Suchergebnisse

A place-based policy for country side development has to start by an inventory of the assets available for the place, or if larger - the region, under study. Given this, a sustainable development of the place implies that the assets of the place are maintained in such a way that future generations own and have access to an equal or larger amount of assets per capita. The place and its inhabitants have become richer. While a policy for sustainability at the global level implies making all resource constraints explicit to decision makers, establishment of arenas and structures for the handling of conflicts, structures for production and distribution, formulation of principles and schemes for compensation between generations over time as well as among actors at a given time, a place-based policy for "a subset of the earth" needs even further considerations. The place-based policy for sustainability has directly to handle, respond to and take care of the mobility of some assets in response to changes in attractiveness between the place and other locations on earth. The social capital of the place is in this perspective one of its most central and important assets. It represents a shared resource for the place. The size and depth of this social capital is in some respects dependent on its amount of human and knowledge capital. It may be dependent on specific groups of individuals but it has in the best of stances to some extent become an impersonal, institutional, organised, shared resource for the place that may be and is renewed by open invitation of new members into its organisations and structures. Through its social capital, the place offers a set of institutions for dealing with membership, choice of leaders, and conflict resolution. The spatial extension of a place, given by its more or less visible and definite borders in relation to other places, is also a function of its amount of assets such as its buildings, public spaces, military utilities, other artefacts and their relation to each other. Nature and its ecological capital may furthermore set physical limits for the extension of a place. Such borders may more or less well reflect the domain of a place, its area or networks of political and economic influence. Of all its assets, the social capital is then especially important since the domain of the place is formed by the extension, functioning and strength of the social networks; organisations, mental maps, institutions and beliefs held by the people in the place utilizing its artefacts and ecosystems. If the place only has weak and fragile organisations with minor resources and unclear structures for decision making, the place may easily lead away from a sustainable path. Mobile assets will sooner or later leave the place. Since people in theory, and in practice if they are in control of suitable capital, are mobile. A place is, both through the complete set of its artefacts and other more immobile asset, and perhaps also in a tacit way, dependent on the relation people have to the place, their place dependence. There is thus always a latent conflict but also a possibility to gain mutual benefits from interaction between the individual, the social network and the place. The degree of sustainability of a place is dependent on the possibility to make all, and especially easily mobile assets immobile and place dependent. The formation of organisations, e.g. based on social capital, are ways to tie mobile assets into place dependent structures through the advantage and attractiveness offered by the shared resources and the production of club goods. In this chapter we initially discuss the character of assets related to places. Then we put this in relation to the sustainability of a place and suggest definitions of place related sustainability. After some empirical observations of the balance sheet of assets and having related this to growth, we discuss how a place may organise itself in order to attract mobile assets and to gain as much as possible from its shared resources through club formation.

El manejo de los residuos sólidos hospitalarios en nuestro país es uno de los aspectos de la gestión hospitalaria que ha ido tomando importancia e interés en los últimos años. Mediante la presente investigación se pretende evaluar el actual Tratamiento y Gestión de los residuos sólidos en el Hospital Militar Central (HMC) de la ciudad de Lima, analizando los servicios de salud donde los pacientes se hospitalizan y se genere la mayor cantidad de desechos, a fin de determinar las ganancias económicas que se generarían con adecuados procedimientos acorde con la normatividad vigente. Se propone llegar a este conocimiento a través de una serie de datos e indicadores que son registrados en los servicios de atención a los pacientes hospitalizados en el HMC. Uno de los resultados del presente estudio determinó que en el HMC el Tratamiento y la Gestión de los residuos sólidos no es el más adecuado o apropiado, habiéndose observado una valoración entre baja a muy baja. Hace falta una intervención y plan de mejora ya que en el hospital existe un desembolso económico para la evacuación y trasporte de los residuos sólidos que representan en promedio 210 TM/año, a un costo de eliminación de S/. 300.0 por cada tonelada de desechos, se determinó que el HMC invierte un total de S/. 63,001.53 anuales. Al no haber un Tratamiento conveniente de estos residuos comunes (95.85 TM/año), éstos se pierden sin generar alguna retribución económica para el HMC. Si se separasen convenientemente podrían comercializarse residuos sólidos reciclables, generando un costo para la eliminación de residuos de S/. 34,247.86; es decir, se invertiría sólo el 54.4% de lo que actualmente se viene gastando por la entidad de salud. Los residuos sólidos que pueden ser reciclados pueden generar una ganancia a los costos actuales. Con una inversión económica calculada en S/. 70,249.3; se han obtenido indicadores económicos bastante favorables, con un VAN que alcanza los S/. 217,493.15 y un TIR de 121.96%, obteniéndose un impacto positivo para el HMC. ; Management of hospitals solid waste in our country is one of the aspects of hospital management that has been gaining importance and interest in recent years. Through this research is evaluated the current treatment and management of solid waste in the Central Military Hospital (HMC) of Lima, analyzing the health services where patients are hospitalized and generate the biggest quantity of waste, to determine the profit that would be generated with proper procedures in accordance with current regulations. It aims to reach this knowledge through a series of data and indicators that are registered in the care of patients hospitalized in the HMC. One result of this study found that in HMC Treatment and Management of solid waste is not the most suitable or appropriate, it has been observed a valuation between low to very low. We need an intervention and improvement plan in the hospital because there is a financial outlay for the evacuation and transportation of solid waste, representing an average of 210 MT/year, at a cost of removal of S/. 300.0 per ton of waste, it was determined that the HMC is investing a total of S/. 63,001.53 per year. In the absence of an appropriate Treatment of these common residues (95.85 MT/year), they are lost without generating any economic compensation for the HMC. If they could be adequately separated, they could be marketed, generating a cost for the disposal of S/. 34,247.86; that is only 54.4% of the investment that is currently spent by the health agency. Solid waste that can be recycled can generate a profit at current costs. With an economic investment estimated at S/. 70,249.3, there have been obtained quite favorable economic indicators, with an VAN reaching S/. 217,493.15 and an TIR of 121.96%, yielding a positive impact on the HMC. ; Tesis

