Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kerehalli-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 601 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 51 per cent is covered by soil, 40 per cent by rock out crops, eight per cent by quarry and one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 27 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 20 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 8 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 21 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 15(2) 149(25) Pomegranate 40(7) 15(2) Maize 15 (2) 149 (25) Guava 40(7) 15(2) Bajra 15(2) 155(26) Jackfruit 40(7) 15(2) Redgram 15(2) 35 (6) Jamun - 46(8) Bengal gram - 163(27) Musambi 40(7) 15(2) Groundnut 15(2) 61 (10) Lime 40(7) 15(2) Sunflower 15 (2) 35 (6) Cashew 40(7) 54(9) Cotton - 163(27) Custard apple 40(7) 183(30) Chilli 15(2) 49(8) Amla 40(7) 183 (30) Tomato 15(2) 49(8) Tamarind - 40(7) Drumstick 15(2) 41(7) Marigold 15(2) 149(25) Mulberry 15(2) 95(16) Chrysanthemum 15(2) 149 (25) Mango - 40(7) Jasmine 15(2) 149(25) Sapota 40(7) 15(2) Crossandra 15(2) 49(8)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMU's by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 118 (60.20%) men and 78 (39.80%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of marginal farmers' was 5.75, small farmers' was 4.83, semi medium farmers' was 5.67, medium farmers' was 3 and large farmers' was 10.  The data indicated that, 35 (17.86%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44.90%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53 (27.04%) were in 36-60 years of age and 20 (10.20%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kerehalli-3 had 33.67 per cent illiterates, 1.02 per cent functional literate, 21.43 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.08 per cent of them had middle school education, 18.88 per cent of them had high school education, 14.29 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.06 per cent of them had degree education and 0.51 per cent of them did diploma.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 50 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 39.29 per cent of the household members, 33.67 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.51 per cent were general labourers, 2.55 per cent were in private service, 20.41 per cent were students, 0.51 per cent were housewives and 3.06 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 97.22 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.78 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 86.11 per cent of the households possess TV, 36.11 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.44 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.78 per cent possess landline phone and 83.33 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8838, mixer grinder was Rs. 2038, bicycle was Rs. 2000, motor cycle was Rs. 50312, landline phone was Rs. 2000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1694.  About 11.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprayer and 66.67 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3,000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.51.  The results indicate that, 11.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 2.78 per cent possess buffalo and 11.11 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.22, average hired labour (men) available was 17.97 and average hired labour (women) available was 16.08. 2  The results indicate that, 97.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kerehalli-3 micro-watershed possess 18.81 ha (34.24%) of dry land and 36.13 ha (65.76%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (86.47%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (13.53%). Small farmers possess 13.80 ha (89.50%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (10.50%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (8.87%) of dry land and 24.96 ha (91.13%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.67 ha (100%) and large farmers possess 6.48 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 366,594.97 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 301,556.90. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 541,158.07 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 354,926.69 for dry land and was Rs. 555,750 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 336,381.32 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 224,545.46 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 77,187.50.  The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 61.11 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 82.55 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 1.62 ha, 24.36 ha, 2.67 and 6.48 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (46.55 ha), groundnut (3.24 ha), paddy (2.96 ha) and chilly (1.3 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize. Small farmers have grown maize and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, paddy and chilly. Medium farmers have grown maize. Large farmers have grown maize and groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kerehalli-3 micro-watershed was found to be 88.82 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 98.79, medium farmers it was 60.67 per cent and large farmers had a cropping intensity of 50 per cent.  The results indicate that, 2.78 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 2.78 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 68869.77. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57237.62. The net income from 3 Paddy cultivation was Rs. -11632.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.83.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 29260.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51031.25. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 21771.11. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.74.  The total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 30609.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46312.50. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 15703.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 54395.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75829. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 21433.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39.  The results indicate that, 8.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.33 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 68,125 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 67,500, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 76,888.89, for medium farmers it was Rs. 18,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 468,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,085.65. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 15,562.50, for small farmers it was Rs. 5,013.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 2,759.26, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 215,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 15 coconut trees and 9 mango trees in the field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 71 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees and 2 acacia trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 1,916.67, for improved crop production Rs. 555.56 and for irrigation facility Rs. 277.78.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 16.67 per cent for land development, for 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility and for 11.11 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, chilly was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, groundnut 71.43 per cent, maize 97.88 per cent and paddy 72.22 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 5.56 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated market and 97.22 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 105.88 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. 4  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.56 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 13.89 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 66.67 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 13.89 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.22 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 44.44 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.22 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 13.89 per cent, fruits were adequate for 16.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.89 per cent, eggs were adequate for 97.22 per cent and meat was adequate for 13.89 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.22 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 83.33 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent, milk were inadequate for 8.33 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 2.78 per cent and meat was inadequate for 83.33 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 86.11 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (97.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.56%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (50%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (86.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (91.67%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.89%), inadequate extension services (88.89%), less rainfall (2.78%) and source of agri-technology information (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chukkanakallu-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 518 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 68 per cent is covered by soil, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 31 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 14 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 54 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 45 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 17 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 51 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 37 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 30 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 8 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 9 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 12 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%) in 21 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 65(13) 216(42) Sapota 36(7) 94(18) Maize 16(3) 266(52) Pomegranate 36(7) 210(41) Bajra 36(7) 274(53) Musambi 65(13) 181(35) Groundnut - 58(11) Lime 65(13) 181(35) Sunflower 65(13) 181(35) Amla 36(7) 273(53) Redgram 36(7) 163(32) Cashew - 130(25) Bengal gram 29(6) 280(54) Jackfruit 36(7) 94(18) Cotton 65(13) 216(42) Jamun 36(7) 154(30) Chilli 16(3) 149(29) Custard apple 65(13) 244(47) Tomato 16(3) 149(29) Tamarind 36(7) 153(30) Brinjal 94(18) 188(37) Mulberry 16(3) 230(45) Onion 94(18) 71(14) Marigold 16(3) 265(52) Bhendi 94(18) 188(37) Chrysanthemum 16(3) 265(52) Drumstick 36(7) 210(41) Jasmine 16(3) 149(29) Mango 36(7) 124(24) Crossandra 36(7) 176(34) Guava 20(4) 110(21)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 78 (57.35 %) men and 58 (42.65 %) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless' was 2.8, marginal farmers' was 4.2, small farmers' was 4.3, semi medium farmers' was 4 and medium farmers' was 4.5.  The data indicated that, 15 (11.03 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 51 (37.5 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (41.91 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (9.56 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Chukkanakallu-2 had 37.50 per cent illiterates, 34.56 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.35 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.29 per cent of them had high school education, 2.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.47 per cent of them had Diploma and degree education and 2.21 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.53 per cent of the household members, 67.65 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.47 per cent were in government service, 6.62 per cent were students and 0.74 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any of the institution.  The results indicate that 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 55.88 per cent of the households possess TV, 70.59 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.88 per cent of them possess bicycle, 32.35 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess auto and 67.65 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,515, mixer/grinder was Rs 1,875, bicycle was Rs 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 49,272, auto was Rs. 200,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,336.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and thresher, 52.94 per cent of them possess plough, 8.82 per cent of them possess sprayer, 52.94 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.94 per cent of them possess Cultivator.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 10,000, plough was Rs. 1,877, sprayer was Rs. 1,550, average value of weeder was Rs. 123, average value of thresher was 190 and the average value of Cultivator was Rs. 32.  The results indicate that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 14.71 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Buffalo. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.93, average own labour (women) available was 1.10, average hired labour (men) available and average hired labour (women) available was 15.86. The results indicate that, 85.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Chukkanakallu-2 micro-watershed possess 26.24 ha (72.73%) of dry land, 7.36 ha (20.39 %) of irrigated land and 2.48 ha (6.88%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 5.92 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.27 ha (78.85 %) of dry land, 0.81 ha (5.20 %) of irrigated land and 2.48 ha (15.95%). Semi medium farmers possess 8.05 ha (86.22 %) of dry land and 1.29 ha (13.78%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.26 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 350,462.68, the average value of irrigated land was Rs.230,968.10 and the average value of permanent fallow land Rs. 201,468.19. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 675,324.68 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 325,965.03 for dry land, Rs. 247,000 for irrigated land and Rs. 201,468.19 for permanent fallow land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 148,944.72 for dry land and Rs. 388,364.77 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, Rs.190,000 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning and de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 11.76 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.59 meters.  The results indicate that semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.29 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (22.36 ha), Bajra (7.36 ha), Sunflower (2.83 ha) and Wheat (3.34 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra and sunflower. Small farmers have grown maize, bajra and cowpea. Semi medium farmers have grown maize and bajra. Medium farmers have grown maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chukkanakallu-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 79.14 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.41 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank. 3  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 5,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operation.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 15704.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24107.32. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 8403.10. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 25491.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40617.78. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 15126.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 44628.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40066.01. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 4562.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 11809.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 25240.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.14.  The results indicate that, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 43,833.33 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 32,400, for small farmers it was Rs. 68,916.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 77,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 4,806.06. For landless households it was Rs. 7,666.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,346.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,751.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,104.17 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 16,250.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 coconut, 2 guava and 4 mango trees in their field and1 in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 22 teak, 50 neem and 1 tamarind trees in their field and also 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Bajra were sold to the extent of 79.17 per cent, cowpea were sold to the extent of 60 per cent, maize were sold to the extent of 98.33 per cent and sunflower were sold to the extent of 92.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 73.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market. The results indicated that 79.41 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. 4  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 76.47 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood, 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used Kerosene.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households and bore well was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 76.47 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 70.59 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 20.59 per cent, vegetables and egg were adequate for 14.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 44.12 per cent, milk was adequate for 17.65 per cent and meat was adequate for 8.82 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 11.76 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 70.59 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 41.18 per cent, milk were inadequate for 44.12 per cent and egg and meat was inadequate for 70.59 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, milk and egg were market surplus for 11.76 per cent and fruits and meat were market surplus for 14.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 76.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (79.41%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (20.59%), inadequacy of irrigation water and inadequate extension services (5.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.59%), high rate of interest on credit and low price for the agricultural commodities (8.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (23.53%), less rainfall (26.47%) and source of agri-technology information (14.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

