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Putu Yulita Ayu Werdhaningrum D3 – Business English, Faculty of Languages and Arts, University State of Surabaya, hyoelita@yahoo.co.id Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is a technical services unit that can carry out the promotion and development of SMEs and Human Resources through technical training in the field of management, technology, process, production, standardization, environmental, and information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya has the aim to improve the performance of the technical implementation of various industrial units and crafts as well as developing human resource to support the competitiveness of the global market. In support of all the aim of the UPT, the researchers looked at the role of leadership to participate in the process of developing the performance of the craftsmen. Therefore, researchers are trying to see and understand firsthand how the leadership role to improve the performance of the craftsmen and what the response generated afterwards. Through the process of making this final assignment, the author can know that leadership is very supportive to improve the performance of the craftsmen. And by conducting job training, participated in various exhibitions, and provide counseling and guidance on a variety of crafts has given quite satisfactory results for the craftsmen in preparation to launch a new world in opening a small business and can also be one way to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. Keywords: Leader, Managerial Skill, Craftsmen. Introduction High unemployment in Indonesia, including the city of Surabaya. It then becomes a reference for policy actors seek alternative employment for others to absorb the available labor. Entrepreneurship is one alternative that can provide solutions to these problems. As of 2009, the number of unemployed in Indonesia as many as 3.713 million people, higher than the desired target of government at the level of 2.38 million people (Kompas, 2009). In addition, until 2007, there were 740,206 unemployed college graduates. This proves that the field work in Indonesia is very small while the number of graduates each year continues to grow, Eddy Suryanto Soegoto, 2010. Entrepreneurship in the goods sector is economic artery in big cities like Surabaya. The high increase of population, resulting in the need for goods is also increasing rapidly. The problem becomes more complex due to the time available did not allow the public to be able to do all the priority needs at once. Bids will need items that instantly becomes an option. According Ritonga (2011), unemployment is mainly due to the problem of unskilled labor and skilled. The company prefers candidates who already have the skills or expertise. The issue is very relevant in our country, given the large numbers of unemployed are people who do not have the skills or expertise. The causes of unemployment are very visible from the complaint that the lack of skills in a person. The lack of confidence in one's soul, lack of interest and lack of socializing with others is also very influential in the intensity rising unemployment. It also agrees with Drs. Sudrajad, MM. (2011) who said "Cause Unemployment in Indonesia is the lack of desire to work, lack of skills and have thoughts just want to be an employee." This should be addressed with all efforts possible, because the average company today want and need employees who have the skill and expertise. Strengthening small and medium business sector is one of Indonesia's development policy. SMEs have the ability to survive in times of economic crisis gripping the country. At great effort faltered storm knocked down the financial crisis, the SME sector is able to give breath to the nation's economy. On this basis then arise initiative on craftsmen, to be able to meet those needs, by following the guidance and development by implementing the rules or ordinances of a leader who is really to improve the performance skills of a craftsman and judge it as something that is fairly decent to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, this is the reason why the researcher write about the efforts of a craftsman in business by implementing the rules of a good leader to improve their skills. In this case why the writer discuss this issue in order to make a useful input for all beginner craftsmen in Indonesia in order to become a successful craftsman and can open their own business field and in order to reduce the value of unemployment in Indonesia, especially in Surabaya. In the discussion of this material writer took guidance on UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. Because according to the writer here is one of the features of a good government and the right to develop one's own skills to become a craftsman by implementing the rules of a successful leader as well. And in this case, the craftsmen also want to improve the quality and quantity of a craftsman in Indonesia. And with the application is expected to be more able to produce more young craftsmen who are talented and can create new business field and to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. By conducting training to improve the skills of a person more likely to get jobs than those who do not. This is because companies prefer to hire people with the skills, so do not bother to practice again. And can even be a great opportunity to expand the opening of a new business pitch. This is also one way to overcome the educated unemployment is mostly done by the government, AnneAhira (Social and Cultural Rights, 2012). Based on the research, the objective of the study are : To describe the implementation of leadership role, To implementation of leadership role of the craftsman, To analyze the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role. The researcher hopes this study can give contribution to the student, craftsmen, University, the institution and for the readers. For the student it can be provide new insights about the real world of work to students in the field of trade and industry and can prepare themselves before entering the world of work firsthand. For the Craftsmen to be a reference to become a successful entrepreneur by implementing the rule of a leader. For the University as input to evaluate the Extend to which the curriculum has been implement in accordance with requirements of skilled manpower in the field. For the Institution as a media to open up new business opportunities as an example for students. For the Readers can provide the information needed by the reader. Definition of Leadership Leadership is a person or a leader who can build the subordinates especially in this case is a craftsman to craftsmen to become a more developed and has a broad view of creativity in him. By applying the concepts and meaning of fostering a craftsman can be expected to be a key new birth craftsmen talented and have high creativity. A leader in this regard should be always trying to develop the talents of the craftsmen gradually and regularly which lead to the desired goals or objectives. Leaders and leadership can be approached from different angles (Thoha, 1986:3). Each approach will bear different meanings with other approaches. Leaders and leadership needed by humans due to the advantages and disadvantages possessed by each human being. The leader is a person who has certain skills that can influence their followers to cooperate towards the achievement of predetermined objectives. The ideal leader is a dream for every person, because that's what leaders will bring forward-pullback of an organization, institution, company, state and nation. Surely the soul of a leader must have good soul of leadership that has been described in the above basic concepts and leadership should not be viewed as a facility for control, but meant as a sacrifice that must be carried out as well as possible. Leadership is also not arbitrary to act, but the power to serve and protect and do the fairest. Miftha Thoha in his book Organizational Behavior (1983:255) leader is someone who has the ability to lead, it means having the ability to influence another person or group without regard to the form of reason. Kartini Kartono (1994:33) the leader is a person who has the skills and strengths in particular skills and strengths in one area, so he was able to influence others to jointly carry out certain activities, for the achievement of one or more goals. Concept of Leadership The basic concept of the soul of leadership by Mr. Athoenk's (2010): Leadership is a force that flows in a way that is not known to the leader of the disciples, encouraging his followers to be mobilized on a regular basis to the point that formulated. Working towards goals and achievements provide satisfaction for leaders and followers. Leadership is also coloring and colored by the place, the environment and climate in which it serves. Leadership does not work in an empty room, but the atmosphere created by the various elements. Leadership is always active, it could change in rank, intensity and extent. Leadership works according to the principles, tools and methods are defined and fixed. Leadership Function According to Yuki (1998) the function of leadership is trying to influence and direct the employees to work hard, have high morale and high motivation to achieve organizational goals. This is primarily tied to the function of regulating the relations between individuals or groups within the organization. Craftsmen Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". Craftsmen create great skill in the manual arts. Craftsmen also called creator, which means people who grow or make or create things. The Relationship between Leadership and Craftsmen In this case the role of a leader is also very important and participate in fostering and development by conducting training and exhibitions the work of craftsmen. And may provide a strategy to cultivate the efforts of craftsmen. It is expected that the craftsmen also have the soul of a leader in developing a business. It is also stated by Ari Setiawanan (2011) in his personal blogger states "Leadership is the process of influencing or give examples of leaders to followers in an effort to achieve organizational goals. Natural way to learn leadership is to "do it in the workplace" with practices like apprenticeship in a skilled artist, craftsman, or practitioner. In this connection, the expert is expected as part of its role providing teaching / instruction ". Discussion about leaders and leadership as well as its influence on a craftsman in general explains how to be a good leader, and a style that suits the nature of leadership and what conditions need to be possessed by a good leader. Nevertheless it is still difficult to implement in full, so that in practice only a few leaders are able to perform well and the leadership to bring his followers to the desired state. The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research activities will not regardless of where the data is the raw material of information to provide a specific description of the object of research. Data are facts collected by researchers for the purpose of solving the problem or answer the research questions. Research data can come from a variety of sources collected by using a variety of techniques during the course of the study. Based on the source, research data can be grouped into two types of data qualitative research and quantitative research data. In this research, entitled "The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen? And How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?" so this research used qualitative research. Qualitative data is data that collected by means of a process that saw the object of research. Such data over see the process rather than the result because it is based on a description of the process and not on mathematical calculations. Data collection techniques include observation, interviews, literature reviews, etc. It also agrees with Cahya Suryana (2010:115) which says the data is qualitative data in the form of words, not in the form of numbers. Qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, the discussion focused or observations that have been set forth in the notes field (transcript). Other forms of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video recordings. In this research the researcher conducted research in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. UPT is Technical Services Unit are carrying out promotion and development of Small and Medium Industries (SMEs) and the Human Resources or business through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standardization, Environment and Information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is located on Jl. Pagesangan II / 38-42 Surabaya. In this place has two training rooms, each for a capacity of 40 people, has 10 bedrooms for 40 craftsmen, and other facilities provided. The writer believe this place highly qualified resource persons and trusted to get info on how the implementation of leadership role of the craftsmen to improve their performance and other info needed writer. In this case the implementation of leadership role is expected to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen and to cultivate leadership skills and can teach it back to the new craftsmen later. In improving the performance of the craftsmen, the researcher often do see education and training, held an exhibition to the work of the craftsmen, and attend job training activities in the field of craft in UPT. Therefore the role of leadership is needed to manage and cultivate the managerial skills of the craftsmen. The role of leaders build skills one must master thriving. This is the next level of the management skills pyramid. Someone who must master personal development. This is the level of management skills, which shows the skills a person must master to be successful and show how management skills build on each other toward success. These are the basics that made the role of a leader for the management skill craftsmen: Plans Set Direct Control Motivation Conducting Training and Coaching The direct involvement of leader In this study the data of things that can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, caring and discipline. All that can be applied when crafting artisan training, opened the exhibition and even open their own craft business. Which was all the training can provide the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing artisans to improve their skills through training and creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. By implementing a leadership role in the managerial skill craftsmen are expected to increase knowledge of the design and color combination to make crafts. Craftsmen can transfer the new knowledge gained to other craftsmen and all those who would learn a new craftsmen. Craftsmen can be more creative in making other handicrafts. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter will analyze the data that has been collected. The purpose of analyzing the data is to answer the questions of the researcher. As mentioned in the first chapter, "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen?" and "How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?". The subject in this research are the craftsmen. From sources that the authors could have about ±30 craftsmen who are doing the implementation and development of skill. In this research the author prefers the craftsmen making plaiting and ceramic or gypsum. The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen In this case the data subject can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, a sense of caring and discipline. All that can be applied when artisans craft training, opened the exhibition and even opened his own craft business. Which is the training it can provide all the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing crafters to enhance the capabilities and skills through creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. With the moral support and provide the necessary facilities, providing motivation, conduct training and job fairs for the efforts of craftsmen also a way to improve the performance of the leader of the craftsmen. Here are some ways to improve the performance of the craftsmen: Guide and cultivate prospective new employers that will be developed into an independent businessman. Given coaching or income. Given technical training. Examples given creative woven design, gypsum, and ceramics. Held the exhibition of the craftsmen. The purpose of these activities is intended to: Improve the skills of the craftsmen, To foster the craftsmen in order to thrive, That the craftsmen more creative, Can give entrepreneurs insight, To support the welfare and craftsmen, Fostering the craftsmen to be independent and get satisfactory results, Mental strengthen the craftsmen to become a successful entrepreneur, as a successful entrepreneur should require struggle and sacrifice. The Craftsmen Respond after the Implementation of Leadership Role Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". For craftsmen to apply leadership role to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen is very important because it can help the craftsmen to be able to perform all the activities during the training on the craft. In this case that is the primary motivation is a craftsman wants to be a successful artisans, craft businesses can open and create new jobs to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. Suggestion The expectations of the craftsmen is that welfare can be much better and can open their own business field by always applying a given leadership roles during a training run. And hopefully this research can be useful for readers to find the information they want to know about the craftsmen can add insight and knowledge. And also can make a new discourse about the craftsmen at UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi Dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelayanan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian Dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Jawa Timur, 2012, Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Karyawan dan Pengrajin, Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Skill. About.com Guide Http//.www.geogle.com.Bisnis dan Kewirausahaan Qibtiyah, Mariyatul. 2008. "PENGEMBANGAN USAHA SENTRA PENGRAJIN BATIK". Malang: UIN. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Guide. About.com Guide. It's retrieved from http://management.about.com/bio/F-John-Reh-229.htm http//.www.geogle. com.What is Leadership Drs. Sudrajad, MM. 2011. Kiat Mengentaskan Pengangguran dan Kemiskinan melalui Wirausaha. Bumi Aksara Athoenk's. Mr. (2010) Konsep Jiwa Pemimpin / Leadership. http://athoenk46.wordpress.com/?s=konsep+jiwa+pemimpin Zahra. Fatimah. Opinion Blog Unemployment, 2012. Universitas Gunadarma: Jakarta. It's retrieved from http://fzahrah.blogspot.com/ Smith. Nasuha. 2011. Teori Dasar Kepemimpinan. It's retrieved from http://nasuhasmith13.blogspot.com/2011/03/teori-dasar-kepemimpinan.html Wiradi. Dewa. 2012. Definisi Kepemimpinan Menurut Para Ahli dan Dalam Beberapa Kamus Modern Elqorni. Ahmad. 2011. Definisi pemimpin dan kepemimpinan. Emzeth. 2010. Kriteria Seorang Pemimpin from http://www.emzeth.com/2010/11/kriteria-seorang-pemimpin-sejati.html#ixzz1u0ecM9K6 Bahrodin. Deby Putra. 2012. Arti seorang Pemimpin, from http://www.dputra.com/2012/02/arti-seorang-pemimpin.html Setiadi, MKEP. 2011. Konsep Kepemimpinan. Power Point: Jakarta. http://referensi-kepemimpinan.blogspot.com/