This article analyzes equity in Mexican higher education. It suggests a new conceptualization in educational equity based on a social justice definition that includes: effective access, compensation of inequalities, assuring permanence, and the achievement of meaningful results. Based on this framework, there is a warning that despite policies aimed at democratizing this public good, the education system still excludes thousands of young people from poor areas, and so many others are inadequately attended. The Mexican State has failed to ensure equal access for young people coming from disadvantaged areas and who have a different socio-economic and cultural background. In this light the meritocratic approach is questioned as a fair measure of distribution and advocates for the implementation of compensatory programs and affirmative action. In terms of school permanency, it is mentioned that the strategies and institutions addressed to the population that was excluded, do not always fulfill the basic quality requirements –infrastructure, teachers, libraries, technology, and must of all, relevant teaching practices. All this is deemed important in order to respond to the particular needs associated with youth's low cultural capital in vulnerable areas. A way to overcome these problems is to generate equity policies that can guarantee a fair distribution of higher education that takes into account the disadvantages of large segments of young people so that their needs are addressed adequately. ; El presente artículo analiza la equidad en la educación superior en México. Propone una nueva conceptualización de la equidad educativa fundamentada en un principio de justicia social que contempla: el acceso efectivo, la compensación de desigualdades, asegurar la permanencia y la obtención de resultados significativos. Con base en este marco, advierte que pese a las políticas dirigidas a democratizar este bien público, el sistema educativo sigue excluyendo a miles de jóvenes provenientes de sectores de pobreza y a otros tantos no les brinda la atención adecuada. El Estado mexicano falla en asegurar el acceso en igualdad de condiciones pues los jóvenes pobres se encuentran en desventaja debido a sus antecedentes socio-económicos y culturales. Por tanto, cuestiona el criterio meritocrático como una métrica justa de distribución y propone la instrumentación de acciones compensatorias y acciones afirmativas. En cuanto a la permanencia señala que las estrategias e instituciones creadas para atender a la población antes excluida no siempre cumplen con los requisitos de calidad indispensables –infraestructura, profesores, bibliotecas, tecnología y, sobre todo, prácticas de enseñanza relevantes- para atender las necesidades particulares asociadas con el bajo capital cultural que poseen los jóvenes más pobres. Enfrentar estos problemas pasa por generar políticas de equidad que garanticen la justa distribución de la educación superior reconociendo las desventajas de amplios sectores de la población joven y atendiendo proporcionalmente sus necesidades. ; O presente artigo analisa a equidade na educação superior no México. Propõe uma nova conceituação da equidade educativa fundamentada no princípio de justiça social que leva em conta: o acesso efetivo, a compensação das desigualdades, a garantia da permanência e resultados significativos. Com base neste quadro, adverte que, apesar das políticas destinadas a democratizar o bem público, o sistema de ensino ainda exclui milhares de jovens de áreas pobres e a tantos outros não oferece atendimento adequado. O Estado mexicano falha em garantir o acesso em igualdade de condições, pois os jovens pobres estão em desvantagem por causa da sua origem socioeconômica e cultural. Portanto, o artigo, questiona os critérios de mérito como uma medida justa de distribuição e propõe a implementação de medidas compensatórias e ações afirmativas. Sobre a permanência, indica que as estratégias e as instituições criadas para atender a população anteriormente excluída nem sempre cumprem os requisitos de qualidade necessários, infra-estrutura, professores, bibliotecas, tecnologia e, acima de tudo, práticas pedagógicas relevantes para atender às necessidades associadas com o baixo capital cultural que possuem os jovens mais pobres. Para alcançar a resolução destes problemas é necessário gerar políticas de equidade que asseguram a distribuição justa da educação superior reconhecendo as desvantagens de grandes segmentos da população jovem para responder às suas necessidades.

In January 2011, the Accounting Standards Board (Consejo Normativo de Contabilidad) recognized profit sharing of employees on tax bases in accordance with IAS 19 Employee Benefits and not by analogy with IAS12 – Tax Income or IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets. This is based on consultations made to the International Financial Reporting Interpretation Committee – IFRIC, which at its meeting on November 4, 2010, concluded, in respect to the accounting of profit-sharing of employees, which was calculated in accordance with tax legislation, that the recognition of the profitsharing of employees will be in accordance with the provision of the International Accounting Standard 19, Employee's Benefits, and this is only for the compensation of services provided during the year. Therefore, not should be recorded a deferred tax assets or a deferred tax liability as is required in IAS 12, Income Taxes. This legal disposition requires companies to make changes in its account practices and policies in order to recognize the profit sharing and compliance on the provisions of this rule. However, there is a lack of precision on the effects of management, a lack of information on compliance with tax standards and a lack of analysis on the formulation of financial statements. As a result of this, costing processes, accounting records, determination of profits or loss and financial measurements will be affected by the changes in the structure of the financial statements. We have seen at year end of 2011 and on the following months that many companies have failed in the implementation of the standard or have only partially fulfilled it, and it's our aim to make the necessary analysis, and to explain the reason for this breach and submit a proposal for practices and policies for compliance. We hope that this contribution allows a better understanding of the scope of this rule in our country and that business community and accounting count with an option of application. ; En enero del año 2011, el Consejo Normativo de Contabilidad resuelve precisar que el reconocimiento de las participaciones de los trabajadores en las utilidades determinadas sobre bases tributarias deberá hacerse de acuerdo con la NIC 19, Beneficios a los Empleados, y no por analogía con la NIC 12, Impuesto a las Ganancias, o la NIC 37, Provisiones, Pasivos Contingentes y Activos Contingentes. Esto en base a consultas efectuadas al Comité de Interpretaciones de las Normas Internacionales de Información Financiera (CINIIF), quien en su sesión del 04 de noviembre de 2010 concluye, respecto a la contabilización de la participación de los trabajadores en las utilidades calculada de conformidad con la legislación fiscal, que el reconocimiento de la participación de los trabajadores se realizará de acuerdo a lo establecido en la Norma Internacional de Contabilidad NIC 19, Beneficios a los Empleados, sólo por los gastos de compensación por los servicios prestados en el ejercicio; en consecuencia no se registra un activo diferido o un pasivo diferido requerido en la NIC 12. Impuesto a las Ganancias. Esta disposición obliga a las empresas a efectuar cambios en sus prácticas y políticas contables para el reconocimiento de la participación de utilidades y su cumplimiento con lo dispuesto en dicha norma. Sin embargo, les falta precisión o un análisis profundo de los efectos en la gestión y cumplimiento de las normas tributarias y la formulación de los estados financieros. Producto de ello se ven afectados los procesos de costeo, registros contables, determinación de los resultados del ejercicio, y las mediciones financieras por cambio en la estructura de los estados financieros. Hemos apreciado que al cierre del ejercicio 2011 y los meses siguientes muchas empresas no han cumplido con la aplicación de la norma y su precisión en nuestro país o lo han cumplido parcialmente; por lo que es nuestro propósito efectuar el análisis necesario, para exponer las razones de incumplimiento y presentar una propuesta de prácticas y políticas para su mejor adecuación. Pretendemos que este aporte permita una mejor comprensión de los alcances de dicha norma en nuestro país y que la comunidad empresarial y contable cuente con una opción de aplicación

