This presentation proposes that BPO and other ICT development have a potential to be a major catalysts for economic growth and socio-economic transformation. It claims that IT-BPO sectors development represents major promises that potentially can transform the Philippine economy and also foster inclusive growth. The presentation postulates that the importance of IT-BPO industry development goes beyond the debate of picking industry winners. It argues that the BPO industry is poised to have a substantive impact on the country and that especially so if there simultaneously is major growth in other ICT sectors and the scale and scope local usage of ICTs. It claims that expanded scale and scope of BPO industry in conjunction with further development of IT services, Telecom and other ICTs industries coupled with the advancement in education, science & technology can be principal factors that can transform the Philippine economy and its interface with the rest of the world.
Viet Nam has undergone a major socio-economic transformation over the past quarter century, rising from one of the poorest countries in the world to a middle income country. Today it continues to develop rapidly, becoming more integrated with the global economy and undergoing significant regulatory and structural changes. Viet Nam has also made remarkable progress on gender equality, but important gender differences still remain. On the positive side Viet Nam has had considerable progress in addressing gender disparities in education, employment and health. The gender gap in earnings is lower in Viet Nam than in many other East Asian countries. Indeed by a number of measures, women's outcomes have improved significantly. However, upon deeper examination of the data, a number of challenges still remain. The report is organized into five chapters. The current chapter has provided a background to the report and the process through which it has been prepared. The next three chapters will deal with the substantive issues, focusing primarily on gender but addressing ethnicity and other forms of social inequality where relevant. Chapter two will provide an analysis of the situation and trends in gender equality in relation to the multiple dimensions of poverty, some of which are included in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Chapter three will provide an in-depth gender analysis of livelihoods and employment, bearing in mind the likely impact of the recent crisis as well as the challenges of transition to middle income status. Chapter four will pick up on the issue of women's political participation in leadership positions and in the wider society. The final chapter will synthesize the key findings of the report and prioritize key recommendations.
Backed by sound economic policies and until the global crisis, a buoyant global economy, many developing countries made significant movement toward achieving the 2015millennium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly those for poverty reduction, gender parity in education, and reliable access to safe water. But even before the global economic crisis, progress in achieving some MDGs, especially those on child and maternal mortality, primary school completion, hunger, and sanitation, was lagging. The global food, fuel and economic crises have set back progress to the MDGs. An estimated 64 million more people are living on less than $1.25/day than there would have been without the crisis. The challenges ahead are achieving the MDGs requires a vibrant global economy, powered by strong, sustainable, multi-polar growth, underpinned by sound policies and reform at the country level; improving access for the poor to health, education, affordable food, trade, finance, and basic infrastructure is key to accelerating progress to the MDGs; developing countries need to continue to strengthen resilience to global volatility in order to protect gains and sustain progress toward the MDGs; the international community must renew its commitment to reach the 'bottom billion', particularly those in fragile and conflict-affected countries; and global support for a comprehensive development agenda including through the G20 process is critical. In the wake of recent global crises, and with the 2015 deadline approaching, business as usual is not enough to meet the MDGs.
Domestic Violence in Danielle Steel's Journey (A Liberal Feminism Approach) Aryani Fitri Hira Kartika English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Aryanifitri11@gmail.com Fabiola Dharmawati Kurnia English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University fabkurnia@gmail.com Abstrak Permasalahan kekerasan dalam rumah tangga selalu menjadi ancaman bagi wanita. Hak asasi manusia mereka ditiadakan oleh suami.Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menganalisis bagaimana kekerasan dalam rumah tangga dan bagaimana wanita melawan kekerasan yang tergambarkan pada Journey karya Danielle Steel. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode data deskriptif-qualitatif dengan pendekatan konsep kekerasan menurut Paula and Margie untuk menunjukkan bentuk kekerasan dalam rumah tangga dan liberal feminisme menurut Naomi Wolf dan John Stuart Mill untuk menunjukkan usaha wanita untuk melawan kekerasan dan bangkit dari permasalahannya. Hasil penelitian ini mengungkapkan (1) bentuk kekerasan yang dialami Mddy, tokoh utama dalam Journey yang ditinjau dari pendekatan liberal feminisme adalah kekerasan emosional; penghinaan, ancaman, menganggap rendah, dan pengisolasian sosial, sementara kekerasan seksual;pemaksaan seks, pemaksaan sterilisasi, penyiksaan secara seksual, dan menganggap wanita sebagai objek seks. (2) Bagaimana Maddy melawan kekerasan melalui berani berbicara ketika Ia ingin diberi kesempatan untuk memberi ide-idenya dalam area pekerjaan, membuat keputusan dalam hidupnya, bersosialisasi dengan teman-temannya, melalui tindakan ketika Ia menentang perintah suaminya untuk menjauhi anak istrinya, keinginan Maddy tetap pada merawat anaknya, dan yang terakhir melalui personal autonomi ketika Ia mengambil sikap untuk berpisah dari suaminya demi terbebas dari kekerasan suaminya. Berpisah dari suaminya, Ia bisa hidup mandiri tanpa bayang-bayang suaminya. Keywords : Kekerasan, Wanita, Perlawanan, Liberal Feminisme Abstract Violence always becomes threat for women. Their human rights are denied by their husband.The purpose of this study is analyzing how domestic violence to woman and how woman resists against violence as reflected in Danielle Steel's JOURNEY. This research of method used to analyze the data is a descriptive-qualitative with an approach of domestic violence by Paula and Margie to show the forms of domestic violence and liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill to show her efforts to resist against violence and revival from her problems. The result of this research exposes that (1) violence experienced by Maddy as the main female character are emotional abuse; humiliation, threats, belittling, and social isolation, meanwhile sexual abuse; rape, enforced sterilization, torturing sexually, and looking woman as sexual object. (2) How Maddy resists against violence through speak out as she wants to be given opportunity in giving her ideas in her working place, making her own decisions in her life, socializing with her friends, and, through doing action as Maddy tries to oppose every her husband's commands, one of them is her decision for taking care her children and through being personal autonomy when she decides to divorce with her husband and lived independent with working without the shadows of her husband. She has had power to be personal hood in determining self, mind, body, and feeling that divorce is the best way for sake of happiness and pleasure (freedom of emotional and sexual abuses) perpetuated by her husband. Keywords : Violence, Women, Resistance, Liberal Feminism INTRODUCTION: God creates a man to the earth for living in love with others but in reality lately the acts of violence has always been part of the human experience. Acts of violence can happen in everywhere, be experienced by anyone, and be perpetrated by anyone (Dustin, 2009:87). However, survey from UNICEF Research Centre in 2000 states that violence is regular part of women's experience in domestic violence. They are unable to make their own decisions, voice their own opinions or protect themselves and their children for fear of further repercussions. Their human rights are denied and their lives are stolen from the abuser by regularly getting threats of violence (Khan, 2000:2). Many factors make women experience violence, one of them is gender bias, unequal power relations between men and women in which women is forced into a subordination position compared women than men that leads women as the victim of men dominance and discrimination and to prevention of the full advancement of women (Khan, 2000:2). Violence in domestic life always happens toward wife as a party who is regarded weaker than her husband. Joda et al, 2009:2 states that husband often do not feel guilty with what he does even he feels no breaking the law when he commits violence to his wife. Some women activists believes that violence in domestic sphere is rooted in belief of patriarchal system that still applied by husband in system of his household. According to Dobash, patriarchy contributes toward wife abuse. The system had defined the differences of gender between men and women. Husband was supposed to be strong, dominant, authoritarian, aggressive, and rational provider while women had devalued as secondary and inferior who had been assigned to be irrational, dependent, passive, submissive, soft, nurturing (in Margie, 2002:34). Patriarchal society regarded women as men's property and gave authority toward husband to control and decide decision for wife. Araji and Carlson (2001) argued that patriarchal societies may foster domestic violence because the dominant male is perceived to be appropriately disciplining and controlling the behaviour of the subordinate wife in the family (in Florence, 2008:592). The forms of women abuse can be classified into three forms, those are physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. Physical abuse is like grabbing, hitting, and kicking, sexual abuse is like demanding sex when one's partner is unwilling, enforced to sterilization, regarding women as a sex object, and emotional abuse is like humiliation, threatening, belittling, and social abuse (Paula, 2006:5 &16 and Margie, 2000: 3-6). Bhasin states that patriarchy as a concept to refer social system of masculine domination over women. Patriarchal society places men in superior or masculine position meanwhile women is put in subordinate position (2000:10). Murniati states that