Issue 43.6 of the Review for Religious, November/December 1984. ; General Government and Leadership The Benedictine Prayer of Beauty A°n Annotation 19 Retreat Experience Volume 43 Number 6 Nov./Dec., 1984 R~-:v~l~v,' l:or R~!~.~(;~otJs (ISSN 0034-639X). published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial offices are located at Room 428:3601 Lindell Blvd.: St. Louis. MO 63108. Rt.'.v~;w ~:or R~.~(~otJs is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus. St. Louis. MO. © 1984 by Rev~w ~:or R~.~(~otJS. Composed. printed and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis. MO. Single copies: $2.50. Subscription U.S.A. $10.00 a year: $19.00 for two years. Other countries: add $2.00 per year (postage). For subscription orders or change of address, write R~,vl~:w voR R~:H(;~ol~s: P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Review Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor Nov./Dec. 1984 Volume 43 Nttmber 6 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to REw~:w I.oR Rl-:lol(;~otJs; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. Queslions for answering should be sent to Joseph F'. Gallen, S.J.; Jesuit Community; St. Joseph's University; City Avenue at 54th St.; Philadelphia, PA 19131. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from REWEW I-'OU R~.:t.tGious; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; SI. Louis, MO 63108. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. The Spiritual Exercises and Preferential Love for the Poor Peter-Hans Kolvenbach, S.J. Father Kolvenbach was elected General Superior of the Society of J~sus in September, 1983. This article is based on an address he delivered, on February 7, 1984, to the "VII Ignafian Course." an annual program of study/reflection sponsored by Rome's Centrum Ignatianum Spiritualitatis, and was first published in its bulletin, CIS: Vol. XV. no. I (1984), pp. 77-90. Fathgr Kolvenbach, as well as the Center, may be addressed at: C.P. 6139:00195 Roma, Italy. lain very pleased to be here this evening to offer my contribution to the VII Ignatian Course. Not being a specialist, what I shall share with you will be a simple meditation on a theme that is both relevant and important: the link between the Spiritual Exercises and' our preferential love for the poor. Clearly, if not necessarily dramatically, a preferential love for the poor~is contained in the spirituality of the Spiritual Exercises. We find, for example, in the section entitled "Mysteries of the Life of Our Lord"---a text in which the personal comments of Ignatius are rare and thus all the more significant--that a preferential love for th~ poor finds indirect expression in Ignatius' emphatic reference to the situation Of those chosen to be apostles; that they were men "of humble condition" [275]. Likewise the only discourse Iogion explicitly offered for contemplation in the course of the Exercises i.s the Sermon on the Mount, which in the text'begins with.the beatitude concerning the poor [278]. Ignatius also comments that, while Jesus overturned the tables and scattered the money of the wealthy money-changers, "to the poor vendors of d6ves he spoke kindly" [277], asking them'to respect the prayerful purpose of the temple, his Father's house. But these references evidence only an indirect connection with our theme, .the preferential love of the poor. "Rules for the Distribution of Aims": A Forgotten Text There is to be found in the Exercises, however, a much mor6 direct 801 1~09 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec:. 1984 connection between the spiritual urge to follow the Lord and the help that must be offered to the poor. The classic means of giving assistance to the poor had always.been alms-giving. And it is in the treatment of this subject that we shall find the most explicit link between the spirituality of the Exercises and an effective love for the poor, in an oft-forgotten section of the text entitled: "Rules for the Distri-bution of Aimsr' [337-344]. Why has this passage been so often forgotten? Above all because of the very concrete and specific application it makes to a single situation. In fact, ~he document is explicitly addressed to almoners, those who by virtue of their office are supposed to look after the poor, to clerics who practiced charity as their .function. Thus the tone of the text is very. clerical, very priestly. But despite the text's heavy emphasis on ~institutionalism with its many references to ministry, condition, office and function, Ignatius also points to Christ the high priest as the one who is the model and norm for all charitable activity. This particular reference to Christ the high priest [344] expands the horizon of an otherwise purely clerical document, calling every Christian to become a sharer in Christ's ministry through the exercise of almsgiving. In fact, in this document Ignatius takes the office of almoner for granted thus also implic-itly recognizing that not every Christian is called to the direct and immediate exercise of this task in regard to the poor nevertheless he exhorts almoners not to be content to work as mere functionaries, but to be inspi~red by the ministry on behalf of the poor that was exercised by Christ himself. Such an attitude ought to be t.he concern of every Christian without exception, each according to his vocation and state of life. Ig0atius, then, clearly intends this document directly, for a specific group of persons, At.the same time, however, he makes it clear that all Christians ought to have a special bond with the poor. There is another reason why this document is so often overlooked. It is the fact that the practice of aim sgiving no longer has today the honored p lace that this preeminent exercise of charity had in the time of Ignatius. In an older economic order it was principally by means of alms that the good will of the rich helped to correct excessive social inequality--th6ugh of course in a very imperfect.way. Saint Francis. the poor man of Assisi. had his brethren pray every day so that. thanks to therich, they could continue to be poor. Modern persons, however, even if they be poor. are no longer willing to be under anv kind of demeaning economic dependency. They expect and demand to receive from the state the means of a suitable livelihood as their right, not as something subject tb arbitrary distribution, nor dependent upon the mere '~good will" of the "good rich"--an attitude that is the very opposite of what is involved in the practice of almsgiving. Too. the modern untrammeled esteem for the value of work tends to bring almsgiving into disfavor, not just because ¯ the practice is seen as an affront to human dignity, but also because it could so easily,,encourage idleness and sloth. Preferential Love for the Poor / 803 Ignatius and Help for the Poor in his day Ignatius had to face squarely this problem of helping the poor. When in 1535, hating just finished his studies in Paris. he was resting in his native air of Azpeitia. he found himself perforce involved in the overall spiritual renewal of the townspeople. The reform of, charitable works in the area could not but form a part of this general program of renewal. F~r Ignatius. there was a self-evident connection between the two. o On the one hand (and this was to be true of him later in Rome)~ Ignatius did not want to see the poor obliged to beg: all must 'simply be helped according to their need. On the other hand he positively ,encouraged-that all alms from whatever source, whether civic authorities,~'the clergy or the laity, be given to the official almoners (see MI Fontes Docum. 88: De Azpeitiaepaupe-ribus sublevandis: 1535-1542: MI Epp L 161-165, addre~s.ed tO the townspeople of Azpeitia). To avoid abuses, then. the poor ought not to have to seek alms or beg. Rather, the almoners should receive alms to be distributed to the poor. not in their own names, but "for the love of God" (MI Epp Xll, 656: lnsfruction of November, 1554). ~' In reflecting on the m, eamng of this text. there is another facet that is important for understanding the spirituality of the Exercises. It consists in.the fact that for Ignatius himself the significance of aims had gradually taken on differing forms and purposes over the years. The "pilgrim" who in 1523 had wandered about the alleyways of Venice was a solitary mendicant who lived exclusively from alms. But the "companion" who in ! 537 lodged with some of his friends in a Venetian hospice for the poor. and who wished "to preach in poverty." also sought alms for the sake of being able "to help the poor." Heno longer sought alms only for himself, but also in order to help others. From 1540 on. Ignatius the "founder" gradually came to establish two coexisting but radically different regimens of community poverty for the na-scent Society of Jesus. without ever confusing them either in. theory (a relatively easy matter) or in practice (always a more delicate affair). In terms of. this twofold approach to ~community poverty, the "formed fathers." those whose training and incorporation into the Society were complete, would continue to live only from alms. while the colleges for the training of scholastics were tO have stable and~secure incomes in order to respond better to what the Church desired of them. Only in cases of extreme necessity wouM the seeking of alms become the last resort for the colleges, and then all the companions withoul exception would be "ready to beg from door to door" to meet the need. This is still our rule today. Material and Spiritual Poverty Once the "Roman" and "German" colleges had been started in 1550, Ignatius did all in his power to Search out suffi(ient and stable sources ofalms~ what we might call in the parlance of today's economy, "to establish founda- 1~04 / Review f~r Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 ¯ tions." However he was able to find nobody willing to give money liberally: neither princes, nor civic authorities, nor bishops. Even in those days, it seems, money was being squandered on wars--often in the name of religion. In fact Ignatius once wrgte: "After spending so much on material arms to support religionin Germany, it wouldnot be too great a burden if the emperor spared something for spiritual arms which could more effectively gain what is intended" (14 Sept., 1555, to Francis Borgia: MI Epp IX, 614). Considerable sums were being sought and here one sees a further devel-opment in the Ignatian concept of poverty, for these funds were being sought no longer for the sake of those who were economically poor, but for the formation of future priests who were called to help the spiritually poor. The Ignatius who dreamed in 1522 of living off alms alone, like the Egyptian hermit, Onophrius, thirty years later came to discover "God in all things," even in "Egypt"--his expression for the "business dealings" connected with almsgiving that were so necessary to meet the Church's needs. In his spiritual pilgrimage, Ignatius learned to take se.,riously the admoni-tion of the Lord: "He who does not gather with me, scatters" (Lk 1 !:23). For him, alms meant "gathering" with the Lord on behalf of his brothers, the poor. It is no wonder, then, that the Spiritual Exercises should include Rules for the Distribution of Alms. through which their whole, rich spiritual doctrine is applied to the very practical and relevant necessity to help the impoverished and suffering through almsgiving and indeed through the giving of one's very self. The Spiritual Exercises and Aims for the Poor ~ The mere presence of this text On the. distribution of alms in the book of the Spiritual Exercises witnesses to the fact that the Exercises are indeed geared to "the saJvation of souls," but this spirituality faces up to poverty .of whatever sort. Thus material poverty is addressed in these Rules for the Distribution of Alms. [337-344], as is spiritual poverty, for instance in Some Notes Concerning Scruples [345-351]. The contents of the rules on almsgiving also clarifies for us the motivation that led the Society of Jesus from its earliest days to become involved in helping the poor. Already during,the bitter winter of 1538-39, Rome's sole Jesuit house sheltered 400 poor people, Ignatius himself, although utterly absorbed in the government of the young Society, and while still continuing to give the Exer-cises, .also did all he could for the poor and oppressed of Rome. In other words, if its version of the Good News is not proclaimed and expressed in a practical way for the poor, the message of the Spiritual Exercises will rightly be seen as futile and lacking in authenticity. There is yet another document which bears out this characteristic of his spirituality, namely Ignatius' letter to the Patriarch. of Ethiopia. Against the backdrop of Ethiopian asceticism with its .innumerable and excessive penitential practices, Ignatius instructed the Jesuits to work toward lessening the popular Preferential Love for the Poor / 805 esteem for these excessive corporal penances in order to draw more attention to the need of working for the poor. In a nation where social concern was so minimal, Ignatius wanted to found hospitals,.to provide help for the poor by the exhortation to almsgiving both privately and in public, to ransom prisoners, to educate the abandoned, and to help young men and unwanted girls to se.ttle down in marriage. "Thus," he wrote, "the Ethiopians will seein a palpable way that there are better works than their own fasts and suchlike" (MI Epp VIII, 680-690, April, 1555). Such distortions have often been a problem, and not just in the Eastern churches. Aims "for the Love of God" Finally, the pertinence of these rules to the text of the Spiritual Exercises is explained by the simple formula which sums up the only basis for almsgiving that is acceptable to the spirituality of the Exercises: "for the love of God." Jesuits, and all who seek or give alms, should do so "for the love of God." Alms are a way of giving concrete expression to the beatitude ~vhich Was so lovingly addressed to the poor. As they appear in the text, then, these norms guide one's process of discernment for the practice of this concrete e~pression of the love of God. ' ~ Recent commentaries on the Exercises generally judge severely any retreat centered exclusively on a prayer experience that is turned in on the person of the exercitant in some narcissistic fashion. The exp,ression solus cum solo is not meant ,to isolate a person with a solitary God. Rather it is intended to express the appropriate relationship that ought to prevail between a "self" who has received everything from others, who is also called to be for. others, and a God who reveals himself precisely as "God with us~" Despite the frequent use of the first person in the text ofthe Exercises-- which always points to personal responsibility and involvement~the com-mentaries stress the profoundly communitarian character of the Exercises, character which is clearly in evidence right from the Principle and Foundation. Any person's authentic search for God necessarily entails that person's insertion into the human community. Conversely, any person's total commitment to hu .manity could only be the result of that person's discovery of the love of God. The First Rule for the Distribution of Alms Love "from Above . After these reflections on the historical and spiritual contexts of the Riales for the Distribution of Aims, let us now examine the first of these rules: If I distribute alms to my relatives or friends or persons to whom I am attached, there are four things that must be considered: Some of these were mentioned in treating the Choice of a Way of Life. The first is that the love that moves me and causes me to give the alms must be "from above," that is, from the love of God our Lord. Hence I should be conscious within myself that Gbd is the motive of the greater or less love that I bear towa~:d these persons, and that God is manifestly the cause of my loving them more [338]. 80B / Review for ~Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984" This rule immediately situates any gift of alms within agape, the love that, in Ignatius' terms, comes '"from above." In no way, then, should this text be seen as intending to provide merely a psychological preparation for, or .a religious exhortation to, charitable acts. It is not a pep talk for generous giving, nora way of spiritualizing the fundamental human instinct for solidarity. We should also avoid interpreting this rule in a way that merel3i invites to "purity of intention," Taking up anew an Augustinian inspiration which had previously appeared in the First Rule for Making a Good Choice of a Way of Life [184], this norm for distributing alms, while it does not in any way exclude philia (see the reference to "affection for relatives and friends"), does urge that phil[a be caught up and transformed by agape, "the love that,., must descend "from above" [184]. ~ . The expression "from above" also recalls the fourth point from the Con-templation to Attain the Lov.e of God [237]. God, the infinite ~treasury of all good, is in his trinitarian mystery both Gift and Giver of Gifts (see [237]). If, then, the giving of alms is to be divine--and therefore true and authentic--it must find its rationale within the dynamic of this mutual exchange of gifts, this loving movement of the gifts which "descend from above" [237]. There are a number of examples illustrative of this principle in Ignatian literature, Even in the most complicated of business affairs Ignatius kept his vision, of the lov~e ''from above" alive. Thus, for example, he exchanged some ten letters, with a certain Bernardino' Taro from Naples who had offered to sell his house in a complex deal involving some suspicious price fluctuations. A charitable work was involved, the payment was difficult, the Society sought a discount, and the benefactor became irritated. In all the correspondence, though, even while dealing with the complicated finances involved, Ignatius kept the whole transaction within the horizon of the loving movement that comes "from above," as when he wrote: "Let us pray that the Divine Goodness may grant us 'all the grace to be sensitive to his most holy will" (May 17, 1556, MI Epp X1, p, 411). It was not just by chance, then~ that Ignatius wrote on September 16, 1553 tO the, royal treasurer of Aragon, who had generously acted to convey mes-sages between the Jesuits of Spain and of Rome: "May God our Lord, whose love should be the foundation and norm of all love, repay you by increasing his love in your soul to just such an extent . For as there is nothing good witho, ut this love, so no!hing is lacking where it is present" (MI Epp V, pp. 488-489). The norm, then, for the appropriate distribution of alms is not, per se, our human solidarity, certainly it is not just philanthropy, but the agap~ of God himself, which takes flesh, in our human capacity to give and to forgive. The effort expended in undergoing the Spiritual Exercises so as "to rid oneself of all inordinate attachments" [1], is aimed precisely a,! allowing the divine t;gapP to take possession of our capacity to love. Thus t,he Rules for the Preferential Love for the Poor / 1107 Distribution of Alms have no other purpose than to put into practical effect what the Apostle John says in his First Letter: the man who does not love his brother most surely cannot be said to love God; and no one truly loves his brother unless it be with the love of God who first loved us (see l Jn 4:19-21). In this Ignatian concepiion, then, the principal criterion by which to judge one's preferential love for the poor is decidedly on the basis of .whether that love truly comes "from above," and does not rest on the simple fact that one is giving aid to one's poor brother. In other words, thee value of such a charitable act is to be judged in the measure in which me_re philanthropy has been taken up and transformed by divine agape: Service of the poor, to be sure! But before all else, service ,in my name," if it is to be true and authentic. Love "from Above"." for the Poor This first of the Rules for the Distribution of Alms, then, bringsphilia and agape.face to face with each other. "To give to those to whom one is attached by relationship or friendship" is not. automatically "ordered towards the love~ of God that comes from above"~except insofar as such a gift would actually reflect a preferential loye for the poor even in being given to oneYs own. We can find the interplay betweenphilia and agap~ that is evoked by this first rule applied in a realistically practical way in a letter from Ignatius to the Archdeacon of Barcelona, Jaime Cassador (February 12, 1536): "I mean, it. would be better to give to the poor when our relatives are not as poor as those, who are not relatives. But, other things being equal, I have more obligations to my relatives thar~':to others Who are not relatives" (MI Epp I, pp. 93-99). In other words, attachment even to relatives and friends must be caught up into the divine agape: the poor are to be preferred even above relatives unless these are themselves poor. . ' Love 'from Above"." for All the Poor The collection of Ignatian texts we have cited with r6gard to the first of the Rules for the Distribution of Alms raises a delicate question. The preferential love. for the materially poor is quite clearly a manifestation, an "epiphany" of the love that comes "from above," going as it does beyond philanthropy or the love (phil¢a) tha,~t is exercised towards one's relatives and friends. The well-ordered practice of this~ divine love (agape) clearly makes possible many social initiatives in the service of the economically po0~r. The fact that this love is not to be directed exclusively to the economically poor and socially marginalized springs from the Ignatian conviction th.at, in the last analysis, almsgiving is not meant to enable persons merely to become economically rich, but to enable persons to become rich in God's eyes~ to use the expression of St. Luke. Our free response to the love of God makes us deeply sympathetic toward the hopes of poor people under every form and at every level of genuinely human choice, but not in the pursuit of any and every messianic drehm, nor of any and every political or social option. Review.for Religious, NOv,-Dec., 1984 If in the text of the Spiritual ExerHses the use of the word "poor" is quite rare~ it is only at the end of the doc~aments on Election and in the Rules for the Distribuiion,,of"Alms that the term "poor" appears in its strictly social and economic sense (see [344] as an.application of [189]: Directions for the Amendment and Reformation of One's Way of Living in His State of Life). There.is no doubt at all that, after the example of the Gospel, the primary concern of the Spiritual Exercises is the conversion of hearts to the love that is "from bove ;~'w~thout such a conversion, all social activity, even the most generous, would already be found lacking, for its aim would not be "the human person taken as a whole." Why was there already urged insistently in the Old Testament the obligation to help the poor? It was not to make the poor economically rich, but because a person without money--in this sense "poor"--is not a "complete person" in the image of the love of God. A social revolution undertaken without agap~ means, and cannot but rlaean, death and hatred. As is well known, the Old Testament prophets;and finally'John the Baptist, expri~ssed themselves on social and economic matters in radical, even literally violent fashion. On this point, compared to the invec-tives of the prophetS, Christ's message seems like a comedown. And yet his "new Commandment," which should, according to Ignatius [338], be the root s'ourceoof the human love that finds its expression in almsgiving, possesses a r~adicality and an unprecedented newness that are quite capable of tra~nsfoi'ming humanity. In other words, Ignatius affirms in the Exercises that the human search for God is not authentic if it does not express itself in a loving commitment to the world of the poor: but. conversely, there is no perfect commitment to the cause of humanity, and concretely to the cause of the poor, unless it' be the fruit of one's personal discovery of the love of God that comes "from above." Love "from Above"." Opposed to All Poverty The cri/icisms offered in regard to theologies of social justice and of libera-tion do not call into question the urgency of the political, social and economic concerns that inspire these theologies. But the whole of God's revelation to the world cannot ~ever be restricted to a merely political, gocial and economic liberation, nor even to the gen'eral idea of freedom as such. Thes+ theologies do righily present one aspect of theology taken iri its entirety. In practice, theology ought to demand that the Church 'strive to reform the whole wbrld under every aspect according to the spirit of Christ. But the Church's option for the poor:should not be intended in a~way that would jeopardize the offer of salvation to all persons, the offer of that liberation which is the gratuitous gift of God proffered to all humanity. In struggling for liberation and justice, the Christian is called, not to curse those who have possessions, but to encourage theha also toward conversion to Christ. The Exercises ought never be limited to a single apostolic objective, To speak~ for purposes of illustration, of the time of Ignatius,' the Exercises were Preferential Love for the Poor / 809 never .focused exclusively upon the struggle against emerging Protesiantism alone, n6r upon the evangelization of the European masses alone, nor upon the refor~n of a corrupt 'clergy alone, nor upon missionary efforts overseas alone. In the same way in our own day, the Exercises should not be used only to arouse zeal for the social betterment of the oppressed, nor only for the better-ment of peoples who live in subhuman conditions. The Exercises are meant to stir each person who enters upon them to a radical gift of self, and it is going to be through this radical gift of oneself that the Lord is going to be perceived as calling that person "by name." This is the overall vision that Ignatius had. Like the Lord, he too had an evident preference for the poor, but he saw the poor as "persons" rather than as just ',the poor." We shall find in him no trace of any kind of paternalistic pity--itself a subtle but real form of domination. And without this kind of respectful regard for persons, one has no right to approach the poor. The Second Rule I will only make a few brief comments on the Other rules contained in this passage from .the Spiritual Exercises. The second rule to be observed in regard to the distribution of alms [339]:draws ~its inspiration from the second rule for . making a good election [185]. Here again, it is proposed that one abstract from one's :own individuality, .that one c6nsider oneself as an unknown, a person who is met for the first time, but who is esteemed, and for whom there is the desire for all perfection in the exercise of his or her office or state of life. In fact, all the rules to be observed for a suitable distribution of alms contain this same positive and rich outlook on all other persons, on our neighbors. The perfection that we ought to desire for others' as well as our-selves in distributing alms and in the exercise of our preferential love for the poor consists really:Sin wanting us and them to become other Christs. While one can makelife hell forthe neighbor, one can also be a source of living hope as well.! Ignatius' love for poverty was really and wholly a love for the person of the poor Christ (see [ 167]). Ignatius longed to be poor himself because Christ was poor. He longed to be poor as Christ was poor. In the same way, then, he proposes that Jesus must be the one who inspires us in the way that we go about distributing aims and serving the poor. To put it another way, we need to enter into Jesus' own way of exercising his preferential 10ve for the poor. Here the distinction between poverty and riches in the Spiritual Exercises becomes important: Spiritual poverty in the Exercises readily takes on the form of gratuity as opposed to greed. The gratuity urged by Ignatius for Jesuit ministries, for :instance, contrasts, and is intended' to contrast, with even the ¯ appearance of"business" or of the "marketplace'~in our approach to ministries, to ecclesiastical~offices and benefices, to the distribution of alms themselves. Powerful or rich persofls who always have others at their beck and call do 8"10 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 not expect.anyLhing in return beyond a calculated, response based on quidpro quo. TheLord in the Gospel, however, is portrayed as being poor. His:service is always freely given, without a hint of such calculating expectation. To remove the ministry ofalmsgiving, then, from every suspicion of interestedness, to decline gifts 'which automatically elicit gifts in return, to prefer to give .freely to those who count.for little in the world of vested interests--this is to be poor with and for the Lord who was poor. ~Gratuity, then, is a sign expressi~,e ~f the potential for radical change in human societythat could be created~--but only by the love that~is "fromabove." In the Old Testament, the paschal mystery of the Exodus had already given evidence of our human incapacity to chang.e society through our own resour-ces alone, of the impossibility of ever really convening Pharaoh, of ever becoming satisfied with any mere social teaching~that is aimed at bettering the lot of human beings. Only God, through his gratuitous gifts, can create a new humanity, a humanity "without poor people" (Ac 4:34), a society where the "poor~' of the ExoduS will live the "new commandment" of God's free self-giving. The Third and Fourth Rules The third [340] and fourth [341] rules for distributing alms present yet another characteristic of the Lord who is poor. If a person were to consider himself or herself in the light of eternity, the realization would soon dawn that, of all the riches he~ld: nothing really belongs to the~person, that the person is forever receiving, in order then to be able to give, and, in keeping with-the Judgment of the Trinitarian God, ultimately to give oneself t'o others with and through his or her gifts. This ',eternal Judgment" is actually the Lord of the Cross who died stripped of all, in the utter poverty not just the poverty of one who dies bereft of all possessions, but the poverty of one who dies~as a complete failure. , , , Here, then, is another Characteristic of the divine agapP:' a way of giving to another that ultimately comes even to the giving of one's life. It is at this point in the Spiritual Exercises that Ignatius increasingly uses the words "humble," "humility; . humiliation." It is impossible to love divinely in a possessive or domineering way. A preferential love for the poor couM be ideological, patti, san, selective, paternafistic. But as a passage in the Treatise on the .Election (1541) by Pedro Ortiz~explains, Ignatian "humility" is the divine way~ of loving. And the divine way of loving, revealed in Christ Jesus,,(onsiSts inthe humble offering of oneself for others that they may live. It is in this more profound sense that the rules for distributing alms urge a person to "imitate as closely as he can our great High Priest, model and guide, Christ~our Lord" [344]. Our preferential love .for the poor, if authentic, will move .through inevitable humiliations toward a love that refuses to be either condescending or domi-neering, that refuses to imp.ose itself by power or violence. The desire of humble love, of "humility" in the lgnatian sense, is,~then, the prayer toincar-nate the Paschal Mystery in a way that will arrive at this kind of radical Preferential Love for the Poor ] 811 poverty with Christ poor, whether this relates just to desire--the readiness to give oneself as the Lord wants, or to the realization of desire the actual giving of o~eself to those specific poor persons to whom the Lord sends one. The Remaining Rules The rest of the rules proposed by Ignatius for distributing alms explain still more clearly the practice of almsgiving which, in the terms of St. John Chrys- 9stom. was to be the human e?~pression of God's compassion. Ignatius encourages the kind of generous and unstinting distribution of resources that would inevitably require a simplification in the lifestyle of the almsgiver [344]. In this way there is no room in the asceticism proposed by the Rules for the Distribution of Aims for the kind of spiritualizing that would permit an abstract definition of personal spiritual poverty. That person is not poor who shuns the thought of death. Nor is the person poor who ensures his or her own security by storing up provisions for the future. It is rather the person who opts for insecurity through gratuitous giving, who offers out of his or her own necessity personal goods to others, and who giyes, himself or herself in them. "To be poor," then, means not just giving what is superfluous, but the ceaseless calling into 'question, both at the personal and at the community level, one's habits in' the matter of food~ dres~s~: living quarters, en!ertainment-- not just for the sake of thrift,' but in order to be able to, give to others--to the poor. Conclusion In a letter to Father Lorenzo of M6dena (May 16. 1556) Ignatius wrote: "You must understand that our Society, in its ~ractice of a umversal charity towards all nations and classes of men. does not approve cultivating particular affection for one people or for any.individual person.~except in the measure that well-ordered love.requires" (MI Epp XL pp. 408-409). " Guided by such well-ordered love--the love which looks to "the spiritual" works which are more important'~ (Constitutions, [650]), because the goal is the whole human pers, on-~we are to dedicate ourselves to thecorporal works of mercy, among which commitment to the poor takes pride of place. And so in a ~single movement of love. Ignatius,~is both attached a.nd detached. He lives a humble love which, as we have translated it here. is the love that comes "from above." The Exercises. a school of Christian freedom, in leading beyond "philan-thropy," gives to the preferential love for the poor for all the poor_--its truly Christian dimension. It is seen as our free response to that love, for the poor which God revealed in the poor Christ. who is himself rich in the Spirit To Divest or Not to Divest: Moral Investments and Immoral Purposes Michael H. Crosby, O F.M. Cap. Of this present article, Father Crosby writes: "A growing number of Catholic and Protestant groups are deciding to divest from their shares in companies involved in the nuclear armaments ch~iin. The process [utilized by] the Midwest Capuchin Franciscans serves as a case study." This experience can certainly serve as occasion for reflection on the difficult and complex task of bringing spiritual conviction to bear on actual life situations. Father Crosby, author of Spirituality of the Beatitudes, is Project Coordinator of the National Catholic Coalition for Responsible Investment. He is also Corporate Responsibility Agent for the Midwest Capuchin Province. Father Crosby may be addressed at Beatitude Program; 10i6 North Ninth Street; Milwaukee, WI 53233. Durin _the last two weeks of April and the first weeks of May, more corporate shareholder meetings are held than at any other time of the yeai'. High on the list of concerns by church-related groups of shareholders is .the issue of nuclear weapons production. This year, as in the past, the church groups" concerns were coordinated through the New York based Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility (ICCR), the action arm of Protestant church,Catholic diocesan, and religious order investors concerned about the social impact 0f'business corporations and the application of social criteria to their own investments. For this spring's annual meetings, eight companies involved in different stages 'of the fiuclear weapons chain received shareholder resolutions from groups affiliated with ICCR. Some resolutions were subsequently disallowed by th'e Securities. and Exchange Commission, but several were to be debated on the floor of the annual meetings. For last year's meeting of AT&T, at least sixty-five groups filed a resolu-tion requesting the company not to renew its contract with the U.S. Govern- 812 To Divest or Not to Divest / 813 ment to manage the Sandia National Laboratories which carries out research and.development on nuclear weapons systems. Yet this year only forty groups filed witli AT&T calling for the company to establish criteria for military contracts and to terminate its nuclear weapons contracts. Similarly, for .the 1983 annual meeting of Geheral Electric, over forty groups, asked GE to consult with experts about and to support the nuclear freeze by declining to accept or to renew contracts involv!ng the development or production of nuclear'weapons~ Yet this year only thirty-one groups filed with GE asking the company to develop criteria for acceptance of military contracts. Why has there bee~ such a decline in the number of fliers in just one year? Has the U.S. Catholic Bishops statemeht The Challenge of Peace: God's Promise and Our Response fallen on 'deaf ears? Is it due to a lack of resolve and follow-through? Or is it becausethe new SEC rules make it more difficult to return to companies on an issue when the previou~ year's voting has been small? According to Ursuline Sister Valerie Heinonen, ICCR's Military Work Group Coordinator, it is hone of the above. It is, she believes, "primarily because the Roman Catholic agencies in particular carried out divestment statements or were working on divestment positions and were in the process of implementing them." My Midwest Capuchin Franciscan Provinceis one of those groups that filed with 'AT&T and GE (along with Tenneco, Dupont and Rockwell Interna-tional) last year but did notdo so this year because of our newly-inaugurated divestment posture. In rearhing this decision, we joined such Protestant denominations as the United' Presbytbrians and th6 United Church 6f Christ as well as many Catholic dioceses and 'orders, including the Salvatorian Sisters of Milwaukee and th~ Franciscan Sisters of Philadelphia. As early as April, 1982 the Adrian (MI) Dominican Sisters' general congregation declared: The c~ngregation will take a public stand for peace-making by di'.vestin~ itself, within ¯ one year. of stock currently held in the top one hundreff~diffense contractors. The portfolio managers will be instructed by the general council not to invest in these companies unless some stock is requested by the Portfoli6 AdvisofyBoard in anticipa-tion of filing a shareholder resolution. A few years ago, as Corporate Responsibility Agent for my Province, I was against divestment; yetl was concerned about the issue. I recall being part of a discussion group that struggled to define the many complex issues that must be considered in dealing with divestment: How can we balance the "peace statements" of our bishops and congregations with nuclear holdings? How do we distinguish between'.direct and indirect involvement via our stocks? Should we have stock in an), company that is part of a system that many believe is doing so much harm to so many? If we:are to do "good" via our ministries, to what degree can we do so because of "evil" returns' from questionable corporations? Should we distinguish between nuclear and con-ventional arms? Is capitalism morally evil? Or is it inorally neutral, but with some practices that are evil? Why pick on the nuclear armaments companies? 814 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 How do we deal with the balance of terror? How does the Nuremberg princi-ple of .culpability apply that all citizens are responsible, for their govern-ment's decisions, and will be held liable by humanity? Divestment has no impact on companies, except for a one-hour press c0nference~, so why not stay in and fight? Have we exhausted alternatives? If we do divest,.should it be total or should we keep a few shares to "keep the pressure on?" While no papal or episcopal statements tn the Catholic Church have called for divestment in companies involved ih the nuclear armaments chain, there are many pronouncements that touch the issue. In Pacem ~in Terris, John XXIII said, "the arms race should cease." Paul Vlsaid at the UN, "let the weapons fall from .your a os, and, in Populorum Progressio, "every exhausting armaments race becomes an intolerable scandal." John Paul II said at Hir0shima. in 1981, "let us promise our fellow h~man beings that we will work untiringly for disarmament and the banishing of all nuclear wea-pons." In March, 1984, a top Vatican spokesperson warned an international conference on European disarmamgnt that a poli~y of nuclear deterrence (the backbone of the U.S. bishops justificatio, n of the U.S.nuclear arsenal) leads to mistrust and escalation of Lthe arms race. Meanwhi!e, in their pastoral leiter, the U.S. bishops called upon Catholics at every level of defense industries. [to] use th~ moral principles of this letter to form their consciences~. . .°. Those who m conscience decide that they should no longer be associated with defense activities should find support in the Catholic commumty. Those who remain in these industries or earn a profit from the weapons industry should find in the Church guidance and support for the ongoing evaluation of their work. From my reading 9f the bishops' statement, "ongoing evaluation" of involvement in the production of such weapons ultimately should lead to disassociation from-the companies. But what about those dioceses, religious orders and lay investors tha.t are "making a profit from the weapons industry" via their stocks and bonds? What about our "ongoing evaluation" leading to possible disassociation? Stich statements nudged me to begin rethinking my position about possible divestment. The issue, it seems, is not whether churches, dioceses, or congregations support or. don't support unilateral disarmameht on the part of the United States. Divestment has little or nothing to do with disarmament. More and more the question is: Should we be involved in producing more weapons, especially since each side. has enough weapons to kill the other scores of times over?.How can more.weapons be produced when the arms race has been condemned. So on this issue we're not talking about disarmamenti just about not building more. We~'re talking about the three additional bombs built each day, and the ,ever-more sophisticated delivery systems being created. I was beginning to ask questions like these when the provincial council of my Midwest Capuchin Provinc.e ~asked its Justice and Peace Committee, of which 1 am a member, to prepare a position paper on the subject of. our holdings in nuclear armaments manufacturers so that it could determine how To Divest or Not to Divest / ~115 to deal with the provincial portfolio. Some might wonder why the followers of the Poor Man of Assisi should even have a portfolio. Their concern is shared by many of us, yet we find ourselves m a predicament. The Province has almost three hundred men. Because of decisions in the past, it now owns and operates fiv~ retreat houses which need ~provincial maintenance. It owns and operates the largest minor seminary in the United States. While it has many men in white, middle-class parishes, a large number also serve in Black, Hispanic and Native American areas, including the Cheyenne and Crow reservatiohs in Montana. From three of its inner-city locations in Wisconsin and Michigan, it runs meal programs, including Detroit's famous "Capuchin Soup Kitchen." Besides having preachers and hospital chaplains and campus ministers, our members serve in Central America, the Pacific, Australia and the Near East. The dividends from the portfolio, along with salaries and donations, constitute the arinual provin-cial income budget. Since the province is highly involved in work among the poor and for social justice (on.ly one hundred or so members actually draw salaries), the portfolio's dividends are currently needed to meet normal operating expenses. All annual revenues beyond the budget are allocated to the poor or for social justice causes--unless some extraordinary expense'needs to be,met, such as helping to repair a leaking roof in one of our inner city parishes in Milwaukee (which, .by historical happenstance, is incorporated in the name of the pro-vince rather than of the diocese). Two members of.the Justice and Peace Commission developed a position paper on divestment for the provincial council: Francis Dombrowski, who was trained as a moral theologian; l, the second author, have background in Franciscan spirituality and corporate responsibility. We were to investigate the ethical issues and our Franciscan charism to,determine what we might recomm(nd to the provincial council. It was decided that, rather than leave the decision to the council, (which earlier had divested from Upjohn.because of its manufacture of an abortifacient), ~his time the province's membership at large would be asked to become involved in making the decision. The paper was divided into four major sections: I) The facts behind th~ dilemma presented by the province's shareholdings; 2) Basic principles to be used to determine continued participation in the. manufacture of nuclear-re-lated weapons; 3) An application of the Franciscan charism to the signs of our times; and 4) A proposal for action by the province. The Facts The first section outlined the situation of. the. arms race, our participation in it via our stocks and bonds~ plus the fact that the companies at issue also did much good: , Our province has invested over a quarter of a million tlollars in some of these compan-ies with government contracts for nuclear weaponry. Thus we°'~re receiving income ~116 / Review.[br Religious, Nov.-Dec:, 1984 precisely because these weapons are being built at a profit to the company and to us as~ shareholders. Iris true that these companies'make many products and items that promote good for others; For instance, G,~neral Electric is a company in which our Province has 210 . shares (worth $19,924.00 as of December 31, 1982). We also.have $~0,000 in bonds in General Electric Credit Corporation. GE makes a body scanner which hospitals have found invaluable in saving lives; yet GE is one of the seven companies that actually makes components for the hydrogen bomb and is also involved in building the MX missile system. In 1981 GE received $3 billion in military contracts from .the United States government, accounting for I I% of its sales. This, means, in actual fact, that our province is cooperating in the production of nuclear weapons by investing money in the companies that build them. ~ The paper went on to explaiwthat holding shares does not make stock-holders proximate cooperators nor principal agents in the actioi~'s of the companies. Yet it made it clear that "we are remote cooperators in'a very.real way as owners who receive dividends from our investments and interest on ou~ bonds to sustain our way of life. Because we are shareholders and partial owners, we have s6me responsibility to make surethe companies in which we invest are not involved inactivities that counter our Franciscan vision of life." The province has adapted the steps outlined in Mt 19 (go and talk, on the word of two or three; take itto the court)in trying to get companies to change "activities that counter our way of.life,:' especially through its membership in ICCR. Since 1976 it either voted its proxies, filed resolutions, or s~oken at, annual meetings of companies involved in nuclear armaments. It bought ten shares of Rockwell International to dialogue with the company which, along with Allied (Bendix), AT&T, GE, Dupont, Monsanto, Pentax and Union Carbide (at that time), actually produced those components which would " make the nuclear weapons operational. 1 was one of three or four on a negotiating team which has,engaged in ongoing dialogue with Dupont.about its involvement. So, as a province, we had been trying to make our concerns known to the corporations. Having reviewed the way we had tried to bring the Gospel. of Peace to the "~houses" of these corporations (see Mt 10:12-15); we now had to ask ourselves: "Since these companies give no indication of change in policy and ciSntinue to accept defensb contracts that will further build up our nuclear arsefials, the question israised: What is the next step in dealing with these companies: more dialogue -- or divestment? Basic Principles 2) The second section of our position paper developed principles to be used in determining our continued participation in the manufacture of nuclear weapons~ It distinguished nuclear weapons from conventional weapons, and singled out "top" defense contractors because of the difficulty in determining the degree of involvement. Can a company like Exxon or Mobil, which provides gas for military trucks, be put in the same category as General To Divest or Not to Divest Dynamics, which makes airplanes and nuclear submarines that can deliver nuclear bombs? The principles included a lengthy treatment of just-war defense and the. -attitude of non-violence. The next area taken up dealt with deterrence. The paper shared why its ~position differed from that of the bishops by not accepting deterrence as a viable rationale. In this difference~,with the bishops' ,approach, the. paper reiterated the position of the leadership of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men, The paper noted: There is also a moral question as to whether or not we can threaten to use nuclear weapons against a country to keep it under control. It is morally wrong to use such weapons even against a limited target because the effects of radiation would be deadly , for many beyond the target. There is no proportion between any good achieved and the untold destruction in the aftermath. If it is immoral to use these weapons, it is also immoral to in'tend to use them as a threat. The mere verbal threat to use them against ~ another nation with the secret intent not to actually use them is unrealistic. The threat is effective only if the intention to use them is real. The position the paper took seems to differ little from the way the Vatican thought seems to have been evolving, especially given its recent, March statement at the European disarmament conference. The final part of the "Principles" section considered principles for cooperation and "non-cooperation in evil. The two traditional points were made quite clear: One who by his/her approval, vote~ consent, together with others causes harm knowingly is guilty of i,njustice~and is obliged to make restitution in proportion to the efficacy of his/her consent. Cooperation means helping or assisting another in the performance of an~ injustice. Whoever takes an active part in an unjust action is guilty of the injustice if his/her efficacious cooperation is formal, that is, intended and deliberate. Material cooperation means not really wanting the injustice, but helping in it or contributing to it without a sufficient reason. Ordinarily, materia, I cooperation is morally wrong. According to traditional Catholic teaching, however, material cooperation is per-mitted if (and only if) two conditions are fulfilled: . a. The manner of one's cooperation is not a morally evil'act in itself, but only some participation or contribution to the evil or injustice done by another. b. The reason for one's cooperation is sufficiently important and proportionate to the ~:vil involved. By the time I r~ad the r~aterial presented by Francis Dombrowski, especially the principles related to (non)cgoperation, I had begun to believe that it would b,e difficu!t, if not impossible, for us t6 justify crntinued holdings in ,n~uclear armaments companies. This growing conviction was reinforced when I realized our portfolio could be diversified without any serious financial loss. We had. no "sufficient reason" to continue material cooperation. When I was definitely leaning this way, it was my research into the Franciscan charism that finally made me convinced that we could no longer hold stock in such companies. 81B / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 Application The third section of the paper noted that the times when Francis lived in Assisi vis~-vis wars and preparation for war were similar to our own era. According to Arnoldo Fortini, a biographer of Francis.and former mayor of° Assisi, war was "a condition of life for every city?: A militaristic way 'of thinking and acting became normative of the way opposing groups settled their differencesl Groups armed themselves to threaten their enemies, and were ready to use those arms to destroy their enemies in order to preserve their way of life, Fortini notes of the Christians of that era that they were so controlled by such an attitude that ?they could~not even imagine a faith that was not sustained by military skill." Within such an environment, Francis began to imagine a f~ith that did not need to be buttressed through armaments. It would be a way that society would p~erceive as totally alien to its way of operating and dealing with opposition. The paper noted: In the face of the militarism of his fellow citizens, Francis realized they were not about to change their ways: So he and his followers had to "divest" themselves of those ways. Thus the friars were not to acquire property, lest they take up arms to protect it. For their part, the laity ~fellow citizens as well) would bring the Franciscan charism to beai upon their lives and society through non-cooperation. They would not be able to bear any ii~thal weapons if they were to be faiihful to Frdncis' vision of life in that militaristic" milieu . it seems quite clear that his society shrouded in faith and religion the manufacture, use and deployment of lethal~ weapons. Francis' "No" must be applied to our day'as well. If Francis said no, and if Jesus said "No" to Peter who wanted to use a weapon of violence for self-protection, our response too can only be "no more of this" (Lk 22:51). What other response can we make, not as citizens of Assisi, but of the United Stfites, but to separate ourselves from this way of settling disputes and dealing with our enemies? We have been born as citizens of~the United States; we have unknowingly accumulated shares in companies manufacturing nuclear weapons. But we can choose now to respond to these realities with the,charism of Francis. ~ Proposal for Action 4) The final part of the paper presented a "Proposal for Action 'by the Province" which built on the previous three sections. After a summary of the main issues, the paper concluded that a nuclear war of defense cannot be morally justified because it,,does not discriminate between combatants and non-combatants, and' damage inflicted would be greater~than the good to be obtained. It noted that the Gospel of Peace and nonviolence, combine~d with the Franciscan call for peacemaking in a way that refused the'~bearing of arms, called us to a stance of nonviolence and nbncooperation. Next, the'~,paper countered '~the present position justifying deterrence on the grounds that it lacked solid moral underpinnings, as well as the evident fact that the possession of weapons did not help ,negotiations, but had instead increased the arms race. Th~ next point called for a freeze of further production of~veapons. ThissuEport for a nuclear freeze was followed by noting that a threat of"first To Divest or NOt to Divest ] 819 strike" is incompatible with the just-war theory and a nonviolent position and "has been directly condemned in the U.S. bishops' pastoral on war and peace." Finally, the paper again presented the dilemma of having stock in nuclear armaments companies and reached the conclusion: Since these nuclear weapons and their systems are being produced by corporations in which we have investments and since we, as a province, are making money on the production of these weapons, we feel it is an unjustified form of material cooperation to continue our investments. The good products these same companies manufacture and sell in no way can compensate for the incalculable destruction these weapons can inflict and forthe tremendous fear, mistrust and intrigue that the possession of such weapons causes between nations and peoples, not to mention the misuse of natural resources. technology and money that could be used for jobs and for the poor and hungry of the World. Given the paper's rationale, the provincial council recommended to the. province's membership a "clear decision of divestment from corporations that have major nuclear weapons contracts from the government." A criteria to determine "major" was fixed at $10 million. . Furthermore, the,council recommended that there should be total divest-ment rather than to keep a few token shares to continue to pressure the companies, as groups like the Adrian Dominicans have decided to do. Whether there should be total divestment or'whether a few token shares should be held to continue to pressure companies can certainly be debated. Sr. Valerie Heinonen believes those divesting should h~ld on to some shares~,or else "we're losing a forum. I don't see how we can reach corporate manage-ment if.we don't have at least some stock." When the position paper was presented to the province along with the recommendations of the Council. a large percentage (77%) of the membership responded, two-hundred and ten in all. Three choices had been offered: 1) we should divest for the reasons indicated in the paper; 2) we should not divest but continue our present corporate responsibility efforts; and 3) we should not divest and not continue our corporate responsibility efforts. One-hundred fifty-four (73.33%) voted for divestment, fo.rty-nine (23.33%) said there should be continued corporate responsibility efforts and a small number, seven (3~.33%), said we should do neither. ¯ The fact that over 96% of the respondents felt Jomething had to be done indicated, a deep concern about .this issue . Given the evolution of thinkin~g about this issue by many of us in the province, plus the growing number of groups th.a,t are beginning to divest, it is clear that this is an issue which won't be going away. In many ~vays, our Franciscan charism might have helped make our corporate decision as one, sided as it turned out to be. Y~t. whether other groups decided to divest or not to divest demands a ~erious investigation, given their charism and/or mission staterfients. All will have to face the dilemma squarely; it is a matter of si .mply bringing our faith to bear on the modern world. General Government: Its Leadership Role Today Gerald A. Arbuckle, S.M. Father Arbuckle's last article was "Planning the Novitiate Process: Reflections of an Anthro-pologist" (July/August, 1984). His duties in the general administration of his congregation keep him on extended journeys, but he may be addressed at his generalate headquarters: Padri Maristi; Via Alessandro Poerio, 63; 00152 Roma, Italy. any general administrations of religious congregations in the turbulent times of the 1960s and 1970s must surely have hoped that the decade of the 1980s would be marked by the tranquillity, security and growth that seemed so obviously to characterize their histories prior to Vatican 1I. But these hopes will never be realized. Religious life, like the Cht~rch itself, was challenged in Vatican II to serve the needs of people in a world that would continue to be in rapid, even turbulent, technological,'econoniic, political and cultural change. The niore religious seek to live up tO their vocation, the more in fact will they be drawn to share the hope~, anxieties and frustrations of people caught up in a world of change,~ with all the consequent stresses and strains of adjustment that this involvement brings. A further reason why the status quo of the pre-Vatican II era will n'ot be reinstated is the fact that many religious congregations ale discovering that their very future is in doubt. In view of the oft-heard prediction that "a reason.able expectation would seem to be that most religious communities the Church today~ will eventually become extinct,"2 religious in increasing numbers are askingthemselves questions ~uch as: Will the apostolate to which I dedicated my life survive when so few professed are entering my congregation? Will my province survive? Who will look after me when I am too old to work? Will my congregation itself survive? 820 General Government Toda.v / 1~21 Viewing these realities and questions from the "center," many of those involved in thework of general administration often find themselves at a loss to know what to do. On the one hand, these administrators would agree with the management expert, Peter Drucker, that all organizations (including religious local com-munities, provinces and congregations) will "become slack, easygoing, diffuse" unless challenged, and that: in turbulent tir~es the enterprise has to be kept lean and muscular, capable of taking strain but capable also of moving fast and availing itself of opportunity. This is particu-larly important if such times follow long years of comparative calm, ease and , predictability.