W artykule przyglądam się temu, jaką edukację polityczną warto rozwijać we współczesnej polskiej szkole i wszędzie tam, gdzie buduje się w ludziach zdolność do wspólnej i niewyalienowanej pracy. Kierunek rozważań wyznaczyła konieczność ustosunkowania się myśli pedagogicznej – i równoległego dostosowania praktyk wychowawczych – do zmian w sposobie koordynacji społeczeństwa, które dokonują się w atmosferze groźby wybuchu wojny. Rozważania te buduję na dotychczasowych badaniach własnych z obszaru uczenia się w ruchach społecznych, analizując trzy porządki zapewniające koordynację społeczeństw (neoliberalizm, nacjonalizm, militaryzm) w kontekście wykluczanych przez nie wartości: dobra wspólnego, samorządu i pokoju. Rezultatem pracy jest matryca przyporządkowująca te kontrwartości różnym typom współpracy (koordynacji, kooperacji i kolaboracji). Matryca pozwala identyfikować specyfikę konkretnych przykładów mobilizacji społecznej, jak i rozpoznawać luki w kształceniu kolektywnych umiejętności współdziałania. Rezultaty analizy pozwalają zoperacjonalizować praktyki oporu pod kątem celów wychowania i stawiają w nowym świetle problemy powiązań i nawarstwiania się wrogich szkole ideologii neoliberalizmu, nacjonalizmu i militaryzmu. ; The paper analyses types of political education worth developing in contemporary Polish schools and in other places dedicated to building human capacity to work together in a non-alienated way. The analysis is based on my own research from the area of learning in social movements. I analyze three orders ensuring social coordination (neoliberalism, nationalism, and militarism) in the context of the values they exclude: the common good, self-government and peace. The result of the work is a matrix assigning these counter-values, accordingly, to coordination, cooperation and collaboration. 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Objective To identify the genetic determinants of fracture risk and assess the role of 15 clinical risk factors on osteoporotic fracture risk. DESIGN Meta-analysis of genome wide association studies (GWAS) and a two-sample mendelian randomisation approach. Setting 25 cohorts from Europe, United States, east Asia, and Australia with genome wide genotyping and fracture data. Participants A discovery set of 37 857 fracture cases and 227 116 controls; with replication in up to 147 200 fracture cases and 150 085 controls. Fracture cases were defined as individuals (>18 years old) who had fractures at any skeletal site confirmed by medical, radiological, or questionnaire reports. Instrumental variable analyses were performed to estimate effects of 15 selected clinical risk factors for fracture in a twosample mendelian randomisation framework, using the largest previously published GWAS meta-analysis of each risk factor. Results Of 15 fracture associated loci identified, all were also associated with bone mineral density and mapped to genes clustering in pathways known to be critical to bone biology (eg, SOST, WNT16, and ESR1) or novel pathways (FAM210A, GRB10, and ETS2). Mendelian randomisation analyses showed a clear effect of bone mineral density on fracture risk. One standard deviation decrease in genetically determined bone mineral density of the femoral neck was associated with a 55% increase in fracture risk (odds ratio 1.55 (95% confidence interval 1.48 to 1.63; P=1.5×10?68). Hand grip strength was inversely associated with fracture risk, but this result was not significant after multiple testing correction. The remaining clinical risk factors (including vitamin D levels) showed no evidence for an effect on fracture. Con clusions This large scale GWAS meta-analysis for fracture identified 15 genetic determinants of fracture, all of which also influenced bone mineral density. Among the clinical risk factors for fracture assessed, only bone mineral density showed a major causal effect on fracture. Genetic predisposition to lower levels of vitamin D and estimated calcium intake from dairy sources were not associated with fracture risk. ; Funding: This research and the Genetic Factors for Osteoporosis (GEFOS) consortium have been funded by the European Commission (HEALTH-F2-2008-201865-GEFOS). AGES: NIH contract N01- AG-12100 and NIA Intramural Research Program, Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association), and Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament). Icelandic Heart Association. Anglo-Australasian Osteoporosis Genetics Consortium (AOGC): National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) (grant reference 511132). Australian Cancer Research Foundation and Rebecca Cooper Foundation (Australia). National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia). National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) Career Development Award (569807). Medical Research Council New Investigator Award (MRC G0800582). Health Research Council of New Zealand. Sanofi-Aventis, Eli Lilly, Novartis, Pfizer, Proctor & Gamble Pharmaceuticals and Roche. National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia. Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, MBF Living Well foundation, the Ernst Heine Family Foundation and from untied educational grants from Amgen, Eli Lilly International, GE-Lunar, Merck Australia, Novartis, Sanofi-Aventis Australia and Servier. Medical Research Council UK and Arthritis Research UK. The Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the Geelong Region Medical Research Foundation, and the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia (project grant 628582). Action Research UK. DME is supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130101709). This work was supported by a Medical Research Council programme grant (MC_UU_12013/4). B-Vitamins for the PRevention Of Osteoporotic Fractures (BPROOF) study: supported and funded so far by The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw, grant 6130.0031), The Hague; unrestricted grant from NZO (Dutch Dairy Association), Zoetermeer; Orthica, Almere; Netherlands Consortium Healthy Ageing (NCHA) Leiden/Rotterdam; Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (project KB-15-004-003), The Hague; Wageningen University, Wageningen; VUmc, Amsterdam; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam. Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS): National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) contracts HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268200800007C, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086; and NHLBI grants U01HL080295, R01HL087652, R01HL105756, R01HL103612, R01HL120393, and R01HL130114 with additional contribution from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). Additional support was provided through R01AG023629 from the National Institute on Ageing (NIA). Genotyping supported in part by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, CTSI grant UL1TR000124, and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease Diabetes Research Center (DRC) grant DK063491 to the Southern California Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center. deCODE Genetics. EPIC-Norfolk: Medical Research Council G9321536 and G9800062, MAFF AN0523, EU FP5 (QLK6-CT-2002-02629), Food Standards Agency N05046, GEFOS EU FP7 Integrated Project Grant Reference: 201865, The UK's National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre Grant to Cambridge contributed to the costs of genotyping. Estonian Genome Center University of Tartu (EGCUT): This study was supported by EU H2020 grants 692145, 676550, 654248, Estonian Research Council Grant IUT20-60, NIASC and EIT—Health and EU through the European Regional Development Fund (project No 2014-2020.4.01.15-0012 GENTRANSMED). Erasmus Rucphen Family Study (ERF): Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), Erasmus University Medical Centre, the Centre for Medical Systems Biology (CMSB1 and CMSB2) of the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI). Framingham Osteoporosis Study (FOS): National Institute for Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases and National Institute on Ageing (R01 AR41398; DPK and R01 AR 050066; DK National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study (N01-HC-25195) and its contract with Affymetrix for genotyping services (N02-HL-6-4278). The Gothenburg Osteoporosis and Obesity Determinan Study (GOOD): Swedish Research Council (K2010-54X-09894-19-3, 2006-3832 and K2010-52X-20229-05-3), Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg, Lundberg Foundation, Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg's Foundation, Västra Götaland Foundation, Göteborg Medical Society, Novo Nordisk Foundation, and European Commission grant HEALTH-F2-2008- 201865-GEFOS. Health Aging and Body Composition Study (HealthABC): the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Health (NIH), National Institute on Ageing. US National Institute of Ageing (NIA) contracts N01AG62101, N01AG62103, and N01AG62106. NIA grant 1R01AG032098. The Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR). National Institutes of Health contract number HHSN268200782096C. Hong Kong Osteoporosis Study (HKOS): Hong Kong Research Grant Council (HKU 768610M); Bone Health Fund of HKU Foundation; KC Wong Education Foundation; Small Project Funding (201007176237); Matching Grant, Committee on research and conference (CRCG) Grant and Osteoporosis and Endocrine Research Fund; and the Genomics Strategic Research Theme of the University of Hong Kong. The Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Study is supported by National Institutes of Health funding. The following institutes provide support: National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), National Institute on Ageing (NIA), National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), and National Institute of Health (NIH) Roadmap for Medical Research under the following grant numbers: U01 AR45580, U01 AR45614, U01 AR45632, U01 AR45647, U01 AR45654, U01 AR45583, U01 AG18197, U01-AG027810, and UL1 RR024140. Prospective study of pravastatin in the elderly at risk (PROSPER): European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No HEALTH-F2-2009-223004 PHASE. Rotterdam study I, Rotterdam study II, Rotterdam study III: Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research (NWO) Investments (No 175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012); Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2); Netherlands Genomics Initiative/Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing (050-060-810); German Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technology under grants #01 AK 803 A-H and # 01 IG 07015 G. the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development ZonMw VIDI 016.136.367 (funding FR, CM-G, KT). Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF): supported by National Institutes of Health funding. The National Institute on Ageing (NIA) and the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) provides support under the following grant numbers: R01 AG005407, R01 AR35582, R01 AR35583, R01 AR35584, R01 AG005394, R01 AG027574, R01 AG027576, and R01 AG026720. TwinsUK1, TwinsUK2: NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (grant to Guys' and St Thomas' Hospitals and King's College London); Chronic Disease Research Foundation; Wellcome Trust; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canadian Foundation for Innovation, Fonds de la Recherche en Santé Québec, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, and Ministère du Développement économique, de l'Innovation et de l'Exportation du Quebec. UK Biobank: This research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource (application No 12703). Access to the UK Biobank study data was funded by a University of Queensland Early Career Researcher Grant (2014002959). Access to the UK Biobank study data was funded by University of Queensland Early Career Researcher Grant (2014002959) and University of Western Australia-University of Queensland Bilateral Research Collaboration Award (2014001711). NMW is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Early Career Fellowship (APP1104818). Women's Genome Health Study (WGHS): HL 043851 and HL69757 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and CA 047988 from the National Cancer Institute, the Donald W Reynolds Foundation, and the Fondation Leducq Amgen. Women's Health Initiative (WHI) program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, US. Department of Health and Human Services through contracts N01WH22110, 24152, 32100-2, 32105-6, 32108-9, 32111-13, 32115, 32118-32119, 32122, 42107-26, 42129-32, and 44221. Young Finns study (YFS): has been financially supported by the Academy of Finland: grants 286284 (TL), 134309 (Eye), 126925, 121584, 124282, 129378 (Salve), 117787 (Gendi), and 41071 (Skidi); the Social Insurance Institution of Finland; Competitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility area of Tampere, Turku and Kuopio University Hospitals (grant X51001); Juho Vainio Foundation; Paavo Nurmi Foundation; Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research; Finnish Cultural Foundation; Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation; Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; and Diabetes Research Foundation of Finnish Diabetes Association; and EU Horizon 2020 (grant 755320 for TAXINOMISIS). Barcelona cohort osteoporosis (BARCOS): Red de Envejecimiento y fragilidad RETICEF, CIBERER, Instituto Carlos III. Fondos FEDER. Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (FIS PI13/00116). Spanish MINECO (SAF2014-56562-R), Catalan Government (2014SGR932). Austrios-A, Austrios-B: was supported by BioPersMed (COMET K project 825329), and the Competence Center CBmed (COMET K1 centre 844609), funded by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT) and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour/ the Federal Ministry of Economy, Family and Youth (BMWA/BMWFJ) and the Styrian Business Promotion Agency (SFG). Cantabria-Camargo study (Cabrio-C), Cantabria osteoporosis case-control study (Cabrio-CC): Instituto de Salud Carlos III-Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias Grants PI 06/34,PI09/539, PI12/615 and PI15/521 (that could be cofunded by European Union-FEDER funds). Calcium Intake Fracture Outcome Study (CAIFOS): Healthway Health Promotion Foundation of Western Australia, Australasian Menopause Society and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Project Grant (254627, 303169 and 572604). Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study (CaMos): was supported by a grant from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR) (grant No MOP111103). JBR and JAM are funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Fonds du Recherche Québec Santé, and Jewish General Hospital. Edinburgh Osteoporosis Study (EDOS): was supported by a grant from Arthritis Research UK (grant number 15389). European Prospective Osteoporosis Study (EPOS): EU Biomed 1 (BMHICT920182, CIPDCT925012, ERBC1PDCT 940229, ERBC1PDCT930105), Medical Research Council G9321536 and G9800062, Wellcome Trust Collaborative Research Initiative 1995, MAFF AN0523,EU FP5 (QLK6-CT-2002-02629), Food Standards Agency N05046, GEFOS EU FP7 Integrated Project Grant Reference: 201865. The UK's National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre Grant to Cambridge contributed to the costs of genotyping. Geelong Osteoporosis Study (GEOS): Canadian Institutes for health research operating grant funding reference #86748. Genetic analysis of osteoporosis in Greece (GROS): University of Athens, Greece (Kapodistrias 2009). Hertfordshire Cohort Study (HCS): supported by Medical Research Council UK; Arthritis Research UK; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Musculoskeletal BRU Oxford; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nutrition BRC Southampton. Hong Kong: The projects have been supported by The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust, VC discretionary fund of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, and Research Grants Council Earmarked Grant CUHK4101/02M. Korean osteoporosis study in Asan Medical Center (KorAMC): a grant of the Korea Health Technology R&D Project, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (project No HI14C2258); a grant of the Korea Health Technology R&D Project, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (project No HI15C0377). Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (LASA): largely supported by a grant from the Netherlands Ministry of Health Welfare and Sports, Directorate of Long term Care. MINOS study was supported by a grant from the Merck-Sharp-Dohme Chibret company. Malta osteoporotic fracture study (MOFS): financial support was received from the European Union Strategic Educational Pathways Scholarhip scheme (STEPS). The Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Sweden: financial support was received from the Swedish Research Council (K2010- 54X-09894-19-3, 2006-3832), Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg, Lundberg Foundation, Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg's Foundation, Västra Götaland Foundation, Göteborg Medical Society, Novo Nordisk foundation, and European Commission grant HEALTH-F2-2008- 201865-GEFOS. Odense androgen study (OAS): World Anti-Doping Agency, Danish Ministry of Culture, Institute of Clinical Research of the University of Southern Denmark. Prevalence of osteoporosis in Slovenia (Slo-preval): was created as part of projects financially supported by the Slovenian research agency: P3-298 Geni, Hormoni in osebnostne spremembe pri hormonskih motnjah; Z1-3238: Genski in okoljski dejavniki tveganja za razvoj motnje pri remodellaciji kosti; J2-3314 Genetski faktorji in hormoni pri presnovnih boleznih; and J3-2330 Genetski dejavniki pri osteoporozi. TWINGENE: supported in part by the Ragnar Söderberg Foundation (E9/11); the National Science Foundation (EArly Concept Grants for Exploratory Research: "Workshop for the Formation of a Social Science Genetic Association Consortium," SES-1064089) as supplemented by the National Institutes of Health's (NIH) Office of Behavioural and Social Sciences Research; and the National Institute on Ageing/NIH through Grants P01-AG005842, P01-AG005842-20S2, P30-AG012810, and T32-AG000186-23 to the National Bureau of Economic Research. The Swedish Twin Registry is supported by the Swedish Department of Higher Education, European Commission European Network for Genetic and Genomic Epidemiology (ENGAGE: 7th Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013)/Grant agreement HEALTH-F4-2007-201413; and GenomEUtwin: 5th Framework program "Quality of Life and Management of the Living Resources" Grant QLG2-CT-2002-01254); NIH (DK U01-066134); Swedish Research Council (M-2005-1112 and 2009-2298); Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (ICA08-0047); Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation; and Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research. The Umeå Fracture and Osteoporosis Study (UFO) is supported by the Swedish Research Council (K20006- 72X-20155013), Swedish Sports Research Council (87/06), Swedish Society of Medicine, Kempe-Foundation (JCK-1021), and by grants from the Medical Faculty of Umeå University (ALFVLL:968:22-2005, ALFVL:-937-2006, ALFVLL:223:11-2007, ALFVLL:78151-2009) and county council of Västerbotten (SpjutspetsanslagVLL:159:33-2007). GRW and JHDB were funded by the Wellcome Trust (Strategic Award grant No 101123; Joint Investigator Award No 110141; project grant No 094134). DPK was funded by a grant from the National Institute on Arthritis Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases R01 AR041398. The funding agencies had no role in the study design, analysis, or interpretation of data; the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to submit the article for publication.