patriarchy is a system of socio-culture that marginalizes women's position in all aspects including in economic, social, education, politic sphere as if the system legitimizes some a various inequality, deprivation, and oppression over women (2004:227-229). In patriarchal situation, women had only little influences in society where they did not have rights on common areas in society such as in family, social, government, education. So, women's economic social, political, psychological condition depended on men. Domestic violence always becomes the hidden issue. Almost all of the victims are unwilling to report the police because wife still depends on financial on husband, wife still loves her husband, and many reason else. Summer states that many the victim is always silent toward violence perpetrated by her husband, never resists the abuser and never tells anyone (Summers, 2002:170). Moreover, according to Joyce, victims of violence over time experiences more serious consequences than of one-time incidents. Domestic violence against women where husband as the perpetrator can lead psychological consequences for the victim (2009:134-135). Gender bias that causes women are always marginalized, subordinated, and oppressed in the family at the place of work, and in society emmerges feminism. Feminism is an awareness of women oppression at the place of work within the family and an awareness of patriarchal control (Bhasin, 2000:31). Meanwhile Carter states that feminism is a movement for women that attempts to resist the dominance of a patriarchal society have a long history (2006:910). One of feminism movement that defend equality rights between men and women is liberal feminism. Liberal feminism is a movement that is reflected in every struggle done by women to demand the right of freedom (Humm, 2002:250). Liberal feminism emphasizes the importance of individualism, freedom, especially freedom of choice. The feminist movement is that women gain control. Both of the body itself as well as the social world. They reject the gender symbols attached to each sex and gender socialization to children that had been done. Women experience discrimination because of gender inequality but women should have same opportunity like men in all of aspects, including private field, or public field, or public field (Ritzer, 1992:450). John Stuart Mill states that women must be personal autonomy as women are rational beings and have the same capacity as men. Problems faced by women more often caused by women if legal reform has happened to make equality between men and women (Tong, 2009:29). Women who success financially comfortable, succesful does not guarantee them will freedom from discrimination and violation. As women regard themselves as the victim of discrimination and violation, Wolf states that women have the power to control what happens to them so stop thinking of themselves as victim and to capitalize on the power inherent in their majority status. Society does not oppress them. It is time for women to do self defeating (speak out) against violation and discrimination. Proclaiming themselves as victimhood does not project strength (Wood, 2009:84). Journey is a novel that will be analyzed. This research chooses the novel as the main female character, experiences violence emotionally and sexually during her marriage life however Maddy is a representation of woman's movement who is brave to speak out against violence perpetruated by her husband but she never tries to hate marriage institution. Maddy as a woman who is not afraid to out of comfort zone and false happiness created by her husband after getting supports from her friends, a support group for battered women, daughter. She escapes from the shackle of oppression to be an independent, free women with her daughter and her friends who support her not like many wives commonly are afraid to escape from violence or say divorce cause they still depend on their husband. Based on the explanation above, the writer is interested to analyze how domestic violence is reflected using the concept of domestic violence from sociological approach by Paula and Margie and how woman resists against violence and revival from her problems by using liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill. Theoritical Framework In producing a good understanding of the conflicts in domestic life which woman experiences and how woman resists against violence in Danielle Steel's Journey, this study applies extrinsic approach in analyzing the problems. The theory of domestic violence by Paula and Margi is chosen as the tool to find out domestic violence to woman is reflected in Danielle Steel's Journey. Theory of domestic violence is a theory which is used to analyze how the forms of abuses which is experienced by the victim. The types of domestic violence according to Paula and Margie consist of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. (1) Physical abuse is the action of physically assaults, causing injury, pinching, or squeezing, (2) emotional or psychological abuse is consistently doing or saying things verbally that results in fear, loss of confidence, loss of the ability to act, a sense of helplessness and or severe psychological suffering on a person, and (3) sexual abuse is including sadism and forcing a person to have sex when he or she does not want to, forcing a person to engage in sexual act that he or she does not like or finds unpleasant, frightening, or violent, touches the victim sexually in uncomfortable ways, and regards women as a sexual object. Liberal feminism is chosen as the tool to analyze how woman resist against violence. Its feminism emphasizes that violence toward women is based on unequal power relations between women and men. Its theory emphasizes equal individual rights and liberties for women and downplaying sexual differences. Liberal feminist propose a series of strategies for eliminating gender inequality; supporting individual in challenging sexism wherever it is enccountered in daily life without hating the marriage institution. As women experience inequality, the soulution is on women themselves (Ritzer, 1992:452-53). In challenging discrimination and violation toward women, Wolf demands woman to do self defeating (speak out). Its concept is used by Wolf to give powerness for women resist against discrimination and violation (Wood, 84). Wolf states that women are not needed to ask for permission toward anyone for achieving social equality (1999:79). Meanwhile John Stuart Mill gives powerness on women for being personal autonomy. Personal autonomy is a autonomous decision making. John Stuart Mill states that women have powerness as personhood over their self, their thinking, their feeling, their body in determining a choice in their living for sake of happiness and pleasure but not obstruct another people's right in the process (Tong, 2009:16) Based on the background of the study above, the questions below will be answered. (1). How is domestic violence to woman reflected in the Danielle Steel's Journey? (2). How does woman in Danielle Steel's Journey resist against violence? Research Design and Method: To analyze Danielle Steel's Journey, this study uses descriptive qualitative. Thomas (2003) defines qualitative methods as method that involves research by describing kinds of characteristics people and events without comparing the events in term of amounts. The main data is the novel entitled Journey by Danielle Steel, published in 2000 by Dell Publishing, New York. Meanwhile the additional data are taken from many sources such as journal, book, and internet sources. Besides that, quotations in the novel is taken also related how domestic violence to woman is reflected and how woman resists against woman as represented by the main female character of Maddy. There were some steps taken in conducting this study. First, reading was the first step to do to gain the idea the novel intends to deliver. After the writer has finished reading the novel, the next step which was hold was close reading. This step was applied to find quotations related to the topic and problems going to analyze. Close reading was done three times. The first close reading was to find the quotations which are related how domestic violence to woman, then the second close reading was to find how woman resists against woman as represented in Danielle Steel's Journey. The data observed from the novel were then analyzed to the statement of the problems. It was then synchronized with the similar concept of domestic violence by Paula and Margie, concept of victimization by Joyce, and the concept of liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill taken from journals, books, and critical essays. The synchronized data were useful to take final conclusions. Therefore, the significance of the study can be achieved well. Data analysis For the first question this study take theory from the theoritical framework which concerns with forms of abuse toward woman. The concept of domestic violence by Paula and Margie will be explained in this research to find out how domestic violence to woman is reflected in Danielle Steel's Journey. In this research, the writer only found two forms of abuses to women, they are emotional abuses, and sexual abuses. For the second question this study take theory from the theoritical framework which concerns with women's efforts to resist against violence. The concept of liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill which are used to reveal how woman in Danielle Steel's Journey resists against violence. RESULT (1). As the explanation of the domestic violence, this study finds out domestic violence to woman into two forms of abuse, they are emotional abuse and sexual abuse. Emotional Abuse consists of humiliation, threatening, belittling, social isolation. Meanwhile sexual abuse consist of rape, enforced sterilization, torturing sexually, and looking woman as a sexual object. (2). As the explanation of liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill, this study reveal how woman resists against violence. The strategy of Maddy's resistance to get out of domestic violence in Danielle Steel's Journey through speak out, doing action, and being personal autonomy. 