~ Administrative: personnel may also have come to accept the harsh reflection that: when survival depends on change, human institutions often tend perversely towards suicide, in times of social upheaval, clinging to yesterday's images providessolace,a 'But, for religious congregations to su~ive and grow, more than solace is necessary. "It will take l~rave and visionary change, not just solace." On the other hand, the same general administrators may feel thoroughly' inadequate to do the type of brave and visionary "challenging for ch~ange"that~ is necessary. They feel that successive general chapters since Vatican II have so weakened their administrative authority that they have little or no effective authortty and power .to challenge the congregat~ion .or even prrvinces "tO become lean and muscular." In fact, some may even fear to do anything at all, lest tha_t result in a still further whittling away of whatever administrative authority is left them by general ch~ipters. Little wonder, therefore, if such administrations are experiencing frustra-tion, adr~inistrative identity crises, a sense of helplessness. They may even"feel somewhat .marginalized, unwanted, Within the veu congregation they have been elected to serve. Some administrations accept without question a mere figurehead role, feeling that any constructive effrrts'at challenging will achieve nothing at all. Others may initiate a spree of feverish activity, but if they lack dearly worked out goals and strategies based on sound information, then such activity is without value and only serves to intensify a feeling of frustration in all i:oncerned. ~ Unfortunately, a major reason~for the feeling of helplessness and frustration is the failure of'many persc, ns to understand that the obvious exercise of administrative authority or bureaucratic direction i~ not the only form of leadership that is opeh to administrators. In fact, while varying degrees of bureaucrati~ authority are essential in organizations, nonetheless such author-ity will be ineffective if at key points in the administration prophetic leadership is laeking~ No matter how little administratix~e authority general governments have, they can and they must exercise prophetic leadership within their.con-gregations. Paradoxically the lack of bureaucratic or administrative authority can even be an advantage. General administrations should be able to give ~129 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 mgre time to the demands of future planning, to the design of carefully planned visitations of provinces, if they do not have to be involved in the day-to-day turmoil of dealing with special-interest groups and "congregational power politics.". . In this paper, I will set out some ways in which, general administrations can exercise this crucial prophetic leadership. By way of background, I ~will also summarize relevant insights of management experts into the difficulties and challenges that confront administrations of secular organizations and businesses in the 1980s. Religious administrators can learn much from such writers--not the least being that secular administrators have to :face some major issues which are very similar to those which confront the genei~al admin-istrations of religious congregations. Secular organization~ themselves cannot survive and grow without a type of "prophetic" leadership! Models of Contemporary General Administrations Three model~ of general administrations can be distinguished on the basis of a continuum where centralization and decentralization of administrative authority are the two poles of reference. The Maximum DecentraliZi~tion Model The central administration of congregations organized in this fashion have onl); afigurehead role. The superior general and councilors merely symbolize the internationality ot~ tl~e congregation. Whatever administrative powers are left to them are of no real significance at all. The Maximum Centralization Model' Organized with a minimum of decentralization, all important matters in these congregations relat.ing to policies and appointments of key administrators (for example, provincials, formation personnel) are controlled by°the central administration: Delegation of authority to lower levels i~ minimal, only in matters .of little importance. ~ This model may characterize newly founded congregaiions, or congrega-tions which are small in membership and/or have a single, clearly defined apostolic activity, such as missionary activity. The In-betwedn Model: Mininial Centralization with Maximal Decentralization The choice of major administrators and personnel (fdr example provin-cials, formation, personnel) belongs to the~provinces. The role of the general administration in such appoin~tments is of no r~eal significance. However gen-eral administration does retain important supervisory powers, the significance ¯ of Which may.develop only in time. For example, the,superior general in such congregations may have ov~erall direction in matters relating to initial formation, without the legislation spell- General Government Today / 823 ing out precisely what this is to mean in practice. The general council may have authority to approve or reject provincial chaptbr~de~zisions according to guidelines set by the general chapter'decrees. It may have the power to control levels of expenditure within provinces. It may h~ix;e thai power,to stop a hou~;i~ being Opened or closed. The~h~ in ~hich a general administration might use these powers could at times effectively influence policy within provinces. SpecifiE instances of general administration, of course, may not fit precisely . into one or other of these models. But they will tend to approximate one rather than another. The type of frustration and malaise 1 described in the opening paragraphs will be found more particularly in the first and third models. These are the models which are the special concern of this article. Leadership Challenges in rSeculal" Organizations Today In a recent article, Ronald Lippitt stated that, for most leaders and follow-ers in the 1980s, three assumptions must be eradicated.: The first assumption whichmust disappear is that success depends on a vertical model of leadership, acc6rding to which decisions are to be made at the top, and people are to obey without contributing to the decision-making. The second assumption to be removed is the belief that "doing it by yourself" is a sign of strength. The spirit of' rugged individualism must give way to the spirit of ihterde~pendence'and collegiality at all levels of an organization. The third assumption which~has no'place in a "lean and muscular"~organi-zation is the belief that "competition is a necessary motivation for achieve-ment." This assumption,' claimsLippit~ "blocks seeking help, sharing resources, and pooling' complementary abilities--all requirements for survival, growth and development in the decades ahead."5 Sociologist Amitai Etzioni, in his recent analysis of the future of American so~iety,.says very much the same thing: The attribtites we Americans need most for the next generation is an enhanced com-mitment to othei:s and to shared concerns., l say "enhanced" because the commitment has not vanished but waned, and because a larger,measure is required~if.Americans are to do with less government and yet sustain themselves as a community. "rl3e commit-ment required., is for both ego and otl~er to attend to each other and to their shared world. 1 hence refer to it as ~mutuality.TM Again, he states that American society has become caught up with exces-sive individualism: We were affluent and had a sense that we could do anything. This attitude was fed by the pop-psychology idea of self-actualization--that everyone's first obligation was personal fulfillment.7 Taking these insights into account, .we can conclude that for survival and growth, leadership must have the ability to inspire in staffs an.effective will- 1~94 / R. eview for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 ingness to share ideas, skills, in a spirit of interdependence and .collegiality. Goal setting, the commitment to evaluate performance in light of these goals, will take place effectively because managements and.their staffs feel an atmo-sphere of mutuality or interdependence. No command from above will necessarily effect goal-setting, collegiality or a ~spirit of interdependence. This point is stressed by R. K. Greenleaf: "The very essence of leadership, going out ahead .to show the way, derives from more than usual openness to inspiration."8 He asks the question: "why would anybody accept the leadership of another except that the other sees more clearly where it is best to go?" Significantly he comments: "Perhaps this is the current problem: too many who presume .to lead do not see more clearly and, in. defense of their inadequacy, they all the more strongly argue that the ,system' must be preserved--a fatal error in this day of candor.", So the one who aspires to leadership must have the knowledge necessary "to see more clearly." But still moi'e-is required than knowledge. There is needed the spark of drive, of initiative, the call to follow: "A.leader ventures to say: 'I will go; come with me!''9,, ~., The leadership exemplified here is not the monarchical or hierarchical type--types closed to opinions and information of.others--but the type we call charismatic or prophetic. The prophet is a future-oriented person. He has an-acute.understanding of new needs and new opportunities, He opposes the. tendency in all ,human organizations ~t0 treat established institutions or methods of Ol~eration, at a given point in history, as though they were definitive.~0 Leadership of the prophetic type can see beyond the present problems, even temporarY s.uccesses, and can inspire others with a vision for change and with the courage to become involved in. realizing the vision in practice. The leader, says: "'I will go; follow me!' while knowing that the path is uncertain, even dangerous." i i Leaders of this type are rare, but the harsh reality is that unless organiza-tions of all kinds can find them and place them at various key levels so that their talents can be used, the organizations and their administrations will not survive. The organizations will die, for they will cease to b6 relevant. These leaders will, inter alia, help establish the values explained by Lippitt and others as essential for the survival and growth of organizations in the 1980s and beyond. It is not necessary for those in official control of organizations to have to a high degree all the qualities depicted by Greenleaf, but what is the sine qua non of success is the ability to spot people who do have the necessary creative and ~innovative skiils~ and then place these people in the right positions in which they can effect!vely inspire change. This is What Drucker means when he writes that "in turbulent times, my organization. '. needs to control the assignment of its resources. It needs to think through Where !the results are likely to be. It needs to know the performing and productive people." General Government Today But, to utilize such people to their full potential, there needs to be on the part of those in charge a firm discipline. Potential change-agents can easily be pushed aside because people are uncomfortable with their prophetic and innovative voices. There is also the danger that change-agents will dissipate their strengths and abilities over too wide an area. But the use of firm discipline will not be~ popular, for it will demand a "systematic withdrawal of resources--money, but above all, people--from yesterday's efforts,"12 that is, withdrawal from projects that are no longer relevant and/or productive, and the systematic encouragement Of change-agents, who can guarantee the survival and growth of the organization. Patience and courage are key virtues in leadership. In recent years some researchers into how effective leadership emerges in organizations have explicitly turned to cultural anthropology for insights into the nature, purpose and necessity of culture. This has produced some very challenging studies and conclusions. The leader who ignores basic:human needs for meaning, for symbols, for clearly articulated values and goals, for identity, as these are expressed in culture, will fail to achieve a following---even in business. o Hence, A. Pettigrew, reflecting on the interrelationship between leadership and culture, believes that the process of ghaping culture is the first task of management: "The [leader] not only creates the rational and tangible aspects of organizations, such as structure and technology, but also is the creator of symbols, ,ideologies, language, beliefs, rituals, and myths."13 J. MacGregor Burns distinguishes two types of leadership. There is first what he calls "transactional leadership." This type of leadership is concerned with the day-to-day smooth running of the organization. No organization can do with6ut this type. But no organization can survive for long if there is also lacking what Burns calls "transforming leadership:" This kind of leadership is a response to the fact that all people have need of a sense of purpose, of meaning, for a vision that helps to raise them in,their work above the daily grind. Inspired by this leadership people are moved to become more active themselves, more creative in their own work.14 T. E. Deal and A. A. Kennedy in their 1982 publication, Corporate Cul-tures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life, assert that every business has a culture which has a major effect on the success of the business. In what they call "strong cultures" everyone knows the goals of the corporation, and every-one is working for them.~s People know clearly what is expected of them. This makes them feel i~ strong sense of belonging and of being valued. In conse-quence, according to Deal's and Kennedy's research, people are more likely to work harder. In companies that have strong cultures, managers "take the lead in supporting and shaping the culture," They give considerable time and energy to ,thinking about the values, heroes, and rituals of the culture," for their primary task is to manage "value conflicts that arise in the ebb and flow of daily events." 16 Such companies have bright futures. They have the resilience 1~96 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec,, 1984 to adapt to changing circumstances.~ When difficulties arise they can "reach deeply into their shared values and beliefs for the truth and courage to see them through."~7 In 1982 also, T.J. Peters and R. H. Waterman produced their best-selling book, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-Run Compan-ies. ~8 This study also draws heavily on the insights of cultural anthropologists. The authors list the three qualities that make for excellence in the compan-ies they researched: bias for action, closeness to the customer, and high pro-ductivity through people. By "bias for action" they mean the ability of the companies.to move very quickly in changing policy and action, "and, more important, to be continuously innovative both in making the product.and providing services.''~9 Their findings on the qualities of the leadership present in the most suc-cessful companies are interesting. Common to all leaders is what the authors call the "hands-on, value-driven style." Such leaders have the ability to articu-late and transmit to others the essential values of their companies. In this they effectively create a strong corporate culture:. "Clarifying the value system and breathing life into it are the greatest contributions a leader can make."~° In order to transmit values the leaders must be mobile, constantly in touch with the grassroots of the company. In order to keep the leadership team active and unhindered by bureaucratic pressures at the tenter, the leadership at the top is kept surprisingly small, lean. The leaders the authors studied had lofty visions which could evoke excitement and enthusiasm for thousands of employees. But they were also people committed to practical detail: "In this role, the leader is a bug. for detail~ and directly instills values through deeds rather than words; no oppor-tunity is too small. So it is at once attention to ideas and attention to detail.TM The leaders of the Successful companies did not depend on a charismatic personality for success. Rather, they made themselves into effective leaders through hard work, sustained perso.nal commitment to the values they believed in, and a certain stubbornness in their efforts to build up a strong corporate culture based on these values.22 By "high productivity through people," the authors mean "the ability top companies have of treating employees with dignity and expecting them to contribute in innovative ways on a day-to-day basis.''23 For the 'researchers this quality appeared critical. New ideas and contented customers would result only when all in the organization--not just the people at the top--were motivated by the right, values.24 In the top quality firms, in consequence, those who innovate are treated as heroes, "even though those employees are occasionally a little bit at odds with the corporate bureaucracy,"2~ The authors refer to successful cdmpanies as having "simultaneous loose-tight properties." By this they mean: that at the same time there is .very firm central direction and maximum decentralization (in fact, some of the firms are radically decentralized). General Government Today / 1127 Firm central direction is achieved by the "hands-on, value-driven" ap-proach. 'The leadership sees its task as one of stressing values crucial to the firm's culture, for example, closeness to the customer, innovation, quality. The more these values are emphasized the more certain it is that they will be realized in practice. Values which are clearly articulated and emphasized them-selves act as the control mechanism.26 Within the clear framework of these values, individuals throughout all levels of the company feel encourage.d to innovate. Leadership and Authority in Periods of Cultural Change All the above authors stress the role of leadership if "weak cultures" are to become "strong cultures." However, no author sufficiently clarifies the rela-tionship between leadership and bureaucratic authority. For example, what role, if any, has authority in cultural change? ~ John R. Sheets. S.J., provides the precision necessary for this key question to be answered. He sees a common denominator in all expressi0.ns of leader-ship. It is an ability "to draw others beyond the point where they presently find themselves to a point of greater realization of their common aspirations. It is a power to draw others toward a center of closer unity."27 He sees the role of the leader very much as Greenleaf has described it or as MacGregor Burns views transforming leadership: "While he stands within the group, he has at the same time a certain transcendence, being ahead of the group, as one who has already realized the goal to a large'extent, and who now acts as a focal point drawing others to the realization of the same goal."28 But, unlike these authors, Sheets pinpoints three fundamental qualities of leadership~ ethos, pneuma and logos. Ethos is that quality o~f leadership that is concerned with values. The leader has interiorized within himself a .set of values, and the living out of these values in his own life draws others to follow and seek the same interiorization. Pneuma refers to the power conveyed by the leader and the power that is aroused in the group. It is characterized by inspiration, enthusiasm, energy. Logos is that quality of leadership related to judgment. It is described in various ways: reason, balance, discretion~ prudence, intelligence, knowledge. Where there is logos the leader has the power of judgment how to give a "constant and consistent shape to the aspirations of the group."~9 As Sheets says, genuine l~adership involves all three of these qualities. Within any one person, the qualities are to be found in varying degrees, "very oftenowith one of the characteristics assuming a particular prominence to the point where one might be designated according to one of these, as a moral or ethical leader, a charismatic leader, an intellectual leader.''3° A genuine leader will build on the particular aspect in which he is strong and call on others to complement his efforts with other qualities in which he is deficient. True leadership then aims to evoke teamwork. "Leadership," as described here, differs from "authority." Whereas leader- ~121~ / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 ship aims to motivate people to interiorize new values and attitudes freely, authority commands people,to act in certain ways. Rather than aiming to attract people to respond freely, authority imposes an obligation on people to act. In periods of cultural change, when people undergo deep value and atti-tudinal alterations, authority is to be used very infrequently, and then only with caution and considerable sensitivity. In-depth and lasting change can occur in and through leadership, but such change is rarely the result of author-ity commanding action. Support at key points, however, may have to come from authority. For example,~the actual placement of a person withleadership or change-agent qualities within a group may require the official use of author-ity. So also would the removal of an ineffective leader be an ffct of authority. In strong business cultures, authority is used very sparingly, but with effectiveness and according to definite criteria. Thus, for example, the selec-tion and appointment of key national, regional and local managers is gener- .ally the prerogative of central administration. Such people are chosen because they have the leadership qualities described. Without people of leadership gifts at key levels of management, the future growth and even survival of the business would be in danger. In brief, therefore, leadership aims to motivate people freely tO change by accepting new values, new attitudes. The new values and attitudes, together with the conseqt~ent alteration in behavior patterns, effect cultural changes. Leadership also aims to develop teamwork, to involve the whole group in ¯pr°blem-s°lving' George Foster concludes his fine analysis of why develop-ment projects in. the Third World succeed or fail, With a description of the qualities needed in ¯a community change-agent: The ethic of helping people change involves restraint and caution in missionary zeal. It means that developmental personnel should be careful not to plan for people, but to work with them in searching for realistic answers to their problems . It means learnirig to be humble, to be willing to lear.n . It means a genuine . desire to help in a realistic way based on full understanding of the nature of culture and culture change . a~ Foster's research findings, and his concluding description of the qualities ~'equired in a community change-agent; confirm the.universal validity of the clarifications provided by Sheets and the other authors above. "Strong, and "Weak, Cultures in Religious Life A religious congregation is not a business organization. The fundamental aim of a religious congregation is not monetary profit to satisfy investors, nor is it to supply the material needs of customers. Neither can a religious congregation, unlike a business enterprise, fully gauge its success or failure by whether or not its "products" are being "sold." Nor ought we to consider a religious congregation to be definable only in terms of a social grouping--one, for example, designed to serve the human-welfare needs of its members. General Government Today / 829 A religious congregation has meaning only in relationship to the kingdom of God. Its members consecrate themselves to God in the Church to offer ¯. to the world visible proof of the unfathomable mystery of Christ, inasmuch as in themselves they really present "Christ in contemplation on the mountain, or proclaiming the kingdom of God to multitudes, or healing the sick and the maimed and converting sinners to the good life, or blessing children and doing good to all men, always in obedience to the will of the Father who sent him" (LG 46).32 Effective consecration demands of religious that they keep on discerning how best to serve the Church with "boldness of initiatives" in accordance with the particular and unique charism of their congregation, being prepared to drop this or that form of apostolate which is no longer responsive to the real pastoral needs of people.33 This does not mean that religious cannot, and must not, learn from all kinds of social organizations---even from business enterprises--about how to improve their efforts to give "to the world proof of the unfathomable mystery of Christ." With St. Paul, we religious believe that "we are only the earthen-ware jars that hold this treasure [our Christian faith].34 Our faith is incarnated in and through people, groups, customs, cultures. On the sociological level at least, our religious congregations, like the Church itself, do show "organizational traits which in many respects resemble those of secular organizations.TM The way our religious congregations or communities are organized may well either hinder or facilitate our efforts to give "the world proof of .the unfathomable mystery of Christ." Discernment, after all, does not consist just in zealous and constant prayer. It also consists in being open to whatever way the Holy Spirit may speak to us--including the. way that ordinary folk live and organize their lives. We should not be startled to learn that the Holy Spirit has something to teach us from what happens in the. mundane actions of the marketplace. Perhaps the Lord is. also telling us to be open to. contemporary research in business methods when he said: ,For the children of this world are more astute in dealing with their kind than are thechildren of light."~6 In businesses which, have strong cultures, goals, objectives, values, are clearly .articulated and interiorized by all concerned. People are accountable for their actions because they know what is expected of them, and they are motivated so to act. There is constant contact with customers, making it possible to see how best to respond to their needs. Business leaders are value-oriented. They value service, not just to the customer, but also to their employees with whom they are in frequent contact. Written communications are acceptable, but personal .presence to staff.at key levels by leaders is far more emphasized. Finally, innovators are 'vigorously encouraged, despite the risks involved, for innovation that is a response to customer needs is seen as ultimately the guarantee of survival and growth: If we look at those religious congregations that are actually moving into a 1~30 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 stage of revitalization, we see that they are developing strong cultures. Mutatis mutandis, these congregations have many of the marks that we have seen characterize strong cultures. There is the rediscovery of key religious-life and congregational values, together with their interiorization and their expression in innovative apostolic action.37 Apostolic innovators are valued and en-couraged as congregational "culture heroes." Leaders have articulated their values, including the values that particularly relate to the charism of the founder. In variou~ ways, and with risks taken in faith, they have communi-cated these insights and values to the others, drawing them also to do the same. They have done this not by multiplying the ~number of documents and letters of exhortation, but by going directly~ to key°groups and personnel in .the congregation, and drawing them by their presence to accept the same values and convictions.38 Through~: cooperative teamwork, these leaders have encouraged a new sense of spiritual purpose to develop in the members of the congregation. A heightened, sense of morale emerges, because clarified and interiorized values and goals give a renewed sense of meaning and direction~to members~ lives. Those congregations that are not revitalizing have weak cultures. There is confusion about values, uncertainty about goals and objectives. Those who ought to be the leaders because they hold official positions in thecongregation are lacking in the know-how and/or the spiritual courage to give leadership. Many of their religious, mainly because leadership is lacking, cannot agree on what values should be retained and acted on. This leads to more and more ¯ frustration. Often the attitude of these religious to authority is ambivalent, On the one hand, there is a cynical or angry rejection of authority in the congrega-tion because it is seen as irrelevant and powerless. On the other hand, there is a hankering ~ifter authority to give direction--but when officials do attempt to use authority they are quickly rejected. There is a failure to recognize the fact that change cannot come through the bare use. of authority, but only through leadership. Since few religious have been trained in the exercise of leadership, it is difficult for members to. understand the distinction between authority and leadership. Potential change-agents or. innovators in the congregation are frequently marginalized, Sometimes this marginalization takes place because those in authority consider them "disloyal" or "troublemakers," for they Question the status q.uo.39 General administrators may maintain a schedule of visitations in the pro-vinces, but' unless the visitations are done with goals based on real needs of the congregation, then the visits only intensify feelings of frustration among members. The exhortations of the general administrators,~and their follow-up letters to the visited provinces, come across as irrelevant, out of touch with real issues, and thus reinforce the view that general administrations have no longer any role of importance in religious congregations. Religious congregations with weak cultures thus described have reached General Government Today what is now called the "breakdownstage." If the situation is left unchecked, these congregations will die--not because the Holy Spirit has failed, nor because the charisms of the congregations have become irrelevant, but because key people in the congregations have not "read the signs of the times" and acted accordingly.~° "Hands, On, Value-Driven" Leadership For several centuries prior to Vatican I1, general administrations often obtained their identity and role-definition from the authority they could exer-cise: the power, to appoint key people, such as provincials and formation staffs; the power to visit and check on whether or not age-old and universally accepted congregational customs were being maintained. The more adminis-trative positions became institutionalized, the more the faithgospel vision of the founding persons became obscured, together with their innovative ability to discern and react to often unattended pastoral needs of the peop!e of their times. General administrations became far more comfortable with their authority roles than with the challenges of leadership. Theologically, the emphasis was often on the need for the changing world to adapt to the unchanging Church. In similar vein, the world had also to adapt to the unchanging cultures 'of religious eongregations~ The stress by administrators, far from encouraging departures from what was done in the past; was to insist on conformity to the tried ways of the congregational culture-heroes of former times.41 With the coming of Vatican II, two interconnected emphases in particular undermined the clarity of this role-definition, and thus the traditional security o~f general administrations. The first was a renewed stress on the mission of the Church to enter and influence a world in rapid change. The second was the move to decentralize the government of religious life. The Church recognized once more that it had a mission to a world in change. Yesterday's methods were not necessarily adequate for new pastoral needs.42 The Church is called to be Christ to the world. Since religious are "to be more radical Christians, in the sense of trying to live the life and holiness of the Church in all its radicalness~''"3 they must seek to excel in cohtfibuting to the pastoral and apostolic innovation that was needed. Now the task of general governments is determined primarily by the mission which religious life and each eongregatiori has within the Church, and not by the authority they may have because the constitutions say so. The role of a general administration is to call the entire corporate body to the realization of its two-fold aim: union with Christ and service to the neighbor according to the particular faithgospel vision of the founding person. The decentralization of religious-life government left many general admin-istrations at a loss to know what to do in administration.On the one hand, the theology of Vatican II insisted that religious should be pastorally innovative and open to change. On the other hand, general administrations had no 839 / Review for Religious, ~lov.-Dec., 1984 experience of how to stimulate and lead such innovation. Especially adminis-trations belonging tO the first and third models above particularly felt con-fused and anxious since, without authority, they could not see what they should do to facilitate this revitalization. Many provinces also seemed quite willing to ignore their general adminis-trations, seeing them merely as innocuous and vague symbols of the interna-tionality of the community. In quite recent years, however, an awareness seems to be growing in some provinces that decentralization has not produced the miraculous renewal or revival that it was expected to evoke. There is a vague, ill-defined turning toward "the center." But unless central governments act with genuine leadership, the opportunity thus given them will be lost. To transform a weak business culture into a strong one there must bea radical change in values, with a consequent and effective commitment to action. And if a religious congregation is to move from a weak to a strong culture, there must likewise be a radical reconversLon to a new set of values, or a return to the original values of the founder. Founders of religious congregations laad the faith and courage to enter on a journey. They attracted others to join them in showing "the Church and the world a quality of life that calls them back to the design of God in Christ Jesus."~ The outcome of the journe~ was never certain. Each religious and each congregation which accepts this new challenge of reconversion begins, as it were. another spiritual journey. This will involve, like the first journey, "an anguished and sometimes perilous exploration,"45 an adventure in faith, hope and love. Similarly, general administrations which summon their congregations to a second journey, to a process of refounding, must expect periods of darkness, misunderstanding, even rejection. Like their founders before them, they will need far more than human expertise or ingenuity to maintain the dynamism and creativity of their leadership. A feeling of identity and security in their leadership will come, not from any authority they may still have nor from any authority newly obtained from their general chapters, but from union with Christ in his life, death and resurrection. In order to utilize resources to the best possible advantage, I believe that these general administrations must concentrate their leadership efforts on four categories or groupings of persons within their congregations: -on themselves as leaders; -on the congregation as a whole; -on groups tha.t hold, or potentially hold, leadership positions; -on all who are involved in the preparation of the general chapter. 1 will no~w take each.category in,turn. Leadership Directed at Themselves "The Church is an evangblizer; 'but she begins by being evangelized her-self." So wrote Paul VI. "She is the community of believers, the community of General Government Today hope lived and communicated, the community of brotherly love; and she needs to listen unceasingly to what she must believe, to her reasons for hoping, to the new commandment of love . [The Church] is evangelized by constant conversion and renewal, in order to evangelize the world with credibility.''~6 These words apply with equal force and validity to general administrations, for these are called to evangelize their own congregations. They can do so only by first evangelizing themselves. General administrators themselves form a group which mirrors the congregation as a whole in that they come from different cultural backgrounds, have different prejudices, both cultural and personal, which interfere with communication, have different formative and educational training, hold different theological orientations. If these adminis-trators are to be welded into a leadership team in which each is encouraged by the rest to use his leadership qualities, one of ethos, another of pneuma, another of logos, then they must face the cold reality that they themselves will have to undergo a culture change. They will have to move from being a "weak dultural group" of the congregation, with each being an individualist, to become a "strong cultural group" in which each person is in fact a ,team member. Each member will have to become increasingly and personally ope~, " not just. to changes in knowledge, information, or the intellectual rationale for action and practice, but to new attitudes, values, skills, the .removal of preju-dices, and the development of mature relationships within the team itself,47 The courage and the honesty to be open as individuals to such radical changes is needed, so that a genuine administration community for evangelizing emerges, one that is credible to the congregation. This will come only if administrators are prepared to commit themselves to deep prayer and asceticism: Only in prayerful discernment will the team members be~able to discover what the Holy Spirit is asking of them and how they can help to disentangle the pure charism of the founder from the accretions of time. Faced with the demands of the contemporary Church and world, they will experience the same sense of shock as the founder did in his day. It is true that there must be serious commitment to study and to scientific methods of obtaining factual informa-tion relating to the works of the congregation and the needs of the apostolate. But such information will be of little value, will be merely "a noisy gong or a clanging bell,"48 if the uses to which it is put are not discerned in an atmo-sphere of brotherly love and prayer. In brief, if general administrators expect to enable their entire congregation to move from weak to strong religious-life cultures, they must themselves first, individually and as a group, undergo the same cultural transformation. The top priority for each administration, there(ore, is to set aside definite periods of the year in which administrators can all be present for planning, for praying together, for sharing personal and corporate faith experiences, for discerning how the Holy Spirit wishes to use them in the service of the congregation. Nothing should interfere with this priority. At times a skilled facilitator may be an invaluable adjunct in helping team members to become 834 ] Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 yet more vitally involved in their own and their team's religious-life cultural change. ~, Leadq'ship Directed to the Congregation as a Whole Superiors general and their administrations, when confronted by the stark reality ofa weak congregational culture, are tempted to react with a strongly worded pastoral letter (or even a series of them) about the need for the members to undergo conversion. Normally, this temptation must be vigor-ously~ resisted. Historically, such letters seem to have little or no effect.49 Generally th6 letters are ignored, or if read, they may evoke yet further cynicism, even anger, directed toward central government. In successful business operations in which the "hands-on, value-driven" style of leadership is used, 'leaders avoid frequent and lengthy communications from the center to subordinates. Theyl prefer to improve communication by personalizing the process on a one-to-one basis or on a one-to-group basis. However, a general administration team, after lengthy and prayerful dis'- cernment, may conclude that a prophetic communication in letter form to the whole congregation is necessary, even though there are good grounds to a~ssume the message will be rejected, even by the vast majority of the congrega-tion. Out of great love for the Church and for the congregation, the adminis, trati0n may feel the need to speak out loudly and clearly, "to uproot and to pull down, to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant."50 The decision to write such a prophetic challenge should not be. taken lightly: If it is done, then, as far as possible, it should be followed up with personal contact by means of general administrators in touch with key groups in the congregation. Explanations of the letter can be given, and reactions received, in a discerning atmosphere. Leadership Directed to Key Groups ,qt is at the level of key groups within the congregation that the central government's efforts at "hands-on, value-~lriven" and "loose-tight" leadership should be concentrated. In most congregations the following groups would be important to concentrate on: .-p~ovincial councils -formation staffs -provincial chapters -other interest groups ,of various kinds, such as justice and peace commit-tees or spirituality and mission seminars (some of the groups may be of an inter-provincial or international nature). It may, be necessary, particularly in the early stages, to spend considerable time with provincial councils. The aim should be to create a discernment atmosphere similar to the one needed at the general administration level, in which~provincial¢council goals are established, and objectives and strategies worked out to .realize these goals. Considerable prudence and patience are General Government Today required since provincial councils may well consider that the initiation of change is primarily the function of authority, not leadership. Or, despite information to the contrary, the councils may even deny that there are prob-lems confronting their provinces. And they may consider the discernment process simply a waste of time, "something that only general administrations have time for!", Where these _views exist, general administrators may find the challenge to act as catalysts in culture change extremely demanding. George Foster's advice quoted above needs to be recalled: leadership to be effective requires a "full understanding of the nature of culture and culture change." Those of us who take for granted the computer age, and assume cultural changes can occur with the same speed that characterizes computerized travel arrangements and purchasing, will find it very hard to appreciate the fact that radical cultural change is always a very slow process. General administrators, when faced with negative responses from provincial councils, may be tempted, like all change-agents when confronted by rejection or lack of interest, to find escape routes. They may be tempted to return to the generalate in order to "write a report" for the benefit of.the particular provincial council that is hesitant or refuses to respond. This process of writing the report will console the administrator, encouraging the belief that "something is hap-pening." But it is very unlikely that anything at a!! is happening if the adminis-trator still refuses to implement a "hands-on~ leadership approach by being present to the difficult provincial council--with the report in hand if necessary. Prior to working with the provincial council, the general administrator may well need to visit various people or groups in the. province in order to assess the level of cultural weakness or strength of the membership at large. But g~neral administrators should avoid doing what provincials or local super-iors should do. namely, the pastoral, personal interviews of members. The more general administrators become involved on the personal level, the less time they will have to concentrate on leadership at the level of key groups. The general administration's concern should be primarily for the welfare of the congregation as a whole. Normally, whatever is undertaken by general administrators must have this overall aim in mind. I believe the failure of general administrations to be clear about their primary aim has resulted in the administrators suffering from overwork, stress, even burnout. Again. the advice of George Foster makes sense: "The ethic of helping p~ople change involves.restraint and caution in missionary zeal." Formation staffs in the post-Vatican Church are under particular pressure to work out goals and methods for initial formation. The general administra-tor responsible for formation must be prepared to spend considerable time with formation personnel, encouraging them and working with them to clarify what should be done in light of definite criteria. It might also be necessary to work with provincial councils, of several 836/ Review for Religious, No'v.:Dec., 1984 provinces in an effort to develop something like an interprovincial or interna-tional training center where the best formation staff available can be concen-trated. It is increasingly impossible for congreg~.tions with declining numbers of religious and student candidates to have many formation houses. At the same time, the quality of initial formation will be a major influence on the future health of any congregation. If a reasonable development of the forma-tion program is to take place, the general administrator will.~need to exercise considerable patience, all the while being careful never to give up on the "hands-on, value-driven" approach. The closure of a formation house which has existed for a very long time, for:example, can be a traumatic experience for members of a province. The general administrator may well have to be available for a protracted period to enable their passage through this. difficult time. As regards provincial chapters, it is important for the general administra-tion to be involved, not because it wants to use whatever authority it might still have to insist on changes in legislation, but because chapters, if rightly prepared, provide an entire province with the chance to participate in a com-munal discernment process. The general administration's task will be to encourage provincial councils to adopt the discernment process both by way of preparation and during the actual chapter.S~ If some provinces have uged only parliamentary debating and 16bbying systems, it will not be° easy to convince them' of the advantages of communal discernment processes.52 General administrations have the chance also of bringing to the provinces at such times an overview of religious life in general and of the state of,their own congregation in particular, which provinces are m danger of forgetting their discernment processes. General administratoi's, when presefit at chapters, can help to counter narrow nationalistic or parochial attitudes whiizh can so easily develop in provinces to the detriment of their work of evangelization. Meetings of religious from particular interest groups often attract many of thoseoinvolved in apostolic reflection and innovation. These religious can encourage one another at such meetings, and stimulate the prophetic people among them to new forms of apostolic action. At times, the general administration itself can sponsor regional or interna-tional gatherings of concerned religious to reflect on subjects of fundamental importance for cultural change of the congregation, for example, the charism of the congregation, and its history and relevance for the work of evangeliza-tion, the relationship between the congregation's charism and the Church's call for more involvement in justice and peace issues. There is every chance that from these gatherings will emerge individuals with the type of leadership necessary for the survival and growth of the congregation. Leadership in Preparing the General Chapter The general chapter of a congregation is meant to ~:enew and protect the spiritual patrimony of the institute. It should be ~ moment of grace, of the General Government Todqy ] 837 action of the H01y Spirit in a congregation provided there is adequate prepa-ration, an atmosphere of communal prayerful discernment during the chapter itself, and a planned follow-up after the chapter.53 The task of the general chapter is to challenge the congregation to face the future. For this purpose the goals of the institute must be evaluated (and if necessary, reformulated) in ligh! of changing pastoral needs, of the theology of mission, of the charism of the congregation and its human and spiritual resources. The means to realize these goals must be evaluated and, if necessary, changed. ~For example, the chapter must decide whether or not a congregation of the first or third models described above can realize its apostolic and religious life goals if the central government has little or no authority to complement its leadership role. For the sake of the overall good of the congre-gation, should central government have an important role in the choice of provincials and formation staffs--that is, in the appointment of key change-agents in the congregation? Remember, of course, that in successful business operations the leadership rarely uses authority. But it does use authority to appoint key staff throughout the organization, after considerable consultation of those who know the candidates. But a more fundamental question must be answered by the general chap-ter. What form of government and what kind of authority should it have if t.he congregation is to realize its primary purpose of service to the People of God? No general chapter can face such questions, nor do what it is supposed to do~ without thorough preparation. Too often general chapters are considered the work only of the capitulants, not of the congregation as a whole. When this happens, the general chapter will have little or no practical impact on the religious-life cultural change of the institute. There is' little sense in having a chapter if the whole congregation does not own it from beginning to end, that is, from the time of preparation through to and including the implementation stage. The general administration has a most crucial role to play in stimulating the whole congregation to become involved in preparing for the chapter t~hrough prayer, study, reflection, and dialog.54 This will be a demanding and time-consuming task, especially if the failure of previous general chapters has left people feeling cynical, apathetic, even angry about being invited to be involved in preparatory work. For this reason, it may be necessary for the general administration to initiate the planning of the chapter many months, even a year or two, before the chapter is due to ~begin. The follow-through after the chapter has ended is as important as the preparation, though this stage is likely to be overlooked for two reasons. Capitulants may feel the enthusiasm of the chapter experience itself will be enough to guarantee an automatic post-chapter follow-through by the con-gregation as a whole. But enthusiasm alone at a chapter will ensure, nothing. Secondly, an entirely new general administration may be elected at the chapter. It may not immediately have the skills or the coherence for teamwork 838 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 even to see that the follow-through stage must be planned and implemented immediately after the chapter. Hence, as a service to the whole congregation, the outgoing administration, drawing on its own experience, could,suggest to the chapter itself or to the new administration several alternative plans for the post-chapter follow-through. , The purpose of religious government is "the building of a united commun-ity in Christ in which God is sought and loved before all things, and the mission of Christ is generously accomplished."55 With this purpose in mind~ the general chapter must elect the superior general and ~the assistants~ The election is a dramatic moment in the cultural-change process of a general congregation, the process in which the institute is trying to deepen its religious-life values. The outgoing general administration cannot, and must not, seek to influence capitulants to vote for certain people. But, if its evangelizing presence has had an.impact over its years of government, then the capitulants will be aware:of what they should expect to find in members chosen for the new administration~ The primary question for the voters should be: Who ,has the leadership qualities necessary to be of service to the whole congregatio, n?°A .person may be able to speak many languages, but if he or she lacks leadership qualities, then voters should automatically consider other candidates. Since general administrators are to be at the service of the whole congregation, the folio.wing question should not even be considered: Will he or she better represent my province? Summary By way of summary, what particular points should general administra-tions be sensitive to if they are to exercise effective leadership? Firstly, culture change is a complex, slow and often painful process, requiring new values, attitudes and behavior patterns. Since revitalization of a religious congregation involves a cultural change, one in which the institute moves from a weak to a strong culture, the process will be slow and painful. The pain will be salvific if individuals and communities approach change in a prayerfully discerning way. Secondly, general administrations are called to lead their congregations to revitalization. They do this by articulating and communicating the values which form the foundation of the religious-life culture change of the congrega-tion. This means that in implementing the "hands-on, value-driven" and '~loose-tight" principles of leadership, general administrators must .resist the temptation to solve problems for people~ Their overriding task is to communi-cate the values in light of which the congregations' members themselves decide ¯ freely what to do. Thirdly, in order to communicate values and to guarantee that they tak+ deeper and deeper roots within the congregation,general administrators must be in as frequent personal contact with provincial administrations and key General Government Today / 839 groups in the provinces as is possible. They cannot lead by remaining in the generalate. Strong administrative discipline is required to prevent central governments from assuming administrative responsibilities that would hinder or prevent general administrators from being in the field. Planned follow-up visits are required by general administrators to provincial councils and other key groups at various stages after important planning sessions have been held. This would help the development of an accountability process. The more successful, over time, that the communication of values is, the less frequent will the visits have to be. Fourthly, implicit in all that has been said is the assumption that the primary concern of the general administrators is the corporate well-being of the congregation. General administrators should not normally take over the personal, pastoral visitations of each religious by the provincials. The more they become personally involved in this type of ministry, themselves, the less time and energy they have for their primary task. Fifthly, general administrators should constantly be on the lookout for potential or actual innovators, prophetic figures, congregational "heroes," who, ~f rightly placed, would have the ability to summon others to reconversion. Conclusion Many general administrations today are confused about how to lead their congregations through the processes of revitalization. It is true that "leader-ship styles of the past will no longer be functional or useful.''56" But the challenges that general administrations face today are not unique to them. Survival and growth are not automatic for secular organizations and busi-nesses either. General administrations of .religious congregations, especially those which need revitalization or reconversion, can learn much from the style and methods of the leaders of successful businesses and other secular organizations¯ ~ General administrators are to lead, not by taking more and more respon-sibilities from the provinces, nor by trying to coerce people into reconversion through the use of some form of authority, but by clarifying, articulating and transmitting the congregation's values and goals to all members. Their task is to build strong religious-life cultures, in which congregational "heroes," inno-vators, refounders, prophets, are valued people. The stress is on working with, not for members of the congregation. The basic and primary skill required of general administrators as leaders is the ability to work with others, first and most of all with each other, so that teamwork emerges, and then with key groups and personnel in the provincesP7 They will be evangelizer~ to their own congregation to the degree that they, as a team and as individuals, are open to evangelization themselves. They must strive to be specialists in their own congregation "in the sense of expe-riencing God more vividly in the following of Christ and making that expe-rience the basis" for the evangelization of their fellow religiousP8 I]40 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1984 General administrators need insights from research into leadership, skills and expertise. But we need to be reminded that, as Paul VI notes, while "techniques of evangelization are good, [nonetheless] even the most advanced ones could not replace the gen.tle action of the Spirit. The most perfect prepa-ration of the evangelizer has no effect without the Holy Spirit. Without the Holy Spirit the m.ost convincing dialectic has no power over the heart of man. Without him the most highly developed schemas resting on a truly sociglogi-cal or psychological basis are quic, kly seen to be quite valueless."59 NOTES ~See The Church in the Modern World, I. 2See Raymond L. Fitz, S.M. and Lawrence J. Cada. S.M., ~The Recovery of Religious Life" in REVIEW FoR RELIGIOUS, Vol. 34, No. 5, 1975, p. 706. 3Managing in Turbulent Times (London: Pan, 1980), p. 43. 4E. Ward, "Christian Missions--Survival: in What Forms" in International Bulletin of Mission-ary Research. 1982, p. 8. 5Ronald Lippitt, "The Changing Leader-Follower Relationships of the 1980s" in The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1982, p. 397. 6Amitai Etzioni, An Immodest Agenda: Rebuilding America Before the21st Century (N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1983), p. 26f. 7Amitai Etzioni, "U.S. Needs a 'Moral and Social Recovery'" in U.S. News & Worm Report, 9 Jan. 1984, p. 591- SRobert K. Greenleaf, Servant ~Leadership: A Journey into the Nature "of Legitimate Power and Greatness (N.Y.I Paulist Press, 1977). p. 15. 91bid. ~0See Roger Aubert (Ed). Prophets in the Church (N.Y.: Paulist Press, 1968), p. 2. ~Robert K. Greenleaf, op. cit., p. 15. ~2Peter Drucker. op. cit., p. 43. ~3Cited by Thomas~ J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman Jr: In S~arch of Excellence: Lessons from America's,Best-Run Companies (N.Y.: Harper & Row, 1982), p. 104. ~4See James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (N.Y.: Harper & Row, 1978)., ~5(Reading. Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1.9~2), p. 15f. ~Ibid. p. 141. ~71bid, p. 196. A Similar cultural approach to management analysis is to be found in Richard Tanner Pascale and Anthony G. Athos. The Art of Japanese Management (l:ondon: Allen Lane. 1982). ~sOp. cit. ~gThomas J. Peters, "Well-Run Companies: The Secret of Success" in U.S. News & Worm Report, 10 Oct. 1983, p. 74. -'0Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman. Jr. op. cit., p. 291. e :qbid. p. 287. ~-'See op, cit., p. 288. -'3Thomas J. Peiers. "Well-Run Companies: The Secret of Success," p. 74. 24See Thomas J. Peters and Robert,H, Waterman, Jr. op. cit., p. 310. ¯ ~-5Thomas J. Peters, "Well-Run Companies: The Secret of Success," p. 75. -'6See T.homas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr. op. cit. p. 318. 27"A Discussion on Leadership and Autfiority" in Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits (St. Louis: American Assistancy Seminar on Jesuit Spirituality; 1972), Vol. IV. No. 2~, p. 55. ~Slbid, p. 56. -'91bid. p. 58. -~01bid. 3~ Traditional Cultures: And the Impact of Technological Change (N.Y2 ~Harper. 1962), p. 269. This text is further explained by Gerald A. Arbuckle in The Role of Change-Agents in Devel- General Government Today / 1141 opment (Sydney: Action for World Development, 1972). a2Mutuae Relationes (Rome: S.C. for Religious and for Secular Institutes & S.C. for Bishops. !978): par. 10. ~lbid. par. 12 -~2 Co 4:7. 3~Mady A. Thung, The Precarious Organization." Sociological ~cplorations of the Church's Mission and Structur~ (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), p. I. For relevant sociological analyses of Church structures and management, see: Alvin J. Lindgren and Norman Shawchuck, Manage-ment for Your Church: How to Realize ),our Church's Potential Through a Systems Approach (Nashville: Abingdon, 1977); Lyle E. Schaller, Effective Church Planning (Nashville: Abifigdon, 1979); Peter E Rudge, Ministry and Management." The Stud), of Ecclesiastical Administrations (London: Tavistock. 1968). -~6Lk 16:18. 37See Lawrence Cada, 'S.M., Raymond Fit~., S.M., Gertrude Foley. S.C. Thomas Giardino, S.M., and Carol Lichetenberg, S.N.D. de N. Shaping the Coming Age of Religious life (N.Y.: Seabury Pr~ess, 1979), p. 60. ~SFor helpful historical insights ~ee Raymond Hostie, S.J., The Life and Death of Religious Orders: A Psycho-Sociological Approach (Washington: Cara, 1983), pp. 276-281. 39See J. P. Donero, F.S.C. and T. D. Frary, New Responses in Religious Life (N.Y.: Alba House, 1979), pp. 20-22. 4°See Raymond L. Fitz, S.M. and Lawrence J. Cada. S.M., "The Recovery of Rdligious Life." 4~For relevant comments see Thomas More Page, C.F.X., "Managing and Planning Change in Religious Institutes" in REvIEw I:OR REI:~G~OUS, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1972, pp. 386-401. 42The most challenging restatement of this emphasis is to be found in the Apostolic Exhortation of Paul VI, ten years after Vatican II, Evangelii Nuntiandi, 1975, nn. 18, 20, 63. 43Leonardo Boff,,O.F.M~:, God's Witnesses in the Heart of the WorM(Chicago: Claret Center for Resources in Sl~irituality, 1981). p. 226. '~F. J. Moloney, S.D.B., Disciples and Prophets: A Bibfical Model for the Religious Life (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1980), p. 169. 45Quoted by Paul V. Robb, S.J. in "Conversion as a Human Experience" in St.udies in the Spirituality of Jesuits (St, Louis: American Assistancy Seminar on Jesuit Spirituality, 1982), p. 4. ~Op. cir., par. 15. ~TSee for helpful comments.'John Adair, Effective Leadership: A Modern Guide to Developing Leadership Skills (London: Pan Books, 1983). pp. 159-186. ~Sl Co 13:1': 49See Raymond Hostie, S.J., op. cit., p. 277. 5°Jr I:10. ~ For an explanation of the lg.natian method of deliberation, see John C. Futrell, S.J., "Commu-nal Discernment: Reflections on Experience" in Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits (St. Louis: American Assistancy Seminar on Jesuit Spirituality, 1972). ~2Two studies by W. Biddle and L. oBiddle will be helpful to leaders in cultural change: 7~te Community Development Process: The Rediscovdry of LoCal Initiative (N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965) and Encouraging Community Development: A Training Guide for Local Workers (N.Y.: Holt, Rineh