The job of a corporate director has become increasingly complex - gone are the days where board members were essentially "rubber stamps" to management initiatives. Currently, the board of directors is the highest governing authority within the management structure of any company. Some responsibilities of boards include selecting, evaluating, and approving compensation for the company's chief executive officer, approving the company's financial statements and paying dividends. One of the most difficult decisions that a director may face has to do with recommendations on change of control transactions. Changes of control include transactions where shareholders lose control of the corporation or where the corporation ceases to exist. This type of transaction represents a significant event in the existence of any company. The most common change of control transaction is the sale of a corporation. It is the responsibility of the board to recommend whether or not shareholders should approve any change of control. When making determinations with regard to changes in control, directors are guided by their fiduciary duty. This duty requires them to act in "the best interests of the corporation". Unfortunately, understanding what acting in "the best interests of the corporation" entails may be a more difficult task than determining whether or not to recommend the sale of a company. One of the main issues with the "best interests of the corporation" standard is that corporations are made up of multiple interests with independent goals and welfare concerns. For example, during a change of control transaction, shareholders will seek to maximize the value of their shares, employees will seek job security, and creditors will want to ensure that their loans continue be repaid. Given these largely conflicting goals, it is almost impossible for a director to please all interested parties. Two theoretical models provide guidance to directors as to what "the best interests of the corporation" standard requires: shareholder primacy and stakeholder theory. Generally, shareholder primacy necessitates that directors maximize shareholder value when making decisions. Although directors may consider the interests of other stakeholders, they are unable to act in a way that has a negative impact on shareholders. Conversely, stakeholder theory contemplates a broader social role for corporations. Stakeholder theorists argue that unilateral focus on shareholder wealth fails to recognize that groups outside of shareholders are integral to the success of the corporation. According to stakeholder theory, directors' fiduciary duties should require them to contemplate a broader range of interests than just shareholders. The Supreme Court of Canada recently weighed in on the debate in the cases of Peoples v Wise and BCE v 1976 Debentureholders. These decisions stand for the proposition that directors' fiduciary duties permit them to consider the interests of a wide variety of stakeholders when making a determination. In the change of control context, directors are free to consider the interests of all corporate constituents prior to recommending whether or not shareholders should approve a given transaction. This paper will explore some of the issues that Peoples and BCE raise. It will be argued that directors' duties should require them to focus exclusively on increasing shareholder value in the change of control context. Although ensuring that stakeholder interests are not disregarded is an important goal, mechanisms such as contracting, legislation and the political process provide an effective regime for protecting stakeholders. In contrast, shareholders status as residual claimants necessitates that they be protected by an exclusive fiduciary duty. The paper will be broken into three sections. Section I will examine the case law and legislation, which detail the content of fiduciary duties in Canada. Section II will critique the fiduciary duties outlined by the Supreme Court in Peoples and BCE. Section III will outline a variety of arguments as to why directors' fiduciary duties should require them to focus exclusively on maximizing shareholder value in the change of control context.