1.1 Emotional Abuse 1.1.1 Humiliation "I don't give a damn what you think. I don't pay you to think. I pay you to look good and read the news of a TelePrompTer. That's all I want from you. And with that, he walked into his bathroom, and slammed the door behind him, as she burst into tears in their bedroom. (Steel, p. 34) The quotation above show the form of humiliation by men toward women. In this Journey, Jack always puts his wife into subordinate position. Jack never regards his wife having capability in thinking. Jack just cares how Maddy could look beautiful in front of audiences without giving opportunity for her in giving her arguments or ideas as she is delivering the news. Jack will getting angry as Maddy tries to oppose his commands. One of his commands is prohibitting his wife to hold the program of editorial however Maddy still holds it for the sake of helping her new friend who committed suicide due to abused by her husband, Jack's friend also. 1.1.2 Threatening "I heard you, she said numbly. And I hate you for it. I don't give a damn what you think or feel about this. I only care about what you do, and it goddamn better be the right thing this time, or you're finished. With me and the network. Is that clear, Mad? She looked at him for a long moment and then turned on her heel and walked swiftly down the stairs, back to her own floor. She was pale and shaking." (Steel, p.63) The quotation above shows that Jack always tries threats for Maddy, his wife. Besides she will loss her jobs, Jack will divorce Maddy as his threat for his wife as she does not obey what Jack says to her. Maddy loves so much her husband and also depend financially with her husband. That's Maddy has no other alternatives to leave her husband. In her marriage, Maddy has no power over her husband. Jack always regards her as his property that could be ordered by Jack. Jack feels Maddy as his wife and his employee so he deserves to control his wife as she tries to show her potential in giving comments which acrosses with Jack's principles. 1.1.3 Belittling "That's insulting! It's the truth. As I recall, Mad, you never went to college. In fact, I'm not even sure if you finished high school. It was the ultimate put-down, insinuating that she was too stupid and uneducated to think (Steel, p. 90) The quotation above shows that Maddy tries to oppose all of belittling which is perpetruated by Jack to her however Jack gives awareness to Maddy that the reason of belittling is because Jack doubts whether Maddy ever finished her school or not. The unequal power relation in educational things lead discrimination over Maddy by Jack. Jack belittles Maddy as a stupid wife so Maddy should put down with her husband's commands. 1.1.4 Social Isolation "She didn't have that many friends in Washington, she'd never had time to make them and those she had made, Jack never liked, and eventually pressured her not to see them. She never objected because Jack always had some objection to them, regarding her friends were fat, ugly, inappropriate, or indiscreet. He kept Madeleine carefully guarded, and inadvertently isolated. She knew he meant well in protecting her, and she didn't mind, but it meant that the person she was closest to was Jack, and in recent years, Greg Morris." (Steel, p. 25) From the quotation above, social isolation is as form of discrimination. Men have full power over women as well as limits women to socialize with their friends. In Journey, Jack as the head of family, he determines which is a friend should be and should not be met by Maddy. Meanwhile Jack is freedom to choose which a friend he wants to meet. Besides his bussiness relation, he can also meet with woman. The quotation can be seen below: "He had been so quick to explain the photograph of the woman he's been with at Annabel's in london (Steel, p.159) 1.2 Sexual Abuse 1.2.1 Rape "He was smiling at her, and he reached out a hand and gently touched her breast, and then before she could stop him, he had grabbed her so hard, it made her gasp, and she begged him to stop "Why, baby? Tell me why? Don't you love me? I love you, but you're hurting me. There were tears in her eyes as she said it. I don't want to make love tonight, she tried to say, but he didn't listen, he grabbed a handful of her hair and sharply pulled her head back. What she sensed most in his love for her was danger. (Steel, p.87) From the quotation above shows that Jack regards Maddy as his own property which could be used by Jack anytime Jack wants. Jack always controls Maddy's sexuality. It can be shown from the quotation above as Jack always forces Maddy to have a sex with him although Maddy does not want to have a sex with Jack or finds unpleasant, frightening, violent when having a sex. Jack does not care with his wife's refusal, instead Jack grabs a handful of her hair and sharply pulled her head back to make his sexual impulse satisfied. 1.1.5 Enforced Sterilization "Jack convinced Maddy that children will obstacle her career. Jack had made it very clear to her right from the beginning that he didn't want children. And after a brief period of mourning for the babies she would never have, at Jack's insistence, Maddy had had her tubes tied. It seemed easier to give in to Jack's wishes and not take any chances. He had given her so much, and wanted such great things for her. She could see his point that children would only be an obstacle she'd have to overcome, and a burden on her career. But there were still times when she regretted the irreversibility of her decision. (Steel, p. 15). From the quotation above shows forcing woman to tie the rope uterus shows the violations of human rights because it is band for woman's reproduction where woman will never have children again. The factors that leads this abuse still attached to the dominant assumption has the right to control the weak and the wife playing the role of a person who is required to comply, in terms of the economic dependence of women makes women cannot do anything other than comply with applicable rules. Jack Maddy action to force the rope cut the uterus with the aim that Maddy is not hampered career is a form of self control female reproduction by males while liberal feminism oppose the restrictions on reproduction for having offspring is the right of every individual, and no one was allowed to prohibit or restrict. 1.1.6 Torturing sexually "Are you going to be a good girl now?" he asked, taunting her, torturing her with pleasure. "Do you promise?" "I promise," she said breathlessly. "Promise again, Mad." He was a master at what he was doing, it had taken long years of practice. "Promise me again"I promise I promise I promise I'll be good, I swear." All she wanted now was to please him, and from the distance, she knew she hated herself for it. She had sold out to him again, given herself to him again, but he was too powerful a force to resist (Steel, p. 70) From the quotation above can be stated that Jack as a husband who tries to pressure toward his wife in order to always being submissive and does not break commands which have applied by her husband. Jack reminds his wife with torturing her sexually slow by slow when having sex, in order to his wife realizes that the acts which have been done by Maddy is wrong. As Maddy's position is in inferior status and depends financially toward her husband, Jack regards her as his own property that can be treated anything. 1.1.7 Looking woman as a sexual abuse "They often lay there for a while before they went to sleep, talking about what had happened that day, the places they'd been, the people they'd met with, the parties they'd been to. As they did now, and Maddy tried to guess what the President was up to. I told you, I'll tell you when I can, stop guessing. Secrets drive me crazy, she giggled. You drive me crazy, he said, turning her gently toward him, and feeling the satin of her flesh beneath the silky nightgown (Steel, p. 15). The quotation above shows that woman still is put in inferior position. Because of her position in inferior, man always regards woman's existence as a sexual object not as a friend in helping her husband in solving the problems. From the quotation above, Maddy feels curious what is talking with her husband with the president, she tries to ask well but her husband instead say crazy to Maddy. Jack only focuses on her body which is reflected in he stops her husband's conversation which tries to ask what happens between her husband and president, Jack instead turns Maddy gently toward him, and feeling the satin of her flesh beneath the silky nightgown. 2. The Strategy woman's resistance against violence 2.1 Speak out "Have you ripped Jack's head off yet about our editorials? He grinned at her. No, but I will later, when I see him. As Jack and Maddy sped together toward Georgetown, she said to Jack "What the hell happened to our editorials? "Bullshit, Jack, they love them. Whydidn't you say something to me about it this morning?" She still looked annoyed. You never even asked me. It would have been nice to know. I think you really made the wrong decision on that one. (Steel, chapt 3: 27) The quotation above shows that Maddy tries to do refusal against Jack's treatment that suddenly stopped the editorial program which is hosted by Maddy. For Maddy, the act of Jack that has stopped the editorial program which is hosted by her is as form of individual rights violation as Jack who always created his own decisions without giving freedom his wife to speak or deliver her ideas or just giving refusal with Jack's concepts which must be runned by his wife. In working place, Jack is as a concept maker meanwhile Maddy is just a puppet that only run the duties of work from Jack without being given the opportunity to give her ideas. Maddy dare to challenge Jack the event that a decision to dismiss an editorial decision is the kind of action one dared speak against the arbitrary actions of Jack who always underestimate the ability of Maddy in guiding news event. "I'm so proud of you, Madeleine," said a soft voice Phyllis Armstrong , wife of the president. "That was a very brave thing you did, and the editorial is very necessary. It was a wonderful broadcast, Maddy." "Thank you, Mrs. Armstrong, said Maddy." (Steel, chapt 3: 32) The quotation above shows that Maddy has strengtheness against Jack's commands which acrosses with Maddy's principle. She does not want to regard herself as victim of victimhood. Although Jack has stopped the program however Maddy is not afraid to air the program without unbeknownst by Jack. Without helping from Jack's concepts, Maddy actually has power in delivering news well. It can be shown as many audiences and the president's wife commend her broadcast is very amazing. For Maddy, the struggle which has done by her toward Janet is a form of struggle as woman to help other women and also her efforts to show her existence. In the sphere of work, Maddy does not want to regulated by Jack, she wanted to be given the opportunity to organize the editorial program which is ever hosted by her. 2.2 Doing action Liberal feminism supports that every women have equal rights and freedom same as men, including freedom in making choice for reproduction. As Maddy decides to marry with Jack, she thinks that her life will brings happiness. Jack always brings