches such a proportion as to make the fulfilling of his other obligations impossible~ Then, the religious is caught in a new conflict of obliga-tions which produces more psychological discomfort. The saints who, like St. Therese, gave some evidence of a neurosis built up protective devices or defenses; but they did not 100 March, 1960 NEUROTICISM AND PERFECTION construct those elaborate and complicated systems that char-acterize so many severe neurotics. Had they done so, they un-doubtedly would have also manifested such personality traits as over-sensitivity and self-centeredness. Many religious give evidence of minor neurotic symptoms, such as an unreasonable fear of high places or occasional attacks of scruples. These symptoms in themselves need not be handicaps to perfection. They may even become sources of spiritual progress. As soon as a religious, however, manifests not only these minor symptoms but also some of the neurotic personality traits, then the way to perfection and sanctity becomes progressively more difficult. Need of Psychotherapy The foregoing discussion should bring out the need of a solid natural foundation on which to build the religious life. The priest, brother, or sister who is plagued with numerous psychological problems has a poor foundation on'which to construct his or her spiritual life. In almost every instance, supernatural virtue de-mands natural virtue. This fact points to the importance of psy-chotherapy for the severely neurotic religious. For without psycho-therapy,- these religious will be unable to achieve or sometimes even to seek after the primary goal of the religious life. Sanctity and perfection are out of their reach. But once they have received and cooperated with some form of psychological help, they are in a position to use the grace God gives to every religious. It stands to reason that the sooner a religious has the opportunity to clear away debris of psychological conflicts, the sooner he can get to the prime purpose of his chosen life, namely his own perfection and sanctity. 101 Survey of Roman Documents R. F. Smith, S.J. THE FOLLOWING article will survey the documents that appeared in .Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) during the months of October and November, 1959. All references in the article will be to the 1959 AAS (v. 51). Encyclical on the Rosary Under the date of September 26, 1959 (pp. 673-78), Pope John XXIII issued the encyclical Grata recordatio. The document is a brief one which begins by recalling the many Marian encyclicals of Leo " XIII. After emphasizing the desire he has for the devout recitation of the Rosary especially during the month of October, the Vicar of Christ then listed the matters for which he principally wished private and public prayers to be offered during the month of the Rosary. The "first intention was for the Holy See and for all ecclesiastical orders in the Church. The Pontiff's second intention was for all apostolic laborers that they may be granted the grace to speak the word of God with all confidence in its power. In the third place the Pope asked the faithful to remember in their prayers the leaders of the nations of the world. Catholics, he said, should petition God that these leaders may give the deepest consideration to the critical situation that the world faces today, that they may seek out the causes of discord, and that, realizing that war measures can lead only to destruction for all concerned, they may place no hope in such means. Let the leaders of the world, the Holy Father remarked, recall the eternal laws of God which are the foundation of good government; similarly they should remind themselves that just as men have been created by God, so also they are destined to possess and enjoy Him. The fourth and final intention for which John XXIII asked special prayers was the diocesan synod of Rome and the coming general council of the Church. Saints, Blessed, Servants of God Under the date of May 26, 1959, the Holy See issued two decretal letters (pp. 737-49, 750-64) concerning the canonization of St. Charles of Sezze (1613-1669) and St. Joaquina de Vedruna de Mas (1783-1854). Each of the letters begins with an account of the life of the saint, details the history of the cause for canonization, and finally gives the official account of the actual canonization. 102 ROMAN DOCUMENTS On August 11, 1958 (pp. 830-31), the Sacred Congregation of Rites formally confirmed the immemorial cult by which Herman Joseph, priest of the Premonstratensian Order, has been honored as a saint. The same congregation also issued a monitum (p. 720) in which it noted two mistakes in the text of the second nocturn for the feast of St. Lawrence of Brindisi. On April 22, 1959 (pp. 717-20), the same congrega-tion approved the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God Peter Joseph Savelberg (1827-1907), priest and founder of the Congregations of the Brothers and the Little Sisters of St. Joseph. On October 14, 1959 (pp. 818-20), the Pope addressed an allocution to a gro.up interested in the cause of Niels Steensen. The Pontiff praised Steensen for the remarkable scientific rigor with which he studied the works of God in order to better understand their structure and make-up; he also noted Steensen's pioneering work in anatomy, biology, geology, and crystallography. But it was Steensen's work after his conversion to the Church that the Pontiff principally emphasized. Once converted, he noted, the scholar gave up his chair of anatomy in the University of Copenhagen