Статья посвящена основным тенденциям развития образования в Российской Федерации в 2000-2010 гг. Рассмотрено влияние демографического фактора на функционирование различных уровней образования от дошкольного до высшего профессионального. Основное внимание уделено политике финансирования образования в последнее десятилетие, введению новой системы оплаты труда, а также важнейшим институциональным изменениям в данной сфереIn the last decade 2000-2010 Russia's system of education has gone through major changes. First of all, the proportion of people with higher education has exceeded 28.2%. If those with secondary vocational education (27.1%) are to be included, the overall proportion of population with tertiary education (according to world classifications) would account for over 55%. Russia's leadership is as well uncontested with respect to the number of students involved in secondary and tertiary professional education institutions 673 in every 10 thousand of population. At the same time current demographic situation negatively affects the development of professional education in Russian Federation. In the last few years there has been a steady decrease in the number of students, including those, who aspire for higher education (starting from 2009/10). Thus, in the nearest future the existing models of professional education institutions, which were to solve the problem of accessibility of such education, are expected to change. The decrease in the number of students would as well affect the system of education finance. Starting from 2004 the budget finance of all levels of education grew rapidly. While in 2000s higher education institutions principally sought for the expansion of non-budget finance (since it accounted for the larger part of their financial resources), today they mostly compete for attracting budget students, since non-budget students have re-orientated themselves towards the relatively cheaper extramural and non-state education. At the same time the proportion of students on budget finance (among the students in state and non-state education) continues to decrease: in 2009 it accounted for 37.2% against 38% in the previous year. The growth of budget finance in basic and secondary vocational training has been rather moderate as compared to the higher education, although the absolute investments have grown significantly in the last 10 years. And yet the real expenditures were not as high, moreover they have started to decrease since 2007 for basic vocational training and since 2009 for secondary vocational training. In 2005-2010 the government effort has been to support the growth of wages for education workers. The new labor compensation system has been introduced, which actually was one of the major requirement for the regions of Russian Federation to participate in the National Priority Project for Education. Nevertheless, little success has been achieved. In the first half of 2010 the wages of education workers accounted for 63.2% of the average across the whole economy, while in the sector of basic and primary education it was even lower 61.6% (61% in 2005). The situation in higher education was slightly better 91.5% of the average across the economy. In basic vocational training the more troublesome level of professional education in Russia it was only slightly lower than 56%. Russia's expenditure on education (state as well as private), calculated as a share of GDP (5.7%), is a bit lower than OECD's average, although at the same time it is far more backward with respect to expenditures on basic and primary education, and basic professional training: 2% against 3.4%. The institutional transformations, which were under way in Russian education since 2000 until 2010, include the transition to a dual-level system of higher education (bachelor-master), the introduction of Unified State Examination (USE), the emergence of new types of state and municipal education institutions (state, 'new' budget and autonomous). The above mentioned innovations already have a strong effect on the system of education, which was especially true with the case of USE introduction. At the same time all of the possible consequences and risks of such modernization are not yet clear, which causes serious problems with implementation of these reforms and may disturb with their initial goals

The gold mining sub-sector is an important segment of the Ghanaian economy and continues to play a significant role in the country's socio-economic development (Akaabza, 2008:1). At the moment, Ghana is Africa's second leading producer of gold, and 10th in the whole world. The sub-sector is the country's leading foreign exchange earner, contributing close to 40% of its total exports, while making substantial contribution towards its GDP. While the government and other international financial institutions perceive the mining sector as a viable vehicle for fostering economic growth in Ghana, concerns are raised about its negative environmental impacts on the ecologically fragile ecosystems in mining areas (Dummet, 1989). In addition, the hyped benefits and opportunities associated with mining largely remain to the majority of local communities, who continue to languish in poverty as they pay the heavy price caused by the environmental degradation and other social costs (see Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001; Asklund and Eldvall, 2005; Ballard and Glenn, 2003; Gadzekpo and Waldman, 2005). These development problems in mining areas of Ghana, like in my other African countries have drawn the attention of researchers, policy makers and practitioners as they seek to understand the problem better and provide possible strategies for correcting the situation. In the literature as well as in practice, governments and international finance institutions like IMF and World Bank have addressed or perceived the problems of mining from a governance perspective and most importantly engaged in legal reform as a solution to the problem. In Ghana, the most recent were the World Bank and IMF's part of the structural adjustment package adopted from the mid 80's through to the early 90's (Akabzaa, 2007). Under this thinking, reforms were instigated to provide an environment, where the extraction of mineral resources could translate into national wealth for economic recovery and development, through sustainable mining methods (World Bank, 2002; 22). In addition, the reforms would establish mechanisms to foster equitable distribution of benefits in mining areas through pro-active participation of local communities in the mining economy (IFC, 2002; Songsore, 1994). This thesis however tells a different story. The measures under the reforms largely sought to contribute towards increased gold production to meet the growing global demand for gold in Europe and India. These demand created spaces for an influx of multinational mining companies, whose vast technologies, robust resources were seen as a vehicle for satisfying the ever-increasing demand for gold and gold related products on the world market. By the late 90s for example, all Ghanaian gold mines were foreign owned. The reforms contradictorily contributed to an increase in environmental degradation in mining areas, and created spaces for unequal distribution of benefits, with local mining communities reeling under the pressure of increased environmental degradation and poverty (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001; Coakley, 1999). As local communities are further isolated, marginalized and excluded from active participation in mining economies, mining areas continue to become contested spaces where a minority powerful groups mobilize and wield power to meet their desired goals or desires. In this thesis, I do argue that unequal distribution of benefits in mining areas is an outcome of unequal power relations between societal actors seeking to protect their interests and not really a governance problem as largely perceived. I demonstrate that additional resources injected in mining areas either through community development funds, compensation and corporate social responsibility programs tend to serve the interests of a minority group who act with an aim of controlling and gaining access of these resources at the expense of local communities. Secondly, the frameworks established to ensure equitable distribution of benefits for example private-public partnerships, self or co-regulation programs only serve the needs and goals of these minority groups, while failing to effectively address the power dimensions in mining areas. This thesis is therefore grounded in a specific cultural context where extended case studies are developed from Tarkwa's gold mining area in Ghana to Das chirurgische Trauma: In-vitro Aktivierung intestinaler glatter Muskelzellen und Makrophagen