luxurious gifts for Maddy, she never got abuses physically like her marriage life with Bobby Joe and her childhood life that her father always beats her and his mother. However, Jack never gives rights as individual and social beings. One of human right violation which is perpetrated by Jack to Maddy is prohibitting Maddy to have a baby that Maddy must allow her tube of uterus tied in the name of love her for Jack. "Why didn't you tell me that you'd had a visit from my daughter?" Her eyes never lefthis as she asked the question, and she saw something cold and hard come into his, a burning ember that was rapidly being kindled by anger. "Why didn't you tell me you had a daughter?" he asked just as bluntly. "What I want to know from you is why you didn't tell me that you saw her. What were you saving it for?" (Steel, 111) The quotation above shows that as a woman, Maddy wants to her existence can be regarded, a form of recognition of the existence of women by men with giving woman to create reproduction choice. From the quotation above is explained that Maddy shows her anger to Jack as he has intended Maddy to meet her daughter who has ever regarded lost. The action of Jack to Maddy can be categorized with human rights violation to have descent. Understanding that Jack never accept Lizzy's presence, Maddy does not care how Jack will respond the situation. In Maddy's mind is only Lizzy. She deserves to have a right for having a child after Jack ever loss Maddy's opportunity. As stated by Naomi Wolf that social equality is not things that are entreated from others. Women must be ready to have a place that has become their rights. Maddy realizes that she has a right to be mother without asking for permission from Jack, she still maintain her rights to regard Maddy to be her children and meets with her. The quotation can be seen below: "Where were you? Try telling me the truth this time.I was with Lizzie. Who is that?" My daughter. Oh, for God's sake," he said." (Steel, p.129). 2.3 Being Personal Autonomy "You owe me everything. And I hope you realize you'll be out of a job if you leave me." His eyes glittered like steel."Possibly. I'll let my lawyers handle that, Jack. I have a contract with the network.You can't just throw me out without notice or compensation." She had gotten braver and smarter while fighting for her life in the rubble. (185) Based on the above text can be proved that maddy had dared to oppose, and to threaten Jack behind. The quotation above explains that the woman has power to determine self, body, and mind. Maddy has shows how she is able to stand alone. For sake of happiness and pleasure, she does not let his wife to hurt her heart agains. She deseves to find her autonomous choices witthout being afraid with threats from her husband as stated by John Stuart Mill above. After she decides to leave living which is borrowed by Jack, Maddy get offers to become a broadcaster of three big television station still she thinks that it is time for her taking care her daughter and her son first. She wants to feel how being a mother thrutfully as John Stuart Mill states that women have power to determine her self, her body, and her mind. In this case Maddy wants to determine her self as a mother first, "I don't know yet. I want to go back to work, but I want to enjoy you and Andy for a while. This is my first chance, and my last, to be a full-time mother. Her lawyer was organizing a major lawsuit against Jack and his network. He owed her a huge severance for kicking her out of her job, and there was the issue of slander, malicious intent, (Steel, p. 201). She also wants to determine her body as Madelaine Beaumont. Determining self, body, and mind according his or her own wishes without getting a force from other, it means that he or she has been personal autonomy. The quotation can be seen below: "She didn't want anything more to do with Jack Hunter. Even if she went on another show again, she had decided to do so as Madeleine Beaumont." (Steel, p. 199) The quotation on 199-201 above can be explained that Maddy as an individual that has found her true identity as a woman, who ever had been despoiled by Jack, her husband. With the emergence of self confidence on Maddy cultivates an attitude of optimism in her mind that without abundant wealth from, happiness could be achieved by Maddy with is accompanied by her children. Maddy could choose to leave her husband, changes her name with using her own name and decides to work again without any coercion from others, she has personal autonomy, a autonomous decision making. Besides she has been personal autonomy, she also becomes a flourishing person that she still decides to work and she is not afraid to sue her husband and her husband networking as he had done violation toward Maddy's name. CONCLUSION The first problem is domestic violence to woman reflected. Based on the result of data analysis and discussions which have been explained on previous chapter, it is revealed that in Journey happens oppression which is perpetrated by Jack to Maddy in their marriage life in some aspects, including emotional, sexual abuses then discrimination in sphere of work. Emotional abuse is reflected in Journey including humiliation, threatening, belittling, social isolation which is committed all by the main male character to the main female character. Meanwhile sexual abuse is reflected in Journey including prohibition to have a baby by the main male character, Jack to the main female character, Maddy, forces in having sex, use torturing sexually when having sex as a punishment so that the main female character is submissive with the main male character. Discrimination in working spheres also reflected in Journey including subordination toward integrity of woman, for instance woman is considered incapable of doing anything without the concept of men's, women in this novel is described only as a performer who does things her own unsubstantiated opinion, and woman is only regarded as an benefit asset in increasing television program which is guided by the main female character. Woman in Journey need only look beautiful in a career without having to use her mind and her ability as an independent individual. In Journey, the female character, Maddy is always prosecuted for looking beautiful, elegant and not much demand to her husband. Woman does not have important role in all of spheres such as in her private life at home and in her public life at working place. The second problem is how woman resists against violence. The forms of woman's resistance which are reflected in Journey, including speak out action, act of courage to speak to her husband when finding things that are not in accordance with her conscience in addition to speak out, the main female character in Journey resists violence through doing action, against the rules which across with the principle of the main female character mind as the image of woman in Journey is reflected very dare to oppose rules which limit ability of woman in expression. As her husband still does not show change in attitude, finally the main female decides to become personal autonomy, dare to take a firm stance with which she considers leaving her husband and had trampled her dignity as a woman. In the field work, Maddy in an attempt to show her integrity dare express her opinions, and show the concept of the work which should become her responsibility. Besides she is brave to speak out, the main female character in attempt to get happiness she is brave to oppose all imposed restrictions by the main male character, Jack. Form of opposition is reflected in Journey is she keeps on airing the program of editorial, which has been banned by Jack. The main female character presents the editorial in an effort to gain public attention over the fate of other women, still socialization with her friends, and meets with her daughter although she gets refusal from her husband. Besides doing action, the female character chooses to be personal autonomy with leaving home in order to getting happiness in her life. She has successed in determining her self, her body, her thinking that she will be happy without her husband. The resistance of female character to her husband for leaving her husband is having arisen awareness in women that she can be independent in the material, social, and can decide for the direction and purpose of her life with the ability, intelligence, skills she has with supporting her friends, and her daughters. She wants to reach her dreams to achieve happiness without getting abuses, and being a mother for her daughter who is ever entrusted in baby house and a new baby whom she gets from her friend, find another men who can love her so much and understand her weakness or her excess. SUGGESTION From some of the conclusion above, the writer can propse following suggestions: a) Gender injustice can happen anytime and anywhere and overwrite both men and women in all aspects and levels of life. Therefore, there needs to be an effort to address gender inequality. b) There needs to be provision of an understanding of gender and gender inequality early on in the community both within the family, the education in school, and so forth. c) The result of this study is served as a material to conduct in-depth analysis of gender approach, especially gender inequalities that afflict women. REFERENCES Bhasin, Kamala (2000). Understanding Gender. New Delhi : Kali for Women Carter, David (2006). Literary Theory Pocket Essential. United States of America : Harpenden Denmark, Florence (2008). Psychology of Women. United States of America : Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Dustin, Ells Howes (2009). Toward a Credible Pacifism Violence and the Possibilitties of Politics. Albany : State University of New York Press. Humm, Maggie (1986). Feminist Criticism. Women as Contemporarary Critics. United States of America : The Harverster Press. Joda A, Zubairu H, Abdulwaheed S, Giwa A, Abass R, Adidu V, Okagbue I, Balogun O (2007). Against Violence Against Women. Baobab Legal Literacy Leaflet No.1 Khan, Mehr (2000). Domestic Violence Against Women And Girl : UNICEF Innocenti Digest Lundberg, Paula K and Shelly Marmion (2006). Intimate'' Violence against Women : When Spouses, Partners, o Lovers Attack. United States of America: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Margi, McCue Laird (2002). Domestic Violence : A Reference Handbook Contemporary World Issues. United States of America: ABC-CLIO. Tong, Rosemarie (2009). Feminist Thought. United States of America: Westview Press. Wolf, Naomi (1994). Fire With Fire, The New Female Power and How it Hill Chane the 21st Century. United States of America : Vintage. Wood, Julia T (2009). Gendered Lives Communication. Canada : Nelson Education, Ltd.