and began to study for the priesthood. After his ordina-tion and after his consecration as a bishop that soon followed, he began a life .of poverty, mortification, and suffering. He became especially noted for his zeal to lead non-Catholics back to the Church. His work in this area, the Pope remarked, was characterized by two notable qualities: his unalterable attachment to all points of revealed doctrine; and his great respec.t and love for those who did not share his own religious convictions. Miscellaneous Documents On November 4, 1959 (pp. 814-18), John XXIII delivered a homily in St. Peter's on the occasion of the first anniversary of his coronation as Pope. After recalling the feelings aroused in him by the first year of his pontificate, the Pope proceeded to outline a program of action based on the Our Father. His efforts, he said, will be directed to see that the name of God be blessed and acclaimed; that His spiritual kingdom may triumph in souls and in nations; that all human forces m~y be in conformity with the will of the heavenly Father. This last point, he insisted, is the essential one; from it will flow man's daily bread, the pardon of human offenses, the vigor of man's resistance to evil, and the preservation of men from all individual and social evils. On September 13, 1959 (pp. 709-14), the Holy Father broadcast a message for the conclusion of the National Eucharistic Congress of Italy. He told his listeners that the Eucharist is truly the mystery of faith, for it is the living compendium of all Catholic belief. In the Eucharist, he said, is found Christ, the only mediator between God and man; in it is found the lasting memorial of the sacrifice offered by Christ on Calvary; and in it is found the Head of the Mystical Body from whom come the sacraments which give fecundity and 103 1~. F. SMITH Review for Religious beauty to the Church. He concluded his broadcast by reminding his listeners that two thousand years of progress, in knowledge, in art, in culture, in economics, in politics, and in social matters have not diminished the truth of Christ's words: "Amen, amen, I~ say to you: if you do not eat the flesh of the son of man and do not drink his blood, you shall not have life in you" (Jn 6:54). A later radio broadcast on October 11, 1959 (pp. 777-78), was directed to the people of Argentina on the occasion of their Eucharistic Congress. He told the Argentines that if the human race would practice the lessons of love and unity which come from the Eucharist, then the miseries and discords of the world would cease to be. The Eucharist, he said, is the source of harn~ony and true peace for individuals, families, and peoples; for it restrains the passions, especially those of pride and egoism. On October 11, 1959 (pp. 766-69), the Vicar of Christ addressed a group of missionaries to whom he had just given their missionary crosses. He told the future missionaries that the peoples of the world await them, since they carry the secret of true peace and of tranquil progress. He ~lso reminded his listeners that the Church has received from her Founder the mandate to seek out all peoples so as to unite them into one family; accordingly no human force, no difficulty, no obstacle can stop the Church's missionary work which, will end only when God is all in all things. In his concluding words the Pontiff re-minded the missionaries that the cross they had just received should show them at what price the world is saved; the crucified Christ should be their model and their example; in their work, therefore, they should not put their trust and confidence in helps that are of purely human inspiration. On April 13, 1959 (pp. 691-92), the Holy Father issued an apos-tolic letter, raising to the status of an abbey the priory of the Sacred ¯ Heart in Ofiate. The new abbey belongs to members of the Canons Regular of the Lateran. On September 25, 1959 (pp. 706-9), John XXIII delivered an allocution to the Abbot Primate and other relS-resentatives of the Benedictine order. The Pontiff recalled with gratitude. the great debt of the Church to the Benedictine order and continued by reminding his listeners that the primary form of their apostolic work must be the chanting of the Divine Office. This, he said, is espec-ially necessary today, when so many men are intent on earthly matters to the negligence of celestial things. He also recalled the other works of the order and concluded by urging his listeners to keep faithfully to their traditions without hesitating, however, to use and accept new things that are proved to be good and useful. On October 19, 1959 (pp. 822-25), the Pontiff addressed an allocu-tion to the members, officials, and lawyers of the Rota. After giving a brief history of the Rota, the Pope told his listeners that they have been called by Providence to the defense of justice without regard to any other consideration including that of the authority or reputation of 104 March, 1960 I~OMAN DOCUMENTS those having recourse to the Rotao In this, he said, they must imitate the sovereign equity of the just and merciful God, before whom there is no acceptation of persons. In the latter part of the allocution the Vicar of Christ called the Rota the tribunal of the Christian family. By defending the sanctity and the indissolubility of matrimony, the Rota protects it from the attacks of a hedonistic egoism; at the same time, when it acknowledges the invalidity or non-existehce of a marriage bond, the Rota acts as the guardian of the sacred rights of the human person. On