Sovereign immunity or crown immunity this is the name in legal science and practice in America the special feature of sovereign's power, appeared when connecting with jurisdiction of foreign state. The American doctrine marks out four types of sovereign immunity: federal immunity, state immunity, Indian tribe immunity and immunity of foreign state. Immunity conception constantly criticized by scientists, but the sovereign immunity itself plays important role in American law. The conception of foreign stаtе immunity was taken by American doctrine and law from Britain's common law. The first discussion about foreign state immunity was initiated in the US in connection with Supreme Court decision of 1812 on case Scooner Exchange vs МсFaddon. In that case the judge Marshall, considered, that jurisdiction of US courts did not enough to investigate such case, because states sovereignty (in that case France) according to the existing principles of international law the immunity is supposed from raising a case in the court of foreign state. From that moment the executive branch of governmental power in the US recommended to take into consideration the immunity of foreign state in respect of amicable monarchy. But in 1952 acting legal advisor Jack B. Tate proposed to pay attention on legal term «limited territory» of the immunity of foreign state and the state can be protected from public, not private cases. To clarify this point the US Congress in 1976 adopted the United States Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act (The Law), which fixed the limiting theory of sovereign immunity and restricted the role of executive power and indicated the authority of courts in relation to foreign sovereign immunity of the state. The Law states terms, in particular «political subdivisions», «foreign state establishments» and contains criteria for courts of the US to define the quality of the immunity of the foreign state in each separate case. In 1998 the amendments to The Law were accepted and general exceptions relating to foreign state immunity extended. According to the Law the foreign state has the same responsibility as private person in obtaining judicial protection. But representatives of American judicial science notify some shortcomings of The Law. The confusion is in the name of The Law, because according to the contents the immunity should be presented in the framework of the US jurisdiction, but at the same time the real aim of the document is to codify the exceptions from immunity. The estimation of applying the document shows, that courts faced the difficulty when using the term commercial activity of foreign state, excepted from immunity protection. The Law leaves unsolved question about how to identify private subjects, which fulfils so-called quasi-immunity functions of foreign sovereign objects. The investigation comes to the conclusion that among main features of modern conception of sovereignty of foreign state in doctrine and practice of the US must be mentioned. Scientists and practitioners differentiate many types of sovereign immunity depending on bearer: federal immunity, state immunity, tribe immunity and immunity of foreign states. At the same time appeared trend of parallel development these types of immunity and acceptance and development in doctrine and in practice like single phenomenon sovereign immunity. There is the special law in the USA controlling the questions of withdrawal from immunity of foreign states on suits of compensation of damage presenting to the US courts. This law matches with American law doctrine «principle of long hand» when any question belonging to the US is under US jurisdiction. The law is not completely proper and is needed to be corrected. The historic analyses the US development of sovereign immunity and it's practical application from the beginning of the XIX century till nowadays gives opportunity to conclude about evolution of these process from the point of view of regulating foreign immunity by separate state and deserve attention and further studying.

Our research on the dynamic of international agreements in preventing and treating violence against women is a specific topic and important for the spirit of legislation, policy recommendations and projects especially in the Muslim Arab countries working on the new status of Muslim women. Violence is a tragic situation for all; Governments make it a matter of concern because of the emergency alarming number of victims. The French media reports for example that one woman dies every two days due to the assault and violence caused by a spouse, parent or in the street. In Morocco, domestic, marital and social violence takes more space and is part of everyday life to such an extent that it no longer shocks anyone, it seems that the couple has integrity where the man is the core family, all the merit and the priority back mainly to him. Patriarchal power, brother, husband draws its strength from some misinterpretations of Koranic texts, a speech that does not promote the spirit of sharing and equality that the texts of the Koran, guidelines and practices of the Prophet encouraged fully. In this research, we will try to explore how we could prevent and treat violence against women, based on texts and experiences, which limit and fight against discrimination against women and against violence when they are victims. We will find a legal study, put in a frame to social, cultural, political and psychological, for they think that violence is closely related to all disciplines that will meet the needs of people and improve living conditions. Our research has been developed around practical work and field experiences. Violence against women remains a family problematic first. Around the world, women have their rights abused in the name of honor, love, jealousy, passion and tradition and religion, even within their families. Yet, none of these values allows the legitimate use of violence. Discrimination and violence against women are closely linked. Today, Morocco, Turkey, Yemen, Afghanistan and others, the little girl may be betrothed at birth; she became less easy to schooling and higher education than boys. Once adult, women are less informed about their rights, they will have fewer chances to develop its capabilities in different sectors, including politics. Without a profession and without its own financial resources, it is difficult to end a violent relationship. Violence against women is no longer considered as a taboo, women respond; they have no more difficulties to file complaints against their abusers. But the complaint is not an end in itself if the laws do not provide any text to protect women against violence, whether physical or moral. Non-Governmental Organizations call all leaders and the international community to support and to promote initiatives to ensure the prevention and the treatment of violence, to establish mechanisms of protection and that all women victims of violence receive compensation. The perpetrators of such violence must be sentenced to punishment applicable with their crime. The police and the judiciary should be trained to be able to act quickly and effectively against all forms of violence against women and grant them appropriate weight. Religious institutions are called on to give up any action that encourages or tolerates violence against women and to respect the rights thereof, and to introduce civic education programs in schools, highlighting the role of women within the family and society and promoting a change in attitudes. A cultural and economic revolution of women is necessary; independence allows freedom of choice and expression. The lack of places where they can escape, take refuge, a place to be listened and get the help needed faced to the violence constitutes an obstacle for them to denounce their aggressors and fight against this violence lived for a long time.