Using a new and representative data set of Chinese household finance, this paper documents household access to and costs of finance, along with their correlates. As in most developing countries, informal finance is a crucial element of household finance, and wealth tends to be associated with better access to formal and informal finance. Better financial knowledge shifts loan portfolios toward formal sources relative to informal ones. Connections to the Communist Party are associated with significantly better access to finance in rural areas but not in urban areas. A larger social network is positively associated with access to informal finance. Controlling for household characteristics, rural residents pay interest rates on loans similar to urban residents. Younger residents pay higher rates, while households on firmer economic footing face lower rates. Taking financial classes and college education is associated with higher interest rates for urban residents, suggesting perhaps that financial knowledge coincides with greater demand for credit in areas with more economic opportunity. Overall, the findings suggest that Chinese residents face dual credit markets, with the poor, young, those with poor financial knowledge, and those with larger family sizes relying much more on informal finance, while others are better able to access formal finance.
The sound of children's voices reciting in unison could be heard from afar, as our mission approached a school in rural Cambodia. Inside a second-grade classroom, students took turns at the blackboard. One pointed with a stick at a list of words written by the teacher, while the rest recited. A colleague approached, wrote on the blackboard the same words in a different order, and asked the children to read. Suddenly, there was silence. Most kids had merely memorized the sequence of the words and could not even identify single letters. This scene is frequent. In the poorer schools of low-income countries, many students remain illiterate for years, until they finally drop out. With some care, the process is observable. Typically the teacher writes on the board some letters or words and asks students to repeat them. The letters may be scribbled, the children often sit at a distance, textbooks may be insufficient, and children may not have anyone at home to help them read. But they do repeat the words in unison, getting cues from a few knowledgeable classmates. The teachers stand by the blackboard, address students at large, and call on the few who perform well. How come this issue has not attracted attention? One reason is that in the middle-class schools of capitals students perform much better. Soon after our rural observations, we observed second graders in a middleclass school of Pnom Penh fluently handling the extremely complex Khmer script. However, the schools of the poor have less time for their students. There is teacher absenteeism, a lack of textbooks to take home, parental inability to make up for school weaknesses, no specific curricular time for reading. The result has been chronic illiteracy, high dropout and high repetition rates. To reduce repetition and maximize enrollments, some donors advise governments to promote students automatically.
In: Naukovi studi͏ï iz social'noiï ta polityc̆noï psycholohiï: z'irnyk statej = Scientific studios on social and political psychology : collection of articles, Heft 49(52)
Introduction. Covid-19 outbreak has changed human life and activity [1], Especially In urban areas forcing citizens to stay for large periods of time in lockdowns. Protective measures (social distancing and isolation) that have been globally implemented has caused the isolation of millions. Preliminary findings (Moreno et al, 2021) suggest adverse mental health effects in previously healthy people and especially in people with pre-existing mental health disorders. Extended lockdowns come at the expense of mental health, psycho-physical conditions, wellbeing, and social relations within societies (Campion et al., 2020).
Before COVID-19 outbreak, city centers offered a high-quality life with a wide range of services, utilities, public and green spaces, as well as city parks (Sharifi & Khavarian-Garmsird, 2020). Living in a small apartment with a minimal private space in the city center was balanced by the high level of socialization in public spaces, outdoor activities and events, intense interactions among inhabitants, allowing them to maintain relations (Portegijs et al., 2021). With COVID-19 outbreak, this modern urban standard of living was challenged. Social distancing took place at several levels: at home and at work, and, in the city, in the street and on public transport. Everything created for urban life changed and became uncertain. Societies got used to sharing common spaces, often crowded, and everyone was cut off from everyday socialisation. The isolation forced millions of individuals and families to remain at home, causing them to change their routines, rituals, and habits (McCay, 2020). In dense urban areas, this mostly meant locking people in cramped apartments, cut off from everyday physical activity outside the home (Portegijs et al, 2021; Bil et al, 2021).
Smart cities are instrumented, interconnected, and intelligent urban areas (Harrison et al., 2010) that pursue shared growth through an integrated set of technologies that shape interactions between actors (Nam & Pardo, 2011). A smart city can be defined as complex set of technology (infrastructures of hardware and software), people (creativity, diversity, and education), and institutions (governance and policy) (Nam & Pardo, 2011). Smart cities aim is to create an environment that drives innovation from a technological, managerial, and organizational point of view by fostering environmental and social wellbeing (Karvonen et al., 2018; Polese et al., 2021].
The aim of this study is the literature review of the role of technology for citizens mental health during Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns in Smart Cities and to investigate if there is a relation between digital tools provided to the citizens of Pafos Municipality to use during quarantine, and their mental health status.
Methodology\design\approach. A review of the literature and an additional critical review were conducted in the fields of smart cities and mental health with a focus on the latest research concerning COVID-19 influence on ICT, mental health and wellbeing. For the purposes of this article, a thorough database search has been made. The database used was mostly Google Scholar and Science Direct. Selection criteria included full-text publications and consisted of the following keywords: COVID-19, post-COVID-19, mental health, wellbeing, lockdown, isolation, anxiety, infection rates, density, smart city, digital technology, ICT and Virtual Reality. Author focused on qualitative research available until April 2022.
Further than this, field research was conducted through a qualitative method in the particular case of Paphos Municipality in Cyprus, the introduction of various ICT technology solutions during the pandemic lockdowns and their impact on citizens mental health. ICT tools were briefly analyzed and their contributions towards citizens mental health was evaluated based on questionnaires distributed to the citizens before and after the use of these tools. Now the key question that needs an answer is "Did smart cities impact on citizens mental health during the pandemic?"
During the pandemic, Pafos Municipality introduced to its citizens various ICT solutions that despite initially they were targeting foreign tourists visiting the district, they ended up as entertainment tools that ease the lockdown period during the quarantine phase. As part of the E.U. co-funded by European Union program "Smart Cities – Interreg: Greece – Cyprus" the municipality implemented the "Collection, Documentation and Digitization of Cultural and Tourist material, Development of Digital Tourism / Culture and Entrepreneurship Platform and Development of digital applications of e-democracy and participation in the Municipality of Pafos" project. The result of this project was the creation of 3 websites: 1. Explore Pafos https://www.explorepafos.org/ with multimedia information (text, photos, videos, 360-pictures, interactive map with points of interest etc.) about the province's major points of interest sorted by category: Culture, Environment, Tourism and Services. 2. Historical Timeline https://xronologio.explorepafos.org/ with information about the history of the city in a chronological order. 3. Electronic Participation https://diavouleusi.explorepafos.org/ offering User Registration, Consultation, Online Citizens Community (forum), Civil Council Decisions, Online Polls, News and Announcements. Further than these 2 mobile applications for iOS and Android devices were developed, Explore Pafos with various important information about the city of Pafos and Pafos AR which contain Augmented Reality representation of various significant cultural and historical sightseeing in the district. The websites and mobile applications were available in 5 languages (Greek, English, Russian, Hebrew and German).
These platforms were presented to the citizens of Pafos Municipality on the 27th of February 2020, slightly earlier than the first lockdown. After the first strict lockdown, the administrators of the website reported a significant increase in the traffic of the website among local citizens compared to pre-pandemic. This led the creators of the platforms among which is the author of this article to provide online questionnaires to people using the digital platforms on their leisure time during COVID-19 lockdowns to answer various questions regarding the impact of these digital tools in their mental health status during COVID-19 lockdown.
A questionnaire containing 5-point Likert scale questions and questions about qualitative and quantitative use of the ICT tools and their mental health during COVID-19 lockdowns was completed by citizens of Pafos Municipality.
Due to this study objective, two main criteria were established for sample selection. First, respondents should be citizens of Pafos Municipality from various areas over at least the past 5 years. Additionally, respondents must have been present during COVID-19 outbreak and lockdowns in the city. To verify this criterion, an initial survey question asked whether respondents were staying in the city during the COVID-19 outbreak.
The questionnaire was constructed in three parts. Its first one aimed at collecting descriptive variables (demographic information) of respondents' location, and professional profile. The second part asked citizens about their mental health status before and after COVID-19 outbreak and lockdowns. Each question was assessed according to a 5-point Likert scale (1 referred to 'not used' and 5 denoted 'fully used'). The last section of the questionnaire examined the adoption level of the ICT tools introduced by the Municipality as supporting tools for their mental status during the COVID-19 outbreak. For that, all 6 ICT tools were listed and evaluated based upon a similar Likert scale that ranged from 1 (not used) to 5 (fully used).