August 28, 1959 (pp. 701-2), the Pope sent a letter to Arch-bishop Martin John O'Connor, rector of the North American College in Rome, congratulating him on the hundredth anniversary of the college. Later on October 11, 1959 (pp. 770-75), the Pontiff gave an address to the students of the college, detailing to them the numerous ways in which the various Popes have manifested a special interest in the college. The growth of the college from its opening days with thirteen students to its large groups at the present time is, he continued, a sign of the growth of the Church in the United States. The Holy Father concluded the allocution by telling the students that the cause of Mother Elizabeth Seton had already passed the antepreparatory stage and that consequently there was good reason to hope that in a relatively short time the cause would be brought to completion. On October 13, 1959 (pp. 775-77), the Pope addressed present and former students of the Teutonic College of Sancta Maria de Anima on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of Plus IX's reorganization of the college. He congratulated the college on its past achievements and urged it to greater things in the future. On September 6, 1959 (pp. 703-6), the Pontiff talked to a group of Italian elementary teachers, telling them to have a profound and jealous esteem for their mission of education. This esteem, he said, should be based on the .following considerations: Teachers train the minds of their charges, a consideration which, he added, should make them eager to perfect themselves constantly in their own culture. Moreover, teachers form the souls of their children; to teachers, then, is ent~'usted the forma-tion of the men of tomorrow. Finally, he concluded, teachers should encourage themselves by remembering that by their work they are preparing for themselves a special reward in heaven according to the words of Daniel 12:3, "But they that are learned shall shine as the brightness of the firmament; and they that instruct many to justice, as stars for all eternity." On October 17, 1959 (pp. 821-22), the Vicar of Christ spoke to a group of persons interested in the human values to be found in labor. He congratulated the group for putting the things of the spirit before every other consideration and recommended to them the exercise of Christian virtue. He especially urged them to follow the maxim of St. Benedict, "Pray and work"; they should, he said, make prayer their 105 VIEWS,' NEWS, PREVIEWS Review [or Religious very breath and their food in the conviction that every human activity, no matter how lofty and praiseworthy, is not to be limited to an earthly horizon, but should tend towards the City of God. On October 1, 1959 (pp. 764-66), the Vicar of Christ spoke to a congress of the Apostolate of the Blind. The ~lind, he said, teach other men to value the light of intelligence and of virtue. He also reminded his listeners that the cry of the blind man of the gospel, "Lord, grant that I may see," arises today from multitudes of men who are spiritually blind; accordingly he urged his listeners to direct their prayers to the Blessed Virgin that the day will soon come when "all flesh will see the salvation of God." In a letter of October 12, 1959 (pp. 809-10), the Pope accepted the resignation of Cardinal Pizzardo from his position as secretary of the Holy Office. On November 20, 1959 (pp. 810-12), he accepted the resignation of Cardinal Tisserant as Secretary of the Sacred Oriental Congregation. On the same day (pp. 812-13) he accepted the resignation of Cardinal Cicognani as Pro-Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Segnatura. On October 9, 1959 (p. 829), the Sacred Consistorial Congregation named Francis Xavier Gillmore Stock the military vicar of Chile. An apostolic constitution of April 17, 1959 (pp. 789-91), established ¯ an exarchate in Germany for Ruthenians of the .Byzantine rite. The see of the exarchate will be in Munich. On September 23, 1959 (p. 832), the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary published the text and indulgences of a prayer for the coming general council. An English translation of the prayer and its grant of indulgences will be found on pages 65-66 of this issue of the REVIEW. Views, News, Previews A RELIGIOUS WOMAN who has had a ten-year struggle against serious mental sickness has sent to the REVIEW an account of her experiences and of the lessons that can be drawn from them. The account ~is given below in the sister's own words: To many individuals, both lay and religious, the thought of living with one whb has been an inmate in a mental institution seems foreign, until it strikes home. When the family ties are those of blood relationship, there is sometimes a feeling of love, of pride, or even of legal force that makes for an attempt to keep the person a part of the family unit, even if this may cause inconvenience, embarrassment, or added expense to the other members of the family. When the relationship is one of a spir-itual nature even greater love and understanding might be expected, since the bond which binds a religious family should reflect the love of Christ Himself. Why, then, are there a considerable number of religi-ous whose returfi to their religious communities, when recommended 106 March, 1960 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS by the medical staff of a mental hospital, brings with it a stigma that differentiates them from the sisters who resume their usual duties after regaining their health from