The Mercury March, 1907 HELP THOSE WHO HELP VS. I Li The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y Makewof CAPS ANDQ0WN5 To Gettysburg College, Lafayette. Lehigh Dickinson. State College. Univ of Penn-sylvania, Harvard, Yale. Princeton. Welleslev, Bryn Mawr nnd the others Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods for Degrees. A HARVAHD MAN whom we placed with a large publishing house a year ago has just been advanced to the managership of an important department. He's only one of the 1500 college men placed in satisfactory posi-tions last year. In each of our offices is a department exclusively for college men. Each man's case receives personal attention and our employment experts find for him the position in business, in teaching or in technical work which he is best fitted to fill. Write us to-day and we will tell you what we can do for you. c _ _. r^L r^. _ _. THE JWaTlOJVAb »ltU.I.\-l/.1TH>.\- »/.' H^PG-BISEGD, BRJIIJS- WUHKKRS. 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T ••!•■ T ■'I- ■t .j'. '•I- 7■ •] 7 •■.!■ If. '*• 7i "i" '•I-' 7 •i "i" jj 'i •J 'i \v ■it \V Students' Headquarters —FOR-HATS, SHOES, AVD GENT'S FURNISHING. Sole Agent for WALK-OVER SHOE ECKERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right TJie Lutheran PuWiGctioij Society No 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. / Acknowledged Headquarter* for anything and everything' in the way of Books for Churches. Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitution* with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY S. BONER, Sup't. I H E M-E'RCURY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., MARCH 1907 No. 1 CONTENTS VACATION OVER THE SEA.—Essay. W. B. HEILMAN, '08- POE : WIZZARD OR CHARLATAN.—Essay. W. WISSLER HACKMAN, '08. BLOODY RUN—Legend. E. E. SNYDER, '09. ia IN HER PLACE.—Story. JOSEPPI ARNOLD, '09. 15 THE SICKLER COMES TO ALL.—Poem. OSCAR C. DEAN, '08. 22 FROM CLERKSHIP TO FRESHMANSHIP.—Essay. G. E. WOLFF, '09. 22 THE MISSIONARY SPIRIT—Oration. CHARLES W. HEATHCOTE, '05. 25 EDITORIALS. 29 EXCHANGES. 31 THE MERCURY. VACATION OVER THE SEA. W. B. HEILMAN, '08. rrjHERE are innumerable ways a college student may spend -L his summer vacation. To some, one way appeals more than others and they will then strive to make it possible to spend their vacation that way. To me it seemed that a trip across the ocean on a cattle boat would be at once interesting and exciting. My chum and I talked the matter over and made our preparations to leave as soon as school had closed. At the last moment another student joined us and on a boiling hot day iu the month of June we three students, billed as ex-perienced cattlemen, sailed out of Baltimore on the steamship Maryland. We had about 300 cattle aboard but before the day was over owing to the terrific heat several had died. At once we received our first lesson in cattle boat training. By the aid of the steam winch and a long rope the carcasses were drawn to the side of the vessel and dropped into the bay to become the food of crabs and fishes. We also suffered as well as the cattle for we three having incautiously sat down on the deck, which-on these boats is painted black with a mixture of tar and turpentine, when we attempted to arise the usual re-sults happened, As there was plenty of corn sacks aboard however we did not suffer. I was appointed night watchman while my two chums were placed on day duty. Being on duty at night I consequently became well acquainted with the sail-ors and many were the strange yarns of different countries, which they told me during the long night watches. Our voy-age was enlivened several times by unusual occurrences. When we were about half way over the Newfoundland Banks we passed within a quarter of a mile of three immense icebergs of which we obtained several good photographs. It was hours before we lost sight of them owing to their intense white brilliancy. Two days after passing the icebergs we laid to in mid ocean to receive three stowaways, who were trying to get back to the States, from a homeward bound vessel of the same line. These stowoways were put to work at odd jobs on the vessel until we reached England where they were taken into custody. As we drew away from the American coast the weather which up to this time had been very pleas- THK, MF.KCITRV. ant grew much colder. The men no longer slept out on deck but sought their bunks and blankets. The nights were much damper. About four days before we expected to land all the crew were busy painting, scraping and scouring. The masts were repainted, the brasswork shined up, and the deck was tarred, but this time we did not get caught ; we sat on news-papers. The Sunday before we arrived the waist of the ship was full of clothes lines, all bearing burdens which flapped gayly in the'breeze, for the men were desirous of making a good showing when they reached home. Several days later we sighted the Scilly Islands. In the neighborhood of these islands we passed a fleet of Penzance fishing luggers. These boats on account of their red, leg of mutton sails, have a very peculiar and striking appearance which the character of their crews helps greatly to heighten. These hardy fishermen go out in all kinds of weather and handle their boats with a skill and daring that is little short of marvelous. From here until we anchored at Gravesend shipping was very numerous. That afternoon I saw the rugged coast of Cornwall from the rigging and the same evening the lookout reported Lizard's Light. We were now fairly in the English Channel. As the night was very clear and calm the lights of the var-ious cities we passed were remarkably distinct and the look-out went to great pains to explain to me at length all about them. About i, A. M. we sighted the Calias light in France and so for several hours we steamed along, seeing the lights of England on our left and on our right the lights of France, Shortly before daylight we dropped anchor in the muddy, filthy Thames at Gravesend to wait for the turning of the tide. Although the river here is less than a quarter of a mile wide the officers of the boat told us that a man would be unable to swim across owing to the foul gases that are being constantly stirred up by the anchors of the thousands of vessels and the impurities from the great city which are churned by the pro-pellors of the steamers. This they said would overcome a man before he was half way over, as many a poor stowaway had found out when, seeking to escape justice, he had leaped overboard in the hope of swimming ashore but, overcome by the foul waters, had sunk before he could be rescued. As dawn began to spread over the s-ky, surrounding objects grad* THE MERCURY. ually grew plainer and we saw that we were anchored in the midst of an immense fleet all waiting for the turning of the tide. Slowly the shore grew plainer and we saw a strange mixture of old docks and warehouses interposed between huge locks and fine buildings on terraces which sloped to the water's edge. Indeed, all the way from Gravesend to London, a distance of about 18 miles we noticed this same strange in-termingling ; strange to us because in most American cities where there is any considerable shipping the water front is the last place'where one looks for respectable dwellings. But in London the very Houses of Parliament themselves are marked by the ebb and flow of the Thames, the citadel of ancient Lou-don, the famous Tower, bears mute witness to centuries of contact with the turbid river in the shape of innumerable bar-nacles and accumulations of slimy sea weed. One of the fin-est drives, the Thames Embankment, runs right along the river's edge, while several palaces and hotels grace the banks at various places. We steamed slowly up the river between lines of ships of every nationality, from the big black ocean . tramp to the many colored deck of the Norwegian fishing smacks, with crews as motley as the vessels. Tall, fair-haired Saxons, Lascars with their broad turban and oriental dress, sailors from all of England's tributaries, each dressed in their own peculiar garb and speaking the tongue of their birth, formed a constantly shifting scene before our wondering eyes. And so it was all the way to the cattle market where with many strange cries, aided by steel pointed sticks the yardmen drove the beasts ashore and our vessel steamed clown to take her place in one of those wonders of modern engineering, the Royal Albert Docks, where having bidden farewell to the kindly officers and sailors and being passed by the custom house officials, we went ashore and passed through the dock yard gates out into busy, rushing London. As it was already late in the afternoon we took lodging for the night at a seamen's boarding house which one of the quartermasters had told us of, and then boarded a train for the center of the city. The train caused us all much amuse-ment, first on account of the ridiculous small looking engines —which nevertheless go at a very respectable speed—and next because of the sizeand general appearance of the coaches, re- THE MERCURY. setnbling in a great many respects our old stage coaches, each divided into three or four compartments separated from each other by partitions and entered from doors on the side. These compartments will hold about 12 people. We thought we were lucky to have an empty compartment but we were soon robbed of that illusion for at the very next stopping place a crowd of factory hands filled up our section so completely that there was no possible way of escaping the odor of garlic. The dinner of the working classes usually consists of a large onion and a hunk of bread which they, carry to work tied up in a large bandana and this they wash down with a large cup of tea purchased from some restaurant. But even worse than the smell of onions was their habit of taking snuff. An old woman next to me taking a generous pinch of snuff I received about half of it. and as a result I sneezed for the rest of the evening. 1 think snuff taking is a most reprehensible prac-tice. Arrived at the huge station .we hastened to see some of the principal streets by night. We were all struck by the ex-treme'crookedness of the streets, the principal streets of well known London so narrow that it is impossible for three streams of traffic to pass each other and so crowded that it is necessary for policemen to be stationed at every crossing—and here let me pause to say a word about the guardians of London. Tall fine built men, I don't believe there is a man on the force un-der 6 feet, and this appearance is heightened by the wearing of helmets, courteous to all, going out of their way to direct the stranger, saying very little but minded implicitly by the citizens, this is the force that guards the world's largest city. We spent some time exploring the city from the top of a bus, for London has no street cars in the business section on ac-count of the traffic. It seemed to us that about every fifth man wore a soldier's uniform and here as with the policemen, we noticed the fine physique of those who had taken the '-'Queen's shilling." Strange sights and sounds were not lack-ing but wearied with our long day, we early betook ourselves to our lodgings. Next day we took a long ride through the principal parts, ending up at the Billingsgate fish market. All that has ever been written concerning the langragi and cus-toms of this famous market I can surely endorse'. The lan-guage is extremely forcible and picturesque, the smells are THK JIKRCURY. certainly the former and the venders themselves are the latter. Here you see the fishwives with odd looking, heavy straw hats, bearing baskets of fish on their head while they give utterance to strange cries. Men and women alike carrying fish, some in iced boxes which dripping catch the unwary stranger, block the way but persevering we pushed through and came to the Tower. Just a look at the Tower and its guides immediately takes you back to the times when England's kings overawed their unruly subjects from its frowning walls. But now the wide moat surrounding the Tower is dry, while the sentinels al-though in the costume of the 12th century are merely the painstaking guides whose only care is that you shall not miss seeing any spot of interest. They point out to you Traitor's Gate, where state criminals condemned by Parliament and brought down the river in boats, to prevent rescue by friends, were landed and passed through to their doom. The stairs under which the bodies of the young princes were hidden after their murder, and the rooms where some of England's great-est wrote their pathetic history on the walls using their blood for ink, or with infinite care carved their coat of arms in the stone wall, all rival in interest the crown jewels kept in a wing of the castle under guard. Here are the crowns of Brit-ain's rulers famed in history. There is so much of interest in the tower that we left it with regret. St. Panl's with its mighty dome and stained glass windows, its costly pictures and monuments to famous men we saw in the hush of a religious service, when the choir and altar, lighted with innumerable candles, flashed back their light from gilt and marble and lent a tone of softness to the vast arches of stone. Westminster Abbey we also saw during a religious service. This abbey is built in the form of a cross and is even more famous than St. Paul's, for here the kings and queens and great men of England are buried, while mon-uments of others keep fresh their memory. Here we walked with reverent tread for almost every step is over the ashes of some noble whose tablet, giving his rank and history, has been worn smooth by the shuffling of countless feet. Statues of warriors in full armor mark the last resting place of some valiant knight. Carvings and sculptures of all kinds denote THE MEKCIJRY. where the ashes of statesmen, soldiers, sailors, poets and authors, the flower of Britain's greatest, have been given their last honors. Yet of the thousands honored there but two bore tokens of the love and respect of the present day. The stat-ues of Longfellow and Tennyson both bore fresh cut flowers which nearly every day are renewed by some admirer of the poets. Near to the poet's corner is the royal chapel where the kingly dead are laid, while a step or two away stand the coronation chairs, the foundation of which is the Scone stone of the Scotch kings which was taken by one of the English kings. In one of the wings is the old chapter house where the monks originally met, and here is a door one side of which is covered by a human skin. This was the skin of the "robber abbot," who when Edward I marched against the Scots, leaving his treasure in his charge, betrayed his trust. His sovereign learning of his treachery flayed him alive and nailed his skin to the door of his cell as a warning. The skin has been trimmed down by curio hunters till only a little strip remains under the old fashioned hinges. After taking a last look at Queen Victoria's casket we reluctantly left this hal-lowed spot, so intimately associated with the history of Eng-land, and turned our steps toward the Congress of our sister nation the Houses of Parliament. NOTK: This article will be continued in the next issue.—ED. 8 THE MEUCl'KV. POE: WIZARD OR CHARLATAN? W. WISSLER HACKMAN, EX. '08. IV. AS CRITIC. i | (HIS no doubt, to most of Poe's admirers, is the phase of -L his character least familiar and to his detractors most familiar. It must seem strange, at first sight, that criticism should be entrusted into the clutches of a fanatic and misan-thrope such as Poe's enemies present him to be. Not only that but into the care of one so notoriously vicious, irregular and dissipated should be placed any position such as a literary critic possesses, sesms an evide ice of rein ir'cably poor judg-ment. We must in fact admit at the start that he must have possessed the abilities of a literary critic to no small degree to recommend him to the attention of the literary arbiter of the middle nineteenth century in America. His criticel produc-tions fall into two great classes : frank and- legitimate criticism and satire The first named again falls into two classes, journalistic or magazine critism, and independent criticism. For what his-tory we have of his career as critic in the employ of periodi-cals we can do no better than refer you to N. P. Willis, mag-azine editor, and "Arbiter Elegaus" during Poe's career. He speaks in high terms of commendation of Poe's character both personal and professional. He asserts that while in his employ he detected none of those irregularities, nor did he at any* time evince that haughty resentment he was led by com-mon report to expect. He further refers to him as a pale, sad-faced, quiet "gentleman," courteous and tractable. When he (Willis) pointed out some clause as too sharp, perhaps, where momentary enthusiasm for the time usurped discretion to the possible injustice of the victim, Poe changed to milder form without the least demur, and when they dissolved their relation so agreeable to the editor, it was under circumstances not in the least derogatory to the sad, pale-faced critic. Verv kind indeed of Mr. Willis, I am sure. Yet we cannot but smile a little indulgently as we note the patronizing kindness of the elegant arbiter ; Poe, indeed, forced to Nathaniel P. Willis's door to get a glib recommendation. Truly Fate is ironical. To-day, who reads the elegant Nathaniel, the Poet THE RIKRCUKY. of fashion and its pet? Who ever knows that his thumb de-termined the fate of more than one aspirant to Parnassus ? However, most of this work was of a fugitive character, too much of it mere hack work, which paid miserably. In those days, the critic had not yet attained to the throne. He was not yet a staple product, a necessary of literary life, He was not'even a luxury ; he was a mere byproduct. We cannot but feel that the lofty spirit of the Poet and Dreame'r revolted from the indignity of his place. Painfully struggling for a mere pittance of life which unliterary America, to her shame be it said, most grudgingly doled out to him ; hampered by abject poverty and a long drawn domestic tragedy ; who can blame him for his bursts of bitterness and even resentful malice if such there was? But let us leave this field of his activities, it is at best barren and rocky soil and yields little of interest or benefit studied aside from contemporary life and history. Turning then to his independent criticism we shall expect to meet him ready for scrutiny without apolog}' or excuse. His criticism on Poetry, English (ancient) and American and on verse and versification has been reviewed in a previous paper ; we shall omit from closer examination, only begging that you turn again to them and reread them with your men-tal eye focused more on the correctness of his logic than on the correctness of his doctrine. But there is one mutter which for very important reasons I shall not pass by ; it is Poe's attitude to contemporary poets in general and to Longfellow in particular. Poe was undoubtedly one of the strongest literary forces of his period—his influence was more far reaching in his own life and more profound than that of any other, save perhaps Longfellow. Yet, himself always, doomed to the underside of prosperity's wave, he was forced to witness his smaller rivals ride the crest in smug pride, or at best mod-est acquiesence. He felt the injustice, and it rankled, and glowed, and raged and seared, what under happier stars might have been a kingly and beneficent soul. His keen vision de-tected the vulnerable points with an intensity almost malig-nant. Of all his rivals—as he chose to consider them—Longfellow called forth his most notable attacks ; probably because he was most formidable. And it is to this attack [See Rationale of to THE MERCURY. Verse] that much of Poe's present unpopularity is in a meas-ure due. Seeing Longfellow as we do to-day, in the full glory of his completed work, we cannot but reverence the man as the great American poet—nearest to representative of our nation we have yet produced. As we celebrated the centenary of his birth but a few days ago our sense of reverence was re-newed into a sense of devout joy that a man so wholly pure, and high, and generous, and notable was accorded us, a nation too fast growing sordid and enfevered. How then must Poe appear to us in his half sneering analysis? Is there any good thing in a character so unjustly malicious? Come and see. First and always let us remember that they were contempo-raries, and both great, but in different ways. Poe was an avowed formalist, by which I mean he considered purity of verse-form the first essential of good poetry, and does he ar-raign Longfellow on any other charge ? Does he attack Long-fellow's Tightness or beauty of thot ? He never mentions them. He may well have disagreed on these latter matters also for they stood at the opposite poles of poetical purposes ; Poe asserting that beauty was the only legitimate excuse ior poetry—that didacticism was injurious and at best only toler-able, Longfellow feeling that Poesy's only office was the clothing of a good nd beautiful thot, beautiful because di-vine. Turning to Longfellow's early poetry then, we find- it strongly charged with this idea. Even the warmest support-ers of Longfellow among present day critics admit that dis-tinct injury is done him by attempting to rate him by those first products,—"The Reaper" and "Excelsior." They were ethical calls to arm, and their instant popularity was in the unconscious reception of them as such. To-day with the con-ditions calling them forth we can and do admit that as poetry such as Poe conceived it should be and even by whatever standard we choose, it is inferior. Turning to "Evangeline" with Poe we find his specific charge supported by Longfellow's warmest admirers of his and our own time. It was even then felt generally and as-serted that the English language was poorly adapted to the form of verse employed in the Canadian pastoral "Epic" i. e. the dactylic Jiexameter. As a result there are many weak lines. The task was more than even Longfellow's genius could en- THE MERCURY. II compass, and he tacitly admits it by substituting the iambic in Miles Standish's Courtship with a vast increase not only of verse purity but of general effectiveness. Now this is just • what Poe perceived and pointed out, a little strongly, a little too sharply perhaps, but thoroughly justified by and in har-mony with, his own peculiar and preavowed doctrines on verse—its forms and purposes. Let this then suffice at pres^ ent for the Poe—Longfellow episode. His satirical products were aimed chiefly at contemporary conditions in magazine prose. Blackwood's comes in for the major share of his spleen. Whatever private grievance Poe had against that compilation of fastidious elegance it is certain that he pilloried the literary "Elects" fetish in a most effect-ive and vigorous manner. Read his "How to write a Black-wood Article," and overlooking certain overdrawn crudities verging on nonsense, note the smug, unctiousself complacency of the portly, well fed editor, the ludicrously worshipful cred-ulity of the admiring and self-important spinster, you can al-most see them sitting face to face in the revered sanctum sanc-torum, he in super-respectable broad-cloth, his large oily ex-panse of florid smoothness with bland lips perked up in mild self-love breaking pompously into milky-—I should say rather —buttery smiles, his white, soft flabby hands, with the invar-iable huge seal ring radiating importance from a plump third digit, waving with dreamy grace before the enchanted orbs of the erudite self enshrined Miss Farobia, spinster. On the other side the spidery form of the yearning spinster—devoted' votary at Minerva's shrine. I can see her primly erect on a spindly chair her half mitted palms worshipfully clasped in the folds of that gorgeously hued gown or anon raised ecstat-ically with true old maid fervor and simpering affectation to her throbbing bosom ! About that bonneted cranium seething with abortive romances cluster, none too thickly, in orderly array clusters of astounding gray-green cork screw curls. From between them through gold-rimmed eye glasses, no doubt, peer and squint and sparkle the soulful optics of the divine and famous Psyche Zenobia. No, thank you, not Suche Snobbs, oh, no indeed ! Bear this in mind gentle reader. 12 THE MERCURY. This picture, then, well visualized, turn to the product of that renowned interview, read the remarkable adventures of the divine Psyche and her dearly beloved factotum and poodle, the harrowing incidents of that gruesome belfry tragedy ! Here is satire in spots that would have delighted the soul of Swift and no doubt drew an answering smile from the thank-less Dickens. It is not a mere skit, it is a skillful attack upon the too prevalent evils of affectation, ridiculing it, sneering at it and at times growing quite abusive in his contempt. For example let us examine the interview just referred to. We cannot at once determine whether the irony and ill concealed sarcasm and horseplay is the editor's as represented, or Poe's, speaking through him ; surely the latter. Editors also are his prey. In those days editors were rather tyrannical toward fugitive verse, and Poe, no doubt, makes his own grievances the excuse for his bitter attacks upon them. With viscious pen jabs he caricatures editors, magazines, literary idols and fads alike. Aside from this better class there is another grade I would only too gladly pass by unnoted, to wit :—his "funny satires" at the head of which stands "The Life of Thingum Bob." There are bearable spots here and there widely scattered in this minor branch, but, on the whole, its pretty weak, sloppy stuff—downright sickening and without the slightest spark of humor at places. I have referred to it in a previous paper as none better than "school-boy click-clack"—that's just what it is. To be convinced, read it yourself. In my opinion I think it an injustice to Poe's good taste to say more about them save that they never should have been published. THE MEKCURY. 13 BLOODY RUN. E. E. SNYDER, '09. NESTLED among the mountains in the northern part of Bedford county lies a beautiul valley, through which flows a stream of cool, sparkling mountain water, known as Bloody Run. Merrily it winds its way from its source, a fountain in the heart of the Tuscaroras, over rocks, beneath logs and overhanging banks, through forests and meadows, steadily downward, until finally it joins its water with those of the "Blue Juniata." It is a beautiful stream, yet a treacherous and turbulent one. Its beauty attracts the attention and excites the admir-ation of all seeing it : yet its waters have wrought more de-struction than those of its mother stream, the Juniata. It is too large to be called a brook, yet it has all of a mountain brook's attractiveness. In its bright laughing waters the trout and minnow play ; happy children gather flowers upon its banks, or, wading its crystal pools, piok the shining pebbles from its bed. Its waters are swift and noisy, ever hastening onward, but in such a merry, happy manner that in watching it its haste is forgotten in its mirth and song. But in stormy seasons it leaves off its merry, playful mood, and becomes as fierce and avenging as its name would indicate. In a few hours it is transformed from the laughing brook into a might/, raging river, sweeping to destruction everything that comes in its way. At such times it carries to the Juniata chickens, pigs, sheep, calves, small buildings, household goods, boardwalks and fences and sometimes before its wrath is ap-peased even the larger buildings are seriously damaged. Its fall is as rapid as its rise, and ere the storm has long passed, it has become once more the playful brook. There is a beautiful Indian legend connected with the nam-ing of the stream, which has been handed down from genera-tion to generation in true Indian fashion. It runs as follows*, Long years ago near the source of this beautiful, turbulent stream dwelt a mighty Indian chieftain, an Uncas of the Del-awares, and throughout all the Iriquois Nations, there was no other so brave in battle or so wise in council as he. He lived in peace and quietness, but no stranger was ever turned H THE MERCURY. away, cold or hungry, from his wigwam. All found a cordial welcome, the white man as well as the Indian. This chieftain had but one child, a daughter, the lovely Minnehaha. She was the idol of her father and the pride of the Iriquois nation. And well might they love and pet her; for throughout the Indian world there was none more kind or more beautiful than Minnehaha of the Delawares. Her form was graceful and slender ; her eyes were soft and beautiful ; her teeth were" as pearls; her forehead high and beautiful. There was ever a kind word on her lips and a song of happi-ness in her heart. She was the playmate of the children ; the nurse of the sick or wounded ; the friend of the'hard working .squaws ; a hearer for' the tales of the warriors ; and a never ceasing source of happiness to her father. Such was the beautiful Minnehaha. By the source of this stream Minnehaha played in her child-hood, and here she would come as a maiden and gaze into the . crystal waters of the bubbling spring and try to solve the mystery of the "Great Spirit," who the Indians believe dwelt in the waters. Now among the Indian warriors this princess had many lovers, but none so persiscent and perhaps none so much fav-ored as Growling Bear. Among the warriors there was none braver than he, yet none so cruel and vengeful. He had wooed Minnehaha for a long time but she persistently de-clined to be won. Because of the fierce jealously of Growling Bear the other lovers were shy and timid,.and there was little danger of any of them winning the fair princess. But one day while Minnehaha was sitting by the spring a handsome young hunter stopped to drink from its waters As he arose he beheld the Indian maiden before him. Struck by her won-derful beauty he began to talk with her, nor did he leave t he spring till sunset. The next day they again met at the spring and before they parted that day a strong friendship had sprung up between them—a friendship which soon ripened into love. The spring became their trysting place, and for many months they would meet at twilight on its banks, and the young hunter, with the Indian maiden clasped in his arms, would repeat o'er and o'er to her his vows of undying love ; and the princess, with clasped hands and a happy heart, would THE MERCURY. 15 listen, with her eyes, full of love, fixed upon him. Thus the days passed bright and happy. But Growling Bear began to suspect the love of Minnehaha for the young hunter, and one evening, as she left her wig-wam, he stealthily followed and discovered their secret. Filled with an uncontrollable anger, he plunged his long knife through ihe hearts of both, as they stood beside the spring. Then with a wild cry he plunged the knife into his own heart and the three bodies fell together into the clear fountain. Their life blood reddened the waters of the stream, and the Indians always after called it the "bloody" run and the white man adopted the name. IN HER PLACE. JOSEPH ARNOLD, '09. J7T FEELING of joy thrilled Mabel Burton as she entered -L-A. the library. It was a bright and sunny afternoon in June, just two days before the time announced for her marriage to William Carr. Could she be other than happy, as she made her way to the home of her betrothed to make a few final ar-rangements for the joyful event of her life ? Indeed, so happy was Mabel that she was barely conscious of what occurred about her. Even the rattle of the car in which she rode seemed music to her ears. This happiness however, was of short du-ration, for suddenly she was roused by a "How do you do Miss Burton ? Where do you come from and where are you bound ?'' "Why Mr. Walsh," exclaimed Mabel with a look of sur-prise on her beautiful face, "wheredo you come from ? it is almost two years since we had the pleasure of meeting." - "It is by mere chance I came this way," replied Mr. Walsh, i6 THE MERCURY. "I am on my way to Albany to see Senator B— on some pri-vate business. But where are you going, if I may ask?" ' I am about to visit Mrs. Carr—" "Do you know a Mr. William Carr ?" interrupted Mr. Walsh. "He is engaged to a Miss EfRe Stone a friend of mine." Just then the conductor called out "Change here for Harlem Ex-press," and Mr. Walsh arising from his seat said, "Adieu Miss Burton, pleased to have met you," and with that, he left the car. Had he thrust her with a dagger he could not have wounded her more deeply. It seemed to her for a moment as' if some-one had crushed out of her heart every drop of blood. In the anguish of her soul she turned her beautiful brown eyes from the passengers so as to avoid detection of her inward struggles and peered out into the darkness of the subway as the train sped on. Thoughts came crowding into her mind so fast that they fairly bewildered her. "What was she to do if what she heard were true," was the question which continually arose before her. This chaotic state of mind continued for a while but finally it quieted to such a degree as to make it possible for her to solve some of the questions that naturally arose out of the situation. She at length decided to carry out her plan for the day with but little difference, that she would make her stay at Mrs. Carr's as brief as possible. Fortune seemed to favor her, for, on arriving at the home •of Mrs. Carr, she found that William was out at the time. Thus, she felt freer and could appear perfectly natural in her actions. In fact Mrs. Carr saw in her over anxiousness to get away only the nervous excitement due to the nearness of the coming crisis in the young woman's life, and thus overlooked the action with a good natured smile. Mabel was soon on her way again and with a heavy heart arrived at the home of her cousin whom she had decided to visit. She was somewhat comforted as she walked up to the door, for she knew that in Jack, as she was want to call her cousin, it was possible for her to confide. Had she not gone to him with many a burden before her betrothal to William ? THE MERCURY. 17 Therefore, no sooner had he opened the door, than she with-out even so much as a greeting cried out : "Oh. Jack, I am miserable !" "Why, Mable, what is the matter? You are all excited. What has happened, house on fire, dog dead, canary flown away, eh, girlie, what is it?" 'Don't jest Jack, please don't; for I hardly know how to tell you. Do listen to me—" "Yes, yes," broke in her cousin, "just come in and be seated and try to be yourself for a moment." They both entered the parlor and as soon as they were-seated Jack began. "Now tell me all about it." "Alas Jack I am unhappy for William, no Mr. Carr, is en-gaged to a Miss Effie Stone." Jack muttered something unintelligible between his teeth, but in his usual thoughtful manner, for he knew how easily his cousin could be aroused by what she chanced to hear, he then said, "What evidence have you ?J' • Why Mr. Walsh, an old friend whom. I had not seen for two years, just told me." • "Very well then let us investigate the truth of the matter. There is a directory in which I shall try to locate Miss Stone and should I succeed we will talk it over, for I cannot quite believe it." "I do not wish to either," put in Mabel, "but something seems to tell me it is true.'' "Mabel, you women are all alike in that respect. You seem to feel that something is about to happen." But Mabel was too busy with her own thoughts to pay any attention to remarks her cousin chanced to make concerning women. So while Jack was running his fingers along the S's in the directory before him, Mable thought out a little scheme, which she decided wise to keep secret till she was. sure of Miss Stone's position, in the matter. "There is an Effie Stone resident at Eighty-Sixth Street and Third Avenue," at last said Jack. Having located Miss Stone, then talked the situation over, finally deciding to. cdl on the young woman, it being early in the afternoon. They then left the house, boarded a Third Avenue car and 18 THE MERCURY. were soon walking up the high stoops of an old fashioned brown stone house. Mr. Jack Dayton, for that is the full iwme of Mable's cousin, knocked at the door. It was opened by a sweet faced old lady who introduced herself as Mrs. Stone. "We desire to have a private interview with a Miss Effie Stone, presumably your daughter," Jack said. "Yes," responded Mrs. Stone, "won't you please come in and be seated, while I call Effie." "Thank you," Jack said, with a feeling of satisfaction that all had worked so well thus far. While waiting for Miss Stone to put in an appearance, Ma-bel glanced about the room. "The Stones," thought she, "may not be well-to-do, yet I should feel perfectly at home here." Then she came to the conclusion that Mr. Carr either did not know his own mind or had purely mercenary reasons for changing his affections. "Men are, after all, queer animals," she continued in her mind, "and, if my scheme works well, I shall at least punish one of them." While thus musing, in came Miss Stone, a charming young woman, with light hair, blue eyes and a carriage to be envied by many of her own sex. Yet, her fine features told tales of brooding over something, and Mabel was quick in reading past history in every expression of the beautiful face of the young woman before her. Cousin Jack and Mabel then ex-changed the usual courtesies with Miss Stone, after which Jack put a rather direct question to Miss Stone, for he asked her. "Are you acquainted with a Mr. Carr?" The face of Miss Stone paled for a moment and she ans-wered. "I am." "Pardon me, Miss Stone, may I ask you one more question ? Were you, or are you, engaged to Mr. Carr?" For a moment Miss Stone seemed perplexed and hardly knew what to do. Should she answer ? Why should anyone wish to know that which she was trying to forget ? Yet, in her own heart, she knew that she still loved William Carr. Could he still love her ? She was at a loss to answer. The situation was becoming painful and oppressive, when Mable, THE MERCURY. 19 who was quick to notice the momentary flush and pallor which followed, came to the rescue. Walking up to Miss Stone, she put her arms tenderly about her and said : "Miss Stone, I know that you love Mr. Carr, and I want to be of assistance to you, I am to marry Mr. Carr on Wednesday, but I want you to take my place. He always did seem to think of some one else, whenever we were alone." Both Jack and Miss Stone were for a time speechless. How was Mable about to manage such an unusual affair ? After a few moments of silence Mable continued : "Will you agree to come to my home ? All arrangements will be made and I shall act as bridesmaid." Thus Mable revealed the scheme she had thought out, while Jack had been busy with the di-rectory. "Do permit me to ask mother ?" said Effie. "Oh certainly," replied Mabel. Mrs. Stone was called in and after a discussion which lasted fully an hour, during which the propriety of the entire affair was talked over, they all agreed that the scheme was worth trying. Soon Mabel was on her way home. The news of the action of Mr. Carr created no small stir in her home. Mr. Burton, in a brief space of time said many things, but finally yielded to the will and acquiesced in the proposition of his daughter, for he saw that her happiness was at stake. He immediately had the proper changes made in the announcements. At length evening came. All was in readiness. Mabel, though she was to act as bridesmaid, had her wedding gown on. Effie Stone was dressed in a plain white suit, which, though plain, was very becoming to her. Her blue eyes sparkled with delight as she gayly chatted with Mabel whose merry brown eyes showed that she had no regrets whatever. What the outcome would be seemed to occupy, for the mo-ment, the minds of neither. The minister had arrived a few minutes before, Jack was stationed at the door to receive the bridegroom on his arrival. At last, a cab was heard rattling down the streets and sure enough it stopped at the door» Out stepped William Carr, in 20 THE MERCURY. appearance a handsome and at the time, happy looking man. For he really liked the one whom he professed to love and fully believed that in the course of time he would eventually love her. All thoughts of Effie Stone, for the time being, had slipped from his mind. In this happy frame of thought, he quickly walked up the steps of the stately residence of the Burton's and knocked at the door. It was opened by Jack who greeted him with, "How do you do Carr ?" "I am feeling tip top this evening" joyfully responded Carr. "Glad to hear it old boy" laughed Jack, "Come in, Mabel is ready to act as bridesmaid at your wedding this evening." "As bridesmaid ? Ha ha !" exclaimed Carr, "You old joker. When will you cease your jesting? Yet I fail to see the point." "Neither do I see it," more coolly replied Jack, ' 'Everything is in readiness, so come into the parlor. Mr. Carr." The face of Mr. Carr was a study when he saw Miss Stone in the room. Where had she come from ? Who had invited her and why? He was simply dazed. Mr. Burton gave him no time to collect his confused thoughts. ' Let us proceed," he said. William Carr was ushered before the minister who read the ceremony and tied the knot. So before Carr knew what had happened he was married to Effie Stone. The ceremony over, Mr. Burton coolly and cuttingly said, "You have our permission to leave now and the sooner the better.'' Jack was about to lead Carr to the door, when Mabel no-ticed Miss Stone suddenly turn pale. She quickly interposed herself between Carr and the door saying: "Mr. Carr you love Miss Stone and I have from the moment I first met her learned to love her too. You alone can make her happy and I feel that you would be happier with her than had you been married to me." There stood William Carr ; his head drooping for shame ; his eyes riveted to the floor. All was silent ; he was given time to think. At last he slowly raised his head, the perspi-ration was dropping from his brow. Raising his eyes he looked steadily at Mabel for a moment ; then extending his hand said slowly as if it pained him to utter the words : THE MERCURY. 21 "Miss Burton you have shamed me. Forgive the past, I have indeed always loved Effie but through a slip of the tongue I have erred and almost wronged the one I loved." "And through a slip of the tongue a kind Providence has rescued you," joyfully interrupted Mabel. Then she led him to Effie Stone who in the midst of embarrassment on her part and the applause of those present received from her lover the kiss which made glad not only her heart but the hearts of all present. Soon a jolly party was gathered about the table and all en-joyed the feast spread in honor of him who had married an-other. L^^'^C-T THE SICKLER COMES TO ALL. BY OSCAR C. DEAN, '08. ' 7 HE grim and aged Sickler, Death, Moves on and in his flight, He breaks the shackles, cuts the strands, To give the spirit flight. No earthly hand can check his march, Or turn his course aside ; But onward e'er, with mighty bound, He conquers time and tide. Humanity, like fallen grain Along his pathway lies— A blooming flower, here and there Fallen, withers and dies. It may be at the eve of life When locks are turning grey, It may be at the dawn of youth ; Death will come your way. To some he comes with plodding step, His hoary head bowed low, And brings at last the welcome end Of earthly toil and woe. 22 THE MERCURY. To some he comes with rapid flight, His sickle Hashing far, And many, e'er a prayer escapes. Are hurled across the bar. Man's life is but a passing day, Oft bright the morning's charm, But e'er tis noon, dark clouds roll on— At evening comes the storm. Perchance, the morning may be dark And noon rnay bring the showers That in the sunny eve of life Will nourish blooming flowers. Alas ! so oft the day is short— Oft e'er the sun is risen, The Slckler cuts the tender tie That binds the soul in prison. So live that when thy summons comes To leave this house of clay, The angel white, from heaven bright, May bear thy soul awlay. (^*^|%(^%r FROM CLERKSHIP TO FRESHMANSHIP, OR FROM THE BUSINESS WORLD TO THE COLLEGE WORLD. G. E. WOLFF, '09. JTJHIS little paper, let it be made known at once, by way of -*- introduction, is simply an attempt to acquaint briefly, an}' who may be interested with what it is to be a clerk in the business world—his requisite qualifications and his opportun-ities— in so far as it will serve to show what it means for such a one to go to college—the difficulties that are likely to con-front him, and his likely attitude toward college opportunities and college life in general. As is the case in every pursuit in which men engage, there are certain qualifications which one must have in order to be able to enter the commercial world as a clerk, differing, of THE MERCURY. 