Vlada demokratskog jedinstva nastala je u početcima otvorene velikosrpske agresije na Hrvatsku, ali i usred krize strateško-obrambene koncepcije. Tuđmanova politika čekanja i kupovanja vremena te izbjegavanja frontalnog i općeg sukoba s JNA, doveli su do javnog kritiziranja njegove obrambene politike od strane oporbe i dijela HDZ-a. U okolnostima sveobuhvatne agresije i, prema nekim navodima, očekivanja raskola u hrvatskoj politici, sredinom srpnja počela je rekonstrukcija postojeće Vlade. Novi mandatar Franjo Gregurić okupljao je kadrove za sastavljanje Vlade, a u tom razdoblju javila se ideja o potrebi proširenja Vlade i nekim nestranačkim kandidatima pa i predstavnicima oporbe. U samo dva-tri dana pregovora postignut je nacionalni konsenzus i potpisan Sporazum saborskih stranaka, čime je stvorena Vlada demokratskog jedinstva. Vlada se sastojala od devet parlamentarnih stranaka, od kojih je osam imalo svoje predstavnike u Vladi. Unatoč činjenici da je 1990-ih godina u Hrvatskoj na snazi bio polupredsjednički sustav koji je predsjedniku Republike davao prilično široke ovlasti, Vlada je na području obrambene i vanjske politike pokazivala određeni stupanj samostalnosti. Prema nekim tvrdnjama Vrhovno državno vijeće je ograničavalo slobodu djelovanja Vlade tako da se za svog jednogodišnjeg mandata Vlada trebala često boriti za veću samostalnost i slobodu djelovanja. S druge strane, Vlada je imala potpunu slobodu u unutarnjim poslovima, primjerice u njezinoj politici prema prognanicima i izbjeglicama, kao i u gospodarskoj politici. Unatoč tvrdnjama o "nestanku" oporbe u vrijeme te višestranačke vlade, s obzirom na to da su potpisivanjem Sporazuma o Vladi demokratskog jedinstva saborske stranke od oporbenih formalno postale koalicijske, dostupni izvori navode na drukčiji zaključak. Naime, predstavnici pojedinih oporbenih i ujedno koalicijskih stranaka od listopada 1991. godine često su kritizirali neke odluke vlasti, koje su se posebno odnosile na vanjsku politiku. Predmet njihovih kritika bile su ujedno Vladine i Tuđmanove uredbe sa zakonskom snagom. Vlada je posljednjih šest mjeseci svog mandata bila izložena pritiscima oporbe i dijela HDZ-a. Međunarodno priznanje Hrvatske i priprema za nove parlamentarne i predsjedničke izbore uzrokovali su pritiske na Vladu demokratskog jedinstva, što se prije svega očitovalo u odlascima određenih nestranačkih i oporbenih ministara, a kasnije dovelo i do velike travanjske rekonstrukcije Vlade u kojoj je u znatnoj mjeri promijenjen njezin sastav u korist HDZ-a. Vlada demokratskog jedinstva nastavila je djelovati do kolovoza, kad je nakon novih parlamentarnih izbora formirana nova, jednostranačka HDZ-ova vlada. ; After the democratic elections in Croatia in the spring of 1990 and the victory of Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), the new Croatian Government faced the Serbian insurgency which expressed approval for the Milošević's Greater-Serbian policy. The insurgency was supported by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) that had disarmed Croatia just after the elections in May 1990. In the summer of 1991, the Yugoslav crisis aggravated. Previous occasional and sporadic conflicts between Croatian police forces and the Serbian insurgents escalated into the open aggression of Serbia, Montenegro and JNA against Croatia. In such conditions, Croatian leadership was conflicted about the defense policy. The disagreement caused the appearance of some fractions in the parliament parties, especially in HDZ. Some participants of Croatian politics in the early 1990s today assert that there were at least two main fractions in HDZ – the "moderate" one that supported Tuđman's policy based on avoiding head-on conflict with JNA, and the "radical" one that wanted to declare JNA and Serbia the aggressors on Croatia and to fight back. Some claim that the "radical" fraction even wanted to bring down Tuđman and replace him with someone else. There isn't enough evidence to verify such statements. It probably was the case of dissatisfaction with the situation on the battlefield. Some write about wide discontent and criticism of Tuđman regarding his defense policy, which was evident at the meetings of the main Board of HDZ in the middle of July, Supreme State Council in the end of July and parliamentary session in the beginning of August 1991. Regarding the attitude towards Tuđman, there is a widespread and simplified opinion that his party turned its back on him and that the opposition expressed him support. Exactly the opposite, the opposition, especially heads of the parties Croatian Social-Liberal Party (HSLS), Croatian democratic party (HDS), and Croatian People's party (HNS) expressed equal, or even more severe, criticism of Tuđman's defense policy. In that kind of atmosphere, the reconstruction of the Government resulted in the national consensus – Democratic Unity Government was formed. It was the third democratic Government and the first multiparty Government after the democratic elections. It is an example of a Grand coalition formed during the war in many countries. The main goal of the new Government was to create more effective defense policy that would gather all the necessary political and military structures and establish the unified command structure. That resulted in entering of the Crisis Staff into the Government and forming of the General Staff of the Croatian Army. In the first two months of its mandate, the Government proposed and adopted measures for emergency readiness in order to organize life in the crisis areas. One of those measures included the blockade of the JNA barracks which Tuđman approved September 13 1991. With the blockade, the previous measured and careful attitude of the Croatian leadership towards JNA shifted from passive to active. One part of the research discussed the role of the Government in defense of the cities of Vukovar and Dubrovnik. Regarding Vukovar, there are some controversies embodied in widespread claims that Croatian leadership "betrayed" and "sacrificed" Vukovar by not sending enough weaponry and ammunition. However, available sources, primarily transcripts and records of the Government sessions, suggest that Vukovar was the priority in the supply of weaponry and ammunition. Furthermore, some members of the Government and other representatives of the Croatian leadership visited Vukovar and Eastern-Slavonian battlefield. In the context of all the crisis areas on the Croatian battlefield, Vukovar was the most dominant topic at the Government sessions. At the session held November 17, the Government adopted a series of decisions pertaining to the protection of Vukovar civilians. In the appeals to the international organizations, Vukovar and Dubrovnik were the two most mentioned cities. As was the case with Vukovar, the Government sent weaponry and other military equipment, transported humanitarian aid to Dubrovnik and appealed for help. It is worth mentioning convoy "Libertas" which supplied humanitarian aid to the surrounded Dubrovnik and broke the naval blockade. Also, some Government members came by the convoy to Dubrovnik to show their support. At the end of November 1991, Government sent three of its ministers to Dubrovnik where they had to represent the Government and facilitate its operation in Southern Dalmatia, maintain contacts with the international organizations, negotiate with the JNA representatives and maintain communication with the Croatian Army. The three ministers Davorin Rudolf, Petar Kriste and Ivan Cifrić were situated in Dubrovnik during its heaviest attack and the day after they agreed to a truce with the JNA representatives. The Government supported the negotiations between the city military and civil representatives and JNA because it wanted to procrastinate with the attacks and buy some time to strengthen the military and international position of Croatia. On the other hand, the Government and Tuđman strongly opposed to intentions of "demilitarization" of Dubrovnik which would surrender its arms to the JNA under the supervision of representatives of the international community, i.e. surrender of the city to the aggressor. Second most important task of the Government was the struggle for international recognition. The establishment of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs showed all the problems of the political structures that young democratic state had to face. Such problems refer to lack of experience as well as technical and financial resources. The Government cooperated with the European Community and the United Nations. Although, Tuđman was the designer of the Forreign Affairs and the Government often had to put into action his decisions, during the Conference of peace in Hague it showed some differentiation, such as declaring it would abort the attending of the Conference unless JNA left Croatia. After the arms embargo in September 1991, the Croatian Government deprived of the right of representation of Croatia in the UN Budimir Lončar and Darko Šilović, due to their role in instigating the decision of the UN regarding embargo. The Government Memorandum, addressed to ministerial Council of the EC in November 22, stated that economic sanctions of the Roman declaration of November 8 would affect mostly Croatia. Such view showed a certain degree of independence of the Democratic Unity Government. The Government accepted the Vance plan but argued the methods of its implementation. The activity of the Government in Forreign Affairs reflects in numerous official and unofficial meetings and encounters with various politicians and statesmen. The main task of the Government members was to appeal to stop the war and recognize Croatia, but they also had to struggle against Serbian propaganda which spread lies about rehabilitation of Ustasha and Independent State of Croatia (NDH) and portrayed president Tuđman and the Croatian Government as anti-Semitic. In that context, some think that the Croatian Government and leadership in general, provided insufficient to the international public. In this research, I also analyzed social politics of the Democratic Unity Government, that is, politics towards Croatian displaced persons and refugees as well as Bosnian-Herzegovinian refugees during 1991 and 1992. At the very beginning of the aggression against Croatia, new Croatian Government had to face refugee crisis. Forcible relocations of the Croatian civilians, among which some moved into safe areas in Croatia, while others left the country, induced Government to, with the term "refugee", which refers to those persons who had to emigrate their own country, introduce another one – "displaced persons", which referred to those civilians who hadn't left Croatia, only were displaced to some other territory within the country. Government also adopted some measures to secure accommodation for the displaced persons and refugees by emptying hotels and resorts and founding of the Office for the displaced persons and refugees in November 1991. Funds for the displaced persons and refugees Government secured mostly from the state budget, while all requests for financial help from the international community were unsuccessful. Consequently, in that period Croatia funded also Bosnian-Herzegovinian refugees from its budget, while the international community helped only with humanitarian help. In this chapter the Government activity in prevention of persecution of the civilian population was discussed through several examples. In that aspect, its activities were mostly limited to addressing the international community. In the case of Ilok, from where in October 1991 approximately 10.000 people were banished, Government founded the Commission of the Parliament and Government to try to stop the persecution, but it failed to achieve its goal, since the persecution had already begun. After the fall and occupation of Vukovar in November 1991, the Government organized evacuation of approximately 15.000 people, but it was carried out only partially. The Government didn't have control over the war zone, which means that its opportunities for safe and efficient evacuation were highly limited. One of the main plans for the displaced persons and refugees was Government's Return Program, which began its realization only after the end of the war and peaceful reintegration of Podunavlje in 1998. Economic politics of the Democratic Unity Government was reflected in its independence from Serbia. Following measures and decisions of the previous Croatian Government, on the day of its establishment, Democratic Unity Government broke off economic relations with Serbia, however only partially. Those companies with strong business ties with some companies in Serbia, had liberty to continue their cooperation. The export to Serbia and Montenegro was limited only to some "strategic" raw materials and products, such as petroleum. The Government also introduced its own currency, hrvatski dinar (HRD). One of the main achievements of the Government was that it avoided the transit to "war economy", in spite of the increased military spending. Since priority of the Croatian Government was determined by war, its activities gravitated towards repair of the enormous war damage in transport, utility and residential infrastructure. In the end of 1991 the Government established the Ministry of Reconstruction, while in the first half of 1992 the Government composed the Reconstruction Program and its Financial Plan that was adopted by the Croatian Parliament in June 1992. Nevertheless, because of the status quo imposed by the UNPROFOR, located on the occupied territories in Croatia, the reconstruction of the country began after the war had ended in 1995. Analyzed activities of the Government in the Defense policy, Foreign Affairs, as well as its Social and Economic policy raise the question of the Government's independence regarding Tuđman and Croatian Parliament. Considering the semi-presidential system, the Government was the executive authority of the president of the Republic and Croatian Parliament. Government also had legislative powers authorized by the Parliament, because in the wartime a great number of important decisions had to be made in a very short amount of time. The Government was not only the executive body of the President, but it also functioned as his close associate. That manifests mostly through the measures for emergency readiness in August and September 1991. Sometimes, the Government had to step out of its Constitutional powers if developments on the battlefield required it to, for example regarding the decisions about Vukovar, November 17 1991. Regarding activities of the Government in the researched areas, it can be concluded that Democratic Unity Government had a high level of autonomy, taking into account the existing semi-presidential system. Nevertheless, the powers of the Government were limited in the Defense policy and Forregin Affairs, while on the other hand, it had complete autonomy in Internal Affairs, in this case, in its Social and Economic politics. An issue that requires special consideration in this research regards the opposition in Croatia during the mandate of the Democratic Unity Government. Some claim that with forming of the multiparty Government, the opposition in Croatia "disappeared". The remark is understandable considering that all the parliament parties signed the Agreement of Democratic Unity Government, which marked their transition from the opposition to coalition partners. But, did the opposition really "disappeared" form Croatian political life? Numerous public appearances of various representatives of opposition parties and parties in general, indicate otherwise. Activity of the opposition at the Parliament sessions from October 1991 to May and June 1992 shows agility of the opposition life in Croatia. From the beginning of the Democratic Unity Government in August till October, the opposition parties didn't raise any questions in public about some decisions of the Croatian leadership, but from October began severe criticism towards Tuđman and the Government. Discontent was expressed primarily to the acceptance of the Carrington's arrangement in Hague. Criticism of Foreign Affairs arose also after the acceptance of the Vance plan. In the last six months of its mandate, the Government was exposed to various pressures from the opposition and from one part of the HDZ, which reinforced especially after the international recognition at the beginning of 1992. Some opposition and nonpartisan ministers left the Government, whereas in April 1992 there was the reconstruction of the Government which changed significantly the personnel composition of the Government, resulting in the increase of the HDZ members. It was obvious that it was not the exact same Government from the beginning of August 1991 and that its end was near. In the new elections held August 2 1992, the HDZ defeated its opponents and ten days later, new, One-party Government was formed. Establishment and presented activities of the Democratic Unity Government is the proof of the democratic system in Republic of Croatia at the beginning of 1990s and counter-argument for theses about Tuđman's authoritarian style of rule. A multiparty Government, whose prominent members were opposition representatives, couldn't have been formed in an undemocratic or authoritarian system. Forming of the Grand Coalition merely one year after HDZ had won the elections, provides a valuable contribution to the study of Tuđman's policy, shows larger picture of the Croatian leadership and opens the door for further research of Croatian political life in the early 1990s.