Results. The online questionnaire had its link firstly sent by e-mail to 480 citizens that registered in the platform in December 2020. A follow-up message was sent two weeks later. 215 responses returned but only 206 of them were actually from citizens that met our selection criteria, which resulted in 42.9% valid response rate,
For analyzing data, two distinctive procedures were carried out using the SPSS® Statistics 23 software to identify differences in levels of each characteristic related to ICT tools, device available (PC, mobile phone, tablet), and content (Cultural, Environmental, Social, Multimedia Content) when considering the degree of how they impact their mental health during COVID-19 lockdowns.
Our respondents were half men and half women. Moreover, 10% are aged between 20 and 25, 34% between 26 and 35, 36% between 36 and 45, 14% in the interval of 46 till 55 and only 6% are older than 55. 36% are single, 59% being married and almost 5% under another non-defined situation. Most respondents were living in a house (56%), with their family (54%), and had 1 or more kids (44%). 75% of the respondents mentioned that they use more often their mobile/laptops to access the internet compared to before. The majority of respondents (62%) mentioned that they used ICT tools provide 1 or more times per week to remind them of their daily habits while 56% mentioned that they used the platforms to navigate at their favorite place at least once. The largest majority (82%) accessed the services from their mobile phone while the smallest percent (12% accessed the services from their PC/Laptop. Regarding COVID-19 lockdowns, 86% stated that it is very stressful to stay at home in another lockdown while 36% said they wouldn't comply if they were forced to stay at home in another lockdown. 65% mentioned that they found the ICT tools useful to keep them mentally active and 72% mentioned that they wouldn't be able to stay in quarantine without access to internet. 68% of the people using the platforms declared that using the platforms helped to remain mentally active during the quarantine and 70% said they would use the platforms again in case there is a new lockdown.
Discussion. The present work was done having as basis 206 questionnaires applied to citizens of a Municipality in Cyprus, namely Pafos Municipality, in order to assess citizens mental health during lockdowns, and the impact of the use of ICT tools for their mental health. The survey collected data from 3 sections, namely demographics, mental health status before and after the COVID-19 pandemic and ICT tools usage during the lockdowns. The average respondents' sample shows that our interviewees are aged between 26 and 45 years old, half are men and the other women, married, qualified with college education. Citizens living in smaller apartments accessed the platforms more times per week compared to people living in the rural areas in houses and their conceived percentage of ICT tools contribution towards their mental health was higher compared to people leaving in rural areas. Citizens' inclusion and digital literacy are relevant issues that were affecting the use of ICT tools that do not apply only to urban contexts and should be addressed to solve societal, economic, technological, and political problems worldwide. COVID-19 restrictions and lockdown increased people's acceptance and use of ICT solutions.
Other studies are in line with the above findings (Troisi et al., 2022) where their key theoretical contribution of their study is the building of a framework that detects the main psychological, rational, social, and cultural determinants that can foster or prevent the acceptance of the changes forced by the pandemic, the adhesion to digitalization, and the transactional distance processes launched in the public sectors. These results are more evident in vulnerable groups (Dai et al., 2020; Ammar et al., 2021) which will require further development and usage of e-health solutions.
Finally, two other studies targeting different populations investigated the effectiveness of interventions by considering, as primary outcomes, not mental illness indicators (e.g., depression and anxiety symptoms), but positive mental health indicators (positive affect and positive mental health). Vara et al. (2020) provided us with a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial that assessed the efficacy of a low-intensity internet intervention aimed to promote positive affect in depressive patients in primary care, as an adjunct therapy to improved treatment as usual (Fonseca & Osma, 2021).
Scientific value / practical value. Another report (Fonseca & Osma, 2021) highlighted the urgent need for research to help improve our understanding of the pandemic's mental health consequences on the general public (Mahase, 2020). In order to help characterize the psychosocial effects of the COVID19 crisis as well as the moderators of these effects, a research group launched a multi-language, multi-center anonymous online survey to assess the "Effects of home Confinement on psychosocial health status and multiple Lifestyle Behaviors" during the COVID-19 outbreak. Preliminary findings from this project revealed that the COVID-19 home confinement resulted in significant negative effects on mental wellbeing and emotional status, with more people experiencing psychosocial and emotional distress compared to before the pandemic (Ammar at al. 2020; Ammar et al, 2021a; Fonseca & Osma, 2021). This research results highlight the importance of introducing ICT tools to provide a virtual tour of citizens to their favorite city spots and remain mentally active during quarantine period.
Conclusions. ICT tools offer citizens the opportunity to remember their pre COVID-19 lockdown habits as highlighted in this article and they contribute towards the improvement of their mental health during quarantine. This study aimed at (i) identifying wither ICT tools use increased during COVID-19 outbreak; (ii) investigating the effect of the tools use and the impact on mental health of their users; and (iii) examining the relationship between the adoption of ICT tools and the demographics of citizens using them most during COVID-19 outbreak. Our findings provided arguments to answer these three research questions raised from existing gaps in both theory and practice.
How to Cite This Article: Ahmadi Doulabi M, Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Mazaheri MA, Akbarzadeh Baghban AR. Socioeconomic Status Index to Interpret Inequalities in Child Development. Iran J Child Neurol. Spring 2017; 11(2):13-25.AbstractObjectiveThere have been contradictory findings on the relationship between Socioeconomic Status (SES) and child development although SES is associated with child development outcomes. The present study intended to define the relationship between SES and child development in Tehran kindergartens, Iran.Materials & Methods This cross-sectional survey studied 1036 children aged 36-60 month, in different kindergartens in Tehran City, Iran, in 2014-2015.The principal factor analysis (PFA) model was employed to construct SES indices. The constructed SES variable was employed as an independent variable in logistic regression model to evaluate its role in developmental delay as a dependent variable.Results The relationship between SES and developmental delay was significant at P=0.003. SES proved to have a significant (P<0.05) impact on developmental delay, both as an independent variable and after controlling risk factors.Conclusion There should be more emphasis on developmental monitoring and appropriate intervention programs for children to give them higher chance of having a more productive life. 1. Haghdoost AA. Complexity of the Socioeconomic Status and its Disparity as a Determinant of Health. Int J Prev 2012; 3(2):75. 2. Behavioral and social sciences research. Measuring Socioeconomic Status. e-Source 2013; Available from:http://www.esourceresearch.org 3. Bradley RH, Corwyn RF. Socioeconomic status and child development. 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While economic theory considers technological progress to be a key factor for sustained long-term economic growth and job creation, technology absorption is particularly an important driver for 'catch-up growth.' This study seeks to identify channels of technology transfer and absorption for Southern African enterprises, constraints to greater technology absorption, and discuss policy options open to governments and the private sector in light of relevant international experience. It has been done based on sector and enterprise case studies carried in four countries: South Africa, Mauritius, L
As part of its Global Policy Initiative, Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) partnered with the Superintendence of Banks, Insurance and AFPs of Peru in late 2008, with the purpose of enhancing the understanding of the issues and trends in consumer relations when financial services are delivered through branchless banking, particularly through agents, which are used in ever increasing scale in Peru. The product was this joint report. Three other countries with relevant experience in branchless banking (Kenya, Brazil and India) participated in a similar exercise at approximately the same time. As in the case of Peru, the exercise gave an opportunity for regulators of each jurisdiction to look at their regulatory and institutional framework for protecting branchless banking users, evaluate their regulatory and supervisory actions, and identify areas for improvements. A forthcoming CGAP focus note complements the effort, by making an overall evaluation of the lessons learned in these countries and drawing on the knowledge from other pioneer countries such as South Africa, Mexico, Colombia and the Philippines. The focus note will point out and address priority areas of concern and possible regulatory and policy options to address them. The first part of the report outlines the financial inclusion efforts currently being undertaken by the Superintendence. The following section summarizes the most important points of the legal and regulatory framework for financial consumer protection, pointing out any specificity of branchless banking. The third part describes the branchless banking business in Peru and describes the issues and problems identified in the relationship between branchless banking clients and providers, and the supervisory and enforcement implications. The last section draws conclusions and makes recommendations for achieving a balance between openness to innovation and protection in a branchless banking environment.