23 course, according to the importance and responsibility of the position. Unfortunately, however, the qualifications which it is demanded that the ordinary clerk possess are, to say the least, comparatively light. To be sure, to begin with, a fair elementary education, such as is given b)r our public schools, is required, and now, also, in most cases, a Business College course. Include also accuracy, a pretty fair amount of com-mon sense, and plenty of capacity for work and hustle, and 3'ou have, generally speaking, the required make-up of the clerk. Aside from the comparatively light qualifications which are demanded, there are a few worthy inducements that a clerk-ship has to offer which form part of the reason why this pos-ition is so attractive to so many young persons, but it is the several unworthy considerations that seem to be the chief cause of attraction. In line with the latter is a perverted con-ception that so many seem to have, that it is a nice, a respect-able thing to be a clerk, and therefore just the thing for the "promising" young man. On account of thjs shallow, re-spectableness, it is easy to become satisfied with being a clerk and with mere externals, so long as the salary is not too meagre, and almost invariably results in the curbing, if not the crushing, of a desire to rise to higher positions and to as-sume greater responsibilities, and in the creating of an almost utter indifference to the adornment of the mind. A worthy consideration, on the other hand, is the opportunity to become thoroughly familiar with business and business methods, and in many cases there is an opportunity to rise to high positions. And then there is the possibility, in this position more than many another perhaps, despite the unfortunate tendencies, above mentioned, that the need of and longing for a higher education will present themselves. What will it mean to the clerk to go to college—the only place where he can efficiently satisfy this need and longing ? Difficulties will present themselves. There will be the obvious necessity for an almost complete readjustment of his mentality. His crippled condition, because of his comparatively poor training for the college world, inasmuch as his energy has been centered in entirely different lines, will impede his prog-ress very materially. However, the clerk's business experi- 24 THE MERCURY. ence has not been wholly in Vain ; it will serve him well in a number of ways. He has come to college with a definite pur-pose in view, and he will work for the accomplishment of that purpose with much the same practical mind that he had when he was in the commercial world. It means also that a great deal of the vivacity and extravagance so common to college life will appear to him to be not only quite dispensable, but also unnecessary and dangerous. College, with its many good features, will be considered by him as the greatest tem-poral blessing of which he has yet been the recipient, and his regret will be that he will not be able to take full advantage of the same. It will seem very strange to the clerk, who has been accus-tomed to being confined for eight, nine or ten hours a day in the interests of his employer, to feel that he is at perfect liberty to devote sixteen hours a day to his own personal growth. To be sure, while the clerk was giving so much of his time to the work of his employer, he was himself being benefitted thereby, but the favorable contrast between the mo-notony and oftimes the tediousness of the life in the office and the diversified life of the college is very great ; so great, in fact, that the college world seems a veritable Utopia, where everything is favorable to the complete development of self. To discover that the opportunities in college are devoted to other than their natural ends, and, in fact, that they are ut-terly ignored in many instances, is one of the unfortunate fea-tures of the clerk's life. College seems to him to be the em-bodiment of all that was lacking in his everyday life in the commercial world, and how anyone can misuse such Utopian privileges is practically inconceivable. But whatever unfortu-nate conditions may exist, the way of independence is still open to him who chooses to improve rather than pervert his opportunities. THE MERCURY. 25 THE MISSIONARY SPIRIT. CHARLES W. HEATHCOTE, '05. THE annals of the world's history ring with the deeds of heroes. True many of them were noble and great. But behold the bloody deeds of Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Nero ! Destruction followed in their paths. Their rec-ords make one turn away sick and faint. Indeed it is true they helped to develop the world's civilization. But how much of their work was the result of selfishness and aggran-dizement ? The heroes who laid and who are laying the deep foundation-of the world's civilization are not warriors. They are men whose mission is the Gospel of Peace. They are men whose souls breathe the missionary spirit. Men whose lives are unselfish . and consecrated. Men who work and endure all things for the Master in order to raise the conditions of humanity and advance the world's civilization. Indeed the true missionary spirit is found in the command of Him who said : "Go ye and make disciples of all the nations." Glorious is the message to preach the gos-pel to all people, to establish among them the immortal broth-erhood of the kingdom, to make each individual realize there is a direct communion between him and the Golden Throne. Receiving such a glorious message he possesses the most noble heritage of all time. Thus each individual becomes conscious of a new life and new joys hitherto unknown to him. This life eventually affects many individuals,, and the result is many believe. Everyone beccmes a witness to the new life. ' The scope of missions is world wide. It includes all hu-manity. The spirit is to work among all mankind. The most intelligent heathen nations or the lowest degraded savage tribes are to come within its sphere. All receive the purifica-tion of the Spirit and are blessed. Weak, decaying nations are raised and saved. Broad and far reaching is the purpose- Truly has the poet said :. "The hands upon that cruel tree, Extended wide as mercy's spaa Have gathered to the Son of Man The ages past and vet to be. 26 THK MERCURY. One, reaching; backward to the prime Enfolds the children of the morn ; The other, to a race unborn Extends the crowning gift of time !" But back of all this there must be a motive. There must be one great principle. Though the missionary spirit may be the result of love for humanity yet the true motive is not in the philanthropic realm. It is in the theanthropic realm. The impulse comes from Christ himself. It is he who is the author, operator and energizer of every great activity. The spirit absorbs him in the work and carries it onward to suc-cess. Thus thTs spirit becomes a passion, a second nature that cannot be eliminated. It is a nature that sees only success and not failure. "I have but one passion, I have but one passion," said Count Zinzendorf, "and that is He, only He." Men who realize the full meaning of the missionary spirit feel themselves called to the work. Their lives are lives of consecration. The will is surrendered to the noble cause. They are men of purpose, intensity of faith, true to service and dut}\ Thus indeed 'tis true ! '•The sweetest lives are those to duty wed, Whose deeds, both great and small, Are close-knit strands of an unbroken thread Whose love ennobles all." They are true workers. They are unselfish. To undertake this noble work for humanity they sacrifice everything. They break the bonds of love and friendship for this noble cause. At home honor, fame and position are often offered them, yet they sacrifice all these things. But above the din and clamor of everything the missionory hears a still small voice saying, "Follow thou me." Ah noble is such devotion, consecration and sacrifice ! The missionary is the embassador of the Divine King. He has received the noblest heritage that is possible for man to receive. His religion is of divine origin. He is ready to prove the falsity of other religious. What has Confucianism, Mohammedanism or Buddhism done to benefit humanity ? What can the creeds of pessimism, fatalism and doom accom-plished ? True there are golden threads of truth running- THE MERCURY. 27 through these religions. Granting that, in the lands of these religions there are men of culture and intelligence, yet their religions are imperfect. But the missionary imbued with the true spirit, keen intellect, broad mindedness, optimism and enthusiasm points out the true way to the heathen. He is filled with enthusiasm and not fanaticism. Fanaticism would destroy the cause of the missionary. He takes those golden threads and weaves them into his own system and uses them to convert the people. But in these lauds where vice, bigotry, fatalism and pessimism reign supreme, privation, danger, hardship and even martyrdom await the missionary. Brave, enthusiastic, optimistic and guided by the Spirit, he presses on. Thus St. Paul endured shipwreck, scourgings, privations, imprisonment and at last suffered martyrdom for this undying cause. Again, St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, while zeal-ously working among our ancestors met his death. Then, too, the early missionaries of great and glorious North America, to whom we owe so much, bore toil, famine, sickness, solitude and insult. They were surrounded by thousands of savages. They were the forerunners of a great Christian civilization. The deeds of Livingstone are still fresh in the memory of the world. He is the greatest hero of the nineteenth century. A missionary, traveler and philanthropist whose life work has permeated the whole of Africa. He was determined to open the continent to Christianity. By his self-sacrifice he brought salvation to thousands of souls. It was he who sounded the death knell to African slave traffic. He braved the African fever and savage tribes. This scarred hero died in the midst of his work. His last prayer that ascended to the Golden Throne was for a blessing upon the Dark Continent. Carey has well said : "They who love the best their fellow men Are serving god the holiest way they can.'' Great and glorious results have been achieved. Thousands upon thousands of heathen within the last century have been rescued from vice and degradation. They have been enrolled under the banner of the gospel. 28 THE MERCURY. Yet Africa aud Asia call for help. Does the soul of a Christian people refuse to hear the cry ? Are men swayed too much to-day by mercenary motives? Have commercialism and selfishness crushed out the spirit ? Oh for [the spirit of a Paul, or a Xavier or a Livingstone ! Great indeed is the re-sponsibility of a people if these things are true. If a brother, be he black or yellow, dies crying for help and a Christian people refuse to respond to that cry what will be the result? The death knell of that civilization has been sounded. Nations cannot afford to sit idly by in ease and self-indulgence while these things exist. "Is it nothing to you, Oh Christian, That Africa walks in night ? That Christians at home deny them The blessed gospel light ?" If the missionary spirit fills the heart of the individual it will permeate the nation. If the Christ is leader, victory will be ours. Thus Christendom will reign supreme. The Spirit will strengthen manhood and glorify all nations. Thus : "It raised a brother from the dust, It saved a soul from death, O germ ! Oh fount ! O word of love L O thought at random cast ! Ye were but little at the first, But mighty at the last. [NOTE: Some who heard this oration desired its publication. —ED.] T H E HERCURV Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class }fatter. VOL. 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SEXUAL SADISM AS EXPERIENCED BY LISBETH SALANDER IN STIEG LARSSON'S THE GIRL WITH DRAGON TATTOO Dea Anissa Rahmat English Literature, Faculty of Languanges and Arts, Surabaya State University dearbepe@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si English Literature, Faculty of Languanges and Arts, Surabaya State University much.khoiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Sadisme dalam seksualitas adalah perasaan gairah seksual yang disebabkan oleh pemberian rasa sakit, penderitaan, dan penghinaan kepada orang lain. Perilaku sadisme yang nampak secara langsung dan terang-terangan dalam pencapaian titik klimaks perilaku seks seseorang dapat dijadikan indikator bahwa orang tersebut mengalami penyimpangan. Penyimpangan seks dalam kasus sadisme sering mengalami penurunan signifikasi dan fungsi akibat perilaku menyimpang dalam berfantasi. Orang yang menjadi mitra atau objek yang dikenai perilaku sadis dalam hubungan seks belum tentu menjadi rekan yang bersedia. Jika kegiatan seks yang identik dengan perilaku sadis ini disetujui oleh kedua pihak ataupun hanya seorang saja, maka dapat diartikan pihak yang melakukan kegiatan tersebut mengalami kegagalan seksual secara normal dan perlu alternatif lain untuk mencapai titik klimaks. Misalnya, melakukan aktifitas kekerasan pada saat berhubungan. Dalam kajiannya, peneliti sengaja mengambil novel dengan judul The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo untuk menganalisis perilaku menyimpang dalam hubungan seks yang dialami oleh tokoh Salander. Teori yang digunakan untuk menganalisis perilaku menyimpang dalam tokoh utama dalam novel berasal dari teori Sigmund Freud tentang psikologi dan kepribadian. Dengan dilengkapi teori relevan, penelitian ini mengambil beberapa kutipan dalam novel yang mewakili perilaku menyimpang dalam seksualitas untuk dijadikan data dalam kajian peneliti. Hasilnya, perilaku menyimpang dalam seks ditunjukkan oleh tokoh Lisbeth Salander dalam novel memberikan dua hipotesis. Pertama, dalam novel muncul beberapa sadisme seksual yang terjadi pada rekan tokoh Bjurman yang teridentifikasi dari data berupa kutipan teksnya. Salander sebagai korban sadisme seksual dari pengacara rekan Nails Bjurman. Kedua, beberapa faktor yang berkontribusi Lisabeth Salander untuk melakukan sadisme seksual. Penelitian ini mencerminkan pengalaman deskriptif sampel perempuan yang terlibat dengan perilaku sadisme seksual beserta faktor-faktor yang berkontribusi dibaliknya. Keywords: Sexual sadism, sadistic behavior, The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo Abstract Sexual sadism is a feeling of sexual excitement resulting from administering pain, suffering, or humiliation to another person.When sadism becomes directly and overtly related to sexual gratification, they are considered perversions. Sexual sadism often experiences significant impairment or distress in functioning due to actual sadistic behaviors or sadistic fantasies. With regard to actual sadistic behavior, the person receiving the pain, suffering, or humiliation may or may not be a willing partner. Whether or not the partner is consenting, it is the very real suffering they are experiencing that is arousing to the sadist. This study examines Stieg Larsson's The Girl With The Dragon Tatttoo, which is about sexual sadism as experienced by Salander. This study uses theory of sexual sadism and Sigmund Freud's theory of Psychology and Personality. By using relevant theories, the study analyses the data—i.e. quotations from the novel that represent sexual sadism. The result of this analysis shows that sexual sadism experienced by Lisbeth Salander as reflected in Steig Larsson's The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo can be described by two parts. First, it shows that there are several sexual sadism which occurs from her guardian Bjurman. Salander as a victim of sexual sadism from the guardian laywer Nails Bjurman. Second is to reveal the factors that contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism. It is about a descriptive experiences of a sample of women who have been consensually involved with sexual sadism and factors that contribute to sexual sadism. Keywords: Sexual sadism, sadistic behavior, The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo INTRODUCTION In human sexual life, there are certain conditions of sexual disorder which consider as embarassing and dangerous situations from the society's point of view. Normally, sexual activity is the union of the female and male's genital and other sexual activity besides it is taken as "abnormal". Few examples of sexual deviations are: homosexual, masochism, sadism, necrophilia, fetishism, etc (Barlow, 2009: 364). Sadism implies pleasure in inflicting. When sexual sadism is applied to show fantasies, urges or behaviors that involve real acts in which the suffering of another person is found sexually exciting. The essential feature of sexual become directly related sexual gratification. That sexual gratification it considered perversions. Sadism is a feeling of sexual excitement resulting from administering pain, suffering, or humiliation to another person. The pain, suffering, or humiliation inflicted on the other is real, it is not imagined and may be either physical or psychological in nature. A person with a diagnosis of sexual sadism is sometimes called a sadist. The name of the disorder is derived from the proper name of the Marquis Donatien de Sade (1740-1814), a French aristocrat who became notorious for writing novels around the theme of inflicting pain as a source of sexual pleasure. The sadistic acts performed or fantasized by a person with sadism often reflect a desire for sexual or psychological domination of another person. These acts range from behavior that is not physically harmful although it may be humiliating to the other person (such as being urinated upon), to criminal and potentially deadly behavior. Acts of domination may include holding or imprisoning the partner through the use of handcuffs, cages, chains, or ropes. Other acts and fantasies related to sexual sadism include paddling, spanking, whipping, burning, beating, administering electrical shocks, biting, urinating or defecating on the other person, cutting, rape, murder, and mutilation. Psychopathia Sexualis, later defined sadism as: "The experience of sexual, pleasurable sensations (including orgasm) produced by acts of cruelty, bodily punishment afflicted on one's person or when witnessed in others, be they animals or human beings. It may also consist of an innate desire to humiliate, hurt, wound or even destroy others in order, thereby, to create sexual pleasure in one self". This kind of sexual sadism has appeared in the literature (Kraft-Ebing, 1886: 274) . One of the writers that written about sexual sadism in a novel is Stieg Larsson. The novel was released to great acclaim in Sweden and later, on its publication in many other European countries. In the original language, it won Sweden's Glass Key Award in 2006 for best crime novel of the year. It also won the 2008 Booke Prize, and in 2009 the Galaxy British Book Awards for Books Direct Crime Thriller of the Year, and the prestigious Anthony Award for Best First Novel. Larsson was posthumously awarded the ITV3 Crime Thriller Award for International Author of the Year in 2008. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo debuted at number four on The New York Times Best Seller list. The novel received mixed reviews from American critics. In a review for The New York Times upon the book's September 2008 publication in the United States, Alex Berenson wrote, "The novel offers a thoroughly ugly view of human nature"; while it "opens with an intriguing mystery" and the "middle section of Girl is a treat, the rest of the novel doesn't quite measure up. The book's original Swedish title was Men Who Hate Women, a label that just about captures the subtlety of the novel's sexual politics." The Los Angeles Times said "the book takes off, in the fourth chapter: From there, it becomes classic parlor crime fiction with many modern twists.The writing is not beautiful, clipped at times (though that could be the translation by Reg Keeland) and with a few too many falsely dramatic endings to sections or chapters. But it is a compelling, well-woven tale that succeeds in transporting the reader to rural Sweden for a good crime story."Several months later, Matt Selman said the book "rings false with piles of easy super-victories and far-fetched one-in-a-million clue-findings."Richard Alleva, in Commonweal, wrote that the novel is marred by "its inept backstory, banal characterizations, flavorless prose, surfeit of themes (Swedish Nazism, uncaring bureaucracy, corporate malfeasance, abuse of women, etc.), and--worst of all author Larsson's penchant for always telling us exactly what we should be feeling." Discussing and analyzing about character or human, they cannot be separated from personality terms. Personality derives from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. The character is easy to see how persona came to refer to outward appearance, the public face we display to the people around us. Personality refers to the characteristics patterns of behavior and ways of thinking that determine a person's adjustment to his environment. The personality of somebody has built from the experiences that they got from the social surrounding and also the genetic factor gives the background of someone's personality Schultz (2009: 8). The direct influences of sexuality on personality comes from the effects of sex hormones. It influences body build, body functioning, and the quality of the individual behaviour. The indirect influence comes up from three sources: the effect of cultural influences sex drive, the attitudes of significant people and their treatment to the individual caused by sexuality, also the molding of personality pattern of sex appropriatenes, which admitted by society. To understand the aspect of psychology within literary work, needed psychology of literature, it is used to investigate the psychology aspect, which shown by the character within the novel The Girl with Dragon Tattoo by Stieg Larsso. Wellek and Werren (1989: 81) stated psychology of literature, mean the psychological study of the writer as type and as individual, or the study or creative process, or the study of the psychological types and laws present within works of literature, or, finally, the effects literature upon its readers (audience psychology). Sigmund Freud emphasizes how early stage of childhood is important part to create someone's adulthood personality and behavior. He says that part of our personality is formed on the basis of the unique relationships we have as children with various people and objects. Accordingly we develop a personal set of character attributes, a consistent pattern of behavior that defines each of us as an individual (Shannon, 2009: 64). Grossman (1991) states the psychological effects trauma, wheteher in infancy or adult life, are best understood in connection with the development and functioning of the capacity to fantasize. Here, a child which has been experienced physical and psychological trauma can build a fantasy refers to the violence.Violence can be in the form of hitting, slamming, humiliating, and so on. Consequently, a child can imagine that she/he is happy if he/she hurts and or being hurt by another people. This kind of fantasy can cause sexual sadism behaviour. In accordance of background study above, it can be simplify to discuss among two problems that emerge as significant concern toward this novel. How is sexual sadism as experienced by Lisbeth Salander reflected in Steig Larsson's The Girl With Dragon Tattoo? What factors contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism in Stieg Larsson's The Girl With Dragon Tattoo? This study will uses two theories which are in line with the statement of the problems.The first is about review of related literature which contains the theories that are used in the analysis. In this chapter, the concept of sexual sadism and will be related to the concept of sexual sadism and theory of personality. The second will deal with the core of the study, which is the analysis of the study. The last chapter of this study is the conclusion as the result of the analysis. The additions will be added and got along with the analysis such as appendix, which consists of the biography of the author of this novel, and the synopsis of the novel. Those additions are to be the closing of this study. RESEARCH METHOD Research methodolgy that used in this analysis here must be qualified as an applying in literary appreciation. The thesis is regarded as a descriptive-qualitative study and uses a library research. This study uses novel of Stieg Larsson entitled The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo that published Seven Stories Press, 140 Watts Street, New York in 2007 as the data source of this study. The data are in the form of direct and indirect speech of the characters, dialogues, epilogues and quotations which indicate and represent aspect of power abuse and sexualization which is experienced by the main character. This thesis is using the library method in collecting the data. It does not use the statistic method. That is why it is not served in numbering or tables. Library research used an approach in analyzing this study. The kind of library research which is used here is intensive or closely reading to search quotations or phrases. It also used to analyze the literary elements both intrinsic and extrinsic. The references are taken from library and contributing ideas about this study from internet that support the idea of analyzing. The analysis is done by the following steps: (1) Classification based on the statement of the problems. This classification is used to avoid the broad discussion. There are two classifications in this study. (2) Describe the reflection of Sexual sadism as experienced.(3) To reveal the factors that contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism in Stieg Larsson's The Girl With Dragoon Tattoo.The quotations that showed how the character's sexuality is affected by his power are taken as data. (4) Drawing the conclusion based on the analysis which is in line with the problems. ANALYSIS The first section is about the analysis of sexual sadism as experienced by Salander. The experience of Salander in sexual sadism is started when she meets her new guardian lawyer. Sexual sadism happened when she has an interview with Bjurman just after he became her guardian. Bjurman, on the other hand is recognize as a person who likes to do sex by sentence that is written in the novel. Salander is uncomfortable with Bjurman question and she feels that it is not her business by asking about sex in some kind of an interview. Salander's statement proves it. "No, it's not particulary nice to be fucked in the arse but what the hell business is it of yours?" . She left his office with a feeling of disgust. (Larsson, 2008: 220) The statement that Bjurman has no business with Salander sexual background, even he asks her impolitely. His authority is all about Salander legal powers, no more than that. Salander, moreover, express her disgust feeling to him after she feels that Bjurman was going too far. It can be concluded that she feels uncomfortable with Bjurman's questions. Salander thinks that it is not his right to ask her those questions. Then, she has been decided that she does not like Bjurman by leaving his office. The sex that is done by Bjurman is not like the sadist thing that he will do to Salander. He does some enjoyable acts to make Salander comfortable and feel horney. The nice thing is also given to her so she enjoyed the sex because Bjurman has a plan to have a sex with her again. The sex act done by Bjurman can be seen in quote below. He stood behind her. Suddenly he was massaging the back of her neck, and he let one hand slide from her left shoulder across her breasts. He put his hand over her right breast and left it there. When she did not seem to object, he squeezed her breast. Salander did not move. She could feel his breath on her neck as she studied the letter opener on his desk; she could reach it with her free hand (Larsson, 2008: 241). The incident happened when Salander comes to Bjurman office ask money to buy new computer, since her old laptop broken caused by an accident. She does not get the money easily because Bjurman forces her to do something. Bjurman assaults her by touching her breast. The quotation shows that Bjurman sexual sadism her by touching and squeezing her breasts. This is the one of sexual part that shows from the novel. Salander did nothing with all what Bjurman has already done to her. She got one lesson from Holger Palmgren that when there was an impulsive actions led to trouble, and trouble could have unpleasant consequences. Salander will never do anything without first weighing the consequences. In that quotation stated Salander feeling towards Bjurman. She has plan to use the letter opener as th weapon to fight againts him. Sexual sadism has formed her to be a person not easy to back down, she would always take revenge to all forms of act that try to hurt her. However, her status limits her to do that. Even, Salander cannot do something because she needs the money. All that she thinks is about the consequences. Bjurman starts to say what adult usually says which one another are known what the conversation means is. "I think you and I are going to be a good friend," he said. "we have to be able to trust each other." When she did not replay he said: "you're a grown woman now, Lisbeth" She nooded. "Come here," he said and held out his hand. (Larsson, 2008: 242) Salander just fixed her gaze on the letter opener for several seconds before she stood up and went over to him. In her heart, she says, consequences. It means that she knows the consequences by having such a lawyer guardian. The real acts that lead to sex activity are shown by Bjurman. The statement is explained bellow. He took her hand and pressed it to his crotch. She could feel his genitals through the dark gabardine trousers. While said, "If you're nice to me, I'll be nice to you." He puts his other hand around her neck and pulled her down to her knees with her face in front of his crotch. (Larsson, 2008: 242) It is shown that Bjurman rapes to her. In this case, he forces to suck his genital or can be called as oral sex. At the time she is just thinking that she did it for the money. In this case, Bjurman makes it difficulty to Salander in getting her money. In addition Bjurman treat her by saying: "If you're nice to me, I'll be nice to you," he repeated. "If you make trouble, I can put you away in an institution for the rest of your life. Would you like that?" (Larsson, 2008: 243) In this case, Salander cannot do anything to protect herself. She said nothing if Bjurman only gives words in order to treat Salander, without caring with Salander answer about his question, he continues the sex to Salander. He waited until she lowered her eyes, in what he regarded as submission. Then he pulled her closer. Salander opened her lips and took him in her mouth. He kept his grip on her neck and pulled her fiercely towards him. She felt like gagging the whole ten minutes he took to bump and grind; when finally he came, he was holding her so tight she could hardly breathe. (Larsson, 2008: 243). From the quotation above, it is clearly stated how Salander is forced to suck her guardian genital. He places his genital in Salander's mouth in order to get satisfied. Salander passively action towards those kinds of sadism makes Bjurman thinks more to hurt her. It is supported by (Krafft-Ebing, 2008: 14) that Sadism in sexual pleasurable sensations (including orgasm) produced by acts of cruelty, bodily punishment afflicted on one's own person or when witnessed in others, be they animals or human beings. The additional terrifying expression is shown by Salander in the quotation bellow. She realized with terrifying clarity that she was out of her depth. (Larsson, 2008: 273). It makes Salander in dead feeling. She thinks that Bjurman is doing something so serious and injury. What can help Salander this time is only keeping the pain that she gets? In another situation Bjurman turn mad and crazy. By taking metal stuffs that Salander hear from the sound of the clanking. The clanking sound of metal shows that Bjurman begins to do the sexual sadism, beside he says the words to treat Salander. The quotation is show at below: "You have to learn to trust me, Lisbeth," he said. "I'm going to teach you how this grown-up is played. If you don't treat me well, you have to be punished. When you're nice to me, we'll be friends."( Larsson, 2008: 274) From the quotation above Salander seems not to do anything. She only does what Bjurman wants and the only thing that she can feel is sick and gets more pain by Bjurman. Bjurman do not stop his act to Salander. In another situation, Bjurman asks Salander wheather she likes to do anal sex or not by asking "So you don't like anal sex, he said"(Larsson, 2008: 274). The more Salander keep silence, the more he maltreats her. Anal sex is the act of sexual by putting something in someone anus. It is really dangerous for someone's health or even can caused a great injury to victim. He also starts the sadism acts along sexual activity. The quotation below shows his sadist act that Bjurman does to Salander. Salander opened her mouth to scream. He grabbed her hair and stuffed the knickers in her mouth. She felt him putting something around her ankles, spread her legs apart and tie them so that she was lying there completely vulnerable. She heard him moving around the room but she could not trough the T-shirt around her face. It took him several minutes. She could hardly breathe. Then she felt an excruciating pain as he forced something up her anus. (Larsson, 2008: 274) The using of metal stuffs are cannot be tolerated anymore. The sadist action in sexual is real happening to Salander. Stuffed the knickers in Salander mouth is an act that hurt Salander physically. Bjurman spreads her legs apart and ties her so that she is completely vulnerable. Those acts are considered as physical sadism that she gets when having sex with Bjurman. Salander is completely pain of being sadistic by Bjurman when they having sex. It is shown when she felt an excruciating pain as forced something up her anus. Bjurman must do something to her anus that makes Salander in total pain. Beside, Bjurman did more and more tricks so that he could release his sadism along the act that he applied to Salander. Bjurman is going crazy more than before. The acts that Bjurman has done is supported by Matsumoto (2009: 490) theory about sexual sadism that defines sexual sadism is a paraphilia in which sexual arousal occurs as the result on inflicting physical or mental pain on another person as a means of exercising control over him or her. It means that the sadist feels pleasure and lust when he/she sexual partner suffered. Thus she/he can show his/her domination and power. Then, the second section will show factors contributed Salander to do sexual sadism. Then, the second section will show the factors that contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism. This chapter will apply the theory in chapter two as the base theory, and hopefully this analysis will not deviate from the theory that has been explained before. Bjurman, now, has responsible for Salander's assets and financial, but he handles it out of his authority. He is a corrupt guardian that used Salander victim. He opened a new account in her name, and she was supposed to report it to Milton's personal office and use it from now on. The good old days were over. In future Bjurman would pay her bills, and she would be given an allowance each month. He told her that expected her to provide receipts for all her expenses."This had to do with the fact that i'm responsible with for your mone," he said. "You have to put money aside for the future. But don't worry; I'll take care all of that." (Larsson, 2008: 182) The quotation above shows that how Bjurman make Salander financially dependent happen is done by Bjurman. Although he is responsible for her assets and financial, but he handle it out of his authority. He is a corrupt guardian that used Salander victim. It is totally different with the precede guardian who let her free to manage her own money even though her status still under guardianship. Since, Bjurman is a corrupt, he take over and fully contol Salander money. He does not let Salander free access to use her money. Even, he force Salander to open a new account in a bank and requiring the victim to justify all money spent, so that Bjurman can control it. Besides, the statement in the quotation, "You have to put money aside for the future. But don't worry; I'll take care all of that"(Larsson, 2008: 182). Support the fact that Bjurman has abuse her financial as well. It is found that his life is to be a guardian of mentally disturbed likes Salander. He lives in her prosperity which is comes from his clients assets or money. He uses their weakness in legal status power, so that he is easily corrupt their money. Their weakness in legal status would make them afraid and do nothing about it. Obviously, it is form of economical as factor. The second form of economical that is done by Bjurman towards Salander is that by withholding the money or the access to the money. It is a complicated for Salander to ask her money, even for buying food. She has to work and Bjurman easily take over the money. It is prove by this quotation. Bjurman moved back to his side of the desk and sat on his comfortable leather chair. "I can't hand out money to you whenever you like,'' he said. "Why do you such an expensive computer? There are plenty of cheaper models that you can use for playing computer games." "I want to have control of my own money like before." Bjurman gave her a pitying look. (Larsson, 2008: 242) The quotation clearly stated can be concluded that Bjurman has underestimates her by saying that she did not need such sn expensive computer. It means that she is only a stupid girl that needs a computer just for playing games. Here, how Bjurman make a difficulty for Salander to get her money. He always ask or even demand her to do something first before she get the money. In this case, he would give Salander money after he takes advantages from her in terms of satisfying him by oral sex and anal sex, touching her breasts, and so forth. On the one hand, Bjurman has been abuse Salander by those various forms of violence. On the other hand, he has been abuse his profession as a guardian who is supposed to be protect the client. Here, he is withholding Salander own money that supposed to be her rights. Her authority is only take over Salander assests and financial so that the money can be used in a right way. However, Bjurman has been corrupted the money give some terms for her in getting her own money. Thereby, Bjurman has already one other forms ef economical as factor towards Salander. In the next meeting with Bjurman, Salander really need to buy a food. All the money that is kept by Bjurman is locked. It such the difficult thing to get the money like she must kill him first then she will get her own money. Psychological sadism is always given by the prepetator in order to treath the victims so they agree to do the sexual sadism. Psychological sadism also happen in the process of the sex itself in order to make the victims cannot avoid the prepetator to do sadism along the sex process. This is shown by Salander that she agree when Bjurman treat her to be nice with him. A threat could make the victim afraid psychologically. If the victim feels afraid with threat of the perpetrator, so they will be easily to do what they want to the victim. You have to learn to trust me, Lisbeth,'' he said. "i'm going to teach you how this grown-up game is played. If you dont treat me well, you have to be punished. When you're nice to me, we'll be friends (Larsson, 2008: 274) The quotation above shows Salander is threatened by Bjurman. After force to suck his genital, he threat her not to tell anyone about that. Salander just keep silence because she is feels afraid about the consequences related with her status if she reports it. He treats her as a whore not as a girl under his protection. In supported by Freud who insisted his sexual theory applied to all mental illness. However, in this moment, Bjurman not only threats her but he has done threatening harm. It is stated that threat and hurt her b slap and grip chin tight. It can be concluded that combine sadism always happened to Salander. Salander is not only facing of psychological but also accompanied by physical. The same thing also happened to her which is done by Bjurman. In another hand, the personality of somebody is built from the experiences they got from the social surrounding and also the genetic factor gives the background of someone's personality. Part of our personality is formed on the basis of the unique relationships we have as women with various people and objects. We develop a personal set of character attributes that defines each of us as an individual. The personality of Salander is considered as having a bad image. In her life, she likes to do dangerously violent things made her caught up by the police. One of her acts is explained below: When she turned fifteen, the doctors had more or less agreed that she was not, after all, dangerously violent, nor did she represent any immediate danger to herself. (Larsson, 2008: 174) Salander, in her life, she does not only danger someone near with her but also herself. Such of her bad behavior is leading her personality as a bad teenage. In other situation she has troubles with surrounding and herself by consuming alcohol and drug abuse. She builds an image that she has the negative attitude toward anybody and herself. It is said by Salander that the sex world is nothing new for her. It happens because she has already done the sex with more than ten people in her teen age. It is supported by the information she had had over fifty partners since the age of fifteen that she totally sex players. It is shown that by doing such of the sex activities will make her impression that going to be judge by other person. This is supported by Schultz (2009: 8) that based on its derivation, we might conclude that personality refers to our external and visible characteristics, those aspects of us that other people can see. Our personality would then be defined in terms of the impression we make on others that is, what we appear to be. In short, our personality may be the mask we wear when we face the outside world. CONCLUSION The analyzing of sexual sadism in Stieg Larsson's The Girl with Dragon Tattoo has give better understanding about several forms of sexual sadism as experienced that occurs and factors contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism . Through the thesis analyzing, is is found that Salander has suffered from several forms of sexual sadism. As explained above that Salander as the main character experiences some forms sexual sadism, they are physical sadism, psychological and factor that contribute to do sexual sadism, they are threat and economical The conslusion of research question 1 are sexual sadism as experienced by salander is as an object. She gets both physical and psychological experiences by Bjurman asher guardian lawyers. She gets pain and suffer from physical experience. While in pysichological experience, she gets treatments from Bjurman. These are the conslusion of research question 2. The factors that make Salander to do the sexual sadism are unbelieveable because not all people want to be an object of sexual sadism. They are pyschology, personality, and economic factors. The psychology is like trearments that Bjurman has given to her and the personality is when Salander has such a bad personality backgrond, like havinh sex with many people. Finally, economic is the main factor for Salander to sexual sadism because if she wants to get her money, she must do the sex with Bjurman which bring her to sexual sadism. In Stieg Larsson The Girl with Dragon Tattoo, we can see Salander gets some forms of sexual sadism from Bjurman. There is not only sexual insult verbal, but also some kinds of sexual sadism of rape forms. The experience of Salander in sexual sadism is started when she meets her new guardian lawyer, Bjurman. On the other hand is recognize as a person who likes to do sex in the novel. Bjurman takes an opportunity by keeping Salander account and if she wants to get the money she must do the sex with him first. It is also supported by interview that is done, Bjurman asks about Salander sex life which is turn out to be another interrogation by asking her private aspect in her life, is that about her sexual background. All she wanted is about the money without making and giving any sexual sadism with him. With all scare feeling she agrees to do it again with Bjurman. The thing that she hates so much is having sex with a condition and compulsion. The fear is appears on Salander body language. This sexual sadism has made Salander suffered from some physically. It has become the worst experience ever in her life. Sexual sadism which is experienced by Salander is mostly done by Bjurman. Bjurman is not only doing the sexual sadism toward Salander in form of rape, but also psychological. In this case, Salander can be concluded to get she witnesses and watching other person, or even the person that she like, suffered from physical sadism. In this novel, Salander has been found experiencing sexual sadism. REFERENCES Barlow, H. David, Durand. V. Mark. 2009. Abnormal Psychology 5th edition. USA : Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Hoeksema, Susan Nolen. (2004). Abnormal Psychology. Third edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Comapanies Inc. Krafft-Ebing, Richard von. 1933. Psychopathia Sexualis: With Especial Reference to the Antipathic Sexual Instinct: A Medico-Forensic Study. New York: Physicians and Surgeons Book Co. Larsson, Stieg. (2008). The Girl with Dragon Tattoo. New York: Vintage Books. Matsumoto, David. 2009. The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. USA: Cambridge University Press. Schultz, D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2009).Theories of personality 9th Edition. United States of America:Wadsworth Cengange Learning. Shannon, Joyce Brennfleck. 2009. Theories of Personality 9th Edition. United States of America: Omnigraphics, Inc.