Forming in the first months after the February Revolution, sections of the extremely leftist branch of the Polish Socialist Party, the Polish Socialist Party – Left and the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania almost immediately made contact with Polish soldiers dispersed in the Russian Army, as well as serving in the Polish Rifle Division being part of the Army. Promoted in Russia after the Bolshevik revolution the idea of creating "Polish workers and peasants formations" initially received moderate attention from Polish military circles. This attitude was observed both among those who were still in active service, as well as among their demobilized companions. The widespread pacifist attitude among Polish military was a serious obstacle in attracting people ready to serve in revolutionary formations. It was previously infused by the very same emigrant radicals who, after November 7, 1917, for a change, had encouraged armed support for the revolution. In such a situation without the support of the Soviet civil and military authorities, any organizational initiatives from the Polish communist circles in Russia had no chance to be implemented. ; Translation and edition co-financed by Faculty of History and Sociology & Institute of History and Political Sciences of University of Bialystok ; adam.miodowski@uwb.edu.pl ; Adam Miodowski - historian since 1994 associated with the Institute of History and Political Sciences of the University of Bialystok. His research interests focus primarily on the political and military history of the 19th and 20th centuries. A parallel field of interest is women's history and press studies. In the territorial dimension, he directs his research towards Central and Eastern Europe, primarily Poland, as well as the space of his small homeland defined by the borders of the contemporary Podlasie Voivodeship. Apart from dozens of articles and publications of source materials, he also published five book monographs: -Wychodźcze ugrupowania demokratyczne wobec idei polskiego wojska w Rosji w latach 1917-1918, Białystok 2002; - Przewłaszczenia dóbr dojlidzkich na tle kampanii politycznej przełomu lat 1921/1922, Białystok 2003; - Związki Wojskowych Polaków w Rosji (1917-1918), Białystok 2004; - Polityka wojskowa radykalnej lewicy polskiej (1917-1921), Białystok 2011; - Wspólnota doświadczeń i odrębność historii ziem województwa podlaskiego. Wybrane zagadnienia z XIX i XX- wiecznych dziejów Białostocczyzny, Suwalszczyzny i Łomżyńskiego, Białystok 2016. ; Wydział Historyczno-Socjologiczny Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku ; Alexandrowicz Stanisław, Karpus Zbigniew, Rezmer Waldemar (eds), Zwycięzcy za drutami: jeńcy polscy w niewoli (1919–1922). Dokumenty i materiały, Toruń 1995. ; Bagiński Henryk, Dokumenty z okresu organizacji i walk wojska polskiego na wschodzie 1917–1918. 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(eds), Kommunisticheskaja partija Sovetskogo Sojuza v rezoljucijah i reshenijah s'ezdov, konferencij i plenumov Central'nogo Komiteta, Vol. 2: 1917-1922, Moskva 1983. ; Jezovitov Konstantin, Belorussy i poljaki. Dokumenty i fakty iz istorii okkupacii Belorussii poljakami v 1918 i 1919 godach, Kovna 1919. ; Materiały archiwalne do historii stosunków polsko-radzieckich, N. Gąsiorowska (general ed.), Vol. I: marzec 1917-listopad 1918, A. Zatorski (ed.), Warszawa 1957. ; Narodnyj Komissariat po delam Nacional'nostej. Otchot o dejatel'nosti: 1 nojabrja 1917 g. – 20 ijunja 1918 g., koll. rab., Moskva 1918. ; Kozicki Stanisław (ed.), Bój pod Lidą, Warszawa 1930. ; Rogowski Jan, Dzieje Wojska Polskiego na Syberji, Poznań 1927. ; Rosenfeld Gunter, Sovietrussland und Deutschland 1917–1922, Berlin 1960. ; Snyder Timothy, Tajna wojna. Henryk Józewski i polsko-sowiecka rozgrywka o Ukrainę, Kraków 2008. ; Tęgoborski Włodzimierz, Polacy Związku Radzieckiego, Moskwa 1929. ; Toporowicz Wiesława, Sprawa polska w polityce rosyjskiej 1914–1917, Warszawa 1973. ; Wrzosek Mieczysław, Polskie korpusy wojskowe w Rosji w latach 1917–1918, Warszawa 1969. ; Wrzosek Mieczysław, Wojny o granice Polski Odrodzonej 1918–1921, Warszawa 1992. ; Wrzosek Mieczysław, Wojsko Polskie i operacje wojenne lat 1918–1921, Białystok 1988. ; Zackiewicz Grzegorz, Polska myśl polityczna wobec systemu radzieckiego, Kraków 2004. ; Szczęsny Wacław (ed.), Kwestia wojska polskiego w Rosji w 1917 r. Przyczynek do historii związków i zjazdu Polaków wojskowych z byłej armii rosyjskiej oraz do dziejów ruchu niepodległościowego i polityki polskiej w Rosji, Warszawa 1936. ; Žarov Lev, Internacjonalisty v bojach za vlast' sovietow. 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Grinberg, J. Snopko, G. Zackiewicz (eds), Rok 1918 w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej, Białystok 2010. ; Gostyńska Weronika, Rola Juliana Marchlewskiego w tajnych rokowaniach polsko-radzieckich (czerwiec-lipiec 1919 r.), "Z Pola Walki" 1966, Issue 2. ; Hofman Jan, Z zagadnień formowania międzynarodowych oddziałów Armii Czerwonej (1917–1920), "Wojskowy Przegląd Historyczny" 1964, Issue 2. ; Obichkin G. et al. (eds), Dekrety Sovetskoj vlasti. V dvuch tomach, Vol. 1. Moskva 1957. ; Kasprzakowa Janina, Paweł Lewinson-Łapiński, "Z Pola Walki" 1965, Issue 3. ; Klimecki Michał, Republika Rad w Małopolsce Wschodniej. 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Balcerak (ed.), Polska-Białoruś. Zbiór studiów i materiałów, Warszawa 1994. ; Łukawski Zygmunt, Działalność Komisariatu do spraw Polskich, "Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego – Prace Historyczne" 1967, Issue 20. ; Machalski Tadeusz, Na przełomie, "Bellona" 1938, Issue 5. ; Miodowski Adam, Polityka wojskowa środowisk liberalno-demokratycznych na gruncie rosyjskim po przewrocie bolszewickim (listopad 1917 – listopad 1918), "Studia z Dziejów Rosji i Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej" 2009, Vol. 44. ; Miodowski Adam, Polityka wojskowa środowisk piłsudczykowskich na gruncie rosyjskim po przewrocie bolszewickim (listopad 1917 – lipiec 1918), [in:] D. Grinberg, J. Snopko, G. Zackiewicz (eds), Rok 1918 w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej, Białystok 2010. ; Nowak Andrzej, "Lewa wolna", albo o spiskach Piłsudskiego z Leninem, "Arcana" 2007, Issue 2-3. ; Rawski Witold, Działalność Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej w Moskwie 1919-1920, "Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy" 2013, Issue 3. ; Smoliński Aleksander, Dezercje z Robotniczo-Chłopskiej Armii Czerwonej w latach 1918-1922, "Przegląd Wschodni" 2007, Vol. 10, No. 3. ; Smoliński Aleksander, Jazda i artyleria konna Dywizji Litewsko-Białoruskiej oraz Grupy Poleskiej, a następnie Frontu Litewsko-Białoruskiego (luty – początek lipca 1919 r.), "Wschodni Rocznik Humanistyczny" 2004, Vol. 1. ; Sobczak Kazimierz, Z zagadnień formowania międzynarodowych oddziałów Armii Czerwonej (1917-1920), "Zeszyty Naukowe Wojskowej Akademii Politycznej – Seria Historyczna" 1967, Vol. 17. ; "Głos Robotnika i Żołnierza" No. 1 of 8.08.1917; No. 23 of 1.05.1918. ; Wandycz Piotr, Secret Soviet-Polish peace talks in 1919, "The Slavic Review" 1965, Issue 3. ; Broniewski Władysław, Pamiętnik 1918–1922, Warszawa 1987. ; Wrzosek Mieczysław, Przyczynek do historii I Rewolucyjnego Pułku Polskiego, "Przegląd Historyczny" 1957, Vol. 48, No. 4. ; Zatorski Aleksander, Przyczynek do dziejów Zachodniej Dywizji Strzelców Armii Czerwonej w 1918 roku, "Studia z Najnowszych Dziejów Powszechnych Wyższej Szkoły Nauk Społecznych" 1963, Vol. 5. ; Zatorski Aleksander, Walka polskich formacji rewolucyjnych w obronie władzy Rad (grudzień 1917 – marzec 1918), [in:] I. 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(eds), Marksizm-leninizm o wojnie i wojsku, Warszawa 1969. ; Lafargue Paul, Pisma wybrane, Warszawa 1961, Vol. 1. ; Lenin Włodzimierz, Dzieła wszystkie. Dokumenty marzec – lipiec 1918, Warszawa 1988, t. 36. ; Marcińczyk Jan, Chwila osobliwa, Lublin 1919. ; Podsiadło Józef, W szeregach rewolucyjnego Pułku Czerwonej Warszawy, "Z Pola Walki" 1958, Issue 1. ; Wasilewski Zygmunt (ed.), Proces Lednickiego. Fragment z dziejów odbudowy Polski 1915–1924, Warszawa 1924. ; Wojciechowski Stanisław, Moje wspomnienia, Lwów 1938, Vol. 1. ; Wojciechowski Stanisław, Wspomnienia, orędzia, artykuły, Warszawa 1995. ; Żbikowski Stefan, Zarys historii Zachodniej Dywizji Strzelców, "Z Pola Walki" 1960, Issue 2. (excerpts from the author's manuscript of this work elaborated by: L. Dubacki). ; "Izviestia Wsierossijskogo Ispolnitielnogo Komitieta Sovietov" No. 263 z 12.01.1918. ; Sprawozdanie stenograficzne z posiedzenia Sejmu Ustawodawczego w dniu 22.02.1919 r. 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O presente trabalho busca identificar as dimensões políticas no discurso da presidente Dilma Rousseff na 66ª Assembleia Geral da Organização das Nações Unidas. Pela perspectiva da investigação em representações sociais, os resultados apontam três eixos prioritários no discurso de Dilma Rousseff, por meio das identificações de expressões de registro e da construção de um mapa representacional (a consolidação de uma imagem positiva sobre o Brasil, a valorização da mulher e o combate à crise econômica), em sete dimensões discursivas, entre referências diretas e de ancoragem. A abordagem desta pesquisa foi centrada principalmente nos pressupostos de Moscovici (2003), Arruda (2005) e Guareschi e Maya (2000).

