Suchergebnisse

ABSTRAKPenelitian ini mempunyai tujuan untuk mengetahui dampak dari pengungkapan secara dimensi individu laporan Islamic Corporate Social Responsibility (ICSR) terhadap profitabilitas dalam bank umum syariah. Dalam penelitian ini digunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan metode regresi data panel serta dengan bantuan alat statistik yaitu Eviews 9. Terdapat 10 bank umum syariah di Indonesia pada periode 2016-2020 yang dijadikan sebagai sampel dalam penelitian ini. Pengukuran pengungkapan ICSR dilakukan dengan teknik konten analisis berdasarkan item-item yang mendeskripsikan nilai-nilai Islam pada laporan tahunan bank sehingga menghasilkan indeks pengungkapan Index Social Reporting (ISR). Hasil dari pengujian hipotesis menunjukkan bahwa secara simultan pengungkapan ICSR berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap profitabilitas bank umum syariah. Secara parsial, pengungkapan dimensi per individu ICSR tidak mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan secara statistik antara dimensi individu ICSR terhadap profitabilitas, kecuali untuk 'komitmen terhadap karyawan', 'komitmen terhadap debitur', dan 'komitmen terhadap komunitas'.Kata Kunci: Pengungkapan, Islamic Corporate Social Responsibility, Profitabilitas, Bank Umum Syariah. ABSTRACTThis study aims to determine the impact of the disclosure of individual dimensions of Islamic Corporate Social Responsibility (ICSR) reports on profitability in Islamic commercial banks. In this study, a quantitative approach was used with the panel data regression method and with the help of a statistical tool, namely Eviews 9. There were 10 Islamic commercial banks in Indonesia in the 2016-2020 period which were used as samples in this study. The measurement of ICSR disclosure is carried out using content analysis techniques based on items that describe Islamic values in the bank's annual report so as to produce a disclosure index of the Index Social Reporting (ISR). The results of hypothesis testing indicate that simultaneously the disclosure of ICSR has a significant positive effect on the profitability of Islamic commercial banks. Partially, the disclosure of individual dimensions of ICSR does not have a statistically significant relationship between individual dimensions of ICSR on profitability, except for 'commitment to employees', 'commitment to debtors', and 'commitment to community'.Keywords: Disclosure, Islamic Corporate Social Responsibility, Profitability, Islamic Commercial Banks.DAFTAR PUSTAKAChariri, A., & Ghozali, I. (2007). Teori akuntansi. Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.Ahmad, N. N. N., & Sulaiman, M. (2004). Environment Disclosures in Malaysian Annual Reports: A Legitimacy Theory Perspective. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 14(1), 44-58. https://doi.org/10.1108/10569210480000173Aribi, Z. A., & Arun, T. (2015). Corporate social responsibility and Islamic financial institutions (IFIs): Management perceptions from IFIs in Bahrain. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(4), 785–794.Aribi, Z. A., & Gao, S. S. (2012). Narrative disclosure of corporate social responsibility on Islamic financial institutions. Managerial Auditing Journal, 27(2), 199–222.Arshad, R., Othman, S., & Othman, R. (2012). Islamic corporate social responsibility, corporate reputation and performance. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 64, 1070–1074.Asutay, M. (2007). Conceptualisation of the secondbest solution in overcoming the social failure of Islamic banking and finance: Examining the overpowering of homoislamicus by homoeco- nomicus. IIUM Journal of Economics and Management, 15(2), 167–195.Athanasoglou, P. P., Brissimis, S. N., & Delis, M. D. (2008). Bank- specific, industry-specific and macroeconomic determinants of bank profitability. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, 18, 121–136.Barnett, M. L., & Salomon, R. M. (2012). Does it pay to be really good? Addressing the shape of the relationship between social and financial performance. Strategic Management Journal, 33, 1304–1320.Baydoun, N., & Willet, R. (1997). Islam and accounting: Ethical issues in the presentation of financial information, accounting, commerce and finance. The Islamic Perspective, 1(1), 1-25.Beerli, et al. (2004). A model of customer loyalty in the retail banking market. European Journal of Marketing, vol. 38.Buckingham, G., Gregory, A., & Whittaker, J. (2011). Do markets value corporate social responsibility in the United Kingdom? Retrieved July 17, 2013 from http://business-school.exeter.ac.uk/ documents/papers/finance/2011/1107.pdf.Burke, L. and Logsdon, J. M. (1996). How Corporate Social Responsibility Pays Off. Long Range Planning, 29(4), 495-502. https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-6301(96)00041-6Bourke, P. (1999). Concentration and other determinants of bank profitability in Europe, North America and Australia. Journal of Banking & Finance, 13, 65–79.Chambers, C.L., & Day, R. (2009). The Banking sector and CSR: An unholy alliance. Financial Regulation International, 12(9), 1-7.Chronopoulos, D. K., Liu, H., McMillan, F. J., & Wilson, J. O. S. (2013). The dynamics of US bank profitability. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1972835.Demirguc-Kunt, A., & Huizinga, H. (2000). Financial structure and bank profitability. Policy Research Working Paper Series 2430. The World Bank.Donaldson, T., & Preston, L. E. (1995). The stakeholder theory of the corporation: Concepts, evidence, and implications. The Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 65–91.Evangelinos, K.I., Skouloudis, A., Nikolaou, I.E., & Filho, W. L. (2009). An analysis of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and sustainability reporting assessment in the Greek banking sector. In S.O. Idowu & W. L. Filho (Eds.), Professionals' perspectives of corporate social responsibility (pp. 157-177). London, New York: Springer.Farag, H., Mallin C., & Ow-Yong K. (2014). Corporate social responsibility and financial performance in Islamic banks. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 103(July 2014), S21-S38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.03.001.Fishman, R., Heal, G., & Nair, V. (2005). Corporate social responsibility: Doing well by doing good? Working Paper. University of Pennsylvania.Fitria, Soraya., & Hartanti. (2010). Islam dan tanggung jawab sosial: Studi perbandingan pengungkapan berdasarkan global reporting initiative indeks dan Islamic social reporting indeks. Simposium Nasional Akuntansi XIII, Purwokerto.Gao, L., & Zhang, J. (2013). Firms' earnings smoothing, corporate social responsibilities, and valuation. Journal of Corporate Finance, 32(June 2015), 108-127Ghozali, I. (2007). Manajemen risiko perbankan. Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.Gray, et al. (1995). Accounting and accountability: Changes and challenges in corporate social and environment reporting. London: Prentice Hall Europe.Haniffa, R., & Hudaib, M. (2007). Exploring the ethical identity of Islamic banks. Journal of Business Ethics, 76, 97–116.Hassan, M. K., Rashid, M., Imran, Md Y, & Shahid, A. I. (2010). Ethical gaps and market value in the Islamic banks of Bangladesh. Review of Islamic Economics, 14(1), 49–75.Hillman, A. J., & Keim, G. D. (2001). Shareholder value, stakeholder management, and social issues: What's the bottom line? Strategic Management Journal, 22, 125–139.Juliansyah, N. (2011). Metode penelitian kualitatif. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.Kapopoulos, P., & Lazaretou, S. (2007). Corporate ownership structure and firm performance: Evidence from Greek firms. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 15(2), 144–158.Kementrian Agama Republik Indonesia. (2021). Al Qur'an dan terjemahannya. Jakarta: Kemenag RI.Kosmidou, K. (2008). The determinants of banks' profits in Greece during the period of EU financial integration. Managerial Finance, 34(3), 146–159.Kuncoro, M. (2011). Metode kuantitatif. Yogyakarta: Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Manajemen YKPN.Maali, B., Casson, P., and Napier, C. (2013). Social reporting by Islamic banks. Abacus, 42(2): 266-289.Mahoney, L., & Roberts, R. W. (2007). Corporate social performance, financial performance and institutional ownership in Canadian firms. Accounting Forum, 31, 233–253.Mahoney, L., & Thorne, L. (2005). Corporate social responsibility and long-term compensation: Evidence from Canada. Journal of Business Ethics, 57(3), 241–253.Makni, R., Francoeur, C., & Bellavance, F. (2009). Causality between corporate social performance and financial performance: Evidence from Canadian firms. Journal of Business Ethics, 89, 409–422.Mallin, C., Farag, H., & Ow-Yong, K. (2014). Corporate social responsibility and financial performance in Islamic banks. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 103, S21–S38.Sulaiman, Maliah. (2010). Tessting A Model of Islamic Corporate financial Reports: Some Experimental Evidence. The International Islamic University Malaysia. IIUM Journal of Economics and Management, 9(2), 115-39.Marom, I. Y. (2006). Toward a unified theory of the CSP–CFP link. Journal of Business Ethics, 67, 191–200.McGuire, J. B., Sundgren, A., & Schneeweis, T. (2008). Corporate social responsibility and firm financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 21, 854–872.Meutia, Inten. (2010). Shariah enterprise theory sebagai dasar pengungkapan tanggung jawab sosial untuk bank syariah. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Malang: Universitas Brawijaya.Platonova, E., Asutay M., Dixon R., & Mohammad S. (2018). The impact of corporate social responsibility disclosure on financial performance: Evidence from the GCC Islamic banking sector. Journal Business Ethics, 151, 451-471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016- 3229-0.Prabowo, R. (2015). Analisis beban kerja untuk menentukan jumlah karyawan optimal (Studi kasus: PT. Sanjayatama Lestari Surabaya). Skripsi tidak diterbitkan. Surabaya: ITATS.Preston, L. E., & O'Bannon, D. P. (1995). The corporate social financial performance relationship: A typology and analysis. Business Society, 36, 419–429.Purwanto, A. (2011). Pengaruh tipe industri, ukuran perusahaan, profitabilitas, terhadap corporate social responsibility. Jurnal Akuntansi & Auditing, 8(1), 1-94.Roberts, R. W. (2012). Determinants of corporate social responsibility disclosure: An application of stakeholder theory. Accounting, Organisations and Society, 17(6), 595-612.Scholtens, B. (2009). Corporate social responsibility in the international banking industry. Journal of Business Ethics, 86, 159-175.Simpson, W. G., & Kohers, T. (2002). The link between corporate social and financial performance: Evidence from the banking industry. Journal of Business Ethics, 35, 97–109.Short, B. K. (1999). The relation between commercial bank profit rates and banking concentration in Canada, Western Europe and Japan. Journal of Banking and Finance, 3, 209–219.Steers, R., & Porter, L. W. (2011). Motivation and work behavior, New. York: Academic Press.Untung, H. B. (2008). Corporate social responsibility. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika.Waddock, S. A., & Graves, S. B. (1997). The corporate social performance—financial performance link. Strategic Management Journal, 18(4), 303–319.