A last-minute end-around sabotaging Louisiana's school
accountability measures that prominently featured two Bossier Parish Republican
legislators with extensive connections to local schools now may be stopped only
by GOP Gov. Jeff
Landry.

HB 762 by
Republican state Rep. Dennis Bamburg originally
would have repealed the state's requirement that students take the ACT, one of
the two standardized tests offered for college admission nationally and the one
designated by Louisiana public universities to gain admittance. For several years
Louisiana statutorily
has required this of all students seeking a diploma, one of eight states that
does so. Even the career diploma graduates must, although they also can take
the WorkKeys test designed for more vocational-oriented learning. The rationale
for this has been not only to allow students to have this in place should they
wish to enroll in higher education but also as a means of measuring performance
of high schools and school districts.

This has chafed among legislators generally
Democrats and some Republicans like Bamburg, a former Bossier Parish School
Board member, with ties to the educational establishment, and has aggravated
many local school board members and their district superintendents. This is
because the nationally-normed ACT
continues to show generally low performance, along with end-of-course tests,
among Louisiana students (although ranked in the middle of the eight) that
meshes poorly with performance scores given out to high schools that feeds into
district scores. Currently, for accountability determinations all ACT scores
count unless a WorkKey score equivalent is higher.

In 2022, Superintendent Cade Brumley attempted to
bring the two more in line as part of a broader overhaul that fell apart amid
details and concerns about recovery from the Wuhan coronavirus pandemic. The
Board of Elementary and Secondary Education, now comprised after last year's
elections of membership more sympathetic to aligning scoring with student
performance, has formulated another
accountability reform. Among other changes, this one broadens the use of
nationally-normed tests, adding a military diploma to university and career,
and sets benchmarks that determines scoring and penalizes for every student
that does not take the ACT. BESE will vote to accept promulgation of this rule
at its regular meeting next week.

Bamburg's original bill entirely would have
thwarted this, although when he appeared in front of the House Education
Committee on Apr.
30 he offered up amendments significantly altering that. He said the bill
came as an inspiration from conversations with Bossier School District
Superintendent Jason Rowland, who about
a month previously in a public statement infamously equated education
savings accounts, or having education dollars follow the student that maximized
family choice, with racist motives (as well as spearheaded
a questionable foray into the district providing health clinics prior to
his current job). Bamburg in his testimony implied that there had been a
disagreement between the two on the ESA concept – Bamburg later did vote for a
mild version putting that into statute in the coming years – and as a
palliative sought Rowland's input into something "that's favorable for public
schools in Louisiana."

Apparently, Rowland suggested dropping the ACT
requirement, but when hearing of the coming accountability standards Bamburg
trashed the original language, as well as seeing the fate of a similar bill, SB 259 by Democrat state Sen. Katrina Jackson-Andrews in the Senate
that crashed and burned. His next try would have allowed dropping the ACT for
all, but federal law preventing different assessments for different agencies
made this intractable. Committee Chairwoman GOP state Rep. Laurie Schlegel
then offered new
language that would have allowed the ACT to substitute for end-of-course
tests and allow other optionally other tests to do the same, but did not
eliminate the requirement for all to take the ACT.

On the House floor, Bamburg successfully broadened
the bill to make the exit exam exemption mandatory from the ACT only. Another amendment
by GOP state Rep. Chuck Owen
added the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Test along with WorkKeys that could
be taken in addition, which would fit in with the coming regulations. It passed
the chamber easily.

There it stuck in the Senate Education
Committee, which had dispatched SB 259 into the ether, after an amendment was
proposed that would drop the ACT requirement for those students taking the
alternatives. Then, days before session end it suddenly was discharged out of
that and into Senate and
Governmental Affairs – which has no jurisdiction over these matters and
this session has gained notoriety as a repository for bills which interest the
Senate leadership, with this move possible only through the instigation of
Republican Sen. Pres. Cameron
Henry.

At that venue, and then amplified on the Senate
floor, the gist of SB 259 that made the ACT optional by taking either of the
two alternatives, was inserted. With
Henry's backing, the measure passed with only five votes against and three
absences. That new language didn't satisfy the House, which rejected the
amended bill on the second to last session day and forced a conference
committee.

Named to that on the House side besides Bamburg was
Schlegel and Republican state Rep. Beau Beaullieu.
Senate conferees were Jackson-Andrews, making sense since so much of her bill
became inserted into it, GOP state Sen. Eddie Lambert, and
Republican state Sen. Adam Bass,
who had served with Bamburg on the Bossier Parish School Board.

The product came out much more like the Senate
version in that it retained the optional requirement of the ACT as well as
jettisoned the ability of the ACT to substitute for end-of-course exams. In
fact, it even would allow WorkKeys as an option for college-bound diplomas and
have the highest score count for accountability purposes. Schelgel refused to
sign off on it, but the other five did – including Bamburg, as this version
essentially accomplished what his original bill asked, and Bass.

Presenting
the report, Bamburg admitted BESE hadn't been consulted on the final
language, yet reiterated that it wasn't fair that all students had to take the
ACT. Some questioning legislators – echoing commentary in the House panel – griped
about multiple test-takings, making students not interested in college at the
time take a college entrance exam, and applauded the bill for increased parental
choice. Moreover, Bamburg also admitted that there were "issues" in the compulsory
ACT requirement because it made school performances look worse and noted school
boards and superintendents supported this.

And there was the crux of support of the bill, which
reflected the political wishes of school districts and their water carrier
Bamburg. The real reason why they supported something like this is the ACT
reflects a truer picture of their actual performance. It has nothing to do with
the red herring of non-college-intended students having to take it and through
lack of motivation dragging down scores; after all, they could take WorkKeys
and if they did better that score replaced their ACT score when computing
school and district accountability. Make ACT scores optional, they reason, and
potentially steer more WorkKeys or ASVAB attempts that have the possibility of more
higher scores for accountability purposes than otherwise. To them appearances matter more than results because it makes them look better, and they invoked specious argumentation to suck in support of legislators who should have known better.

It ended up passing, narrowly, and
across partisan boundaries that created atypical patterns. For example, fellow
Bossier Parish Republican Reps. Raymond Crews
and Dodie Horton
don't often disagree on measures, but this time Horton went with Bamburg – and even
signed up as a co-author – while Crews voted against his bill now almost
unrecognizable from its earliest forms.

In contrast to a half-hour debate on the busiest
legislative day of the year in the House, with Henry's support known and time running
short on the session, the Senate whipped the report through only five minutes
after the House vote, with few
dissenters. Even though, along with Bamburg, Bass was a major architect of
the final product, the other Bossier Parish senator GOP state Sen. Alan
Seabaugh didn't share that enthusiasm and was one of the few to vote it down.

When BESE, on the cusp of setting up an accountability
system the bill would invalidate, got wind of this, its members immediately
communicated to draft a response asking Landry to veto HB 762 that became
public two days after session close. With all but one member signing it (and it
was unclear whether the missing name, Democrat Preston
Castille, had learned of the effort in time to participate in it), members
noted that requiring the ACT of all graduates left open more options for students'
future higher education studies, created incentive for them to learn more in
anticipation of taking it, and established a valid and reliable benchmark for
evaluation. Asking for a few hours of a student's time out of four years isn't
too much to gain this benefit that schools can use to improve their delivery,
and its content tested over isn't inapplicable to any student or subset of students
because, at its core, it asks about basic skills that education should
inculcate.

As if to verify the use of HB 762 as a stalking
horse to gun down the accountability reforms, the next day BESE's advisory
board the Superintendents' Advisory Council voted
to oppose the those, with its reasoning matching the unspoken impetus of
the bill: a compulsory ACT was part of a framework measuring delivery that they
saw might make their districts appear doing worse than they thought actually
was the case, even if the ACT tested the basics. BESE's letter indicates this
argument won't carry the day, but if the bill becomes law, the sentiment of the
panel is in part achieved and would require alteration of the BESE rule-making.

Odds are Landry, who consistently has expressed
support for reforms that enhance educational quality, will veto it as it quite
clearly would create, all red-herring objections aside, a new barrier towards achieving
educational excellence. If that's not enough, Landry might want to take a poke
at Henry as the two have butted heads over some items this session, especially
over the unrealized
desire by Landry to have a constitutional convention called to which Henry responded
coolly, or to chastise Bass who almost certainly, given the norms of the
Senate, effectively
cast a veto against Landry's choice to sit on Bossier Parish's Board of
Election Supervisors, Barry Butler.

Regardless, the Bossier Parish duo of legislative rookies
Bamburg and Bass were instrumental in producing legislation that ultimately
would degrade the quality of educational delivery in the state and that would
suit the political agenda of those in charge of their old stomping grounds and
others like that. It might serve parish educrats and politicians but it
disserves generally the parish and more specifically its children, and serves
as a call for them to put aside parochial interests and to embrace in the
future a more holistic policy view on these kinds of issues.

Clark Neily


Last Thursday, the Supreme Court struck down President Biden's student loan forgiveness program, finding that it was not plausibly authorized by statute and that the State of Missouri had standing to challenge the program via a state‐​created loan‐​servicing entity that would lose tens of millions of dollars in fees if the program took effect. This post will explain why Cato filed its own, now‐​moot challenge to the loan forgiveness program, followed by some thoughts on the increasingly pernicious role of "avoidance doctrines" such as standing, ripeness, and mootness in public‐​policy litigation.
The great miltitary strategist Sun Tzu famously said that the acme of skill in war is to subdue the enemy without fighting. For government lawyers, the acme of skill is to shield unlawful policies from judicial review by persuading courts that there is some procedural bar against challenging them. Last week, the Supreme Court rebuffed the Biden administration's attempt to employ that precise stratagem to forestall a judicial determination as to whether the president has the power to forgive nearly half‐​a‐​trillion dollars worth of student loans without express congressional authorization. Surprising no one, the Court's answer to the substantive question was a resounding "no." But constructing a legal challenge that would ensure the judiciary reached the merits of that question was a dicey proposition. Why? One word: standing.
In brief, standing is a court‐​created rule that says only certain people can challenge a given policy in court. To have standing, the would‐​be plaintiff must have suffered a concrete injury that was caused by the policy at issue and can be fixed (or "redressed") by the courts. Thus, for example, I do not have standing to challenge the Justice Department's sweetheart plea deal with Hunter Biden, both because I've not been personally injured by it (mere outrage is insufficient) and because there's really nothing the courts can do about DOJ's propensity for coddling VIPs.
Like so many judge‐​made legal rules, however, standing is both amorphous and prone to abuse. It's amorphous because it lacks clear doctrinal parameters and can be easily enlarged or constricted as a matter of judicial whim. And of course that makes it prone to abuse, since judges can simply declare that a given plaintiff either does or does not have standing depending on whether they do or don't want to reach the merits of the case at hand. To be clear, not all standing inquiries represent such an exercise in procedural roulette, but an increasing number of them do—particularly as poliymakers become more conscious of their ability to defeat judicial review through strategic legerdemain.
Thus, the key question in the loan‐​forgiveness case was not so much the legality of the program itself, but instead whether the Biden administration and its lawyers could persuade the judiciary that the executive branch can expend nearly half‐​a‐​trillion dollars in unappropriated funds without causing a sufficiently concrete injury to confer standing on any individual or entity affected by that program. As we learned last Thursday, the answer is no. But boy, was it close.
Without delving too much deeper into federal standing doctrine, the basic problem here was that the Supreme Court has generally rejected the concept of "taxpayer standing"—that is, the idea that any given person who pays taxes can sue the government simply because it is (arguably) spending that revenue unlawfully. Accordingly, when President Biden announced his intent to forgive student loans without express congressional authorization, there was a scramble among people and groups who opposed that policy to identify a concrete and individualized theory of standing that might pass muster with a judiciary that tends to be more comfortable rubber‐​stamping challenged government programs than striking them down—especially when they involve things like the proper scope of federal power, economic regulations, property rights, or tax policy.
As noted, Missouri and a handful of other states led with the theory that a blanket student loan forgiveness policy would deprive them of fees generated by their respective loan‐​servicing entities. Another suit was filed by two college graduates from Texas who challenged the Department of Education's failure to follow proper administrative procedures, which they said might have resulted in better debt‐​forgiveness terms for each of them.
At the time, it was unclear whether either of those standing arguments would prove viable, and additional complaints were filed by other groups, each asserting a different theory of standing. This included a lawsuit brought on Cato's behalf by the New Civil Liberties Alliance, which alleged that Biden's blanket loan forgiveness program would prejudice non‐​profit employers like Cato, for whom Congress had created a more targeted policy called the Public Service Loan Forgiveness Program that was designed to give non‐​profits a recruiting edge by providing loan‐​forgiveness to their employees after ten years. Whether legitimate or illegitimate from a policy perspective, the advantage conferred on charitable employers by that program would be eliminated by across‐​the‐​board debt forgiveness, which represents a cognizable injury that is redressable by the courts—et voila: standing.
As it turns out, the Supreme Court held unanimously that the two Texans lacked standing to challenge Biden's loan forgivness program while ruling 6–3 that the states (or at least one of them, which is all that mattered) did have standing. Bottom line, it was a close call, and it was fortunate that Cato and others were waiting in the wings with their own unique—and potentially more persuasive—standing theories. But those other cases, including Cato's, are now moot in light of the Court's decision to find standing in the states' challenge and strike down Biden's loan forgiveness scheme.
In retrospect, the half‐​dozen lawsuits filed against that program may seem like overkill. But as a colleague at my first law firm used to say of a judge in one of his cases, "You never know on any given day what's going to get his attention: Will it be the red rubber ball, the shiny metal object, or the baby rattle? So you bring 'em all." And so it is when seeking to overcome the slew of avoidance doctrines routinely deployed in public‐​policy litigation by government lawyers like ink from a fleeing squid. If standing, ripeness, and mootness can fairly be compared to a game of craps—and they can—then it makes sense for both sides to get as many chips on the table as possible.
If that sounds like hyperbole, consider the following examples, which represent merely the barest hint of the jaw‐​dropping bad faith with which avoidance doctrines are asserted by government lawyers and employed by judges to make potentially troublesome cases go away:
Cato v. SEC (DC Cir. 2022). This case involved a First Amendment challenge to the SEC's policy of imposing a lifetime gag order on defendants in civil enforcement actions as a condition of settlement. Cato sued on behalf of an author who wrote a memoir about being caught up in that process that it was unlawful for him to publish due to the gag order. As a would‐​be publisher of that work, Cato asserted the well‐​established theory of third‐​party standing, but the DC Circuit held that the "redressability" requirement for standing was not met on the premise that all of the challenged gag orders had been incorporated into judicially enforceable consent decress around the country that judges in DC were powerless to disturb. Besides being incorrect on the law, that holding was based on a demonstrably false factual premise: Contrary to the DC Circuit's completely baseless assertion—that was supported nowhere in the pleadings or the record because it was false—all gag orders (including the very one at issue in this case) had not been incorporated into judicially enforceable consent decrees—a fact that Cato pointed out repeatedly throughout the litigation and again in its petition for rehearing, which the DC Circuit ignored.
Parker v. Heller (DC Cir. 2007). Another example of standing gamesmanship from the DC Circuit arose in the Second Amendment challenge to the District of Columbia's gun laws brought on behalf of six DC residents by me, former Cato board chair Bob Levy, and Alan Gura. In blatant and acknowledged disregard for Supreme Court precedent, the DC Circuit invoked its special law of standing for guns and held that five of the six plaintiffs lacked standing because they had not yet violated the law and received a specific threat of prosecution—actions that are never required in any other setting to establish standing. Only Dick Heller was ultimately found to have standing because he had made an entirely futile attempt to register a handgun in DC and was denied—an act that the DC Circuit risibly (but correctly, as a matter of circuit precedent) held supplied an alternative basis for standing.
Alvarez v. Smith (2009) and NY State Rifle & Pistol Ass'n v. City of New York (2020). These are both examples of "strategic case mooting," a common practice whereby government lawyers will vigorously defend an unconstitutional policy in the lower courts and then moot the case if it looks like the challengers might win on appeal and thereby establish favorable precedent. Alvarez was a challenge to Illinois' unconstitutional civil forfeiture procedure, which the state defended below but then mooted when the case got to the Supreme Court by returning the plaintiffs' unlawfully seized vehicles. NY State Rifle & Pistol involved a challenge to a New York City ordinance that severly constrained people's ability to move a lawfully registered pistol from one location to another (e.g., from an apartment in Manhattan to a cabin in upstate New York), which the City defended vigorously in the lower courts but then repealed immediately after the Supreme Court granted certiorari, in a transparent (and ultimately successful) effort to derail the case. So much for all the assertions the government made in the lower courts about the supposed importance of the law, the momentous safety issues involved, etc.—all of which turned out to be cynical, disingenuous prattling.
As suggested above, the list could go on almost indefinitely. But the takeaway is this: When it comes to the willingness of government lawyers and judges (a wildly disproportionate number of whom were themselves courtroom advocates for government before taking the bench) to employ standing, ripeness, mootness, and other "avoidance doctrines" in order to derail challenges to plausible allegations of unlawful government action, there is no bottom.
And that's why Cato joined the fray over President Biden's unlawful student loan forgiveness scheme—not because there was ever any doubt about the merits; but instead to help make it as difficult as possible for the judiciary to sweep that unlawful power grab under the rug with the handy‐​dandy standing‐​broom.

Positionality statement
As we begin to discuss this issue, its origins, and its importance in contemporary society, I wanted to acknowledge my positionality and the role that it may play in the formation of this issue. Jonathan O. Cain is an African-American male working in the LIS field. Before moving into administration, I taught data and digital literacy and worked on developing programs that focused on improving access to these critical skills at zero cost to learners.
It is important to acknowledge my positionality and the lens through which I see the data science field. Trevor Watkins is an African American male working in the LIS field at an academic institution in an academic library. I teach critical data literacy workshops and engage in diversity and BIPOC-related digital projects with faculty, students, and the broader academic community across the country. I am also a researcher and practitioner in artificial intelligence (AI) and data science.
The global pandemic, its impacts, and why it matters
We first met in August 2020 to discuss the possibilities of this special issue about five months into the pandemic. We spent a good chunk of that meeting getting to know each other and, most importantly, discussed the toll the pandemic placed on our communities and us. It is probably safe to say that many of you, at some point, were uncertain of the future. Like most people worldwide, we lost family and friends or knew of people who succumbed to Covid-19 and other illnesses that weren't treated because the focus shifted to Covid-19. We get it. At one point, Covid-19 killed over three thousand people per day (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2022). According to data from the CDC, 90% of the 385,676 people who died between March and December 2020 had Covid-19 listed as the underlying cause of death on their death certificate. The murders of Ahmaud Arbery in February, Breonna Taylor in March, and George Floyd in May 2020 sparked civic unrest across the United States (US) and protests across the globe in solidarity against racial injustice. When we announced this special issue and initiated a call for papers, we didn't get much of a response initially. We expected and acknowledged that it would probably take some time before we received inquiries or proposals about the issue, the intent to submit, or any submissions.
Like many of you, we are still picking up the pieces from 2020 and dealing with the aftermath of Covid-19. The pandemic may be over now, depending on whom you ask, but the emotional scars are still there and may remain so for quite some time. Patience was the one quality we all had throughout this process, which is why we can present this publication today.
Data and liberatory technology
Liberatory technology. This is a concept that invited contemplation as we sat down to record our reflections on this special issue. In drawing together scholars, educators, and practitioners to address the issue of data and its relationship to race, ethnicity, and representation, we, as coeditors, were making a statement about the importance of data, the material impact that this seemingly abstract and ethereal object can and does have on individual and community lives. And thinking about that impact brought liberatory technology to the front of our minds. The definition of liberator technology offered by the IDA B. Wells Just Data Lab intrigues us and invites us to grapple with that topic. They defined liberatory as something that "supports the increased freedom and wellbeing of marginalized people, especially black people outside of capitalism and settler colonial power structures" and technology as "a tool used to accomplish a task." And as we contemplate this set of definitions, we are left to question whether data can be a liberatory technology or not. (LIBERATORY TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MARRONAGE, n.d.)
In Liberation Technology: Black Protest in the Age of Franklin, Richard S. Newman draws parallels with the asserting ownership and mastery of new communication technologies and black liberation activities. Reflecting on the transformative nature of print technology, he writes, "If the Marquis de Condorcet was right in 1793 that print had unshackled Europe from medieval modes of thought and action, then it is also true that print was perhaps the first technology to liberate blacks from the servile images that had long haunted their existence in Western culture." And draws a 19th-century example of how it expressly connects to black lives post-emancipation noting "W. E. B. Du Bois certainly thought that black history and print history worked in tandem. Wherever one found newspapers in the post-Civil War South, he observed, one found some form of black freedom" (Richard S. Newman, 2009, p. 175). He even notes how scholars note that black activists embraced other communication technologies like photography "to reshape the image of African Americans in nineteenth-century culture." (Richard S. Newman, 2009, p. 175)
We have no shortage of examples of how data and data-driven technologies fail to support the "increased freedom and wellbeing of marginalized people outside of capitalism and settler colonial power structures." In 2016, ProPublica published Machine Bias, a report that looks at Risk assessment technologies used in arraignment and sentencing. They report that "The formula was particularly likely to falsely flag black defendants as future, wrongly labeling them this way at almost twice the rate as white defendants" and "white defendants were mislabeled as low risk more often than black defendants" (Julia Angwin, 2016). A 2021 article, Fairness in Criminal Justice Risk Assessments: The State of the Art, in their analysis, noted, "The false negative rate is much higher for whites so that violent white offenders are more likely than violent black offenders to be incorrectly classified as nonviolent. The false positive rate is much higher for blacks so that nonviolent black offenders are more likely than nonviolent white offenders to be incorrectly classified as violent. Both error rates mistakenly inflate the relative representation of blacks predicted to be violent. Such differences can support claims of racial injustice. In this application, the trade-off between two different kinds of fairness has real bite." (Berk et al., 2021, p. 33)
These are just a few examples of how these technological developments, on their own merits, fail to meet the definition offered by the authors of the "Liberatory Technology and Digital Marronage" Zine from the Ida B. Wells Just Data Labs. Reflecting on the technological path illustrated by Newman, the work of ownership and mastery of the tool provides the potential for it to be liberatory. Through this lens, the work of the Just Data Lab is exemplary for this meditation; it draws a direct line from technology, education, mastery, and liberatory technology.
Data in higher education
Data literacy education is an area that has been a focus of our careers in librarianship. It's a space where we saw the libraries' ability to make a meaningful impact. Data has had a tremendous impact on college campuses, from how research is conducted to the pressures colleges feel from stakeholder groups: students, governments, funders, donors, and employers to prepare students with the data and technology skills to gain employment in the knowledge economy.
As colleges and universities have turned (with varying degrees of success) to meet the needs of these communities, a myriad of explorations on the importance of the representation of these marginalized communities in these systems—to combat and dismantle the harmful practices that we see embedded in the systems that drive society and the potentially debilitating consequences they produce. That is partly why the works in this special issue are so important at this moment in time. These scholars and scholar-practitioners are engaging with these issues that drive the opaque structures surrounding us. And hopefully, their work can give us another perspective on how to engage with these structures and transform them to support liberatory practices.
The entries in this issue
We have some fantastic articles for you to read in this issue. We open with an article by Kevin Manuel, Rosa Orlandini, and Alexandra Cooper, who discuss how the collection process of racial, ethnic, and indigenous data has evolved in the Canadian Census since 1871, the erasure of minorities and indigenous citizens from those censuses, and the work to restore and accurately identify and categorize racialized groups.
In the next article, Leigh Phan, Stephanie Labou, Erin Foster, and Ibraheem Ali present a model for data ethics instruction for non-experts by designing and implementing two data ethics workshops. They make important points about the failure of academia to incorporate the ethical use of data in course curriculums and digital literacy training and demonstrate how academic libraries have become an essential resource for the academic community. Their workshop structure can be modeled for any academic library that endeavors to provide a similar service to its community.
In the third article, Natasha Johnson, Megan Sapp Nelson, and Katherine Yngve, interrogate the collective and local purposes of institutional data collection and its impact on student belongingness and propose a framework based on data feminism that centers the student as a person rather than a commodity.
Finally, our closing article from Thema Monroe-White focuses on marginalized and underrepresented people in the data science field. The author proposes that racially relevant and responsive teaching is necessary to recruit more people from these groups and diversify the field. She discusses how the Ladson-Billings model of cultural relevant pedagogy has been applied and is beneficial to STEM curriculums, and how a liberatory data science curriculum could promote a student's voice and sense of belonging.
Conclusion
We want to thank all those involved in producing this special issue. We want to thank the authors first. Their patience, dedication, and perseverance throughout this process were much appreciated. The reviewers provided timely, very detailed, and thorough feedback. We would be remised if we didn't acknowledge their hard work and labor. We would like to thank the IQ Editorial Team, Michele Hayslett and Karsten Boye Rasmussen, for working with us over the last two years, and Ofira Schwartz-Soicher, for helping us get to the finish line.
Trevor Watkins
Jonathan O. Cain
References
Berk, R., Heidari, H., Jabbari, S., Kearns, M., & Roth, A. (2021). Fairness in Criminal Justice Risk Assessments: The State of the Art. Sociological Methods & Research, 50(1), 3–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118782533
Flipsnack. (n.d.). Liberatory Technology Zine. Flipsnack. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.flipsnack.com/EBC8CD77C6F/liberatory-technology-zine.html
LIBERATORY TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MARRONAGE. (n.d.). IDA B. WELLS JUST DATA LAB. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.thejustdatalab.com/tools-1/liberatory-technology-and-digital-marronage
Mattu, J. A., Jeff Larson,Lauren Kirchner,Surya. (n.d.). Machine Bias. ProPublica. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing
Richard S. Newman. (2009). Liberation Technology: Black Printed Protest in the Age of Franklin. Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8(1), 173–198. https://doi.org/10.1353/eam.0.0033