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</style> <![endif]--> <!--StartFragment--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">O presente texto é parte de uma investigação teórica sobre a concepção de praxis apresentado em A Ideologia Alemã de 1845, relacionada com as Teses 1 e 3 das <em>Teses contra Feuerbach. </em>Nesses escritos Marx identifica a natureza social do trabalho a partir das relações históricas do homem com a natureza e com os outros homens. Trata-se de um escrito que efetua a análise do modo de produção capitalista efetivando a crítica ao pensamento hegeliano e aos pensadores pós-hegelianos no que se refere aos conceitos de ideologia e de alienação a fim de explicitar a noção de educação. A concepção de praxis explicitada por Marx tem uma natureza educativo intrínseca que se concretiza na praxis revolucionária.</span><!--EndFragment-->

Background In the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 (GBD 2013), knowledge about health and its determinants has been integrated into a comparable framework to inform health policy. Outputs of this analysis are relevant to current policy questions in England and elsewhere, particularly on health inequalities. We use GBD 2013 data on mortality and causes of death, and disease and injury incidence and prevalence to analyse the burden of disease and injury in England as a whole, in English regions, and within each English region by deprivation quintile. We also assess disease and injury burden in England attributable to potentially preventable risk factors. England and the English regions are compared with the remaining constituent countries of the UK and with comparable countries in the European Union (EU) and beyond. Methods We extracted data from the GBD 2013 to compare mortality, causes of death, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with a disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) in England, the UK, and 18 other countries (the first 15 EU members [apart from the UK] and Australia, Canada, Norway, and the USA [EU15+]). We extended elements of the analysis to English regions, and subregional areas defined by deprivation quintile (deprivation areas). We used data split by the nine English regions (corresponding to the European boundaries of the Nomenclature for Territorial Statistics level 1 [NUTS 1] regions), and by quintile groups within each English region according to deprivation, thereby making 45 regional deprivation areas. Deprivation quintiles were defined by area of residence ranked at national level by Index of Multiple Deprivation score, 2010. Burden due to various risk factors is described for England using new GBD methodology to estimate independent and overlapping attributable risk for five tiers of behavioural, metabolic, and environmental risk factors. We present results for 306 causes and 2337 sequelae, and 79 risks or risk clusters. Findings Between 1990 and 2013, life expectancy from birth in England increased by 5·4 years (95% uncertainty interval 5·0-5·8) from 75·9 years (75·9-76·0) to 81·3 years (80·9-81·7); gains were greater for men than for women. Rates of age-standardised YLLs reduced by 41·1% (38·3-43·6), whereas DALYs were reduced by 23·8% (20·9-27·1), and YLDs by 1·4% (0·1-2·8). For these measures, England ranked better than the UK and the EU15+ means. Between 1990 and 2013, the range in life expectancy among 45 regional deprivation areas remained 8·2 years for men and decreased from 7·2 years in 1990 to 6·9 years in 2013 for women. In 2013, the leading cause of YLLs was ischaemic heart disease, and the leading cause of DALYs was low back and neck pain. Known risk factors accounted for 39·6% (37·7-41·7) of DALYs; leading behavioural risk factors were suboptimal diet (10·8% [9·1-12·7]) and tobacco (10·7% [9·4-12·0]). Interpretation Health in England is improving although substantial opportunities exist for further reductions in the burden of preventable disease. The gap in mortality rates between men and women has reduced, but marked health inequalities between the least deprived and most deprived areas remain. Declines in mortality have not been matched by similar declines in morbidity, resulting in people living longer with diseases. Health policies must therefore address the causes of ill health as well as those of premature mortality. Systematic action locally and nationally is needed to reduce risk exposures, support healthy behaviours, alleviate the severity of chronic disabling disorders, and mitigate the effects of socioeconomic deprivation. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Public Health England. © 2015 Newton et al. 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Tomando como ponto de partida um breve resumo da trajetória dos compositores Luiz Gonzaga e Humberto Teixeira, fizemos um percurso teórico explorando a formulação da pedagogia histórico-crítica acerca da necessidade de produzir as maneiras dos explorados terem acesso ao saber sistematizado de modo que expressem de forma elaborada os seus interesses.</span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves /> <w:TrackFormatting /> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning /> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas /> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF /> <w:LidThemeOther>PT-BR</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables /> <w:SnapToGridInCell /> <w:WrapTextWithPunct /> 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*/ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Tabla normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";} --> <!--[endif] --><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-small;">Recuento histórico sobre el surgimiento del puerto de Matamoros y la presencia de casas mercantiles en el comercio interior y en el movimiento marítimo comercial. El análisis reconstruye la presencia del puerto tanto en los circuitos comerciales de tierra adentro sobre la franja fronteriza México-Estados Unidos y, de forma particular, con el mercado interno que se fortaleció a partir de la presencia de Monterrey y otras poblaciones en el mercado interno como Monclova, Saltillo, Zacatecas y San Luis Potosí. Se estudian los vínculos que alcanzaron las casas mercantiles establecidas en Matamoros con los puertos europeos, La Habana, y de la costa este de Estados Unidos, particularmente con Nueva Orleáns, Boston y Nueva York.</span></p>

El sencillo trabajo pretende mostrar un panorama general sobre el inicio del constitucionalismo en la Independencia de México, particularmente a finales del siglo XVIII y principios del XIX, que busca encontrar, en el pensamiento jurídico de la época, las raíces y argumentos esgrimidos por novohispanos para sentirse y declararse independientes de la metrópoli, desde el periodo de incubación y desarrollo de las ideas del racionalismo jurídico, que permitió concebir el mundo de una manera distinta y luego el lapso de la vacancia del trono español hasta la Constitución de Apatzingán. Iniciamos con las ideas ilustradas en que se apoyaron los actores de la independencia para construir los argumentos que se plasmaron en los textos constitucionales. Se recogen las ideas de autores clásicos de la época a fin de mostrar lo mejor que estos pioneros aportaron al conocimiento de personajes claves en el proceso de Independencia y en la historia constitucional mexicana. Continuamos con el hecho trascendental de la vacancia del trono español, que es el detonador del constitucionalismo mexicano, en esta parte son otros los autores a mencionar, toda vez que algunos de ellos recibieron las ideas ilustradas durante su formación. También hacemos referencia a la Soberanía en los momentos históricos donde los acontecimientos se sucedían de manera vertiginosa en lo anhelos de libertad de la población del virreinato. Después de la muerte de Hidalgo, hacemos mención a las juntas realizadas en el viejo continente y en la Nueva España, así como del surgimiento de otros caudillos y pensadores que sustentaron sus propuestas, algunos de manera tímida y otros de forma abierta sobre la idea de independencia. También mencionamos el relato de los hechos ocurridos en España y México en lo referente a los previos de la Constitución de Apatzingán y, por supuesto, hacemos referencia a Los Sentimientos de la Nación. Como es sabido que el Congreso funcionó en contra de todas las adversidades imaginables y redactó un documento que hoy en día todavía conmemoramos. Posteriormente abordamos la Constitución de Apatzingán, que fue el Decreto Constitucional para la Libertad de la América Mexicana, se menciona a los principales conceptos desarrollados en la Constitución, así como algunos nombres trascendentales que participaron en su elaboración e incluso en la redacción del texto. Por último, hacemos referencia al Plan de Iguala, ubicamos el contexto en que se produjo y la situación a la que respondió, toda vez que con él se cierra un capítulo del antiguo régimen y abre el del Estado que surgirá. Se pretende analizar el inicio de la historia del constitucionalismo mexicano, tratando de ubicar el contexto de los hechos ocurridos, para ver a que situaciones respondían. El derecho constitucional mexicano es producto de la historia que lo ha forjado, por ello es importante su estudio, para poder entenderla y estar en posibilidades de explicarla. Los sucesos a finales del siglo XVIII, en el virreinato de la Nueva España, permitirán entender lo que sucedería después, que es el movimiento de 1810 iniciado por Miguel Hidalgo y continuado por José María Morelos y, posteriormente, la proclamación de Agustín de Iturbide, seguida de la fundación del imperio mexicano. En México el cambio de Antiguo Régimen a Estado de Derecho, para muchos no ha concluido, sin embargo, con el propósito de establecer parámetros en nuestra historia, debemos mencionar que este movimiento se identifica con nuestra independencia y lo aprovechamos para realizar una explicación lo más clara posible. La independencia es un concepto político que implica una ruptura generalmente violenta. Independizarse es romper por medio de la fuerza un vínculo entre dos sujetos políticos desiguales, en el que uno ocupa un lugar de dominio y superioridad, y el otro, de inferioridad y sumisión. Quiero concluir diciendo que son tantas y tan variadas las personas de las cuales soy deudor de una profunda y sincera gratitud, que siempre estaría en riesgo de ser injusto al omitir algún o algunos nombres, por ello, en esta oportunidad quiero expresarlo a todos aquellos que me han brindado su apoyo en los últimos cinco años de mi vida profesional; a todas mis amigas y amigos y, por supuesto, a mi familia. Gracias. Una gratitud que es importante resaltar es a la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, ahí donde he encontrado a mis mejores amigas y amigos, mi casa, donde he crecido y formado desde el bachillerato, donde ha sido posible materializar mis ilusiones, esperanzas y anhelos, mi porvenir académico y laboral. Gracias. Es importante destacar mi afecto, agradecimiento y reconocimiento a la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, donde me brindaron el apoyo y la confianza en la culminación de este trabajo para estar en posibilidades de optar por el grado y así poder continuar el camino a la siguiente meta. CONTENIDO DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN CAPÍTULO PRIMERO La Ilustración y el pensamiento novohispano de finales del siglo XVIII. I. La Ilustración. II. La ilustración en la Nueva España. III. Francisco Xavier Clavijero. IV. Francisco Javier Alegre. V. Juan Benito Díaz de Gamarra y Dávalos. VI. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. CAPÍTULO SEGUNDO Situación en España y México a principios del siglo XIX. I. La influencia para el cambio. II. Situación en España y su impacto en la Nueva España. III. La Soberanía popular en la Nueva España. IV. Recapitulación de los hechos ocurridos durante julio-septiembre de 1808. V. El pensamiento de Francisco Primo de Verdad y Ramos. VI. El pensamiento de Melchor de Talamantes. CAPÍTULO TERCERO La Junta Central Suprema de España y la Junta de Zitácuaro. I. El surgimiento de la Junta Suprema de España. II. La junta de Zitácuaro. III. Los "Elementos Constitucionales" de Rayón. IV. El pensamiento del doctor Cos. CAPÍTULO CUARTO El Congreso de Chilpancingo o de Anáhuac. I. El Congreso de Chilpancingo, preparativos. II. Inicio del Congreso. III. Los Sentimientos de la Nación. CAPÍTULO QUINTO La Constitución de Apatzingán. I. José María Morelos y Pavón. II. El texto constitucional. III. Carlos María de Bustamante. IV. Andrés Quintana Roo. V. José Manuel de Herrera. VI. Impacto. CAPÍTULO SEXTO El Plan de Iguala. I. Iturbide y la Independencia. II. El Plan de Iguala. III. Aportaciones del Plan. CONCLUSIÓN El constitucionalismo moderno es la formalización jurídica del tránsito del absolutismo del Antiguo Régimen al Estado liberal y democrático de derecho; tránsito que se obtiene gracias a la Revolución Burguesa (no necesariamente cruenta). Para México, la Revolución Burguesa coincide con su Guerra de Independencia, toda vez que estuvo sustentada en los principios y valores de la Ilustración, mismos que dan fundamento al constitucionalismo moderno; particularmente al principio de soberanía popular y el reconocimiento de la libertad natural como derecho fundamental del ser humano. El planteamiento de la soberanía popular en la Nueva España a principios del siglo XIX, estando a un paso de desaparecer como casa reinante la dinastía Borbón, no solamente era un postulado provocativo, pues daba sustento a la emancipación del virreinato novohispano respecto de la Península Ibérica, sino que daba pie al inicio del constitucionalismo en México. Afirmar, como lo hace el padre Francisco Javier Alegre, que la autoridad de los reyes viene dada por la comunidad, la cual funge como auténtica sede de la soberanía, implica, por un lado, que el gobernante ha de buscar el bien común de sus gobernados y, por el otro, que llegado el caso en que este rey solamente buscara su beneficio personal, la comunidad tiene la autoridad suficiente para destituirlo. Si en épocas anteriores se había considerado que el rey sólo respondía por sus acciones ante Dios y su conciencia. Ahora era lo contrario, el rey lo es por mandato de la comunidad, por lo que su libertad, así como su poder, ha de dirigirse primordialmente a la protección y fomento del bien común de la sociedad sobre la que gobierna. En el pensamiento del padre Francisco Javier Alegre tenemos las bases teóricas para justificar que la autoridad política pertenece al pueblo y, pese a transmitirlo al gobernante, llegado el caso en que éste se volviera tirano o desapareciera, volvería naturalmente al mismo pueblo, lo cual, servirá de fundamento a los insurgentes de principios del siglo XIX y al incipiente constitucionalismo mexicano. Como consecuencia lógica, para el caso de que un rey legítimo fuera destituido y suplantado por otro que, no hubiese sido consentido por el pueblo, en ese momento la soberanía legítima volvería a su sede originaria, el pueblo. Esta historia, como lo sabemos, ocurrió en 1808 en el Imperio español, y particularmente en la Nueva España, en donde un grupo de criollos, encabezados por los abogados Primo de Verdad y Juan Francisco Azcárate, argumentaron este mismo criterio. Díaz de Gamarra fue un hombre preocupado por la educación de la juventud, por ello buscó innovar en los métodos pedagógicos y en el contenido de la enseñanza. Decidió aplicar la filosofía moderna en lugar de la medieval, aún cuando no se separó por completo de ésta, la que intento oxigenar o refrescar con la ilustración. El nativo de Zamora, Michoacán, fue un filósofo guiado por el afán de la verdad y de dar a su patria una nueva filosofía, basada en los tiempos modernos, que llevaba la semilla del deseo de autonomía, de la desaparición de cualquier sometimiento. Si bien no hemos podido encontrar en la obra de Díaz de Gamarra alguna afirmación donde se desprenda directamente alguna doctrina política o jurídica que haya podido influir en el pensamiento revolucionario, en el método y estilo de sus obras se desprenden corrientes modernas que, de alguna manera, anuncian una revolución intelectual que influirán en las obras de Hidalgo, este último lo llevará a la práctica. A pesar de que Hidalgo no cita ni una sola vez a Díaz de Gamarra, parece imposible que no conociera su obra, toda vez que tuvo una notable influencia en las escuelas y en los ámbitos académicos novohispanos en general, especialmente en Zamora, Pénjamo, Valladolid y San Miguel el Grande. Tanto en Díaz de Gamarra como en Hidalgo se hacen presentes el alejamiento a la metafísica de filiación aristotélico-tomista y el predominio de un método histórico positivo y la ciencia experimental; el espíritu crítico y el rechazo por el argumento de autoridad. Ambos son son parte del movimiento intelectual iniciado por Clavijero y continuado por Alegre, Guevara, y otros más. Es posible que el movimiento reformador de los jesuitas haya influido en Hidalgo en su juventud, toda vez que, en el Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo de Valladolid, fue discípulo de los jesuitas y conoció personalmente a Clavijero. La ilustración en México se vio reflejada en el aspecto de una confianza en el entendimiento y en las ciencias positivas y experimentales, por lo que se refiere al agnosticismo y el naciente materialismo de los enciclopedistas no hubo tal influencia. Se puede decir que fue una ilustración con matiz cristiano. La actuación de Ignacio López Rayón, en nuestro movimiento de independencia, se puede considera de gris o poco afortunado, como caudillo militar no realizó un papel destacado, Cuando Hidalgo le cedió el mando, tuvo un rival que no lo dejó destacar, el Generalísimo Morelos. Rayón como estadista y creador de instituciones, no dio buenos resultados, es probable que su peor error haya sido su actitud vacilante con relación a la emancipación de España, situación en la que nunca se pronunció en forma clara por la independencia. Sin embargo, fue el primero caudillo en pretender dar forma político constitucional a nuestra patria con sus ya famosos Elementos. El Dr. Cos, figura poco reconocida por la historia, que debemos recordar como el primero o de los primeros pensadores que dieron fundamento a nuestro movimiento de independencia y, además de su valentía en el campo de batalla, su amor por la patria en donde nació y sus ideales, que a unos meses de su muerte se materializarían. El abordaje que el texto de Apatzingán hace de la soberanía es muy prolijo, responde a razones históricas, particularmente en el humanismo novohispano de la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII. El hecho es que desde 1808 la citada noción de soberanía popular representaba una especial preocupación de los criollos novohispanos, lo que explica la actitud de los constituyentes de Apatzingán. El "Decreto Constitucional para la Libertad de la América Mexicana" conocido como la "Constitución de Apatzingán", aborda el tema de los derechos humanos de manera importante y muy avanzada para su época, como es el caso de la igualdad, seguridad, propiedad y libertad. La íntegra conservación de estos derechos fundamentales es el objeto de la institución de los gobiernos y el único fin de las asociaciones políticas, tienen repercusión y siguen siendo desarrollados hasta nuestros días. Asimismo, ligado al pensamiento ilustrado francés. Todos los autores citados para este trabajo, concuerdan en que son muy pocos los datos con que contamos para conocer a fondo el Congreso de Chilpancingo y los textos fundamentales que ahí se produjeron, quizá por ello algunos autores sólo aportan datos aproximados. Por ello, todos concluyen que el trabajo definitivo de la Constitución de Apatzingán está por hacerse. La "Constitución de Apatzingán", pese a lo que representa para los mexicanos, nunca entró en vigor y no fue tomada en cuenta en los primeros momentos del México Independiente. En nuestro movimiento de independencia, comprendido de 1810 a 1821, se presentan dos momentos, el primero, que se inicia el 16 de septiembre de 1810 con el Grito de Dolores por don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla y finaliza con la muerte del Generalísimo José María Morelos y Pavón el 22 de diciembre de 1815, con un claro matiz popular y nacionalista, convocado y dirigido por sacerdotes católicos. El segundo momento, el 27 de septiembre de 1821, con la consumación de la Independencia, a cargo del controvertido coronel Agustín de Iturbide y Arámburu, con una visión opuesta al del primer momento toda vez que se instaura el primer imperio en México, visión del conservadurismo mexicano. Este movimiento no sólo estaba encaminado a obtener la independencia de España, sino que también estaba aparejado con la soberanía popular, inicio y justificación del movimiento, y la construcción de un Estado a partir de una ley fundamental. El "Plan de Iguala" no tuvo buena aceptación por su corte conservador, sin embargo, fue el instrumento normativo que fundamentó el actuar del Ejército Trigarante hasta la consumación de la Independencia y de las autoridades nacionales durante los dos años siguientes a la emancipación, por ello, es la causa formal y, por ende, el origen del Estado mexicano. Con este Plan se cierra el antiguo régimen de la Nueva España y se abre el México independiente. Por todo lo antes expuesto y por lo que representan los personajes que se mencionan en este trabajo, expresamos palabras de asombro, gratitud y admiración para esa ilustre generación.

El topillo campesino (Microtus arvalis Pallas, 1778) es un pequeño roedor herbívoro, que tiene preferencia por la vegetación herbácea verde, pudiendo ocupar una gran variedad de hábitats con este tipo de vegetación, desde prados montanos hasta llanuras cerealistas (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007; Amori et al., 2008; Jacob et al., 2013). El topillo campesino es una especie semifosorial que vive en galerías subterráneas, pero se alimenta principalmente en superficie. Es una especie con una gran capacidad reproductiva, ya que en condiciones favorables puede reproducirse durante todo el año y las hembras paren entre 2 y 11 crías, tras una gestación de entre 21 y 22 días, adquiriendo las hembras la madurez sexual durante el primer mes de vida y los machos en el segundo (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007). En consecuencia, en menos de dos meses puede haber una nueva generación. La especie es territorial en condiciones de baja abundancia, pero esa territorialidad se relaja en condiciones de alta densidad creándose colonias de individuos emparentados, lo que facilita la generación de poblaciones con altísima densidad (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007; Jacob et al., 2013). Este roedor presenta una amplia distribución, que abarca desde la mitad norte de Península Ibérica hasta oriente medio y el centro de Rusia, aunque está ausente de la mayor parte del sur de Europa, así como de Fenoscandia y el norte de Rusia. En gran parte de su área de distribución el topillo campesino presenta poblaciones con ciclos multianuales, siendo capaz de superar los 2000 topillos/ha en hábitats favorables durante años de máximo demográfico (Jacob et al., 2013). En las poblaciones con ciclos multianuales los máximos demográficos aparecen normalmente cada 3-5 años, aunque la periodicidad puede variar entre 2 y 10 años o incluso hay casos de máximos poblacionales todos los años en medios particularmente favorables (Mackin-Rogalska and Nabaglo, 1990; Delattre et al., 1999; Tkadlec and Stenseth, 2001). La amplia distribución, la dieta herbívora y las altas densidades que puede alcanzar en años de pico hacen que el topillo campesino pueda causar importantes daños en los cultivos que habita, por lo que está considerado el vertebrado más perjudicial para la agricultura de Europa (Jacob and Tkadlec, 2010). Las elevadas densidades que puede alcanzar, unido a sus hábitos de alimentación en superficie (Jacob et al., 2013), convierten al topillo campesino en una especie presa muy común en aquellas áreas donde está presente, tanto para depredadores aéreos (cernícalos, ratoneros, milanos, elanios o lechuzas, entre otros), en los que puede llegar a representar la mayor parte de su dieta (Paz et al., 2013), como para numerosos depredadores terrestres (comadrejas, turones, zorros o gatos entre otros) (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007). En España la especie se se encontraba restringida a las zonas montañosas de la mitad norte de la Península Ibérica hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XX, siendo los conflictos con agricultores y ganaderos prácticamente inexistentes (Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1), aunque hay referencias a problemas locales causados por otras especies de topillos desde hace siglos (D.L.M., 1806; Lafuente y Poyanos, 1807; Diaz, 1879; Avellán, 1899). Pero al final de la década de los 70 la especie aumentó su área de distribución, pasando a colonizar la mayor parte de las llanuras agrícolas de Castilla y León, unos 50000 km2, en menos de 