Human right to freedom is a fundamental, inherent, constitutional right. It is protected by the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, the laws and the international character of the legislation, such as the European Convention on Human Rights. That legislation not only states but also indicate on what basis, and the manner in which state authorities may be limited. Supervision measure is temporary legal custody to a prison term. On pre-trial stage, only one participant in the criminal process may be arrested - the suspect. A person becomes a suspect when he is detained suspected, that he made an offense, or heard about the act, which act he is suspected, or when summoned to the hearing when it is drawn up on suspicion. It is also when the person absconded and his whereabouts are unknown, it is suspected or recognized as a prosecutor has ordered or investigating judge has ordered; and when it is satisfied in the special request for the witness to make him under suspicion. At the becoming as a suspect, at the same time a person can be arrested. From the moment of arrest the suspect becomes ,,being arrested'', and acquire some specific rights that exist in this pre-trial supervision measures in the appointment. The first right within 48 hours to be delivered to the competent investigating judge for questioning the validity of the arrest, which itself contains two elements: the immediate delivery and that only an independent and impartial judge can address the issues of detention. After the adversary he acquires the rights: to know the grounds of arrest and the investigation materials, which are based on the basics. Informed about it, the suspect may effectively exercise its right to give explanations and comments on the feasibility and legality of detention, to provide relevant articles and documents. ,,Being arrested'' suspect gets some legal options of non-interest in the legitimacy of the arrest: right to choose their own persons, and to inform them about the arrest, or ask the prosecutor about the unconscious, as well as the right to ask a prosecutor to take care of his minor children and property. When investigating judge has ordered the allocation of the detention, the arrested suspect has the last opportunity to avoid pre-trial detention - appeal against the ruling. This right is one of the elements of habeas corpus right, contained by Convention. If ,,being arrested'' suspect order don't give an appeal, or his appeal is rejected, he becomes an ,,arrested'' suspect. It' status implements its own, as the suspect's rights, but they acquire some certain specificity: the right of defense of the essential aspects - the arrested suspect haves the right to representation and participation is necessary legal assistance being, and the opportunity to negotiate with him without outsiders. Criminal Procedure Act limited the arrested suspects right at any time of the pre-trial investigation get the pretrial investigations documents, and to provide a copy, as well as the right of appeal to the competent officials of the decisions and actions. Meanwhile, the right to make a significant objects and documents is usually implemented through the law to apply to the prosecutor of the proceedings and the execution of the necessary legal assistance participation. Arrested suspect has some specific rights, which the usual suspect doesn't have: the right to legal proceedings within a reasonable time, which relates to the unreasonably long detention inadmissibility, the right to ask the court to check the lawfulness of detention periodically (the second element of habeas corpus right), and the right to compensation for unlawful arrest, and others. It should be noted that only a small part of ,,being arrested'' suspects rights, which doesn't have usual suspect, is enshrined in the CPA. Many of them are under the Convention or is apparent from the provisions of the European Court of Human Rights.

Human right to freedom is a fundamental, inherent, constitutional right. It is protected by the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, the laws and the international character of the legislation, such as the European Convention on Human Rights. That legislation not only states but also indicate on what basis, and the manner in which state authorities may be limited. Supervision measure is temporary legal custody to a prison term. On pre-trial stage, only one participant in the criminal process may be arrested - the suspect. A person becomes a suspect when he is detained suspected, that he made an offense, or heard about the act, which act he is suspected, or when summoned to the hearing when it is drawn up on suspicion. It is also when the person absconded and his whereabouts are unknown, it is suspected or recognized as a prosecutor has ordered or investigating judge has ordered; and when it is satisfied in the special request for the witness to make him under suspicion. At the becoming as a suspect, at the same time a person can be arrested. From the moment of arrest the suspect becomes ,,being arrested'', and acquire some specific rights that exist in this pre-trial supervision measures in the appointment. The first right within 48 hours to be delivered to the competent investigating judge for questioning the validity of the arrest, which itself contains two elements: the immediate delivery and that only an independent and impartial judge can address the issues of detention. After the adversary he acquires the rights: to know the grounds of arrest and the investigation materials, which are based on the basics. Informed about it, the suspect may effectively exercise its right to give explanations and comments on the feasibility and legality of detention, to provide relevant articles and documents. ,,Being arrested'' suspect gets some legal options of non-interest in the legitimacy of the arrest: right to choose their own persons, and to inform them about the arrest, or ask the prosecutor about the unconscious, as well as the right to ask a prosecutor to take care of his minor children and property. When investigating judge has ordered the allocation of the detention, the arrested suspect has the last opportunity to avoid pre-trial detention - appeal against the ruling. This right is one of the elements of habeas corpus right, contained by Convention. If ,,being arrested'' suspect order don't give an appeal, or his appeal is rejected, he becomes an ,,arrested'' suspect. It' status implements its own, as the suspect's rights, but they acquire some certain specificity: the right of defense of the essential aspects - the arrested suspect haves the right to representation and participation is necessary legal assistance being, and the opportunity to negotiate with him without outsiders. Criminal Procedure Act limited the arrested suspects right at any time of the pre-trial investigation get the pretrial investigations documents, and to provide a copy, as well as the right of appeal to the competent officials of the decisions and actions. Meanwhile, the right to make a significant objects and documents is usually implemented through the law to apply to the prosecutor of the proceedings and the execution of the necessary legal assistance participation. Arrested suspect has some specific rights, which the usual suspect doesn't have: the right to legal proceedings within a reasonable time, which relates to the unreasonably long detention inadmissibility, the right to ask the court to check the lawfulness of detention periodically (the second element of habeas corpus right), and the right to compensation for unlawful arrest, and others. It should be noted that only a small part of ,,being arrested'' suspects rights, which doesn't have usual suspect, is enshrined in the CPA. Many of them are under the Convention or is apparent from the provisions of the European Court of Human Rights.