a physical illness? Perhaps personal ex-perience over a period of ten years may be helpful to others -- both sick and healthy, both superiors and subjects. In September of 1949 my usual teaching duties began. Shortly afterwards I experienced symptoms I did not understand -- sudden spells of crying, with no apparent provocation, and at the most unexpected.times. Since that time I have been a patient in four mental hospitals, seen fourteen psychiatrists, and a slightl~ lesser number of experienced priests. There is no regret in my having been ill. In fact, I think God, in HIS goodness, timed it well to save me from a growing pride and possibly a rather shallow religious life. Is it impossible for a sistek emotionally or mentally disturbed for a short time to again be a useful member of the community? Could mental sickness occur in a sister who ordinarily enjoys good health and has no history of mental illness in her family? Both may be firmly answered in the affirmative. With the realization that a "yes" may be given to question number two, the ego in you (but we hope also your love of neighbor) may spark your interest to further information on question number one. With good medical help received in time, prayer, patience, and a determination to win on the part of the patient, and.a kind and sensible attitude on the part of other members of the community, a very sick person may again be an active and useful worker for Christ as a perfectly normal member of the community. Lacking one or more of these condi-tions, she may be an added burden financially, a loss to a much needed Christian apostolate; and there is no guarantee that her suffering is any more pleasing to God than her active work would be. Resignation to His will as an inmate of a mental institution calls for the highest degree of fortitude. How many reach this goal? And how many potentially good religious have the spiritual capacity to repel bitterness or at least apathy? What can be done to lessen the number of sisters who are lost to the active apostolate unndcessarily? Superiors may: (1) be informed of symptoms of emotional disturbance. Early recognition and treatment is important. For the bu~y superior Psychiatry and Catholicism by Van der Veldt and OdenwaldI ig fairly comprehensive. (2) Have a Christ-like attitude toward the sick sister which will inspire confidence. (3) If hospitalization is necessary, welcome the patient's return to the community and to her work on the same basis as one returning after an appendectomy or other physical illness. Subjects may: (1) on the patient's return from the mental hospital, ac-cept the doctor's decision that she is well enough to return to religious ~Editor's note: James H. Van der Veldt and Robert P. Odenwald (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952). 107 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Review for Religious life and treat her like any other sister. (2) Do not avoid her or show fear in other ways, such as locking bedroom doors at night, and so forth. The patient may: (1) accept her suffering as.coming from God, but not with a pessimistic outlook; (2) cooperate with medical help given; (3) determine to regain her health, with trust in God, if such is His will; (4) keep busy or try to help others when the type and intensity of the illness-permits. It's a wonderful way to minimize your own troubles. The proof of the pudding lies in the eating. Mine has been a pro-longed meal -- ten years -- but I hope soon to taste the sweetness of dessert. A short resume will crystalize the effectiveness of the suggestions above. November, 1949, forced to give up teaching, 1949-1954, in and out of mental hospitals, stays varying from tw~ weeks to three months. Returning to the community meant being a human chessman on the board, moved here and there with jobs ranging from teaching on all levels, elementary through college, to weeding the motherhouse garden. Duration of jobs might be anywhere from one to eighteen months. The feeling of "not belonging" anywhere was not easy to accept but probably forced me to a greater trust in Christ. 1952, my spiritual director first suggested I leave my community. After twenty-four years of religious life this came as an atomic blow. 1954, Rome granted me an indult of exclaustration. 1954-1956, I.looked like a secular, lived as much as possible a religious life, and discovered I Leapt Over the Wall was a bit exaggerated. The offices in which I worked and the public school which hired me to organize and supervise an art department offered opportunity for God's work. 1956, my doctor and my spiritual director advised me to return to my community. I thought this happy move was permanent. 1957, illness struck again. On the advice of my spiritual director, Rome granted another three-year period of exclaustration. 1957-1959, organization of another public school art department brought me to a New York State area where there is much work to be done with Catholic students, civic, educational and social organizations, the local Newman Club, and friends who just come to my apartment to paint, but end up talking what they really hunger for -- religion and good living! 