30 años (Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1). Desde su llegada a las llanuras agrícolas castellanoleonesas la especie pasó a ser considerada una plaga, pues las explosiones demográficas que empezó a producir en áreas agrícolas causaron importantes daños en agricultura a nivel regional (Jacob and Tkadlec, 2010; Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1). Para reducir los daños causados en agricultura por las plagas de topillo, desde el inicio de la década de 1980, se han empleado principalmente campañas de control químico (Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1), basadas en el uso de rodenticidas anticoagulantes, aunque también se han empleado otras medidas como retirar la vegetación en reservorios potenciales de topillos (p.ej. lindes, arroyos,¿), mecánicamente o mediante quemas, o labrar las parcelas en otoño. Desgraciadamente estas medidas de control han tenido un impacto negativo en el medio ambiente (envenenamiento de especies no diana y de depredadores, efectos potenciales de las quemas o limpiezas de lindes sobre otras especies,¿) (Vidal et al., 2009; ASAJA, 2012; Sánchez-Barbudo et al., 2012; Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1). A los problemas agrícolas y medioambientales causados por las plagas de topillo campesino y su control hay que sumar el papel que pueden tener en la transmisión de distintas enfermedades (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007), en particular la tularemia (Vidal et al., 2009; García San Miguel et al., 2013). Como ejemplo durante la última gran plaga de topillo campesino en 2007 el uso generalizado de rodenticidas, incluyendo la distribución en superficie, en las grandes extensiones de terreno afectadas por la plaga, causo importantes daños ambientales e incluso pudo contribuir a la difusión de la tularemia, por lo que fue objeto de críticas desde el ámbito científico (Olea et al., 2009; Delibes-Mateos et al., 2011; Jubete, 2011; Ferreira and Delibes-Mateos, 2012). Esta situación estimuló el desarrollo de varios proyectos de investigación encaminados a aportar información para ayudar a resolver este conflicto, mejorando la gestión de plagas de topillos, en cuyo seno se ha desarrollado esta tesis doctoral. Contenido de la investigación: En la Península Ibérica el topillo campesino se encontraba restringido originalmente a las áreas montañosas de la mitad norte, pero a finales de los 1970s la especie empezó un proceso de expansión que le llevaría a colonizar totalmente Castilla y León en poco más de 20 años (Capítulo 1). Está rápida expansión no parece estar ligada a las tendencias climáticas observadas durante el periodo de estudio (1962-2002). Algunas tendencias podrían haber favorecido la expansión (incremento de temperatura invernal; Capítulo 2), mientras que otras no (reducción en precipitación invernal y estival, incremento de temperatura estival; Capítulo 2). Por otra parte los cambios en usos del suelo durante el mismo periodo fueron profundos y probablemente favorecieron la expansión del topillo, especialmente el incremento en la superficie de cultivos irrigados y alfalfas, y posiblemente también la reducción de ganado criado en extensivo y la homogeneización del medio agrario (Capítulo 2). Con su llegada a las llanuras agrícolas de Castilla y León la especie empezó a exhibir explosiones demográficas de gran amplitud, con una periodicidad aparente de 5 años (Capítulo 1). Estas explosiones demográficas han causado importantes daños en agricultura y problemas sanitarios, llevándose a cabo campañas para su control basadas en el uso de veneno. Debido a los daños que la especie produce en la agricultura, así como por los costes que las campañas de control generan, poder predecir cuándo y dónde se va a producir una plaga de topillo campesino permitiría una actuación temprana con los beneficios que esto conlleva. En la Península Ibérica las plagas de topillo ocurren en años con mayor crecimiento vegetativo del normal en verano (medido mediante el índice NDVI), y dado que el crecimiento vegetativo está muy relacionado con la climatología se evaluó si sería posible predecir plagas de topillo campesino mediante variables climáticas. El modelo más simple para la predicción de plagas de topillos (a nivel regional) está basado en la precipitación primaveral superior a la media (esta variable está también incluida en los modelos más complejos). La capacidad de predecir una plaga de topillo campesino es muy positiva, pero el conseguir esa predicción al final de la primavera podría limitar la efectividad de las medidas a tomar (Capítulo 3). Conseguir una predicción más temprana sería probablemente más útil, pero para ello se necesita más investigación. Un conocimiento más preciso de las fluctuaciones demográficas del topillo campesino también podría ayudar a la prevención temprana de las plagas producidas por la especie a nivel más local, así como a una aplicación de medidas de control con menos efectos negativos sobre el entorno. Para monitorizar poblaciones de roedores a gran escala lo eficiente es emplear índices indirectos de abundancia. Al inicio de esta tesis no existía ningún índice que se hubiera validado científicamente en España, por lo que se decidió realizar esta validación para ratificar su utilización para medir la abundancia de topillo campesino en medios agrarios castellanoleoneses. El resultado fue el índice PSpS (Presence of Signs per Square), que mediante la medida de presencia/ausencia de distintos indicios de actividad del topillo campesino (pastoreo y excrementos), permite medir de forma fiable la abundancia de topillo campesino a densidades medias-bajas (hasta los 70-100 topillos/ha, Capítulo 4a). Estas densidades se encuentran dentro del rango en el que se ha considerado en ciertos trabajos técnicos que se debería iniciar tratamiento (50 topillos/ha en invierno; Arenaz, 2006). Durante la elaboración de la tesis, el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente publicó un índice indirecto (índice MI), recomendado para evaluar la abundancia del topillo campesino. Realizamos un estudio específico para compararlo con el índice PSpS desarrollado en esta tesis, comprobando que ambos estaban muy relacionados entre sí, pero que las estimas de densidad producidas a bajas abundancias de topillo campesino eran mucho mayores (unas 14 veces más) con el índice MI que con PSpS (Capítulo 4.2). Esto indica que el índice MI, tal y como se ha planteado, no sería adecuado para monitorizar al topillo campesino en condiciones de baja densidad, pudiendo su uso llevar a realizar campañas de control de las poblaciones de topillo campesino innecesarias por sobreestimación de densidad. Las campañas de control químico, habitualmente utilizadas para controlar al topillo campesino, tienen un alto coste y pueden causar importantes daños al medio ambiente. Debido a los daños colaterales que pueden causar hay una tendencia global a disminuir la dependencia del control químico en la gestión de plagas de roedores, especialmente en Europa, donde el número de sustancias aprobadas para protección de cultivos tiende a reducirse (European Parliament and of the Council, 2006). Teniendo esto en cuenta, es recomendable estudiar la viabilidad de otras medidas de control del topillo campesino, como por ejemplo maneras de aumentarla densidad local de depredadores aéreos (Haim et al., 2007; Paz et al., 2013). En el último capítulo de esta tesis estudiamos la eficacia de incrementar las poblaciones de depredadores aéreos mediante la instalación de cajas nido para disminuir las abundancias de topillos, midiendo la abundancia de topillo campesino alrededor de dichas cajas nido usando índices indirectos basados en PSpS. Pudimos observar que la abundancia de topillo campesino cerca de cajas nido ocupadas era menor que lejos de las mismas (Capítulo 5), apoyando que suplementar cajas nido en áreas con escasez de lugares de nidificación puede actuar como control biológico de las poblaciones de topillo campesino a nivel local , siendo por lo tanto una pieza valiosa en cualquier estrategia de control integrado de plagas de topillo campesino en medios agrícolas que permitiría reducir el uso de rodenticidas. Conclusiones: 1. A finales de la década de los 70 el topillo campesino aumentó su área de distribución en la Península Ibérica, colonizando las planicies agrarias de Castilla y León (cerca de 50000 km2) en menos de 30 años. Desde su llegada a los paisajes agrarios, las nuevas poblaciones de la especie empezaron a producir explosiones demográficas periódicas, plagas a nivel regional, aproximadamente cada 5 años, ajustándose de forma estadísticamente significativa a un patrón cíclico. 2. Las plagas de topillo campesino en Castilla y León están asociadas de forma crónica con el uso de veneno (en especial rodenticidas anticoagulantes) para combatirlas y con la aparición de brotes de tularemia en humanos (esto último desde 1997 en adelante). 3. Los cambios observados en la evolución del clima entre 1962 y 2002 (antes y durante la expansión geográfica del topillo campesino) parecen insuficientes para explicar la expansión del área de distribución. En general, las variaciones climáticas estuvieron poco correlacionadas con la expansión, aunque no se descarta una influencia sinérgica con otros factores. 4. Los cambios en el uso del suelo a nivel agrario en Castilla y León entre 1962-2002 fueron profundos y algunos estuvieron fuertemente correlacionados con la expansión del topillo campesino, especialmente el incremento en la superficie ocupada por cultivos de regadío y cultivos forrajeros (cultivos verdes), en particular la alfalfa, un hábitat agrícola óptimo para la especie, así como con la reducción o estabulación de la cabaña ganadera en el área de distribución original. Esta asociación temporal entre expansión de poblaciones de topillo e incremento de cultivos verdes fue consistente a varias escales espaciales (regional, provincial y comarcal). 5. A nivel regional (Castilla y León) las plagas de topillo campesino coinciden con años que presentan una precipitación primaveral superior a la media y por tanto un mayor crecimiento vegetativo estival (evaluado mediante NDVI). La probabilidad de aparición de una plaga a escala regional aumenta en años con primaveras más lluviosas de lo habitual, veranos con temperaturas relativamente bajas y tras inviernos con temperaturas relativamente altas. En cambio, el otoño previo a un año de plaga estaba caracterizado por una producción vegetal relativamente baja. 6. Se ha evaluado la utilidad potencial de un índice indirecto sencillo, barato y fiable para mejorar la monitorización del topillo campesino en grandes extensiones de terreno. El índice PSpS (Presence of Signs per Square) presentado en esta tesis reúne esas condiciones, siendo muy adecuado para monitorizar la abundancia de topillos en densidades medias y bajas (hasta unos 70-100 topillos/ha). Este índice está bien correlacionado con el índice propuesto por el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Rural y Marino, pero demuestra ser más preciso ya que no sobreestima la abundancia en situaciones de baja densidad. 7. Utilizando un índice basado en PSpS como herramienta para estimar la abundancia de topillo campesino en áreas experimentales donde se han instalado cajas-nido para cernícalos vulgares y lechuzas comunes, hemos comprobado que la abundancia de topillos cerca de cajas nido ocupadas por estas rapaces (<180 m) era menor que lejos de ellas (¿ 180<540 m, ¿540 m) , lo que índica que colocar cajas nido para depredadores aéreos en áreas con pocos lugares naturales de nidificación puede ser una herramienta adecuada para el control biológico del topillo campesino a escala local. 8. Los profundos cambios en la agricultura que experimentó España durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX, mejoraron el rendimiento de las cosechas y redujeron al mismo tiempo la necesidad de mano de obra. Sin embargo también produjeron una serie de cambios ecológicos que facilitaron la colonización de las llanuras agrícolas de Castilla y León por parte del topillo campesino, creando la paradoja de que un sistema diseñado para maximizar el beneficio del agricultor al mismo tiempo favorece a una plaga que ocasionalmente puede perjudicarle de forma importante. El topillo campesino continuará siendo parte de los hábitats agrícolas de Castilla y León mientras las condiciones que le favorecen persistan, por lo tanto el impacto del topillo campesino debería ser tenido en cuenta en la planificación del manejo de los hábitats y paisajes agrícolas de Castilla y León.