à paraître dans "L'urbanité des marges, migrants, réfugiés et relégués dans les villes du Proche-Orient", Doraï Kamel et Puig Nicolas (dirs.). ; à paraître dans "L'urbanité des marges, migrants, réfugiés et relégués dans les villes du Proche-Orient", Doraï Kamel et Puig Nicolas (dirs.). ; This paper deals with the evolution of public policies toward informal areas and informal refugee gatherings in Amman in the past forty years. It is based on fieldwork conducted in governmental institutions, and in the informal settlement of Nahariya—a non-recognized extension of Wahdat Palestinian Refugee camp. Through interviews with a range of actors, I have identified two distinct phases in the Jordanian Government's approach to the question of land tenure and access to services in informal areas and non-recognized refugees camps. These phases—the first running from 1980-1997; the second from 1997-present—reflect an underlying ideological shift in the Jordanian Governments position toward the inhabitants of these areas. Before 1980, Jordan had no policy regarding informal areas. The creation of the Urban Development Department in 1980 by the Jordanian government totally changed this situation, introducing programs to upgrade some informal areas and create sites with services. Land titling and the provision of long-term loans were important components of this effort. In 1997, the Government launched the National Strategic Plan with the aim of reducing poverty and solving unemployment. A community infrastructures program, implemented by the Housing and Urban Development corporation, was a key plank in this plan. For the first time, the official UNRWA Camps were included in the scope of government programs. Squatters that had only hujja type contracts received compensation. But the government abandoned the political issue of land tenure, focusing only on improved service delivery in informal areas and camps. The main reason given for this shift is a financial one. However, one can also read the policy as a refusal to settle issues regarding the land-tenure status and property rights of refugees without citizenship (like the refugees who arrived from Gaza in 1967). Through the Nahariya case studies, I will analyze the new public policies toward informal settlements in relation with the citizenship status of the inhabitants. ; De 1980 à 1997, la Jordanie a fait école dans le domaine de la réhabilitation des quartiers pauvres des villes orientales en étant le premier pays arabe à appliquer l'idéologie développementaliste nouvellement promue par la Banque Mondiale en Amérique latine et en Asie, qui consistait faire participer les populations des zones informelles à toutes les étapes de rénovation de leur habitat et à leur permettre d'accéder à la propriété via des prêts sur le long terme garantis par l'Etat. Mais à partir du processus de paix israélo-palestinien (accords d'Oslo de septembre 1993 et de Wadi Araba en janvier 1994), le gouvernement jordanien via la Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDC) modifia ses modes d'intervention dans les camps et les zones informelles du pays, pour se concentrer sur la seule provision de services, avec une priorité sécuritaire évidente. De nouveau, la Jordanie se trouva en avance par rapport aux autres pays d'accueil (Liban, Syrie) en étant le premier pays à intégrer la totalité des camps de l'UNRWA dans ses nouvelles politiques de rénovation urbaine. L'objectif de cet article est d'analyser l'évolution des politiques de gestion de l'habitat informel en Jordanie depuis 1980 en mettant l'accent sur les modes de participation des populations réfugiées résidant dans les zones informelles aux programmes de sécurisation de leurs biens fonciers. Il s'appuie sur une série d'entretiens avec les fonctionnaires du HUDC (mai 2006, automne 2007 et 2008) et sur un travail de terrain conduit au sein du quartier informel de Nahariya en début et fin d'opération de réhabilitation (soit mai 2006 et mars 2007). Il montre que l'habitat informel est traité différemment en Jordanie selon qu'il est né de l'exode rural ou résulte des migrations forcées palestiniennes de 1948 et 1967. Je pose l'hypothèse d'une relation entre les niveaux de citoyenneté des populations des quartiers informels d'Amman et les politiques de réhabilitation urbaine.

Human right to freedom is a fundamental, inherent, constitutional right. It is protected by the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, the laws and the international character of the legislation, such as the European Convention on Human Rights. That legislation not only states but also indicate on what basis, and the manner in which state authorities may be limited. Supervision measure is temporary legal custody to a prison term. On pre-trial stage, only one participant in the criminal process may be arrested - the suspect. A person becomes a suspect when he is detained suspected, that he made an offense, or heard about the act, which act he is suspected, or when summoned to the hearing when it is drawn up on suspicion. It is also when the person absconded and his whereabouts are unknown, it is suspected or recognized as a prosecutor has ordered or investigating judge has ordered; and when it is satisfied in the special request for the witness to make him under suspicion. At the becoming as a suspect, at the same time a person can be arrested. From the moment of arrest the suspect becomes ,,being arrested'', and acquire some specific rights that exist in this pre-trial supervision measures in the appointment. The first right within 48 hours to be delivered to the competent investigating judge for questioning the validity of the arrest, which itself contains two elements: the immediate delivery and that only an independent and impartial judge can address the issues of detention. After the adversary he acquires the rights: to know the grounds of arrest and the investigation materials, which are based on the basics. Informed about it, the suspect may effectively exercise its right to give explanations and comments on the feasibility and legality of detention, to provide relevant articles and documents. ,,Being arrested'' suspect gets some legal options of non-interest in the legitimacy of the arrest: right to choose their own persons, and to inform them about the arrest, or ask the prosecutor about the unconscious, as well as the right to ask a prosecutor to take care of his minor children and property. When investigating judge has ordered the allocation of the detention, the arrested suspect has the last opportunity to avoid pre-trial detention - appeal against the ruling. This right is one of the elements of habeas corpus right, contained by Convention. If ,,being arrested'' suspect order don't give an appeal, or his appeal is rejected, he becomes an ,,arrested'' suspect. It' status implements its own, as the suspect's rights, but they acquire some certain specificity: the right of defense of the essential aspects - the arrested suspect haves the right to representation and participation is necessary legal assistance being, and the opportunity to negotiate with him without outsiders. Criminal Procedure Act limited the arrested suspects right at any time of the pre-trial investigation get the pretrial investigations documents, and to provide a copy, as well as the right of appeal to the competent officials of the decisions and actions. Meanwhile, the right to make a significant objects and documents is usually implemented through the law to apply to the prosecutor of the proceedings and the execution of the necessary legal assistance participation. Arrested suspect has some specific rights, which the usual suspect doesn't have: the right to legal proceedings within a reasonable time, which relates to the unreasonably long detention inadmissibility, the right to ask the court to check the lawfulness of detention periodically (the second element of habeas corpus right), and the right to compensation for unlawful arrest, and others. It should be noted that only a small part of ,,being arrested'' suspects rights, which doesn't have usual suspect, is enshrined in the CPA. Many of them are under the Convention or is apparent from the provisions of the European Court of Human Rights.