This is an open accBroderick, Avery E.; Gold, Roman; Karami, Mansour; Preciado-López, Jorge A.; Tiede, Paul; Pu, Hung-Yi; Akiyama, Kazunori; Alberdi, Antxon; Alef, Walter; Asada, Keiichi; Azulay, Rebecca; Baczko, Anne-Kathrin; Baloković, Mislav; Barrett, John; Bintley, Dan; Blackburn, Lindy; Boland, Wilfred; Bouman, Katherine L.; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Bremer, Michael; Brinkerink, Christiaan D.; Brissenden, Roger; Britzen, Silke; Broguiere, Dominique; Bronzwaer, Thomas; Byun, Do-Young; Carlstrom, John E.; Chael, Andrew; Chatterjee, Shami; Chatterjee, Koushik; Chen, Ming-Tang; Chen, Yongjun; Cho, Ilje; Conway, John E.; Cordes, James M.; Crew, Geoffrey B.; Cui, Yuzhu; Davelaar, Jordy; De Laurentis, Mariafelicia; Deane, Roger; Dempsey, Jessica; Desvignes, Gregory; Doeleman, Sheperd S.; Eatough, Ralph P.; Falcke, Heino; Fish, Vincent L.; Fomalont, Ed; Fraga-Encinas, Raquel; Friberg, Per; Fromm, Christian M.; Galison, Peter; Gammie, Charles F.; García, Roberto; Gentaz, Olivier; Georgiev, Boris; Goddi, Ciriaco; Gómez, José L.; Gu, Minfeng; Gurwell, Mark; Hada, Kazuhiro; Hecht, Michael H.; Hesper, Ronald; Ho, Luis C.; Ho, Paul; Honma, Mareki; Huang, Chih-Wei L.; Huang, Lei; Hughes, David H.; Inoue, Makoto; Issaoun, Sara; James, David J.; Janssen, Michael; Jeter, Britton; Jiang, Wu; Jiménez-Rosales, Alejandra; Johnson, Michael D.; Jorstad, Svetlana; Jung, Taehyun; Karuppusamy, Ramesh; Kawashima, Tomohisa; Keating, Garrett K.; Kettenis, Mark; Kim, Jae-Young; Kim, Jongsoo; Kino, Motoki; Koay, Jun Yi; Koch, Patrick M.; Koyama, Shoko; Kramer, Michael; Kramer, Carsten; Krichbaum, Thomas P.; Kuo, Cheng-Yu; Lee, Sang-Sung; Li, Yan-Rong; Li, Zhiyuan; Lindqvist, Michael; Lico, Rocco; Liu, Kuo; Liuzzo, Elisabetta; Lo, Wen-Ping; Lobanov, Andrei P.; Loinard, Laurent; Lonsdale, Colin; Lu, Ru-Sen; MacDonald, Nicholas R.; Mao, Jirong; Marscher, Alan P.; Martí-Vidal, Iván; Matsushita, Satoki; Matthews, Lynn D.; Menten, Karl M.; Mizuno, Yosuke; Mizuno, Izumi; Moran, James M.; Moriyama, Kotaro; Moscibrodzka, Monika; Müller, Cornelia; Nagai, Hiroshi; Nagar, Neil M.; Nakamura, Masanori; Narayan, Ramesh; Narayanan, Gopal; Natarajan, Iniyan; Neri, Roberto; Ni, Chunchong; Noutsos, Aristeidis; Okino, Hiroki; Olivares, Héctor; Ortiz-León, Gisela N.; Oyama, Tomoaki; Palumbo, Daniel C. M.; Park, Jongho; Pen, Ue-Li; Pesce, Dominic W.; Piétu, Vincent; Plambeck, Richard; PopStefanija, Aleksandar; Porth, Oliver; Prather, Ben; Ramakrishnan, Venkatessh; Rao, Ramprasad; Rawlings, Mark G.; Raymond, Alexander W.; Rezzolla, Luciano; Ripperda, Bart; Roelofs, Freek; Rogers, Alan; Ros, Eduardo; Rose, Mel; Rottmann, Helge; Ruszczyk, Chet; Ryan, Benjamin R.; Rygl, Kazi L. J.; Sánchez, Salvador; Sánchez-Arguelles, David; Sasada, Mahito; Savolainen, Tuomas; Schloerb, F. Peter; Schuster, Karl-Friedrich; Shao, Lijing; Shen, Zhiqiang; Small, Des; Sohn, Bong Won; SooHoo, Jason; Tazaki, Fumie; Tilanus, Remo P. J.; Titus, Michael; Toma, Kenji; Torne, Pablo; Traianou, Efthalia; Trippe, Sascha; Tsuda, Shuichiro; van Bemmel, Ilse; van Langevelde, Huib Jan; van Rossum, Daniel R.; Wagner, Jan; Wardle, John; Weintroub, Jonathan; Wex, Norbert; Wharton, Robert; Wielgus, Maciek; Wong, George N.; Wu, Qingwen; Yoon, Doosoo; Young, André; Young, Ken; Younsi, Ziri; Yuan, Feng; Yuan, Ye-Fei; Zensus, J. Anton; Zhao, Guangyao; Zhao, Shan-Shan; Zhu, Ziyan; Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration ess article.-- Full list of authors: ; The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) provides the unprecedented ability to directly resolve the structure and dynamics of black hole emission regions on scales smaller than their horizons. This has the potential to critically probe the mechanisms by which black holes accrete and launch outflows, and the structure of supermassive black hole spacetimes. However, accessing this information is a formidable analysis challenge for two reasons. First, the EHT natively produces a variety of data types that encode information about the image structure in nontrivial ways; these are subject to a variety of systematic effects associated with very long baseline interferometry and are supplemented by a wide variety of auxiliary data on the primary EHT targets from decades of other observations. Second, models of the emission regions and their interaction with the black hole are complex, highly uncertain, and computationally expensive to construct. As a result, the scientific utilization of EHT observations requires a flexible, extensible, and powerful analysis framework. We present such a framework, Themis, which defines a set of interfaces between models, data, and sampling algorithms that facilitates future development. We describe the design and currently existing components of Themis, how Themis has been validated thus far, and present additional analyses made possible by Themis that illustrate its capabilities. Importantly, we demonstrate that Themis is able to reproduce prior EHT analyses, extend these, and do so in a computationally efficient manner that can efficiently exploit modern high-performance computing facilities. Themis has already been used extensively in the scientific analysis and interpretation of the first EHT observations of M87. © 2020. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society. ; This work was made possible by the facilities of the Shared Hierarchical Academic Research Computing Network (SHARCNET: www.sharcnet.ca) and Compute/Calcul Canada (www.computecanada.ca). Computations were made on the supercomputer Mammouth Parallele 2 from University of Sherbrooke, managed by Calcul Quebec and Compute Canada. The operation of this supercomputer is funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI), the ministere de l'Economie, de la science et de l'innovation du Quebec (MESI), and the Fonds de recherche du Quebec-Nature et technologies (FRQ-NT). This work was supported in part by Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. Research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Economic Development, Job Creation and Trade. A.E.B. thanks the Delaney Family for their generous financial support via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute. A.E.B., P.T., and M.K. receive additional financial support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through a Discovery Grant. R.G. receives additional support from the ERC synergy grant "BlackHoleCam: Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes" (grant No. 610058). We thank Jason Dexter for helpful comments and suggestions. We further thank the following organizations and programs: the Academy of Finland (projects 274477, 284495, 312496); the Advanced European Network of E-infrastructures for Astronomy with the SKA (AENEAS) project, supported by the European Commission Framework Programme Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation action under grant agreement 731016; the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung; Black Hole Initiative at Harvard University, through grants from the John Templeton Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation; the China Scholarship Council; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT, Chile, via PIA ACT172033, Fondecyt 1171506, BASAL AFB-170002, ALMA-conicyt 31140007); Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT, Mexico, projects 104497, 275201, 279006, 281692); the Delaney Family via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute; Direccion General de Asuntos del Personal Academico-Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (DGAPA-UNAM, project IN112417); the European Research Council Synergy Grant "BlackHoleCam: Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes" (grant 610058); the Generalitat Valenciana postdoctoral grant APOSTD/2018/177; the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (grants GBMF-3561, GBMF-5278); the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Napoli, iniziative specifiche TEONGRAV; the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne; the Jansky Fellowship program of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO); the Japanese Government (Monbukagakusho: MEXT) Scholarship; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellowship (JP17J08829); the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS, grants QYZDJ-SSW-SLH057, QYZDJ-SSW-SYS008); the Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellowship; the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG); the Max Planck Partner Group of the MPG and the CAS; the MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI (grants 18KK0090, JP18K13594, JP18K03656, JP18H03721, 18K03709, 18H01245, 25120007); the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) Funds; the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Taiwan (105-2112-M-001-025-MY3, 106-2112-M-001-011, 106-2119-M-001-027, 107-2119-M-001-017, 107-2119-M-001-020, and 107-2119-M-110-005); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, Fermi Guest Investigator grant 80NSSC17K0649); the National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan; the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant 2016YFA0400704, 2016YFA0400702); the National Science Foundation (NSF, grants AST-0096454, AST-0352953, AST-0521233, AST-0705062, AST-0905844, AST-0922984, AST-1126433, AST-1140030, DGE-1144085, AST-1207704, AST-1207730, AST-1207752, MRI-1228509, OPP-1248097, AST-1310896, AST-1337663, AST-1440254, AST-1555365, AST-1715061, AST-1615796, AST-1716327, OISE-1743747, AST-1816420); the Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11573051, 11633006, 11650110427, 10625314, 11721303, 11725312); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, including a Discovery Grant and the NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarships-Doctoral Program); the National Youth Thousand Talents Program of China; the National Research Foundation of Korea (the Global PhD Fellowship Grant: grants NRF-2015H1A2A1033752, 2015-R1D1A1A01056807, the Korea Research Fellowship Program: NRF-2015H1D3A1066561); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI award (grant 639.043. 513) and Spinoza Prize SPI 78-409; the New Scientific Frontiers with Precision Radio Interferometry Fellowship awarded by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (SARAO), which is a facility of the National Research Foundation (NRF), an agency of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of South Africa; the Onsala Space Observatory (OSO) national infrastructure, for the provisioning of its facilities/observational support (OSO receives funding through the Swedish Research Council under grant 2017-00648) the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Science); the Russian Science Foundation (grant 17-12-01029); the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (grants PGC2018-098915-B-C21, AYA2016-80889-P); the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the "Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa" award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (SEV-2017-0709); the Toray Science Foundation; the US Department of Energy (USDOE) through the Los Alamos National Laboratory (operated by Triad National Security, LLC, for the National Nuclear Security Administration of the USDOE (Contract 89233218CNA000001)); the Italian Ministero dell'Istruzione Universita e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012-iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001); the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 730562 RadioNet; ALMA North America Development Fund; the Academia Sinica; Chandra TM6-17006X. This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), supported by NSF grant ACI-1548562, and CyVerse, supported by NSF grants DBI-0735191, DBI-1265383, and DBI-1743442. XSEDE Stampede2 resource at TACC was allocated through TG-AST170024 and TG-AST080026N. XSEDE JetStream resource at PTI and TACC was allocated through AST170028. The simulations were performed in part on the SuperMUC cluster at the LRZ in Garching, on the LOEWE cluster in CSC in Frankfurt, and on the HazelHen cluster at the HLRS in Stuttgart. ; Peer reviewed

Apie Gintaro Mitrulevičiaus monografiją "Lietuvos socialdemokratijos ideologinė-politinė raida 1914–1919 metais. Istoriografija, tarptautinis ir istorinis kontekstai, santykis su Lietuvos valstybingumo kūrimu" ir jos gynimą Copyright © 2019Leonas Nekrašas. Published byVilnius University PressThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of theCreative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Pastaruosius porą metų stebėjome turbulentišką nūdienos Lietuvos socialdemokratijos raidos fazę, partijos takoskyrą. Po šiame tekste aprašyto gynimo apie tai pasakytina viena: "Nieko naujo." 2019m. vasario 8 d. Vilniaus universiteto Istorijos fakultete vyko Gintaro Mitrulevičiaus mokslinės monografijos "Lietuvos socialdemokratijos ideologinė-politinė raida 1914–1919 metais. Istorio­grafija, tarptautinis ir istorinis kontekstai, santykis su Lietuvos valstybingumo kūrimu" gynimas istorijos mokslo daktaro laipsniui įgyti (eksternu gintas jau išleistas mokslinis veikalas). Bent gerą valandą prieš darbo gynimą rimtą, susikaupusį disertantą buvo galima išvysti Istorijos fakulteto skaitykloje metodiškai peržiūrintį ir braukantį turimus teksto lapus – jau daugiau nei du dešimtmečius gvildenęs socialdemokratijos problematiką istorikas skrupulingai ruošėsi ilgus triūso metus vainikuoti turėsiančiam pasirodymui. Už lango žėrinti saulė lėtai tirpdė senamiesčio ledynus. Disertacijos gynimo tarybą sudarė prof. dr. Sandra Grigaravičiūtė iš Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto, dr. Česlovas Laurinavičius ir dr. Rimantas Miknys iš Lietuvos istorijos instituto, prof. dr.Vygantas Vareikis iš Klaipėdos universiteto, tarybai pirmininkavo prof. dr. Zenonas Butkus iš Vilniaus universiteto. Pirmininkas 15 val. oficialiai paskelbė gynimo pradžią. Pažymėjęs, kad visi reikalavimai ginti darbą yra tenkinami, profesorius apibūdino tądien ginamą 832 puslapių (!) monografiją kaip "kapitalinį veikalą", o jos autorių – G. Mitrulevičių – kaip jau "žinomą istoriką", nuėjusį "kryžiaus kelius" link šio momento. Po trumpo ir (kaip visada) šmaikštaus profesoriaus įvado žodis buvo suteiktas disertantui, šio paprašius "sutilpti" į pristatymui numatytas 15 (ar bent 20) minučių. Iš pradžių disertantas pristatė tyrimo objektą ("Lietuvos (lietuvių) socialdemokratijos ideologinė-politinė raida Pirmojo pasaulinio karo bei pirmaisiais pokario metais"), pagrindė pasirinktas pagrindines tyrimo chronologines ribas (išsyk referuodamas į recenzentų kritiką), pabrėžė monografijoje pateiktų ekskursų į ankstesnę Lietuvos ir Europos socialdemokratijos raidą reikmę. Grindžiant tyrimo aktualumą pažymėta, kad sovietmetis iškreipė socialdemokratų judėjimo suvokimą – teigta, kad esamos žinios apie socialdemokratiją yra deformuotos ne tik plačiojoje, bet ir akademinėje visuomenėse, tuo ir grįsta naujų tyrimų reikmė. Neužmiršta ir simbolinė – darbą aktualizuojanti – Lietuvos valstybės šimtmečio proga. Nušvietęs ligtolinę istoriografijos situaciją, tyrimo problematiką, G. Mitrulevičius pristatė savo darbo tikslą: "Ištirti, rekonstruoti ir išanalizuoti Lietuvos (lietuvių) socialdemokratijos ideologinę-politinę raidą Lietuvos valstybingumo (at)kūrimo proceso laikotarpiu XX a. antrojo dešimtmečio antroje pusėje." Disertantas pažodžiui perskaitė visus 16 išsikeltų specifinių tyrimo uždavinių. Pristatęs darbo struktūrą ir pasitelktus metodus, istorikas pagrindė ir tyrimo naujumą – pažymėta, kad tam tikri Lietuvos socialdemokratijos raidos epizodai lig šiol buvo ištirti tik fragmentiškai arba išvis beveik netirti (1918 m. lapkričio–gruodžio atkarpa, visi 1919 m.), šią nišą ir užpildo jo monografija, apibūdinta pirmąja išsamia ir sistemiška 1914–1919 m. Lietuvos socialdemokratijos studija. Naujumo ir svarbos žymes G.Mitrulevičius priskyrė ir atliktoms išsamioms Lietuvos socialdemokratijos istoriografijos ir europinio judėjimo konteksto analizėms. Didžiąją pristatymo dalį sudarė ekstensyvių, smulkmeniškų išvadų (šių būta net 21) perskaitymas: išvadose pažymėti visi ryškesni, svarbesni Lietuvos socialdemokratijos raidos momentai nagrinėtu laikotarpiu (judėjimo permainos, lūžiai, evoliucija). Vien išvadų perskaitymas užėmė bent 20 minučių iš apie 40 minučių trukusio pristatymo, kurį sutraukti disertantui nesisekė. Darbo pristatymas išties prailgo. Apsiribojimas G. Mitrulevičiui tapo iššūkiu – tai iliustravo pažodinis gausių tyrimo uždavinių skaitymas, negalėjimas atitrūkti nuo itin plačių išvadų teksto (nors nuo penktos išvados jau pradėta nebeskaityti visko, o bandyta apimti svarbesnius punktus), taip pat dažni autoriaus ekskursai į kontekstines detales. Gausios informacijos bėrimas greitakalbe ir įtemptos disertanto "rungtynės" su laiku akivaizdžiai išvargino ne tik patį istoriką, bet ir auditoriją. 15:45 gynimo tarybos pirmininkas paskelbė mokslinės diskusijos pradžią – pirmoji išdėstyti savo vertinimą pakviesta prof. dr. S. Grigaravičiūtė. Tai buvo itin pozityvus atsiliepimas. Anot profesorės, G. Mitrulevičiaus tyrimas – neabejotinai svarus įnašas į socialdemokratų indėlio atkuriant valstybę atskleidimą. Istorikės nuomone, darbas itin svarbus ir politine prasme – ne tik social­demokratijos politinės ideologijos nuostatų ir vertybių suvokimui, jos santykio su bolševizmu-komunizmu supratimui, bet ir naujos krypties socialdemokratijos ideologinei vertybių sistemai paieškoms, mat "neoliberalizmas akivaizdžiai išsisėmė ir jam aiškiai reikia naujos pamainos". Anot S. Grigaravičiūtės, istorikas padėjo šiuolaikiškus pamatus Lietuvos socialdemokratijos istorijos tyrimams, kurie bus aktualūs tiek Lietuvos, tiek užsienio tyrinėtojams. Pagirtas socialdemokratų politinių nuostatų permainų 1918 m. pabaigoje–1919 m. atskleidimas. Anot profesorės, darbo naujumas – neabejotinas, pabrėžtas jo tarpdiscipliniškumas, atlikta svarbi asmenybių (socialdemokratų), kūrusių modernią Lietuvos valstybę, ideologinių-politinių pažiūrų evoliucijos, jų veiklos konteksto analizė. Istorikės vertinimu, disertantas labai aiškiai žinojo, ką nori pasakyti ir ką nori įrodyti – t. y. pagrįsti, kad Lietuvos socialdemokratai nuo 1896 m. iki 1919 m. su nedideliais nukrypimais laikėsi brandaus marksizmo ideologijos. Disertanto įdirbis susilaukė ir daug kitų profesorės pagyrimų – ji pažymėjo, kad istoriko tekste nėra jaunam mokslininkui būdingos arogancijos. Kritiškesnių istorikės pastabų nebuvo daug – nurodyti keli faktiniai netikslumai, autorius paragintas ateityje rašyti trumpesniais sakiniais (ši pastaba klausytojų gretose susilaukė šypsenų), pažymėta, kad išvadose esti nemažai dėstymui būdingų elementų, nors jose yra ir konstatuojamojo pobūdžio teiginių. Antrasis savo poziciją išdėstė dr. Č. Laurinavičius. Jo atsiliepimas buvo kritiškesnis. Pasveikinęs disertantą su svariu pasiekimu – aktualia ir vertinga studija, istorikas nušvietė jos kelią. Mokslininkas pažymėjo, kad doktorantūros komitete išsakyta rimtų argumentų istoriko "neprileisti" prie gynimo, ir prisiėmė atsakomybę už G. Mitrulevičiui suteiktą galimybę ginti. Pasak oponento, kai pateikiamas 800(+) puslapių apimties darbas, kuriame tik nuo apytikriai 260 p. prasideda kalba apie disertacijos tikslą, kiekybinis elementas verčia susimąstyti, ar tikslinga leisti ginti tokį darbą, kai iš esmės nelabai matosi skirtumo tarp selekcijos ir kolekcijos, tarp referavimo ir analizės, kas, anot istoriko, turėtų būti labai aišku mokslinio laipsnio suteikimo atžvilgiu. Po šios įvesties Č. Laurinavičius savo pastabas padalijo į dvi dalis: į tai, kas pozityvu, ir tai, kas diskutuotina. Itin vertinga istorikas apibūdino 1918 m. pabaigos–1919 m. socialdemokratijos raidos analizę, pagyrė darbo autorių už puikų A. Domaševičiaus asmenybės atskleidimą, puikią šio veikėjo ir Z. Angariečio priešpriešą, vertingą lietuviškųjų kairiųjų organizacijų veiklos Rusijoje po Vasario revoliucijos nušvietimą – anot oponento, šiame "chaose" disertantas "neišėjo iš krašto". Istoriko kritikos sulaukė chronologinių ribų pasirinkimas. Veikalo leitmotyvu išskyręs teiginį, kad Lietuvos socialdemokratai nuosekliausiai kėlė Lietuvos nepriklausomybės reikalavimą, oponentas pasigedo šio siekio turinio analizės, pavyzdžiui, kaip S. Kairys, keldamas tokią tezę, įsivaizdavo realų jos realizavimą. Pagyręs autorių už užsispyrimą, Č. Laurinavičius pabrėžė, kad didelė darbo dalis skirta antraeiliams dalykams: sukritikuota, istoriko žodžiais, "referatyvi" istoriografijos apžvalga, abejota plačios V. Kapsuko ir Z. Angariečio publikacijų analizės reikme. Anot oponento, vertinti šį darbą, kurį jis apibrėžė "savotiška enciklopedija", problemiška, bet "svarstyklės nusvirtų į teigiamą pusę". Trečiasis savąjį – itin pozityvų – vertinimą pristatė dr. R. Miknys, išsyk apibūdinęs G.Mitrulevičiaus monografiją nepaprasta – neeiliniu reiškiniu Lietuvos istoriografijoje. R. Miknys pateisino darbe aptinkamas plačią istoriografijos apžvalgą ir išsamią judėjimo konteksto analizę kaip teisingą pasirinkimą, labai naudingą kertiniam veikalo objektui – Lietuvos socialdemokratijos santykiui su Lietuvos valstybingumo kūrimu – atskleisti. Disertantas pagirtas už gebėjimą gerai konstruoti darbą. Pasak oponento, nors G. Mitrulevičius ir parašė labai plačią monografiją, dabartinėje tyrimų situacijoje jis veikiausiai neturėjo kito pasirinkimo. Anot mokslininko, autorius, to neakcentuodamas, savo analize įsitraukė į tarptautinį diskursą, aiškinantį mažų modernių tautų, valstybių formavimąsi, šių procesų ryšį su revoliucijos paveika, narpliojantį valstybingumo siekių kristalizaciją karo metais Vokietijos okupuotose ir neokupuotose teritorijose. G. Mitrulevičius susilaukė ir daugiau pagyrimų. Kritiškesnių pastabų pasakyta nedaug – pasigesta istoriko asmeninės pozicijos tam tikrų situacijų aprašymuose, anot R. Miknio, disertantas kartais "pameta save" pristatydamas kitų pozicijas. Savo kalbą šis vertintojas baigė dar sykį pabrėždamas atlikto darbo vertę ir aukštą lygį. Trumpiausią ir nuotaikingiausią vertinantį atsiliepimą išdėstė prof. dr. V. Vareikis. Jis monografiją apibrėžė vokiško tyrimo ir rašymo tradicijos išraiška Lietuvoje – pažymėtas tyrimo preciziškumas, šaltinių citavimas, aiški loginė seka, apimtis. Profesorius užtarė darbą pradedančias istoriografijos ir europinio konteksto analizes, priskirdamas jas prie šio veikalo stiprybių. Anot jo, vien platus monografijos skyrius apie istoriografiją galėjo tapti pagrindu atskirai disertacijai. Pasak istoriko, pirmoji G. Mitrulevičiaus publikacija pasirodė dar 1996m., tad studija ruošta ne mažiau kaip 23 metus, tyrimo tema autorius publikavo bent 16 mokslinių straipsnių – anot profesoriaus, šis disertantas paneigia tezę, kad nūdienos mokslininkai virto savotiškais verslininkais (pragmatistais). Profesorius įvertino nuoseklų pasakojimą, tyrėjo gebą sėkmingai operuoti didžiule dokumentų baze. Kai kur oponentas pasigedo daugiau istorinio, ne tik politinio-ideologinio konteksto, pažymėjo, kad tekstą būtų pagyvinę atsiminimų intarpai, kritikavo kai kurių uždavinių aprašomąjį pobūdį. Pristatęs vokišką daktaro disertacijų vertinimo skalę, profesorius pabrėžė, kad disertantas pagal šią vertintinas ne žemiau kaipMagna cum laude. Gynimo tarybos narių pasisakymus užbaigė jos pirmininko prof. dr. Z. Butkaus kalba. Anot istoriko, Lietuvos valstybės šimtmečio proga išleistų knygų bumo kontekste kairiojo politinio sparno vaidmuo iki šiol buvo paliktas šešėlyje, pasirodžius šiam darbui, šimtmečio istoriografija jau "kvėpuoja abiem plaučiais". Pagirtas lietuvių socialdemokratų santykio su valstybingumo kūrimu, socialdemokratijos santykio su bolševizmu atskleidimas. Profesorius pateikė ir kritinių pastabų. Suabejojo dėl pasirinktos chronologijos – anot istoriko, tyrimas nutrūksta ne visai natūraliai, mat socialdemokratų galutinis veiklos rezultatas pasireiškė parlamente (jau po 1919 m.). Pasigedo lietuvių judėjimo lyginimo su gretimų šalių, pavyzdžiui, Latvijos, socialdemokratais, šių požiūriu į valstybingumą. Oponentui pritrūko ir aiškesnio LSDP – būtent kaip partijos – požiūrio į (atkurtą) Lietuvos valstybę bei Steigiamąjį Seimą įvertinimo. Galop profesorius užtikrinančiai pažymėjo, kad šios pastabos tikrai nenusvers pozityvaus visos monografijos vertinimo. 17:10 atsakyti į oponentų kritiką pakviestas G. Mitrulevičius, atgavęs jėgas, pateikė išsamius, itin detalius atsakymus į visas svaresnes pastabas dėl jo tyrimo. Gynimo klausytojus pralinksmino (bet neabejotinai nenustebino) disertanto atsakymas į Z. Butkaus pastabą, kodėl tyrimas neapėmė Steigiamojo Seimo laikotarpio – anot disertanto, dar 400 puslapių, parašytų apie šį etapą, liko "už borto", šiam skirta atskirai išleista publikacija. Įsimintina buvo ir istoriko įvestis, atsakant į Č.Laurinavičiaus pastabas – G. Mitrulevičiaus teigė: "Manau, kad konceptualūs įsivaizdavimai, kokiomis trajektorijomis ar metodologinėmis prielaidomis turėtų būti vykdomi vienokios ar kitokios tematikos ar problematikos tyrimai, sutiksit, gali skirtis , nėra vieningos visiems privalomos metodologijos, vieningos prieigos ir nustatytų (kažkokių) schematinių ribų." Disertantas atsakinėjo ryžtingai, užtikrintai ir vėl kalbėjo apytikriai 40 minučių. Smulkmeniški jo atsakymai privedė prie, šio teksto autoriaus nuomone, gana kurioziškos situacijos, kai gynimo tarybos pirmininkas ir kiti jos nariai ne sykį bandė stabdyti istoriką, ragino apibendrinti savo atsakymus, nebūtinai atsakinėti į viską, bet G. Mitrulevičius laikėsi savo stiliaus. Nesuvaržomo tyrinėtojo atsakymai gynimo tarybą neabejotinai įtikino – po trumpo balsavimo jam buvo vienbalsiai suteiktas humanitarinių mokslų srities istorijos mokslo krypties daktaro laipsnis. Gynimas baigėsi 18 val. širdingomis dr. G. Mitrulevičiaus padėkomis. Naująjį daktarą nuoširdžiai pasveikino gynime dalyvavę kolegos istorikai, šeimos nariai, draugai. G. Mitrulevičiaus ilgi kruopštaus, tikslingo darbo metai (nueiti "kryžiaus keliai") kulminavo istoriko pergale. Nors gynimui pasibaigus malonią popietės saulę jau seniai buvo pakeitę žiemos vakaro tamsa ir speigas, istoriko neabejotinai laukė šviesus ir šiltas vakaras. Svarbiausia tai, kad Lietuvos istoriografija buvo papildyta įspūdinga studija, tądien universaliai pripažinta aktualia ir vertinga. G. Mitrulevičiaus monografija prieinama įvairiose Lietuvos bibliotekose – tarp jų ir Istorijos fakulteto skaitykloje.

Agriculture is the largest user of the resource soil. So, even small changes in certain soil properties can lead to huge effects on a regional scale. The infiltration capacity is as such an important soil parameter, and also a good indicator of soil quality and soil fertility. Silent sealing, as a result of a negative change in the infiltration capacity due to unfavourable landuse and management, will results in severe effects like faster runoff production and flooding on regional scale,. The assessment of impacts due to land-use or land-management changes on a regional scale is difficult, because detailed information on soil properties and land-management are rarely available. The awareness of the effects of interference in ecosystems is extremely important to supply landscape planners and politicians with information about the impacts of their proposed plans. The aim of this work is the assessment of the maximum water storage capacity of soils under different land-use and land-management situations in a real river catchment (Schunter). Based on field measurements of infiltration under several land-use and land-management situations, a modelling approach has been developed to determine the maximum potential water storagecapacity (Smax). This maximum water storage capacity is closely related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), and also a suitable indicator, which can be used to compare different land-use/land-management scenarios. Smax is a theoretical value describing the maximum potential of a given soil/land-use unit. Although, in reality, the water storage is highly variable due to different soils and land-uses on a catchment scale, Smax allows the direct comparison of different soil/land-use units. Since the required input parameters for detailed process models are often not available at a regional scale, general assumptions and simplifications have to be applied in order to provide meaningful statements. In this special case an integrated measure is needed which takes the soil properties in combination to the land-use and the land-management into account. Such an integrated measure can be found as a part in the Curve Number (CN) from the "Curve Number Model" of the National Resource Conservation Service. The CN is a dimensionless value which has been experimentally identified for a variety of different soil, land-use and land-management situations for small scale catchments in the US. The CN is related to the water retention potential (S), and S was originally used to compute the direct runoff from a precipitation event. Since this work addresses only the agricultural viewpoint of impacts of land-use and land-management, the main focus is on the relation of CN to the water retention potential and the computation of Smax. Final runoff computations were not the aim of this work. Knowing the limitations of the Curve Number Model for hydrological questions, runoff has been computed for the year 2002for demonstration purposes only. The CN-Model has often been criticized for its obscure determination of the CN from precipitation/runoff relations, which have not been properly published, not even in the official handbooks. In this work new methods for the determination of the CN have been developed. Now the CN can be directly measured (CNm) based on field infiltration measurements. Use of the saturated hydraulic conductivity allows the computation of the maximum water storage capacity (Smax) for a given soil, land-use and land-management combination. Since the maximum storage capacity is used, the prevailing wetting status of the soil can also be neglected. On a catchment scale, only a subset of all soil, land-use and land-management situations can be covered by measurements. The remaining situations have to be estimated or be adapted from literature values. The use of pedotransfer functions allow the computation of soil properties (e.g., Ks) based on their textural composition. The performance of the pedotransfer functions in comparison to the field measurements have been tested, resulting in a poor capability of predicting correct values from the pedotransfer functions. The comparison of measured CNm with published values of the CN performed very well. Based on the CNm-Model, scenarios of historic (1950), current (2009) and future (2070) land-uses for the Schunter catchment have been computed, showing the direct impact of different land-use situations to the maximum water storage capacity on a regional scale. Although the scenarios are just snapshots, not taking the temporal dimension of land-use changes into account, this method is useful to detect the impacts of land-use and landmanagement changes. This work examined a new method to derive the CNm by infiltration measurements in the field. The experimental determination of the CNm allows the update of existing curve numbers for special situations not covered in the handbook. Also, the application of the CN concept to German soils is now possible. The computation of the maximum potential storage capacity (Smax) is a useful measure to identify the impacts and to compare land-use and landmanagement scenarios. The impact of land-use and land-management changes on a catchment scale has been clearly demonstrated. Compared to the situation in 1950, in the year 2009 the maximum water storage capacity has decreased by 17 %. Projecting a similar land-use change of the past 60 years into the future will result in a loss of water storage capacity of 19 % compared to 1950. The model approach offers a useful tool for landscape analysis. Due to the manifold different landmanagement practices in agriculture, additional measurements should be performed in the future. Auf Wunsch des Autors / der Autorin ist diese Dissertation nur als Druckausgabe verfügbar. ; Agriculture is the largest user of the resource soil. So, even small changes in certain soil properties can lead to huge effects on a regional scale. The infiltration capacity is as such an important soil parameter, and also a good indicator of soil quality and soil fertility. Silent sealing, as a result of a negative change in the infiltration capacity due to unfavourable landuse and management, will results in severe effects like faster runoff production and flooding on regional scale,. The assessment of impacts due to land-use or land-management changes on a regional scale is difficult, because detailed information on soil properties and land-management are rarely available. The awareness of the effects of interference in ecosystems is extremely important to supply landscape planners and politicians with information about the impacts of their proposed plans. The aim of this work is the assessment of the maximum water storage capacity of soils under different land-use and land-management situations in a real river catchment (Schunter). Based on field measurements of infiltration under several land-use and land-management situations, a modelling approach has been developed to determine the maximum potential water storagecapacity (Smax). This maximum water storage capacity is closely related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), and also a suitable indicator, which can be used to compare different land-use/land-management scenarios. Smax is a theoretical value describing the maximum potential of a given soil/land-use unit. Although, in reality, the water storage is highly variable due to different soils and land-uses on a catchment scale, Smax allows the direct comparison of different soil/land-use units. Since the required input parameters for detailed process models are often not available at a regional scale, general assumptions and simplifications have to be applied in order to provide meaningful statements. In this special case an integrated measure is needed which takes the soil properties in combination to the land-use and the land-management into account. Such an integrated measure can be found as a part in the Curve Number (CN) from the "Curve Number Model" of the National Resource Conservation Service. The CN is a dimensionless value which has been experimentally identified for a variety of different soil, land-use and land-management situations for small scale catchments in the US. The CN is related to the water retention potential (S), and S was originally used to compute the direct runoff from a precipitation event. Since this work addresses only the agricultural viewpoint of impacts of land-use and land-management, the main focus is on the relation of CN to the water retention potential and the computation of Smax. Final runoff computations were not the aim of this work. Knowing the limitations of the Curve Number Model for hydrological questions, runoff has been computed for the year 2002for demonstration purposes only. The CN-Model has often been criticized for its obscure determination of the CN from precipitation/runoff relations, which have not been properly published, not even in the official handbooks. In this work new methods for the determination of the CN have been developed. Now the CN can be directly measured (CNm) based on field infiltration measurements. Use of the saturated hydraulic conductivity allows the computation of the maximum water storage capacity (Smax) for a given soil, land-use and land-management combination. Since the maximum storage capacity is used, the prevailing wetting status of the soil can also be neglected. On a catchment scale, only a subset of all soil, land-use and land-management situations can be covered by measurements. The remaining situations have to be estimated or be adapted from literature values. The use of pedotransfer functions allow the computation of soil properties (e.g., Ks) based on their textural composition. The performance of the pedotransfer functions in comparison to the field measurements have been tested, resulting in a poor capability of predicting correct values from the pedotransfer functions. The comparison of measured CNm with published values of the CN performed very well. Based on the CNm-Model, scenarios of historic (1950), current (2009) and future (2070) land-uses for the Schunter catchment have been computed, showing the direct impact of different land-use situations to the maximum water storage capacity on a regional scale. Although the scenarios are just snapshots, not taking the temporal dimension of land-use changes into account, this method is useful to detect the impacts of land-use and landmanagement changes. This work examined a new method to derive the CNm by infiltration measurements in the field. The experimental determination of the CNm allows the update of existing curve numbers for special situations not covered in the handbook. Also, the application of the CN concept to German soils is now possible. The computation of the maximum potential storage capacity (Smax) is a useful measure to identify the impacts and to compare land-use and landmanagement scenarios. The impact of land-use and land-management changes on a catchment scale has been clearly demonstrated. Compared to the situation in 1950, in the year 2009 the maximum water storage capacity has decreased by 17 %. Projecting a similar land-use change of the past 60 years into the future will result in a loss of water storage capacity of 19 % compared to 1950. The model approach offers a useful tool for landscape analysis. Due to the manifold different landmanagement practices in agriculture, additional measurements should be performed in the future. Upon author request this thesis is available as printed version only.