W roku 1882 pojawia się w literaturze archeologicznej pierwsza wzmianka na temat grodziska w Nowińcu (Jentsch 1882a, s. 122; 1882b, s. 355). Niestety, niemalże cały następny wiek nie przyniósł nowych informacji. Stanowisko to dopiero jest wymieniane w opracowaniu Zofii Kurnatowskiej i Aliny Łosińskiej na temat terenów osadniczych u schyłku starożytności i we wczesnym średniowieczu (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, s. 111). Autorki umieszczają stanowisko na pograniczu terytoriów plemiennych Nice i Zara (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, s. 89). Nieco więcej uwag grodzisku w Nowińcu poświęca Grzegorz Domański w studium na temat osadnictwa wczesnośredniowiecznego nad dolną Nysą Łużycką, w którym grodzisko przypisuje plemieniu Zara (Domański 1983, ryc. 8). Inną koncepcję przynależności plemiennej grodu w Nowińcu miał Adam Wędzki, który twierdził, że należało ono do plemienia Nice (Wędzki 1970, s. 7-9). Jeszcze inaczej przynależność obszaru środkowej Lubszy widzieli Jerzy Lodowski i Jerzy Szydłowski (1991, ryc. 1), którzy twierdzli, że obszar ten był pustką osadniczą pomiędzy plemionami Słupian i Zara. Problem ten trudno rozwiązać bez szerszego rozpoznania zaplecza osadniczego najważniejszych grodów. Niestety, stan badań nad osadnictwem wczesnośredniowiecznym terytorium plemiennego Zara jest bardzo słaby, na co zwracały już uwagę Zofia Kurnatowska i Alina Łosińska (1970, s. 89). Dopiero w ostatnich latach dokonano niewielkiego postępu w tym zakresie. W latach 80. i na początku lat 90. zlokalizowano drugi ośrodek plemienny Zara, a mianowicie grodzisko w Żarach (Nowiński 2005). Dzięki pracom archeologicznym podjętym w latach 1986 i 1987 oraz 2004 na "Winnym Wzgórzu" ustalono dokładną lokalizację grodziska, chociaż nie ustalono precyzyjnego przebiegu i chronologii umocnień. W trakcie pierwszych dwóch sezonów badań (w części południowej grodziska) odsłonięto pozostałości wału zbudowanego ze skrzyń drewnianych wypełnionych ziemią, gliną i kamieniami. Najnowsze prace przeprowadzone po przeciwnej stronie przyniosły także odkrycie wału wzmocnionego od strony wewnętrznej licem kamiennym, a od zewnętrznej tłustą gliną (Nowiński 2005, s. 10, 11). Niewykluczone, że w 2008 r. natrafiono na pozostałości osady przygrodowej (Gruszka, Wolanin 2008). W latach 2002 i 2003 przeprowadzono badania ratunkowe na domniemanym grodzisku w Nowińcu (Dziedzic, Gruszka 2004), położonym przy północnej granicy plemienia Zara. Stanowisko było badane przez Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Archeologów Polskich Oddział Lubuski, a następnie przez Muzeum Archeologiczne Środkowego Nadodrza w Świdnicy k. Zielonej Góry. Oba sezony badawcze finansowane były ze środków Lubuskiego Wojewódzkiego Konserwatora Zabytków w Zielonej Górze. Celem badań było zabezpieczenie stanowiska przed dewastacją spowodowaną wybieraniem piachu. Kierownikiem prowadzonych wówczas badań był mgr Piotr Dziedzic, a uczestnikami byli mgr mgr Sławomir Kałagate, Bartłomiej Gruszka i Paweł Stachowiak. W trakcie badań rozpoznano obszar 4 arów, najbardziej narażonych na zniszczenie, na którym odkryto 29 obiektów i ponad 6000 fragmentów naczyń, niemalże 1500 kości zwierzęcych oraz liczny i bogaty zespół innych zabytków ruchomych, w tym elementy uzbrojenia i rzędu końskiego (ostroga, grot strzały czy pobocznicę wędzidła). Rzadko spotykanym znaleziskiem jest odkrycie pracowni brązowniczej wraz z grupą zabytków służących do obróbki i wytopu najprawdopodobniej brązu. W skład zespołu wchodziły narzędzia jubilerskie, półsurowiec brązowy, tygielek odlewniczy odważnik oraz fragment dyszy. Tego rodzaju znaleziska są dużą rzadkością, zwłaszcza na stanowiskach leżących poza głównymi szlakami handlowymi. Nieczęstym znaleziskiem jest także odkrycie kompletnej prażnicy zainstalowanej w jednym z obiektów. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych i opublikowanych w niniejszym opracowaniu badań specjalistycznych możliwa jest rekonstrukcja środowiska przyrodniczego okolic grodziska, jego zaplecza gospodarczego, podstawowych gałęzi gospodarki mieszkańców grodu oraz miejsca, jakie gród zajmował w systemie osadniczym IX–X wiecznego pogranicza śląsko-łużyckiego. Wykonanie licznych analiz naczyń pozwoliło na uzyskanie materiału porównawczego, co w przyszłości pomoże w poznaniu dróg napływu i rozprzestrzeniania się nowych idei stylistycznych i formalnych ceramiki. Interdyscyplinarne opracowanie wyników badań grodziska w Nowińcu wnosi istotną, nową wiedzę na temat okresu plemiennego tej części Łużyc. Dotychczas bowiem nie udostępniono kompleksowych wyników badań żadnego stanowiska z tej części Polski z analogicznego okresu. Opracowanie wyników badań oraz druk niniejszej publikacji został dofinansowany ze środków Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. ; The stronghold in Nowiniec was firstly mentioned in the archeological literature in 1882 (Jentsch 1882a, s. 122; 1882b, s. 355). Unfortunately, almost whole, next century didn't bring any further information. Eventually, the site was mentioned in the work by Zofia Kurnatowska and Alina Łosińska, which was concerned of settlement area in the late antiquity and in the beginning of the Early Middle Ages in the southern part of Lubuskie Voivodship (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, p. 111). These scholars located this site in the borderland of tribal territory of tribes Nice and Zara (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, p. 89). A bit more about stronghold in Nowiniec devoted Grzegorz Domański in his work about Early Medieval settlement at the lower Lusatian Neisse, in which he assigned this fortress to the Nice tribe (Domański 1983, fig. 8). Other idea of this stronghold tribal affiliation was given by Adam Wędzki, who thought that it belonged to the Nice tribe (Wędzki 1970, pp. 7-9). According to Jerzy Lodowski and Jerzy Szydłowski (1991, fig. 1) the territory of the middle Lubsza River was a settlement hiatus between tribes Selpoli and Zara. This riddle is very hard to solve without a proper recognition of the hinterland of main strongholds. Unfortunately, the state of research of Early Medieval settlement of the Nice tribe is very poor, what has been already pointed out by Zofia Kurnatowska and Alina Łosińska (1970, s. 89). Only in the recent years some development in this issue has been made (Nowiński 2005; Gruszka, Wolanin 2008). Stronghold in Nowiniec, site no. 2 is located in Lubuskie Voivodship, Żary Province. This site is situated in the eastern ridge of Lubsza River valley, on the right shore, in the Holocene meadow terrace, which is c. 0,5-1,5 m above river level. According to the physiography, the stronghold is located in the area of Great Poland-Silesian lowlands, in the macroregion of Milicko–Głogowskie Decrease, in the territory of one of distinguished mezoregions, videlicet Nowosolska Decrease. The nearest hinterland of stronghold in Nowiniec is recognized only on surface survey level, conducted during AZP survey. In 2002 and 2003 rescue archeological fieldworks was taken on the area of stronghold in Nowiniec (Dziedzic, Gruszka 2004). The excavation was led by Scientific Association of Polish Archeologists, Department in Lubuskie Province, and later by the Archeological Museum of the Odra River Territory in Świdnica, near Zielona Góra. Both seasons of excavations was funded by Voivodship Conservator of Monuments in Zielona Góra. Their aim was to preserve the site from devastation caused by the illegal digging of the sand. The head of the crew (Sławomir Kałagate MA, Bartłomiej Gruszka MA, Paweł Stachowiak MA) was Piotr Dziedzic MA. During the research the area of 4 are, mostly exposed to damage, was excavated. 29 archaeological features and over 6000 of ceramics fragments, almost 1500 animal bones and very rich collection of other artefacts, including weapon and horse ridding equipment, was discovered there. Thanks to the taken and published in this volume specialist examinations we were able to reconstruct natural environment of the surroundings of the stronghold. Geological-geomorphological research has shown the kind of soil the inhabitants were using and potential places of farming exploitation. Palynological examinations revealed the moment of appearing (9/10th-10th c.) and domination of plants (mainly rye, unidentified grains and accompanying weeds). The analysis of plant macro-remains completed the information about using specific plant species in the farming of past inhabitants of the fortress. On the prints visible on the walls of the large vessel used to roast (so called prażnica) some remains of linen, rye, barley as well as weed were noticed. Zooarcheological analysis have given us some answers to the questions of the structure of animal breeding as well as the meaning of hunting in the life of inhabitants of the stronghold. The cattle was the most important and dominating species, next was a pig bones and the last sheep/goat remains. Some amount of wild animals bones, including deer, boar, roe deer, moose as well as brown bear, was also noticed. Many specialist analysis which were taken for this publication, were really innovatory, and for the area of South-western Poland were carried out for the first time (petrography and chemical analysis of ceramics, thermoluminescence dating of ceramics, metallographic analysis of Early Medieval militaries and also traceological analysis flint stone artefacts from that period). Thanks to the analysis of ceramics we were able to establish the routes of influx and spreading of new tendencies in style and forms of pottery. The basic stages of production of pottery were reconstructed, including pointing out the places from where the stock was taken (clay and temper), and also establishing the main ways of building the vessels as well as temperature and atmosphere in which they were fired in kiln. Very rare find seems to be fragments of clay beaker, which appeared in the features no 3 and 7. In the feature 15 totally broken, but complete large vessel used to roast or drying (so called prażnica) was found. It could have been probably connected with a metalworking workshop (feature no 18). Establishing of its function was possible due to the find of artefacts connected with iron and non-ferrous metals fabrication (nozzle fragment, crucible, bronze raw material, jewelry tools, bowl-shaped slags) Those kind of finds are characteristic for big centers with essential economic and political meaning, e.g. Kruszwica (Hensel-Moszczyńska 1981/82, pp. 129–219), Czersk (Rauhutowa 1976), Stradów (Dąbrowska 1965), Szczecin Wzgórze Zamkowe (Szczecin, 1983, s. 121), Wiślica (Rajewski 1954, p. 10), Wrocław Ostrowów Tumski (Kaźmierczyk et all 1976, pp. 178–181) or Wolin Srebrne Wzgórze (Wojtasik 1978). The discovering of a metalworking workshop in the Nowiniec stronghold let us to put this stronghold in the place of one of the most important centre of the Zara tribe, and proves its big meaning in the 9-10th-century settlement and economic system this part of Silesian-Lusatian borderland. This assumption is also proved by other finds which are connected with presence of temporary or constant presence of economic and social elites representants, maybe some local leader with his military troops (so called drużyna). Beside some animal remains who can be assigned to the group of Animalia Superiora (including the bear paw, which was regarded in the Early Middle Ages as a dainty of elites), above mentioned sherds of ceramic bowls (intended for drinking honey or wine, considered as a luxury tableware), was also discovered. The presence of well equipped military troops is also proved by findings of militaries, including hook-like spur, arrowhead or curb bit. Far-reach trade is displayed by discovering of lead weight, but also occurrence of stone artefacts, made of a stock from the Sudetes or beyond Sudetes area. The chronology of stronghold in Nowiniec, was established according to the environmental and classical archeological analysis. Thanks to the morphological-stylistic-typological analysis of pottery, we were able to realize that there were two visible pottery mainstreams – traditional, connected still with the tribe period, and also progressive – typical for early Piast state period. The most dominating seems to be the part of the vessels which were made in the hand molding and partially coating on the potter's wheel technique. Two coned vessels of more or less marked belly break, ornamented with a plastic roller (Tornov type) as well as different kind of several, crossing rite lines motives, vertical or herringbone patterns (Menkendorf type). In the stronghold in Nowiniec the share of plastic roller vessels was almost 40% of every ornamented taxons. Almost the same data was established for the eponymic site in Tornow, where the sherds with a plastic roller (Tornow A and B type altogether) in the 1st phase of the stronghold (A phase) appeared in circa 37% of whole ceramic material, and in the phase two (B phase) circa 50% of all. In the sites of similar chronology, e.g. Zawada, site no 1 and Sulechów, site no 28, the amount of ornamented with plastic roller vessels was circa 57% and less than 17% of all decorated ceramics sherds. Almost identical percentage of vessels ornamented with a plastic roller (almost 39%) was reordered in the in settlement complex of Klenica stronghold, site no 4 (Gruszka 2010, p. 129). Basing on the numerous parallels (see Gruszka, in this volume, pp. 48–49, 52; 2010; Dymaczewska, Dymaczewski 1967, pp. 208–218) and also dendrochronological datings (Biermann 1999, pp. 97-123; Kara, Krąpiec 2000, p. 317 and next., 320; Biermann, Kieseler, Nowakowski 2008, p. 87) we were able to assume that both sets which include the pottery of Tornow-Klenica complex can be dated to the 1st half of the 9th-10th c or even to the beginning of the 11th c. (Brzostowicz 2002, p. 34). Almost half smaller (beyond 22%) is the amount of Menkendorf type vessels. It is considered that the biggest portion of these forms are in the 9th-10th c., and they're contemporary with the Tornow type, even though they're are appearing in the younger chronological phases (Łosiński 1996, p. 438). During the research we were able to discover also, some amount of wholly coated vessels, which are characteristic for early Piast pottery from the 11th c. Contribution of this kind of pottery appeared mainly in the ceiling of feature no 7 and also in occupational layer. Occurrence of wholly coated vessels was observed in highly damaged layers of Klenica, site no 4 (Gruszka 2010, p. 132) and also in Zawada, site no 1, where they are distinguishing the 2nd phase of functioning of these sites (11th c.). Chronological range based on the ceramics analysis was confirmed by dating of metal artefacts, including hook-like spur, curb bit or lead weight, discovered in the stronghold (8th-9th c.). The chronology of this site was also based on some environmental studies. When we are using them we need to have in mind large margin of error of results. This especially concerns radiocarbon dating (Walanus, Goslar 2004) as well as thermoluminescence dating. The most numerous group of samples (shreds) was given to the thermoluminescence dating. Thanks to this method we're able to establish that the chronology of analyzed vessels contains in a 100 years time period (without including the error of this method), between 849 and 960 (2nd half of the 9th–2nd half of the 10th c.). The results of thermoluminescence analysis don't exclude the possibility of dating the younger pottery records even to the 1st half of the 9th c. Charred wood relics, which was found in the feature no 17, come from the beginning of 11th c. If we include some additional thermoluminescence dating of some shreds even to 1st half of the 11th c., we must consider a possibility of break of settlement on the stronghold in Nowiniec deep into the 11th c. According to these data, we can assume, that the beginning of functioning of this fortress occurs in the 2nd half of the 9th c. The oldest pottery records, which can be dated according to parallels and thermoluminescence analysis, come exactly from this time period. The stronghold biggest development occurs in the 10th c., however its fall happened most likely in the 1st half of the 11th c. ; Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego ; Bartłomiej Gruszka