The theme of "low-cost navigation", characterized by transferring performance from sensors to data fusion and control algorithms, is a central theme for many military applications, in particular those related to light troops. Using inertial or magnetic sensors from the MEMS category, along with civilian GPS, optimizes weight, size and energy consumption. As will be demonstrated, this approach requires application-specific guidance navigation and control algorithms to compensate for the relatively poor quality of the sensor signals. In this thesis, we consider three scenarios of interest and develop innovative techniques for guidance and navigation. First, we consider the case of a ground vehicle equipped with proximity sensors, a gyroscope, odometers and a GPS. Experimentally, we implement an algorithm for obstacle avoidance for which we establish a proof of convergence, and an offline path-planning algorithm that is complemented by a dynamic feedback controller and a non-linear state estimator. Then, we investigate the case of an unstable helicopter. We develop and implement algorithms within a real-time control system that we designed specifically for computational and estimation tasks. The state estimator includes a model of the flight dynamics, and uses data from inertial sensors, a barometer, and a GPS to serve as input for a closed-loop controller. The parameters of the model are identified accurately by using data obtained during experimental flights. Eventually, we shall perform autonomous hovering flights, which stress the performance of the system. Finally, we consider the problem of a pedestrian walking inside buildings. The heading estimation errors observed using various platforms (both ground and aerial) suggest a new use of the magnetic field, and we propose to derive information by inspecting its gradients. We explain how to use (unknown) disturbances of the magnetic field to improve the position estimate in inertial navigation. Experimental results emphasize the relevance of the approach. ; Le thème de la « navigation bas-coût », caractérisé par le transfert de performance des capteurs vers les algorithmes de fusion de données et de commande, est un thème central dans de nombreuses applications militaires liées en particulier aux besoins nouveaux des troupes légères. L'utilisation de capteurs inertiels ou magnétométriques type MEMS et de GPS civils (notamment), optimise les critères d'encombrement, de masse et de consommation. Mais elle requiert, en compensation des performances relativement médiocres des capteurs, des algorithmes de guidage-navigation-pilotage spécifiques aux applications considérées. Dans ce mémoire, nous considérons trois scénarios d'utilisation et exposons des techniques innovantes pour la localisation et le contrôle. Nous considérons d'abord le cas d'un robot terrestre équipé de capteurs de proximité, d'un gyroscope, d'odomètres et d'un GPS. Nous implémentons expérimentalement avec succès un algorithme d'évitement d'obstacles dont nous établissons une preuve de convergence, ainsi qu'un algorithme de planification de trajectoires hors ligne dont nous utilisons les résultats en temps réel pour réaliser, via un estimateur non linéaire, un bouclage par retour dynamique. Nous étudions ensuite le cas du vol autonome d'une plate-forme aérienne instable de type hélicoptère. Nous développons et implémentons, à bord sur un système de mesure et de calcul temps-réel de notre conception, un estimateur d'état incluant un modèle de la dynamique du vol de l'engin, recalé par les capteurs inertiels, barométriques, et GPS ainsi qu'un bouclage par retour d'état. En utilisant les résultats de filtrage sur les vols effectués, les paramètres du modèle sont précisément identifiés : la qualité et la robustesse de l'estimation obtenues grâce au modèle permettent de réaliser un vol stationnaire autonome en extérieur. Enfin nous considérons le problème d'un piéton évoluant à l'intérieur de bâtiments. Les erreurs d'estimation du cap lors de l'utilisation des différentes plate-formes (terrestre comme aérienne) nous guident vers une utilisation nouvelle du champ magnétique par l'inspection de ses gradients. Par une technique que nous exposons, nous montrons comment utiliser les perturbations (inconnues) du champ magnétique pour améliorer considérablement l'estimation de position d'une centrale inertielle bas-coût au point qu'elle devienne un instrument de localisation.

To evaluate customers' satisfaction by local governments, Bishoftu Town Administration (BTA) was considered as a case study. Problems identified include, lack of integration of duties, the absence of good governance and there is a huge gap between supply and demand for land. The land acquisition, and development process is very long and the city administration has no capacity to provide full flegged infrastructure proactively for the users. Absence of land development finance,, lack of skilled and motivated manpower, and the absence of private ownership of land. The general objective of this research is to evaluate customers' satisfaction in land delivery services and the factors affecting it to come up with some solutions. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from secondary and primary sources. The study period was from December 2007- May 2008 and a total of 216 customers who want land for different purposes were randomly selected as a study subjects. Moreover, the total numbers of employees of BTA who are engaged in land delivery services were also taken as a study sample. Structured and unstructured questionnaires of two kinds were used as an instrument for data collection. Interview questions were also prepared to collect data from an official. The data was analyzed through statistical software and percentages, tables, bar charts and pie charts were used for this purpose. The research reveals that there are a number of problems such as lack of motivation and the corresponding employee attitude towards customer's service, the absence of proper information dissemination, and incompatibility of services with the value of customer and. Policy making did not include participation of customers. Concerning land, serious problems with land use in Ethiopia is land Policy and the corresponding land ownership increasing fees and the time to get land beyond imagination lack of full information about the land policy of the country. Compensation for farmers is made by customers and there will not be infrastructure at the time of receiving land there is a problem of applying good governance. Access to necessary resources that are used to carry out jobs is a problem for that matter there is lack of the required number of man power, technical instruments including computers for information technology and vehicles used to facilitate customer's service. Demand and supply of land are far away from each other. This is the problem of many urban centers in Ethiopia. Preparation acquisition and development of land for the customers and the need for basic infrastructure complicated the problem and reduced the capacity of satisfying effective demand. There is no easy access to land this is supported by the fact that customers have been waiting to receive land most of them for 2-3 years some for over 4 years even though surprisingly few get land within 6 months time Therefore over all customers were not satisfied with land delivery service they are getting from Bishoftu Town Administration. The following recommendations were forwarded. From the findings of this research employees were not given proper emphasis both filling the vacant positions and developing the existing employees were absent, therefore, there should be filling the vacant positions and training and developing and controlling employees on work environment need to be done. Citizen participation in policy making is helpful not only for customers but also for the administration. It facilitates the sense of ownership to the policy and simplifies implementation process .Therefore, BTA is recommended to make the participation of residents in planning activities. There should also be single and one standard criterion that must be followed to provide land for the purpose of treating residents equally Accountability of officials, responsibility of staffs, equity and transparency in providing services should not remain on the post and should be implemented in real and must be witnessed by customers. All resources necessary to carryout the required task so as to satisfy customers must be present. Official interviewed and data collected from employees of BTA reveal that there are serious constraints of resources such as vehicles and technical instruments. Therefore, it is recommended that these resources are available to the unit