1960, my doctor, my spiritual director, and the vicar for religious recom-mend my return to my community. I look forward to it with true joy and the hope that with God's grace, my own cooperation, and the help of my superiors and sisters, this will be my home, until Christ welcomes me to an eternal one. The fight against depression has not been easy, but God always provided the necessary help. as it was needed. There have been setbacks which I could never have surmounted alone. Even now I am not a 108 March, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Hercules of nerves.'Marsilid and equanil supplement my daffy prayers. These are not a cure but a purely natural means, not to be spurned, in keeping me fit to do a job for Christ. There are other religions emotionally or mentally ill at present, some in hospitals, some still devotedly "holding on" to their assignments in religious communities. There will be more in the futu}e. If this account gives hope to even one, I shall feel grateful to the priests and doctors who encouraged me to write. The Institute for Religious at College Misericordia, Dallas, Penn-sylvania (a three-yea~ summer course of twelve days in canon law and ascetical theology for sisters), will be held this year August 20-31. This is the first year in the triennial course. The course in canon law is given by the Rev. Joseph F. Gallen, S. J., that in ascetical theology by the Rev. Thomas E. Clarke, S. J., both of Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland. The registration is restricted to higher superiors, their councilors, general and provincial officials, mistresses of novices, and those in similar positions. Applications are to be addressed to Rev. Joseph F. Gallen, S. J., Woodstock College; Woodstock, Md. ( uestions and Answers [The following answers are given b~v Father Joseph F. Gallen, S. J., professor of canon law at Woodstock Col!eg~, Woodstock, Maryland.] Local Houses and Superiors Questions and cases on local houses and local superiors have been submitted with great frequency. Private replies were given to most of these, but it was thought profitable and even necessary to publish all " together and in l?gical order. Questions have been divided whenever this was demanded by the same order. The questions on local houses and local superiors will be continued through several issues of the REVIEW. I. Local Houses 1. We are a clerical exempt institute. We wish to rent a house in a summer resort, to be used only as a vacation place for our com-munity. Do we need the permission of the local ordinary to rent and use this house? The stable residence of religious and the customary tenor of life of the institute are necessary to have a religious house in any sense of this term. Therefore, a mere vacation residence owned, rented, or granted temporarily to an institute and used only as a vacation place is not a religious but a secular house. It lacks both of the requisites given 109 QUESTIONS AND ANSWEas Review for Religious above. Canon law contains no prescriptions on secular houses of religious, and therefore no permission of the local ordinary is necessary for any institute to build or open such a vacation or similar residence. It would usually be courteous to consult him before taking this action; for example, many such residences in one resort might cause difficulty for the diocese. The two requisites given above can be verified in residences which are used also as vacation places; if so, they are canonically erected or filial houses, which will be explained in questions and cases below. 2. What is the relation of the other buildings on our grounds to the religious house, that is, the building in which at least most of the religious reside? In its material sense, a religious house is the house or building in which the religious reside; but all buildings located within the same property, grounds, or premises and buildings not separated from that in which the religious reside are considered part of the. religious house; for example, separate buildings on the same grounds for a college, a preparatory or elementary school, library, science building, infirmary, gymnasium, and houses for workmen are all part of the religious house. Even when not on the same grounds nor contiguous to the residence of the religious, a building is not considered as separate if it can be judged morally to form part of the same group of buildings. It is certainly separate if a mile distant; but a building a few doors away from the residence of the religious, even if a street is between them, can still be said to be part of the same group of buildings. Because of this material sense, a novice is not absent if he is confined by sickness to an infirmary building on the same grounds but distinct 'from the novitiate building (c. 556, §§ 1-2). For the same reason, first profession may licitly be made in the college chapel on the same grounds, even though this building is distinct from that in which the community resides (c. 574, § 1). 3. Our constitutions 'speak of property owned and debts incur-red by the houses, provinces, and institute. How can any of these as such own property or incur debts? In the formal and more important sense, a religious .house is the same thing as a canonically erected religious house. It is the community as a distinct moral person, distinguished as such from both the province and the institute, which are also moral persons. A moral person in the Church may be described as an ecclesiastical corporation. It is a subject of rights and obligations, which are distinct from those of its members considered individually or collectively. A moral person can acquire, own, and administer property (cc. 531-32); is responsible for its debts and obligations (c. 536, § 1); can sue or be sued in court (cc. 1552, § 2, 1°; 1649; 1653, § 6); can receive privileges (cc. 72, §§ 3:4; 613; 615); enjoys precedence (cc. 106, 491), and so forth. The antecedent requisites for a canonically erected house are: (1) at the time of the erection it must 110 March, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS consist of at least three religions (c. 100, § 2); (2) a distinct community with its own proper superior; (3) the stable dwelling of religious in the house; (4) and the customary tenor of life of the institute according to its particular constitutions. It is not necessary that a religions institute be the proprietor of a canonically erected house, a filial house, or a separated establishment. All of these may be owned or rented by the institute or their use gratuitously given to the institute. All may be an entire building or a part of a building, for example, a floor or an apartment. The Code of Canon Law itself grants to a canonically erected house the character of a moral person consequent upon the fulfillment of the canonical formalities prescribed for an erection. 4. Our constitutions state that a parish school convent, because it is owned by the parish, cannot be a canonically erected religious house. Is this correct? No. As stated in the preceding question, the character of a moral person, of an ecclesiastical corporation, is something completely distinct from the ownership of the property where the moral person is located. Therefore, ownership of the property by the religious institute is not required for a canonically erected religious house. The sense of these particular constitutions may be that the institute will petition canonical erection only for houses that it owns. 5. Our hospital ,is civilly incorporated. The board of the civil corporation authorized the addition of a new wing to the hospital. This will cost $2,500,000. Do we need any permissions beyond the authorization of this board? Every religious institute, province, or house, by its erection as a moral person according to the norms of canon law, possesses, in virtue " of canon 531, the unlimited right of acquiring, owning, and administering temporal property (cf. c. 1495, § 2). This right extends to all species of property, all rights of use, and the right of receiving returns on property. The code permits the particular constitutions to exclude o~ limit this capacity. When the civil state, as in the United States, does not recognize an ecclesiastical moral person established by the Church, religions moral persons should incorporate civilly, so as to secure civil efficacy and protection of their property rights, which they actually possess from canon law. The incorporation therefore is a mere civil formality. The property rights are possessed in virtue of canon law, and the property must always be administered according to canon law and the constitu- ¯ tions (c. 532, § 1). In any transaction, the requisite civil formalities are to be fulfilled but only that the transaction may have civil efficacy and protection. The substantial law that governs the transaction is that of canon law and the constitutions. Care is to be taken, if externs are ad-mitted as members of the board, that religious of the institute are always in the majority. An institute may treat such a board also as an advisory 111 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious committee, but in itself the authorization of the board is a mere civil formality. In the present case, the transaction is the expenditure of $2,500,000 for a new wing to a hespital. If the hospital already has this sum on hand, the permission of the mother general with the vote of her council prescribed by the general chapter will be necessary, because the trans-action is an act of extraordinary administration. If the hospital has to borrow money for the project, as is most likely true, the norms of canon 534 on contracting debts, supplemented by the enactments of the general chapter on the same subject, must be observed. In either case, the re-course to higher authority is required for the validity of the transaction. See Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome Iuris Canonici, II, n. 819; Brys, Juris Canonici Compendium, II, n. 855; Muzzarelli, De Congregationibus Iuris Dioecesani, n. 163; Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, I, 253; Vromant, De Bonis Ecc~esiae Temporalibus, n. 8. 6. We have the house system of delegates for the general chapter, that is, each house of~ at least twelve religious sends its local superior to this chapter in virtue of his office and elects one non-superior delegate. Smaller houses are combined into groups of at least twelve and not more than twenty-three religious. Each group elects one superior and one non-superior delegate. Are filial houses considered smaller houses? In some institutes, all houses except the mother house are called missions, branch houses, or filial houses, which is not the strict sense. The essential note of a filial house in the strict sense is that it is not a distinct moral person but part of the larger canonically erected house to which it is attached. The one at the head Of a filial house is therefore not a superior in the proper sense of this word, even though he may have this title. He is a mere delegate of either a higher superior or of the superior of the larger house, and his authority is as wide as the delegation. In lay institutes, he is appointed by a higher superior, either for a specified term, for example, three years, or for no determined period of time. In the latter case, he may be removed at any time at the mere will of the higher superior. Since it