Abstract ; The main intellectual and translation center in the Iberian Peninsula in the twelfth and thirteenth century, without a doubt, was the School of Toledo, or also called School of Translators of Toledo. Jourdain was one of the first to realize the importance of it, and he gave an account in the preliminary results of his research in 1819. Since then, references to the Toledo School, and, especially, disputes over its significance, existence and importance have not ceased, and so, there are no agreements on certain basic aspects, due above all to a mixture of intellectual, political, social and identity interests. Naturally, in this work I do not intend to solve these controversies, but only to offer some historical and semantic precisions regarding the meaning of the School of Toledo notion. So, first, I will contextualize the origin of the denomination School of Translators of Toledo; for this, I will analyze the germinal contributions of Jourdain and Rose; then, I will describe the reception of these notions in Renan and Menéndez Pelayo, and finally, I will offer some notes for the understanding of the notion of Toledo School, which will be focused on examining: (1) the importance of Toledo; (2) the existence of a formal school; and (3) the activity carried out in Toledo. ; Other ; {"references": ["Daniel de Morley (ca. 1175/1839). \u00abPrefatio ad librum de Naturis inferiorum et superiorum. Bib. Arundel. Mus. Brit. 377. Philosophia magistri Danielis de Merlai ad Iohannem Norwicensem episcopum\u00bb. En: Rara Mathematica; or, A Collection of Treatises on the Mathematics and Subjects Connected with Them, from ancient inedited manuscripts, editado por James Orchard Halliwell. Londres: J. 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La arquitectura de la vivienda bioclimática hace referencia a la relación que tiene el clima con la vida humana, a su vez el humano con la vivienda, lo anterior se tiene como pilar fundamental de la explicación del título de la investigación. De igual forma se tiene como pauta principal el clima en función del bienestar del habitar del ser humano como tal dentro de la vivienda y a su vez como el clima juega un rol fundamental dentro de la misma generando así el bienestar de la vivienda como pauta de percepción y como producto generar calidad de vida dentro de la misma, lo anterior visto desde una perspectiva distinta a la función, materialización tradicional o convencional, calidad material entre otros aspectos. Por lo tanto se puede decir que la arquitectura de la vivienda bioclimática en cierta medida funciona como una alternativa de composición arquitectónica en Colombia ya que el usuario busca una temperatura de ideal, cómoda o de bienestar que en muchos casos resulta artificial y producto de la "mecanización del clima" lo cual no traduce a mejorar su calidad de vida sino en satisfacer una necesidad que en la mayoría de los casos debería ser tenida en cuenta desde la composición arquitectónica de la vivienda. El clima y su relación directa con la percepción del mismo dentro del habitar de la vivienda diseñada tradicionalmente obedece a una tendencia funcionalista, política y económica, se han perdido valores cualitativos en función del sentir la vivienda y permanecer en ella como un elemento generador de calidad de vida. El mensaje que se quiere transmitir con el título es en cierta medida una forma de desvirtuar la utilización de arquitectura bioclimática como un concepto complejo o utópico, ajeno como solución alternativa relacionada con el tema de la composición y diseño arquitectónico de vivienda y la utilización del clima dentro de este proceso al que los usuarios que no están muy enterados del tema o no pueden acceder, a su vez fomentar la formulación de valores de juicio no solo para el usuario sino también para aquel que todavía tenga ese sentimiento de preocupación por el desarrollo climático y el bienestar tanto de los usuarios de vivienda como del planeta que en cierta medida quieran concientizarse y preocuparse sobre el tema el cual se convierte en una cuestión a la que en muchos casos se debe recurrir a un tercero para consultar sobre el tema por lo que en muchos casos el usuario se niega a la obtención de nuevo conocimiento y recurre a los sistemas tradicionales para climatizar de manera adecuada mas no ideal y correcta en su vivienda. Por ultimo vale la pena decir que objetivo del enunciado planteado en el titulo no es informar conocimiento para expertos en el tema ni mucho menos desvalorar el conocimiento de los mismos sino que el usuario conozca en cierta medida que existen distintas alternativas espaciales y técnicas que le permitan tener un criterio frente a la utilización del clima dentro de la vivienda mejor estructurado y fundamental partiendo de los recursos climáticos o particularidades del lugar donde se encuentra su vivienda. Este trabajo está enmarcado en la línea teórico práctica de la arquitectura bioclimática; se parte de la selección de los factores climáticos que permitan al ser humano vivir con calidad dentro de su hábitat – vivienda y a la misma arquitectura bioclimática tener contar con una malla que contiene pautas que permitan analizar la interacción de los factores climáticos en el diseño de las viviendas. Por lo anterior, el problema radica en la selección de factores básicos para el diseño bioclimático, el conocimiento a profundidad de sobre las características de la arquitectura bioclimática y las pautas para llegar a esta. El lector encontrará de acuerdo con lo anterior un documento que como primera medida analiza y refiere el planteamiento del problema, su definición, una pregunta de investigación; los objetivos de la investigación; su justificación y relevancia social junto con la implicación práctica, delimitación y limitaciones de la investigación. Luego en el Marco teórico, se plantean diversas teorías que llevan al conocimiento de la arquitectura bioclimática, sus características y antecedentes; se cierra con una línea del tiempo que se utiliza como marco conceptual y ha sido elaborada por el autor como referente histórico conceptual y visual de los cambios arquitectónicos y climáticos que se han dado a lo largo del tiempo en la vivienda humana. En el marco metodológico se describe el tipo de investigación cuyo enfoque es cualitativo e interpretativo; se pretendió definir los parámetros climáticos básicos, llegar al planteamiento de una propuesta de malla que facilitará el análisis de los proyectos presentados (taller de composición 1 parque tercer milenio en Bogotá, taller de composición 2 Camellón del comercio en Girardot y taller de composición 3 La Merced en Bogotá) así como ser la base para el análisis de proyectos construidos o por construir. La información analizada y los instrumento generados se obtuvieron en el transcurso de la Maestría en Arquitectura y Vivienda. Se continua con la presentación el procedimiento que se utilizó para realizar la recolección de información, se muestran los resultados obtenidos en el análisis de los tres proyectos se realiza una análisis de contraste y una matriz desde el análisis de información obtenida, luego se realiza una triangulación de resultados; y se procede a definir las conclusiones del trabajo . "Todo esfuerzo por entender y utilizar las variables, reglas, parámetros o como quisieran llamarlo de aquel juego magnifico y genial llamado arquitectura, todo esfuerzo traduce felicidad" H.G.R 2016 ; Abstract. The bioclimatic housing architecture refers to the relationship between climate and human life. And the human being with housing. This is a fundamental pillar of the explanation of the title of the research. Likewise, the main pattern is the climate in terms of the well-being of the human being. Not only as their habitat, but as such within the dwelling. Also how climate plays a fundamental role within it. In this way it generates well-being of the dwelling as a pattern of perception and as a product to generate quality of life within it. The previous seen from a different perspective to the function, traditional or conventional materialization, and material quality among other aspects. It can be said that the architecture of bioclimatic housing to some extent functions as an alternative architectural composition in Colombia. This is because the user is looking for an ideal, comfortable or well-being temperature that in many cases is artificial and a product of the mechanization of the climate. But this does not translate to improving their quality of life, but in satisfying a need. This in most cases should be taken into account from the architectural composition of the house. The climate and its direct relation with the perception of the same inside the habit of the traditionally designed dwelling obeys a functionalist, political and economic tendency. That is why we can say that qualitative values have been lost depending on the feeling of housing. And therefore remain in it as an element that generates quality of life. The message to be transmitted is to a certain extent a way of distorting the use of bioclimatic architecture as a complex or utopian concept. This is oblivious as an alternative solution related to the theme of architectural composition and design of housing. And in turn to the use of the climate within this process to which users who are not very aware of the issue or cannot access. This at the same time promotes the formulation of judgment values for the user. And also for those who still have that feeling of concern for climate development. Without forgetting the well-being of both the home users and the planet who, to a certain extent, want to become aware and worry about it. This becomes a matter to which in many cases a third should be consulted on the subject. That is why in many cases the user refuses to obtain new knowledge and resorts to traditional systems. All this to adequately climatize more not ideal and properly in your home. Finally it is worth saying that the purpose of the statement in the title is not to inform knowledge for experts in the subject. Neither devalue the knowledge of them. On the contrary, the user knows to some extent that there are different spatial and technical alternatives. Everything to allow you to have a criterion against the use of the climate inside the house. All this is more structured and fundamental based on the climatic resources or particularities of the place where your home is located. This work is framed in the practical theoretical line of bioclimatic architecture. It is part of the selection of climatic factors that allow the human being to live with quality within their habitat or their dwelling. And therefore the same bioclimatic architecture must have a mesh that contains several guidelines. This allows to analyze the interaction of the climatic factors in the design of the houses. Therefore, the problem lies in the selection of basic factors for bioclimatic design. Also in the in-depth knowledge of the characteristics of bioclimatic architecture. And of course the guidelines to reach this. The reader will find in agreement with the above a document that as first measure analyzes and refers the approach of the problem and its definition. At the same time as a research question. Also the objectives of the research. Its justification and social relevance along with the practical implication, delimitation and limitations of the investigation. Then in the theoretical framework, several theories are presented that lead to the knowledge of bioclimatic architecture. Its characteristics and background are established. In the end it closes with a timeline that is used as a conceptual framework. Everything has been elaborated by the author as conceptual reference conceptual-visual. All related to the architectural and climatic changes that have occurred over time in human housing. The methodological framework describes the type of research. Whose approach is qualitative and interpretive? It was intended to define the basic climatic parameters. Also arrive at the proposal of a mesh. With which to facilitate the analysis of the projects presented (composition workshop 1 parque tercer milenio in Bogotá, composition workshop 2 Camellón del comercio in Girardot and composition workshop 3 La Merced in Bogotá). This is to be the basis for the analysis of projects built or to be built. The information analyzed and the instruments generated were obtained during the course of the Master's Degree in Architecture and Housing. The procedure that was used to perform the information collection is then followed by the presentation. Then the results obtained in the analysis of the three projects are shown. A contrast analysis and a matrix are performed from the analysis of the obtained information. The next step is to triangulate results. And as a final point we proceed to define the conclusions of this document. ; Maestría

Now before Ukraine on the way to the formation of a stable civil society, along with the problem of national consolidation, is also a problem of adjustment of the normal interethnic relations, protection rights of ethnic and national minorities. In the conditions of the political system's development in Ukrainian society ethnic and national minorities began to engage in the sphere of political activity, seeking to take a rightful place in the process of public and cultural construction.In the multinational composition of Ukraine from time to time the problems of settlement the relations with separate ethnic or national groups, including Russian, Tatar, Romanian and others, are updated and exacerbated. The Polish minority is one of the most numerous national minorities living on the territory of our state. It is marked out by movement strengthening to the self-organization and national identification, and also formation as a subject of policy. There is so important, from our point of view, to research, on the one hand, a role and place of Ukraine in the realization of rights and satisfaction of needs of Poles in Ukraine, and with another – the participations of this minority in social and political processes of the state.Considering the relevance and insufficient studying of this problem, the author set to himself the purpose: 1) to analyze the main features and trends of development of the Polish minority in Ukraine; 2) to identify the key aspects of the participation of the Polish community in the Ukrainian social and political processes.The object of study is the Polish minority in Ukraine as an important part of the civil society and its political system, and the subject is the process of formation, functioning and development of the Polish minority as a subject of modern social and political life of Ukraine.There are 144 130 Poles in Ukraine today, according to the last population census in 2001. It makes 0,3 % from the total number of the population of the state. The Polish take the eighth place in terms of population among the ethnic minorities in Ukraine (after Russians, Belarusians, Moldovans, Crimean Tatars, Bulgarians, Hungarians and Romanians).The resettlement of Poles in Ukraine historically was connected primarily with the Right Bank and Eastern Galicia. The most numerous Polish ethnographic communities formed here. The most part of Polish lived in 2001 in Zhytomyr (49 046 persons; 3,5 % of the population), Khmelnytsky (23 005 persons; 1,6 % of the population) and Lvov (18 948 persons; 0,7 % of the population) regions.In general, the present social, political and religious situation in the environment of the Polish minority is stable and loyal to the Ukrainian government. Social and political moods of Ukrainian Poles naturally determine by both positive and negative sentiments.In January 1992, in Lvov at the Congress of Ukrainian Poles the Federation of the Polish Organizations in Ukraine (FPOU) was founded. It is led now by E. Khmelyova. This organization and the Union of Poles in Ukraine are today the most influential organizational structures of the Polish minority in Ukraine.In November 1994, in Kyiv the societies «Consent», «Solidarity», Cultural and Educational Association of Adam Mickiewicz, Kyiv branch of «The Union of Poles» decided to create «The Coordinating Council of Polish Organizations in Kyiv». Before all Polish non-governmental organizations in this country is to not only revive the local Polish national identity, but also comprehensively facilitate to the productive cultural relations between the two countries.In January 2000, the Polish Institute in Kyiv was established with the support of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was led by P. Kozakiewicz. Its tasks include: development and promotion of the image of Poland as a modern and democratic state, supporting the exchange of views, the elimination of negative stereotypes in the Ukrainian-Polish relations.The Polish NGOs practiced such forms of activity: teaching the Polish language; establishment and functioning of libraries and publishing activities; research activities; organizing places and cultural sites associated with the history of Poland; organization of cultural and educational activities; assistance in the process of developing national performances etc.There are five schools with education in Polish in Ukraine. These schools, which have about two thousand pupils, function with the support of Polish NGOs. There are four Polish schools in the Lvov region. Two of these schools are located in Lvov, and another two are in the area of Mostynsk. Another school with education in Polish functions in Ivano-Frankivsk. The curriculum at schools with education in Polish introduced the subjects of «History of Poland» and «Geography of Poland».As a subject Polish is studied in Ukraine by more than 4 thousand students, and more than 3 thousand students study Polish facultatively or in circles. Polish is also studied in numerous Ukrainian universities. At the end of 2012 the Polish organizations in Ukraine initiated to provide Polish the status of regional language in the area of Mostynsk. There are about four villages, which population is made by Poles.The western regions, where the most part of the Poles is living, are characterized by vigorous activity of the Polish community in the media sector. Thus, «The Polish word» (25 min.) in the broadcasting of TV «Zhytomyr» is weekly published. And «TRK Union TV» broadcasts daily for the Polish community on the proposal TV «Polonia».Lvov is the capital of the Polish Radio in Ukraine: «Radio Lwow» tells at a frequency of the radio station «The Independence» in different days. There is a program «Program katolicki». The Lvov city NGO «Polskie Towarzystwo Radiowe» works here. An important role in cross-cultural communication is played by Polish Radio for the abroad. There are news, press reviews, comments and reports of correspondents all over the world, interviews and debates, literary and music plots in the broadcasting.Periodicals of the Polish national minority are represented by the following groups of editions:- informational: «Głos Podola» (Kamenetz-Podolsk), «The Monitor of Volyn» (Lutsk), «Kurier Stanisławowski» and «Kurier Galicyjski» (Ivano-Frankivsk), «The Polish Newspaper» (Zhytomyr), «Dzyennik Kiyovski» (Kyiv);- public: «Lwowskie Spotkania» (Lvov), «Harcerz Kresow» (Lvov), «Wspolne Dzedzictwo» (Ternopol), «KOTWICA» (Mykolaiv);- cultural and educational: «The Mosaic of Berdichev» (Berdichev), «The Voice of Teacher» (Drogobych), «Krynica» (Kyiv);- religious: «The Shouts from Volyn» (Ostrog), «The Joy of Belief» (Lvov).Recently the joint Ukrainian-Polish projects in the media sphere, for example, the international interdisciplinary magazine «Ucrainica Polonica» and «The Ukrainian Polonistic» gain the increasing popularity.The status of the Polish national minority in Ukraine is qualitatively different from the status of other minorities, such as Roma or Crimean Tatars. After all, the Poles have their historical homeland, the neighboring of Ukrainian state – the Republic of Poland, from which a financial and institutional support comes. Therefore the self-determination process in Polish minority is quite successful and quick.The negative phenomenon for the image of Ukraine is the fact that it works and develops mainly by financing from the government of Poland. At the current time, for example, all meetings of the Polish community in Lvov Church and departures of children on rehabilitation and training to the Republic of Poland are financed also by Poland.Thus, according to the Association of Polish culture in Lvov, the local administration level of care to ensure the interests of the Polish community in Lvov region, compared with a sponsorship of the Republic of Poland, is zero. Over the last few years the Association of Polish culture received for its needs from Lvov regional state administration only about 2 thousand UAN. It forces the Ukrainian Poles to address on the constant help to the bureaucracy of Poland. In this aspect the chairman of the society E. Legovich opposed a situation with ensuring of requirements of the Ukrainian diaspora in the territory of the Republic of Poland. There are considerable budgetary funds for the satisfaction of its interests, which in accordance with the established procedure are transmitted through the Sejm to the communities of national minorities. So, 2 million zloty (about 5 million UAN) are annually allocated for the needs of the Ukrainian diaspora in Poland. Thus, E. Lehovych notes that the Polish community would be sufficient amount of 100 thousand UAN.However, speaking about the presence of members of the Polish community in the Ukrainian elected authorities and government agencies, we have to note a negative trend associated with the low levels of its representation. Thus, Ukraine has not any political party of the Polish national minority (for example, Hungarian and Russian communities have its own political parties, such as «The Democratic Party of Hungarians of Ukraine», «KMKS» Party of Hungarians of Ukraine, «The Russian block» and others. And these parties of the national minorities stood on elections to the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine). The Polish community is not represented in the Ukrainian parliament. There are two Poles among the 66 members of the regional council of Mostynsk (Lvov region). Poles make 20 % of the number of the residents of Mostynsk and 8 % of Poles are living in the area).Thus, we can conclude, that the Polish minority is one of the largest minorities in Ukraine, and it is on its way of the identification and a political subjektivation. Poles in Ukraine experienced the process of assimilation due to an extended stay in limited contacts with their historical homeland, as indicated the data from recent Ukrainian population census. However, a positive is the fact that today the Polish community in Ukraine will intensify its activities, key points of which are:1) preservation of cultural originality and development of cultural creativity;2) functioning of national and cultural, public organizations;3) contacts with the historical homeland and participation in interstate processes.The negative sides of the position of Polish national minority in Ukraine are:1) absence of political communities (political parties) for the representation the minority at official level;2) low level of participation in formation of power structures and representation at all levels of the power (from local to governmental and parliamentary).Also, despite the existence of numerous guarantees of the rights and protection of the freedoms of national minorities in Ukraine, approved at legislative level, the real practice shows an insufficient attention from the Ukrainian government to these questions. The existence and development of the Polish national minority in Ukraine is provided by the contacts with the historical homeland. It practically finances the diaspora. Therefore Ukraine have to accept a number of scientifically reasonable measures in order to the reforming, carried out in education, sciences, public administration and local government, don't entail to the restriction of the right of the minorities, including Polish, to get an education in a state language, to develop and protect own cultural and a creative heritage, to participate in formation of authorities and to have own representation in electoral bodies. ; Статья посвящена выявлению основных черт и тенденций развития польского национального меньшинства в Украине, а также определению ключевых аспектов участия поляков в украинских общественно-политических процессах. Сделана попытка показать уровень гражданской зрелости, политической культуры польской общины в Украине на современном этапе. Особое внимание уделено роли национальной политики украинского государства в процессе политической субъективации польского национального меньшинства. ; Статтю присвячено виявленню основних рис і тенденцій розвитку польської національної меншини в Україні, а також визначенню ключових аспектів участі поляків в українських суспільно-політичних процесах. Зроблено спробу показати рівень громадянської зрілості, політичної культури польської громади в Україні на сучасному етапі. Окрему увагу приділено ролі національної політики Української держави в процесі політичної суб'єктивації польської національної меншини.

У статті розглянуто розвиток вітчизняного законодавства у сфері економічних відносин, що викликає змістовні та структурні трансформації в системі права, а отже, і право, і законодавство є органічно пов'язаними. Як наслідок, виникають структурні новоутворення в системі законодавства. Установлено, що саме з урахуванням системності у визначенні основних та другорядних аспектів нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування економічної системи можна вести мову про високу ефективність правового регулювання світової економічної системи. Обґрунтовано, що незважаючи на складний ієрархічний характер відносин в економічній системі, що тяжіє до безперервної спеціалізації її складових, забезпечення взаємодії усіх елементів структури та вихід її функціонування на задані загальні параметри вимагає створення цілісної, взаємопов'язаної системи законодавчого та правового забезпечення в адекватному для такого масштабу проблеми форматі ; В статье проанализированы динамичное развитие законодательства в сфере экономических отношений, что вызывает содержательные и структурные трансформации в системе права, а, следовательно, и право, и законодательство являються органически связанными. Как следствие, возникают структурные новообразования в системе законодательства. Установлено, что именно с учетом системности в определении основных и второстепенных аспектов нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования экономической системы можно говорить о высокой эффективности правового регулирования мировой экономической системы. Обосновано, что несмотря на сложный иерархический характер отношений в экономической системе, которая тяготеет к непрерывной специализации ее составляющих, обеспечение взаимодействия всех элементов структуры и выход ее функционирования на заданные параметры требует создания целостной, взаимосвязанной структурной системы законодательного и правового обеспечения в адекватном для нее масштабе.// o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t="",o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "plaw.nlu.edu.ua"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e ; The article analyzes the dynamic development of legislation in the field of economic relations is matched to structural transformation in the law, and therefore the law, and legislation is organically linked. Аs a consequence, become structurally tumors in the legal system as a key emerging trend of improving its evolyutsinuvannya. In this sense, the normative legal provision of economic relations – is a complete standalone system, it is appropriate to determine as the only legal complex object. It is established that it is considering systematic in identifying major and minor aspects of the legal functioning of the economic system we can talk about high efficiency of legal regulation of the global economic system. Proved that despite the complex hierarchical nature of relations in the economic system that tends to continuing specialization of its components, ensuring the interaction of all elements of the structure and output of its operation to set general parameters requires an integrative, holistic, coherent with the legal system and legal support in adequate to the problem of this magnitude format.Now the scientific legal literature began to explore some categorical concepts, some substantive mechanisms for the enhancement of the conceptual level that can be regarded as approval beliefs and understanding of the separation of such jurisprudence as Economic Law of Ukraine [1–11]. The rich have paid attention to this issue and scientists of Kharkiv Donetsk schools of law, namely:, D. V. Zadyhaylo, D. D. Zadyhaylo, V. S. Milash, V. A. Ustymenko and others. Also, this perspective was a range of scientific interests of Kiev and Odessa schools, namely A. M. Vinnik, O. P. Podtserkovnyy, V. S. Shcherbina and others. In the former Soviet Union it examined: A. Alpatov, G. Velyanovskyy, G. Balsevich, M. Odintsov, V. Tambovtsev and others. However, scientists have not paid sufficient attention, and the very conceptual analysis of the category of «economic rights» as a separate legal phenomenon, that conceptual device was left outside the research, also identified and place of the term «economic law» in the legal space as required result Sociodynamics the mechanism legislation. However, usually focuses on individual fragments relationship functioning economic system creating categorical apparatus required for each. It should be added that often because of certain circumstances their views do not correspond to modern realities, because the dynamics of economic relations for ten years - big time. In view of the above it can be stated that the question of integrative processes of legislation on economic issues, the impact of international standards on the process of modernization of national economic legislation and determine their role in it as a whole are not defined.Consideration of this issue is caused by lack of conceptual apparatus legislation Ukraine of terms such as «economic system» and «economic law». In addition, the domestic legislation is not developed a mechanism to ensure the development of the latter, which operates successfully operates a modern legal systems of the world. Given this, we can state that the need to adapt Ukrainian legal doctrine to the European legal system is in the legal functioning of the economic system of our country, because the design of economic law as a science and discipline will solve the problem of mismatch economic and legal point of view, a holistic concept relations state of law and Economics. Emphasize that while this gap is not eliminated, that remain unsettled some legal aspects of the existing conceptual mechanism of legal support economic system is inadequate. In addition, should agree on the basic provisions of legislation on regulation of relevant relations with foreign countries, to achieve the level of economic indicators sought legal opinion and national general our country.The article is the rationale for the legislative and legal consolidation of the concept of «economic law» as a structural system neoplasms legislation and establishing a comprehensive nature of the institution as a whole legal complex object in the legal system and functional state's influence on him.Axiomatic is provision for a close dialectical relationship between economic and legal systems. Even in the XVIII century, Adam Smith (author of «The Wealth of Nations» and the phrase «life, liberty and property») pondered the economic consequences of the establishment «of mercantile laws». Along with Smith and other philosophers saw the relationship between economics and law. On this occasion expressed their thoughts and «father of communism» – Karl Marx. However, in today's issue of legal compliance to ensure economic relations existing forms of their implementation is complex and multifaceted and has a corresponding character. First of all, this is due to globalization of economic processes, the growing role and importance of public international economic law and private international law in the establishment and regulation of foreign economic relations, which play a large share in the global and national GDP. Thus, the emerging global economic right, which may be partly represented the concept LEX mercantoria. However, in internal legislation of the update is kompleknyh a number of industries that are designed to overcome industry barriers to legal provision of economic relations.The fact is of course that the relationships that are part of the category of «economic system» extremely ambitious and go beyond their own business, tax, natural resource and other sectors zakonodastva. An important factor marker while solving the problem of inter-sectoral barriers is the need for clear and understandable state of economic, including industrial or agricultural policy. Clearly, implementation of this policy occurs within the array of relations in the economic system, and therefore includes a comprehensive, systemic use of state-legal means of influencing the behavior of economic relations, in particular economic entities, local communities, employees, investors, consumers etc.Thus it is necessary a certain legal unification of the whole arsenal of different-legal instruments. Yes, this formulation of questions, answers attempt to form such a category as an economic right - the integrative result of independent development of its industry components.1. The economic system is a complex set of social relations of production that ensure economic activities on certain principles of coordination between the participants and subjects of economy in the dominant way to distribute the results of its operations, determining the degree of efficiency of the national economy. Thus, the economic system as a whole set of economic relations should be represented as a single object of legal regulation, because it is a sign of «whole nature» of the latter, which is inherent in any system, its operation logically implies the interaction of all elements by « self-regulation «of all systemically important ties between these elements and therefore obligatory to talk about the development of a single legal model for organizing economic relations in general.2. In modern terms of structuring the legal system and legislation are distributed between the individual sectors. Some of them are homogeneous by private law or public-legal nature, such as the civil law or the finance law, the while law others are complex the hospodarske law, the agricultural law, the environmental (natural resource) law. However, the structure of the said areas of the economic law as a separate category is not saying.3. The need for the formation of just such regulatory structural macro grounded weight increasing economic sphere as integral object of social management-for: 1) implementation of a unified economic policy; 2) the macroeconomic state regulation; 3) external influences on the national economy due to the implementation of the economic policy of other states, international economic organizations, the impact kon'yuktury foreign markets; 4) the need to implement (incentives) universal properties of the national economy as such. For example – providing innovative character of economic development, the introduction of alternative energy as the dominant source of energy, the implementation of restructuring the national economy, overcoming depression and economic degradation regions and so on.4. The possibility and feasibility of forming such superkompleksu the right to an economic right may also grounded bute legal and technical aspects of constitutional and legal support: 1) although fragmented, but overall the nature of the constitutional and legal regulation of economic relations; 2) fixation general legal economic values - objects of constitutional and legal regulation (economic security, constitutional economic order, economic diversity, etc.); 3) if the text of the Basic Law and the common values of the components overall, defining of competence load state authorities, in particular: a) the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on objects of legal regulation referred to in Article 92 of the Constitution of Ukraine, namely the use of natural resources, the exclusive ( maritime) economic zone and the continental shelf, the space exploration organization and operation of energy, transportation and communications, the legal regime of property rights, legal principles and guarantees of entrepreneurship, rules of competition and antitrust rules, principles of foreign relations, foreign trade, customs, etc. ; b) The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine - the functions of the Government to ensure the functioning of the economic system listed in Article 116 of the Constitution of Ukraine, for example, develops and implements national programs of economic, scientific, technical, social and cultural development of Ukraine, ensures equal conditions of development of all forms of ownership; carries out management of state property in accordance with law; c) general economic content and nature of the competence of certain public authorities such as the NBU, AMC and others.

De forma reciente se registran con más frecuencia denuncias, quejas y otras discusiones sobre la autoría de los artículos o sobre el uso no reconocido de contenidos de documentos por parte de otros autores (práctica conocida como plagio). Y aunque no es un tema nuevo y tampoco restringido al no reconocimiento de una idea, cada vez más se discuten los problemas asociados al uso no adecuado (ético) de la información, entre otros, a problemas en la recolección; el uso; análisis o discusión descuidada; con una mala intención o la falsificación de los datos (fraude); la autoría no merecida o la duplicación de trabajos, o partes de éstos, por parte de los mismos autores en las publicaciones científicas. Como lo han discutido Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López, (2014) y López-López, (2013, 2014) seguramente las dinámicas y presión de producción de conocimiento están fomentando a que este tipo de conductas sean frecuentes. Sin embargo, a pesar de que éstas problemáticas hoy son más evidentes al mismo tiempo son más controlables, por cuanto: en primer lugar la revolución tecnológica de información y comunicaciones hace hoy que la circulación de información y conocimiento sea más rápida, eficaz, veloz y de una cobertura casi que global, más, que en ningún otro momento de la historia. Con lo cual, es más fácil que una comunidad evidencie los usos de los contenidos y las formas de obtención y análisis de datos, así como la generación de formas de control. Por otro lado, hoy los editores están exigiendo con más frecuencia las bases de datos primarias, los archivos de datos e incluso los borradores y plan de análisis de los resultados antes de la recolección de los mismos. Además, las revistas hoy en día cuentan con equipos que se encargan no solo de verificar parte de la información suministrada, sino además de verificar los análisis derivados de los mismos. Y en tercer lugar, algunas revistas están empezando a exigir la aclaración de roles en la producción de los artículos (generación de las ideas, participación en la recolección de los datos, en el análisis de datos, en la escritura del manuscrito, la discusión del documento, en la revisión del texto, en la traducción realizada, entre muchos otros) esto bajo declaraciones de acuerdo entre los autores del documento (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). En segundo lugar los procesos editoriales de los contenidos científicos pasan por revisión por pares que en general esperamos no solo evalúen la pertinencia, el alcance, la fortaleza teórica y metodológica si no la originalidad de los contenidos y que además detecten los problemas en los datos y sus análisis. Aunque no es un proceso exhaustivo e infalible, anecdóticamente hemos podido detectar documentos publicados con datos similares gracias al proceso de revisión. Sin embargo, el crecimiento en la cantidad de artículos a evaluar ponen en riesgo el sistema de revisión e inevitablemente la posibilidad de detectar este tipo de conductas (Arns, 2014). En tercer lugar, los editores en el caso del plagio cuentan con softwares que permite identificar un mismo documento o parte de un escrito que se encuentra en la red y en cualquier caso, más temprano que tarde, para toda la comunidad se hará evidente que existe una alteración y falla por parte de un autor/investigador. Por esta razón, el riesgo de usar contenidos sin el debido reconocimiento es más alto, y quienes tomen el riesgo evidentemente tendrán que asumir las consecuencias que la comunidad y las leyes tienen contemplados para esta conducta. A pesar de estos elementos mencionados, los editores además debemos ser más explícitos con las exigencias éticas de la información. Esto lleva a sumarnos a esfuerzos a nivel mundial y, por ejemplo, asumir los lineamientos del Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Así, desde este número Universitas Psychologica hará un mayor énfasis en el uso de las guías del COPE y buscará promoverlas como guía de conducta de las publicaciones en la región en las diversas redes en las cuales participamos. Igualmente, desde hace algunos meses se ha hecho un énfasis en el reporte del aspecto ético de los artículos, siendo éste un criterio que en algunos casos puede convertirse en una causal de rechazo inmediato de los artículos. Ésta medida va más allá del tradicional "consentimiento informado" y requiere una evaluación ética de la investigación realizada, independientemente del campo de la psicología o el tipo de investigación. Los investigadores deberán ser conscientes del papel ético en la recolección, manejo, implicaciones y publicación de la información y la mejor forma de asegurar dicho proceso es si ha sido sometido a un comité institucional o estatal que respalda las acciones reportadas (Dolgin, 2014). La psicología en nuestra región está en creciente expansión y las dinámicas de producción están afectando nuestras comunidades y pueden estar generando practicas indeseables en el ámbito de las publicaciones y es necesario que provoquemos discusión los temas de la ética de las publicaciones y que busquemos más sistemas de control que permitan prevenir la publicación bajo condiciones anti éticas. Así mismo, evaluar el impacto y el costo que tiene para las publicaciones licales y en general de la región en desarrollo (económico, político, social y científico) la retractación y las malas prácticas asociadas a un desbordamiento en el afán de publicación. Sumarnos al control y prácticas internacionales globaliza nuestros procesos y aumenta el interés y la confianza de comunidades no hispanas en la producción de Iberoamérica. Wilson López López Editor ; In recent times, there has been an increase in the frequency with which reports, complaints, and other discussions about the authorship of articles or the unrecognized use of document contents by other authors (practice known as plagiarism), are being recoded. Although this is not a new topic nor restricted to the non-recognition of an idea, the problems associated with the improper use (ethical) of information are being increasingly discussed. For instance, topics of discussion are: problems in the collection, use, careless analysis or discussion of data with misconduct or falsification (fraud), and undeserved authorship or duplication of work, or parts thereof, by the same authors in scientific publications. As discussed by Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López (2014) and López-López (2013, 2014), it is probable that the dynamics and pressure of knowledge production are promoting the frequent occurrence of these behaviors. Nonetheless, although these problems are now more evident, they are at the same time more controllable. Firstly, the technological revolution in information and communications allows the information and knowledge to flow quicker, more efficiently, faster, and with an almost global coverage, now a days, as compared to any other time in history. Thus, it is easier for a community to evidence the use of contents as well as the ways of collecting and analyzing data, and generating forms of control. Moreover, publishers currently demand more often the primary databases, data files, and even the drafts and analysis plan of the results, before their collection1. In addition, journals count, now a day, with teams that are responsible not only for verifying some of the information provided, but also for verifying the analysis derived therefrom. Furthermore, some journals have started to demand clarification of the roles in the production of articles (generation of ideas, participation in data collection, analysis of data, writing of the manuscript, the discussion of document, the revision of the text, the translation performed, among many others). This is done under statements of agreement between the authors of the document (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). Secondly, throughout the editorial process, the scientific content undergoes peer review. In general, we expect that reviewers assess not only the relevance, scope, theoretical and methodological strength, but also the originality of the content. Moreover, reviewers may detect problems in data and in their analyses. Although this is not an exhaustive and infallible process, anecdotally, we have been able to detect some documents published with similar data, thanks to the review process. Nevertheless, the growth in the number of articles to assess can jeopardize the review system and consequently the possibility of detecting this type of conducts (Arns, 2014). Thirdly, in the case of plagiarism, publishers count with softwares that enable them to identify a document, or sections of a text, that are in the network. In any case, sooner or later, it will be evident for the whole community that an author / researcher has committed an alteration or a fault. For this reason, the risk of using content without due recognition is higher, and those who take the risk will evidently have to assume the consequences that the community and the law have stipulated to this type of behavior. Despite these items mentioned above, as editors we must be more explicit about the ethical requirements of information. This leads us to join worldwide efforts and assume, for instance, the guidelines of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Thus, from this number, Universitas Psychologica will place a greater emphasis on the use of the COPE guidelines, and will seek to promote them as a guide of conduct for the publications in the region, in the various networks in which we participate. Similarly, a few months ago an emphasis started to be made on the report of the ethical aspect of articles, since this is a criterion that, in some cases, can become grounds for immediate rejection of the articles. This measure goes beyond the traditional "informed consent" and requires an ethical review of the research that has been performed, regardless of the field of psychology or the type of research. Researchers should be aware of the ethical role in the collection, management, implications and publication of information. The best way to ensure this process is by subjecting it to an institutional or state committee, which supports the reported actions (Dolgin, 2014). Psychology, in our region, is having a rapid expansion. The dynamics of production are affecting our communities and may be generating undesirable practices in the field of publications. Therefore, it is necessary that we generate discussion of the ethical issues of publications, and that we seek for more control systems, capable of preventing publication under unethical conditions. Additionally, we should evaluate the impact and costs on local publications and overall on the region in development (economic, political, social and scientific), caused by the retraction and the malpractices associated with the rush to publish and the consequent overflow. By joining international control and practices, we will globalize our processes and will increase the interest and confidence of non-Hispanic communities in the production of Latin America. Wilson López López Editor