Using cross-country and panel regressions, this article investigates how gender inequality in education affects long-term economic growth. Such inequality is found to have an effect on economic growth that is robust to changes in specifications and controls for potential endogeneities. The results suggest that gender inequality in education directly affects economic growth by lowering the average level of human capital. In addition, growth is indirectly affected through the impact of gender inequality on investment and population growth. Some 0.4-0.9 percentage points of differences in annual per capita growth rates between East Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East can be accounted for by differences in gender gaps in education between these regions.
Author's introductionThis review of recent feminist analyses and theorizing of labor markets uses a global lens to reveal the forces shaping gender inequality. The first section introduces the key words of globalization, gender and work organization. Next, I examine gender as embodied labor activity in globalized worksites, and the effects of globalization on gendered patterns of work and life. Putting gender at the center of globalization discourses highlights the historical and cultural variability of gender relations intersecting with class, race and nationality, and highlights the impact of restructuring on workers, organizations and institutions at the local, national and regional as well as transnational levels. Then I turn to look at labor market restructuring through commodification of care, outsourcing of household tasks and informalization of employment to show how these processes shape the complexity of relationships between and the interconnectedness of social inequalities transnationally and in global cities. Place matters when analyzing how service employment alters divisions of labor and how these labor market changes are gendered. Global restructuring not only poses new challenges but also creates new opportunities for mobilization around a more robust notion of equality. The final section explores the development of spaces for collective action and the rise of new women's and feminist movements (e.g., transnational networks, non‐governmental agencies). The study of globalization, gender and employment has broad importance for understanding not only the social causes but also the social consequences of the shift to a post‐industrial society.Author recommendsAcker, Joan 2004. 'Gender, Capitalism and Globalization.'Critical Sociology 30, 1: 17–41.Feminist scholarship both critiques gender‐blind globalization discourses and an older generation of women and development theories. By tracing the lineage of current feminist literature on globalization to women and development research, Joan Acker shows both the continuities and distance traveled from the previous terrain of debate. New feminist scholarship on globalization owes a debt to these important, albeit limited, studies of women at work in Latin America, Africa and Asia, but acknowledges the need to go beyond the category of women to analyze specific forms and cultural expressions of gendered power in relationship to class and other hierarchies. One of the major advances in feminist theory comes under the microscope of Acker's keen analysis when she excavates how gender is both embodied and embedded in the logic and structuring of globalizing capitalism. This extends the case she made in her earlier pioneering research on gender relations being embedded in the organization of major institutions. For the study of globalization, Acker posits that the gendered construction (and cultural coding) of capitalist production separated from human reproduction has resulted in subordination of women in both domains. Acker uncovers the historical legacy of a masculine‐form of dominance associated with production in the money economy that was exported to and embedded in colonialist installation of large‐scale institutions. By the late 20th Century large‐scale institutions promoted images and emotions that expressed economic and political power in terms of new articulations of hegemonic masculinity. As an article outlining debates on the nature of globalization and of gender, it serves as a good introduction to the topic.Chow, Esther Ngan‐Ling 2003. 'Gender Matters: Studying Globalization and Social Change in the 21st Century.'International Sociology 18, 3: 443–460.Chow's introduction to the special issue on 'Gender, Globalization and Social Change in the 21st Century' in International Sociology (2003) reviews the literature on gender and globalization and provides an excellent overview of 'gender matters.' Her definition of globalization captures salient features of the current era. This definition encompasses the economic, political cultural and social dimensions of globalization. Further, she offers a framework for studying the 'dialectics of globalization', as 'results of conflicting interaction between the global and local political economies and socio‐cultural conditions…' A dialectics of globalization is a fruitful approach for studying transformative possibilities. This article could serve as background reading or as part of an introductory section.Arlie Russell Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. 'Love and Gold.' Pp. 15–30 in Global Women: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, edited by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild. Metropolitan Books.Hochschild's chapter in Global Women examines the transfer of traditional women's work to migrant women. Women in rich countries are turning over care work (nannies, maids, elder care) to female migrant workers who can be paid lower wages with few or no benefits and minimal legal protections. This global transfer of services associated with a wife's traditional role extracts a different kind of labor than in prior migrations based on agricultural and industrial production. Emotional, sexual as well as physical labor is extracted in this current phase of globalization; in particular, emotional labor and 'love is the new gold'. Women migrate not only to escape poverty, but also to escape patriarchy in their home countries by earning an independent income and by physical autonomy from patriarchal obligations and expectations. Many female migrants who leave poor countries can earn more money as nannies and maids in the First World than in occupations (nurses, teachers, clerical workers) if they remained in their own country. Thus, migration can be seen as having contradictory effects on women's well‐being and autonomy. This chapter can be used in a section dealing with the specific topic of globalization and care work or in a section introducing the topic of gendered labor activities.McDowell, Linda, Diane Perrons, Colette Fagan, Kath Ray and Kevin Ward. 2005. 'The Contradictions and Intersections of Class and Gender in a Global City: Placing Working Women's Lives on the Research Agenda.'Environment and Planning A 37, 441–461.This group of prominent social geographers from the UK collaborates to great effect in a welcome addition to the literature theorizing the complex articulations of gender and class in global cities. Their detailed research comparing three localities in Greater London is a corrective to the oft‐cited multi‐site study of global cities by Saskia Sassen. They find that Sassen underestimates gains and losses for both men and women in the 'new' economy. Place makes a difference when assessing the impact of women's increased rates of labor market participation on income inequality and patterns of childcare. The article outlines a new research agenda by 'placing' working women's lives at the center of analysis.Parrenas, Rhacel Salazar 2008. The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization. New York: New York University Press.Rhacel Salazar Parrenas brings together her influential research on Filipina migrants and extends her path‐breaking ethnographic analysis to include Filipina domestic workers in Rome and Los Angeles and entertainers in Tokyo. David Eng incisively captures the importance of Parrenas's analysis when he states, 'Extracted from home and homeland only to be reinserted into the domestic spaces of the global north, these servants of globalization exemplify an ever‐increasing international gendered division of labor, one compelling us to reexamine the neo‐liberal coupling of freedom and opportunity with mobility and migration'. The book is well suited to illuminate discussions of domesticity and migration, transnational migrant families, the impact of migration laws in 'home' and 'host' countries, and transnational movements among migrant women.Walby, Sylvia. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. London: Sage.This book introduces new theoretical concepts and tests alternative hypotheses to explain variation in trajectories of gender relations cross‐nationally. It synthesizes and reviews a vast literature, ranging from the social sciences to the natural sciences to construct a new approach to theorizing the development of gender regimes in comparative perspective. Sylvia Walby seeks to explain the different patterns of inequalities across a large number of countries. The analysis differentiates between neo‐liberal and social democratic varieties of political economy, and makes explicit the gender component of institutions and their consequences. The project builds on Walby's pioneering work on comparative gender regimes, and extends the research by operationalizing empirical indicators for a range of key concepts, and by analyzing links between a wide set of institutions (including economy, polity, education and violence) and how these are gendered in specific ways. As in the past, Walby is not afraid to tackle big questions and to offer new answers. Throughout the book, like in her previous body of research, Walby takes on the question of social inclusion/exclusion and critically interrogates concepts of democracy, political participation, equality and rights. Walby uses a comparative lens to examine the democratic 'deficit' in liberal and social democratic countries, and how migration restructures patterns of inequality and the consequent reconstitution of national and ethnic relations within countries. There is more to the book than abstract theoretical debates. Walby poses and assesses alternative political projects for achieving equality. The book is an original contribution that will likely influence sociology in general and theories of social change in particular.Online resourcesStatus of women in the world: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) http://www.unifem.orgUNIFEM was established at the United Nations in order to foster women's empowerment through innovative programs and strategies. Its mission statement summarizes UNIFEM's goals as follows: 'Placing the advancement of women's human rights at the center of all of its efforts, UNIFEM focuses on reducing feminized poverty, ending violence against women; reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS among women and girls; and achieving gender equality in democratic governance in times of peace as well as war'. The website includes information on global initiatives such as zero tolerance of violence against women, the impact of the economic crisis on women migrant workers, and strategizing for gender proportionate representation in Nigeria. Primary documents relevant to women's advancement appear on the website; these include the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. UNIFEM publishes monographs assessing the progress of women around the world. One notable example is the 2005 publication on Women, Work & Poverty by Martha Chen, Joann Vanek, Francie Lund, James Heintz with Renana Jhabvala and Christine Bonner. http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/PoWW2005_eng.pdf Gender equity index http://www.socialwatch.org/en/avancesyRetrocesos/IEG_2008/tablas/valoresdelIEG2008.htm Social Watch produces an up‐to‐date gender equity index composed of three dimensions and indicators: empowerment (% of women in technical positions, % of women in management and government positions, % of women in parliaments, % of women in ministerial posts); economic activity (income gap, activity rate gap); and education (literacy rate gap, primary school enrollment rate gap, secondary school enrollment gap, and tertiary education enrollment gap). These separate indicators in addition to the gender equity index are arrayed by country. There are 157 countries, representing 94% of the world's population, in the sample. Mapping these indicators across countries presents a comparative picture of the absolute and relative standing of women and gender equity in the world.Focus QuestionsKey words: Globalization1. What is meant by globalization?
a. To what extent is globalization new? Or is globalization another phase of a long historical process? b. Can we differentiate inter‐national (connections between) from the global (inter‐penetrations)?