is not a moral person, the filial house does not own property, all of which is owned by the larger house. There-fore, it has no bursar. Its local bursar is that of the larger house, but he may have an assistant in the filial house. A filial house has no coun-cilors, since it is not canonically a house (c. 516, § 1). Unless otherwise specified in the constitutions, the capitular rights of those residing in the filial house are exercised in the larger house, of which t.hey are to vote as members for the election of delegates~ to the provincial or general chapter. The number of religious resident in a filial house is usually small. The larger house to which the filial house is attached is ordinarily located in the same city or in a nearby place. The constitutions of brothers and sisters, whether pontifical or diocesan, most rarely mention filial houses. All such institutes may open 112 March, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS filial houses, unless this is expressly forbidden by the constitutions. A few constitutions have only a brief statement of the following type: "Communities of two or three sisters can be made dependent on larger houses when the mother general and her council consider it opportune." Such constitutions do not explain the election of delegates in ~elation to a filial house. Others contain such an explanation; for example: "Religious living in branch houses who cannot go to the principal house for the election of the delegate will send their sealed votes there. These votes will be, taken out of their envelopes in. the presence of the com-munity and placed in the ballot box with those of the religious who are present," "Branch houses have not the right of sending either superior or delegates to the proyincial chapter, but the vocal sisters of these branch houses will unite with the vocal sisters of the nearest house to elect delegates to the provincial chapter." Unless a special provision has been made in the constitutions, as in the last case, those residing in the filial house must vote as members of the larger house to which the former is attached for the election of delegates. This is evident from the fact that the filial house is part of the larger house. This essential argument is confirmed by the fact that the religious at the head of a filial house is not a superior and therefore has no right to be voted for as a superior delegate. Furthermore, the constitutions say that smaller houses are to be united (cf. Normae of 1901, n. 216). A filial house is not canonically a house but part of a house. The present difficulty in the election of delegates occurs only in the house, not in the group, system. Unless the constitutions state the contrary, as.in the second dase, all electors must be physically present for an election, according to the norm of canon 163. In lay congregations, a filial house ordinarily does not contain more than three religious; but this is not a matter of general law in the Church. Even in such institutes, filial houses are sometimes larger. The following authors explicitly affirm that the capitular rights are to be exercised in the house t'o which the filial house is attached: Maroto, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 5 (1924), 128, note 14; Ver-meersch, Periodica, 13 (1923), 55; Schaefer, De Religiosis, n. 166; Jombart, Dictionnaire de Droit Canonique, VI, 700; Creusen, Religious Men and Women in Church Law, n. 12; Fanfanl, De Iure Religiosorum, m 20; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, n. 42; Flanagan, The Canonical Erection of Religious Houses, 31. 7. Our constitutions distinguish formal and non-formal
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted routine hospital services globally. This study estimated the total number of adult elective operations that would be cancelled worldwide during the 12 weeks of peak disruption due to COVID-19. Methods: A global expert response study was conducted to elicit projections for the proportion of elective surgery that would be cancelled or postponed during the 12 weeks of peak disruption. A Bayesian β-regression model was used to estimate 12-week cancellation rates for 190 countries. Elective surgical case-mix data, stratified by specialty and indication (surgery for cancer versus benign disease), were determined. This case mix was applied to country-level surgical volumes. The 12-week cancellation rates were then applied to these figures to calculate the total number of cancelled operations. Results: The best estimate was that 28 404 603 operations would be cancelled or postponed during the peak 12 weeks of disruption due to COVID-19 (2 367 050 operations per week). Most would be operations for benign disease (90·2 per cent, 25 638 922 of 28 404 603). The overall 12-week cancellation rate would be 72·3 per cent. Globally, 81·7 per cent of operations for benign conditions (25 638 922 of 31 378 062), 37·7 per cent of cancer operations (2 324 070 of 6 162 311) and 25·4 per cent of elective caesarean sections (441 611 of 1 735 483) would be cancelled or postponed. If countries increased their normal surgical volume by 20 per cent after the pandemic, it would take a median of 45 weeks to clear the backlog of operations resulting from COVID-19 disruption. Conclusion: A very large number of operations will be cancelled or postponed owing to disruption caused by COVID-19. Governments should mitigate against this major burden on patients by developing recovery plans and implementing strategies to restore surgical activity safely.