EKONOMİK KRİZLERDE BORÇ DEFLASYONU OLGUSU, MÜCADELE YÖNTEMLERİ VE MAKRO & FİNANSAL DEĞİŞKENLER ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİLERİ Hamit ÖZMAN Doktora Tezi, İktisat Anabilim Dalı Tez Danışmanı: Doç. Dr. Abdullah ÖZDEMİR 2020, 319 sayfa 2008 yılında başlayan küresel kriz birçok ülkede önce resesyona sonra da deflasyonist eğilimlerin ortaya çıkmasına yol açmıştır. Uluslararası Finans Enstitüsü (IIF) 3Ç-2019 itibariyle toplam küresel borç düzeyinin tarihi rekor seviyede olduğuna dikkat çekerek toplam borç miktarının 253 trilyon $ (küresel milli gelirin % 322'si) olduğunu belirtmektedir. Borç deflasyonu teorisi, 1930'lu yılların başında I. Fisher tarafından ortaya konulan bir kavram olup sonrasında Minsky ve Bernanke tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Borç ve deflasyon kavramları, birbirlerini istikrarsızlaştıran iki olgu olup borç deflasyonu, fiyatlardaki düşüşün hem hanehalkının hem de şirketlerin reel kredi yükünü ve genele yayılması halinde kalıcı bir depresyon olasılığını arttıran bir spiral olarak tanımlanabilir. Bu çalışmanın temel konu kapsamını, borç deflasyonunun iktisadi düzen içindeki önemi, barındırdığı riskler, bu risklere yol açan etmenler, makroekonomik, finansal ve psikolojik etkileri, kurumlara düşen sorumluluklar, bu olgu ile mücadele kapsamındaki ilgili reflasyon politikaları oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmada ayrıca konu ile ilgili olarak seçilmiş ülke örneklerinden oluşan karşılaştırmalı makro ve ekonometrik analizler (ekonomik büyümeyi ve hanehalkı borçluluğunu etkileyen makro ve finansal değişkenler, borç türlerinin büyümeye etkileri) yapılmıştır. Buna göre, Avrupa'da borç krizine neden olan PIIGS (Portekiz, İspanya, İtalya, Yunanistan ve İrlanda) ülkelerinde, 2008 krizinden önceki dönemde kamu ve hanehalkı borçluluğunun ekonomik büyümeye etkisinin negatif, reel sektör borçluluğunun ise pozitif olduğu; enflasyon, kişibaşına düşen GSYİH, yatırım, tasarruf oranı ve dış ticaret açıklığı değişkenlerinin büyümeyi pozitif, faiz oranı vi değişkeninin ise negatif etkilediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. 2008 sonrasında ise tasarruf oranı ve dış ticaret açıklığı değişkenlerinin büyümeyi negatif etkilediği diğer değişkenlerin etki yönünde ise herhangi bir değişiklik olmadığı görülmüştür. Bunun yanı sıra, borç deflasyonu teorisinin öngördüğü üzere hanehalkı borçlanmasının, ekonomik büyümede kritik öneme sahip olmasından dolayı Türkiye ile ilgili olarak hanehalkı borçluluğunu etkileyen faktörlerin neler olduğu incelenmiş ve işsizlik oranı, faiz oranı, nüfus, kişibaşına düşen GSYİH, enflasyon, konut fiyatları ve tüketici güveninin borçluluğu belirleyen faktörler olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Son olarak borç türlerinin milli gelire etkisi Türkiye, ABD ve Japonya için incelenmiş, ülkeler bazında farklı etki yönleri belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın temel amaçlarından biri, ekonomide bazı unsurların, etkileşime girerek denge sağlamak yerine birbirlerinin etkilerini arttırarak dengesizliğin boyutunu büyütebildiklerini gösterebilmektir. Yaklaşık 200 yıllık tarihsel geçmişi ile klasik iktisadın ve sonrasında neo-klasiklerin verdiği temel mesaj "piyasalara güvenin" şeklinde olmuştur. Bu çalışma ile varlık balonu söz konusu iken aşırı borç yükü altında yaşanan bir ekonomik veya finansal sıkıntı sonrası, davranışsal iktisadın bazı teorik temellerinin de devreye girmesi ile piyasalarda yaşanan bir panik havasının, fiyatlama davranışları üzerinde yarattığı radikal ve rasyonel olmayan değişikliklere dikkat çekilerek, yaşanan bu sürecin makroekonomik, finansal ve psikolojik boyutunun ortaya konulması hedeflenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın literatüre katkısı, aşırı daralmalarda, uzun süreli resesyonlarda esas unsurun aşırı borçlanma olduğunu göstererek finansal piyasalarda yaşanan liberalizasyon ile beraber artan bu borç yükünün, ülkeleri ve hanehalklarını krizler karşısında giderek daha kırılgan bir düzeye getirdiğine dikkat çekmesi ve bu riskler karşısında finansal kırılganlığı azaltacak alternatif çözüm önerileri belirleyip bunları kamuoyunun ve ilgili kurumların dikkatine sunuyor olmasıdır. Çalışmanın bir diğer katkısı, "ekonomik birimler, kendileri için en iyi olan seçeneği gerçekleştirmeye çalıştıklarında, toplumsal refah da maksimize olur" şeklinde özetlenebilecek klasik iktisadın temel görüşlerinden biri olan "toplumsal fayda" teorisinin her durumda geçerli olmadığını borç