Feminism and globalization
How do feminist interventions challenge globalization theories (for example the presumed relationship between globalization and homogenization and individualization)? How do different feminisms frame and assess the conditions of globalization around the world?
Gender and globalization
What role do women, and different women, play in the global economy? Are patriarchal arrangements changing as a result of greater economic integration at the world level?
Migration and mobilities
What does Parrenas mean by partial citizenship?
How does it relate to the case of Philippine migrant workers? What is the relationship between 'home' and 'host' nations? How important is a vehicle like the Tinig Filipino in forging 'imagined communities' and new realities?
What is the mix of choice and compulsion in the different migrations mobilities of men and women?
Globalization and politics
Are women subject to the same kinds of legal protections (and regulations) that evolved in earlier periods? Do new flexible production processes and flexible work arrangements undercut such legal protections?
Globalization and collective mobilization
Does globalization open spaces for new women's movements, new solidarities, new subjectivities and new forms of organizing?
Sample syllabusCourse outline and reading assignments Conceptualizing the 'Global' and 'Globalization' Dicken, Peter, Jamie Peck and Adam Tickell. 1997. 'Unpacking the Global.' Pp. 158–166 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Amin, Ash and Nigel Thrift. 1996. 'Holding Down the Global.' Pp. 257–260 in Globalization, Institutions, and Regional Development in Europe, edited by Ash Amin and Nigel Thrift. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Acker, Joan. 2004. 'Feminism, Gender and Globalization.'Critical Sociology 30: 17–42.Background Reading:Gottfried, Heidi. 2006. 'Feminist Theories of Work.' Pp. 121–154 in Social Theory at Work, edited by Marek Korczynski, Randy Hodson, Paul Edwards. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Peterson, V. Spike. 2008. 'Intersectional Analytics in Global Political Economy.' in UberKeruszungen, edited Cornelia Klinger and Gudrun‐Axeli Knapp. Munster: Wesfalisches Dmpfboot.Chow, Esther Ngan‐Ling. 2003. 'Gender Matters: Studying Globalization and Social change in the 21st Century.'International Sociology 18 (3): 443–460.Walby, Sylvia. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modemities. London: Sage. Gender and Globalization Gottfried, Heidi. Forthcoming. 'Gender and Employment: A Global Lens on Feminist Analyses and Theorizing of Labor Markets.'Sociology CompassFernandez‐Kelly, Patricia and Diane Wolf. 2001. 'Dialogue on Globalization.'Signs 26: 1243–1249.Bergeron, Suzanne. 2001. 'Political Economy Discourses of Globalization and Feminist Politics.'Signs 26: 983–1006.Freeman, Carla. 2001. 'Is Local: Global as Feminine: Masculine? Rethinking the Gender of Globalization.'Signs 26:1007–1037. Theorizing Politics and Globalization Sassen, Saskia. 1996. 'Toward a Feminist Analytics of the Global Economy.'Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 4: 7–41.Parrenas, Rhacel Salazer. 2001. 'Transgressing the Nation‐State: The Partial Citizenship and 'Imagined (Global) Community' of Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers.'Signs 26:1129–1154.Bosniak, Linda. 2009. 'Citizenship, Noncitizenship, and the Transnationalization of Domestic Work.' Pp. 127–156 in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, edited by Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnik. New York: New York University Press.Background Reading:Benhabib, Seyla and Judith Resnik. 2009. 'Introduction: Citizenship and Migration Theory Engendered.' Pp. 1–46 in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, edited by Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnik. New York: New York University Press. Migrations, Mobilities and Care Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. 'Love and Gold.' Pp. 15–30 in Global Women: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, edited by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild. Metropolitan Books.Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Pierrette. 2001. Domestica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring the Shadows of Affluence. Berkeley: University of California Press.Parrenas, Richard Salazar. 2008. The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization. New York: New York University Press.Pyle, Jean 2006. 'Globalizations, Transnational Migration, and Gendered Care Work.'Globalizations 3(3): 283–295.Qayum, Seemin and Raka Ray. 2003. 'Grappling with Modernity: India's Respectable Classes and the Culture of Domestic Servitude.'Ethnography 4: 520–555. Restructuring and Gender Inequality in Global Cities McDowell, Linda, Diane Perrons, Colette Fagan, Kath Ray and Kevin Ward. 2005. 'The Contradictions and Intersections of Class and Gender in a Global City: Placing Working Women's Lives on the Research Agenda.'Environment and Planning A 37: 441–461.McDowell, Linda. 1997. 'A Tale of Two Cities? Embedded Organizations and Embodied Workers in the City of London.' Pp. 118–129 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Bruegel, Irene. 1999. 'Globalization, Feminization and Pay Inequalities in London and the UK.' Pp. 73–93 in Women, Work and Inequality, edited by Jeanne Gregory, Rosemary Sales and Ariane Hegewisch. New York: St. Martin's Press. Embodiment and Restructuring Halford, Susan and Mike Savage. 1997. 'Rethinking Restructuring: Embodiment, Agency and Identity in Organizational Change.' Pp. 108–117 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Gottfried, Heidi. 2003 'Temp(t)ing Bodies: Shaping Bodies at Work in Japan.'Sociology 37: 257–276. Gender in the Global Economy: Post‐Socialist and Emerging Economies Salzinger, Leslie. 2004. 'Trope Chasing: Engendering Global Labor Markets.'Critical Sociology 30: 43–62.Kathryn Ward, Fahmida Rahman, AKM Saiful Islam, Rifat Akhter and Nashid Kama. 2004. 'The Nari Jibon Project: Effects on Global Structuring on University Women's Work and Empowerment In Bangladesh.'Critical Sociology 30: 63–102Otis, Eileen. 2007. 'Virtual Personalism in Beijing: Learning Deference and Femininity at a Global Luxury Hotel. Pp. 101–123 in Working in China: Ethnographies of Labor and Workplace Transformation, edited by Ching Kwan Lee. Routledge.Background Reading:Ferguson and Monique Mironesco (eds.). 2008. Gender and Globalization in Asia and the Pactific: Method, Practice, Theory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Globalization and Policy Developments Lenz, Ilse. 2004. 'Globalization, Gender and Work: Perspectives on Global Regulation.' Pp. 29–52 in Equity in the Workplace: Gendering Workplace Policy Analysis, edited by Heidi Gottfried and Laura Reese. Lexington Press.Woodward, Alison. 2004. 'European Gender Mainstreaming: Promises and Pitfalls of Transformative Policy.' 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Sri Lanka's population is still largely rural, nearly 85 percent lives outside of cities. There will probably be rural-to-urban migration in the future, which represents a potential opportunity to m-money providers. People working in cities often wish to repatriate their savings to their rural families conveniently and at a low cost. Income is fairly evenly spread across Sri Lanka s provinces, with the exception of the Western Province where Colombo, the largest city, is situated. Its GDP per capita places Sri Lanka near the average of comparable Southeast Asian countries. Malaysia is clearly an outlier with a considerably higher GDP per capita, but Sri Lanka s GDP is higher than that of the Philippines, where m-money has taken off dramatically. Poverty is less of a problem in Sri Lanka relative to countries like Bangladesh or Cambodia, where GDP per capita is much lower. The key point is that Sri Lanka is at a different stage in its economic development and is unlikely to have the same socioeconomic conditions that made m-money in Kenya accelerate so rapidly.