deflasyonu olgusu ışığında göstermekte olmasıdır. Son olarak, bu çalışma ve bulgularının Türkiye gibi gelişmekte olan ülkeler ve gelişmiş ekonomilerde, borç deflasyonunu oluşturan koşullar altında daha fazla borç ödedikçe daha çok borçlu duruma gelinmesi şeklinde özetlenebilecek bir borç sarmalı riskinin öncelikle farkına varılmasına, sonrasında bu riske odaklanılmasına ve nihayetinde etkin bir borç, risk ve para yönetimi anlayışının oluşmasına katkı sunacağı düşünülmektedir. ; İÇİNDEKİLER KABUL VE ONAY SAYFASI.i BİLİMSEL ETİK BİLDİRİM SAYFASI.iv ÖZET .v ABSTRACT .vii ÖNSÖZ.ix İÇİNDEKİLER.x ŞEKİLLER DİZİNİ .xvi ÇİZELGELER/TABLOLAR DİZİNİ .xvii GRAFİKLER DİZİNİ.xix EKLER DİZİNİ .xxiii KISALTMALAR DİZİNİ .xxvi GİRİŞ.1 EKONOMİK KRİZ VE BORÇ DEFLASYONU.8 1.1. .Ekonomik Kriz Modelleri . 8 1.2. . Tarihte Yaşanmış Önemli Ekonomik Krizler (20 & 21.YY) . 12 1.2.1. . 1929 Büyük Buhran (Great Depression) . 13 1.2.2. .1973-74 Petrol Krizi . 14 1.2.3. . 1987 Wall Street (Black Monday) Krizi . 15 1.2.4. . 1992-93 ERM Krizi (Döviz Kuru Mekanizması Krizi) . 15 1.2.5. . 1994-95 Latin Amerika & Türkiye Krizi . 16 1.2.6. .1997-98 Güneydoğu Asya Krizi . 18 1.2.7. .1998-99 Rusya & Brezilya Krizi . 19 xi 1.2.8. . 2000-01 Türkiye & Arjantin Krizi . 20 1.2.9. .2008 Küresel Finans Krizi . 22 1.2.10. . 2010 Avrupa Borç Krizi . 24 1.3. .Deflasyon Olgusunun Tanımı, Tarihçesi ve Önemi . 25 1.3.1. .Tanımı . 25 1.3.2. .Önemi ve Tarihçesi . 30 1.4. .İktisatçıların Borç Deflasyonuna Bakış Açıları . 33 1.5. .Davranışsal İktisadın Teorideki Yeri . 40 1.5.1. Etkin Piyasa Hipotezi ve Eleştiriler.41 1.5.2. Asimetrik Bilgi Teorisi.42 1.5.3. Finansal İllüzyon .45 1.6. .Özel Sektör ve Kamu Borcu Arasındaki İlişki . 47 1.7. .Borç Deflasyonunu Ortaya Çıkaran Nedenler . 52 1.7.1. Finansal Sistemin Globalleşmesi.52 1.7.2. Deregülasyon .56 1.7.3. Düşen Risk Algısıyla Beraber Varlık Balonlarının Oluşması .58 1.7.4. Aşırı Borçlanma ve Spekülatif Yatırımlar.60 1.7.5. Finansal Kaynakların Önemli Ölçüde Dolarize Olması .61 1.8. .Borç Deflasyonunun Etkileri . 63 1.8.1. Reel Faiz Artışı.63 1.8.2. Piyasalarda Güven Kaybı ve Yatırımlarda Azalma.65 1.8.3. Bankacılık Sektöründe Bozulma .66 1.8.3.1. Sektörünün Ekonomilerdeki Yeri ve Önemi .67 1.8.3.2. Sektördeki Zayıflama ve Takipteki Kredilerde Artış.69 1.8.4. Borçlulardan Alacaklılara Doğru Servet Aktarımı.73 xii 1.8.5. Toplam Talepte Azalış (Marjinal Tüketim Eğilimlerine Bağlı Olarak) .75 1.8.6. Borçlanma Olanaklarının Azalması (Yüksek Borçluluk Nedeniyle) .76 1.8.7. Reel Sektördeki Ticari Karlarda Zayıflama.77 1.8.8. İstihdamda Bozulma .81 1.8.9. Gelir Dağılımında Bozulma.82 1.9. . Borç Deflasyonu Sürecinde Bankaların ve Kurumsal Aktörlerin Rolü . 84 1.9.1. Bankaların Rolü.85 1.9.2. Kredi Derecelendirme Kuruluşlarının Rolü.88 1.9.3. Düzenleyici ve Denetleyici Kurumların Rolü .90 REFLASYONİST PARA-MALİYE POLİTİKALARI VE YAPISAL DÜZENLEMELER .91 2.1. . Reflasyon Politikaları ve Önemi . 95 2.2. .Dünyada ve Türkiye'de Para ve Maliye Politikalarının Tarihsel Gelişimi . 101 2.2.1. Para ve Maliye Politikalarında Tarihsel Süreç - Dünya .102 2.2.2. Para ve Maliye Politikalarında Tarihsel Süreç - Türkiye .105 2.3. . Farklı İktisat Ekollerinin Para ve Maliye Politikalarına Yaklaşımı . 108 2.3.1. Döviz Kuru Sistemlerinde Para ve Maliye Politikalarının Etkinliği .111 2.3.1.1. Sabit Döviz Kuru.111 2.3.1.2. Esnek Döviz Kuru .112 2.3.2. Politika Uygulamalarında GOÜ ve Gelişmiş Ülke Ayrımı .113 2.3.3. Kriz Öncesi Uygulan Politikaların Makroekonomik Performansa Etkisi .122 2.4. . Para - Maliye Politikaları ve Yapısal Düzenlemeler . 125 2.4.1. Para Politikaları .125 2.4.1.1. Para Politikaları Amaçları ve Sınırlılıkları.126 2.4.1.2. Para Politikaları Araçları.127 2.4.1.2.1. Açık Piyasa İşlemleri (APİ).129 2.4.1.2.2. Miktarsal (Parasal) Genişleme .130 2.4.1.2.3. Kredi Genişlemesi .131 2.4.1.2.4. Zorunlu Karşılık Sistemi .132 2.4.1.2.5. Rezervlere Faiz Ödemesi.133 xiii 2.4.1.2.6. Reeskont Kredisi ve Reeskont Faiz Oranı.134 2.4.1.2.7. Kısa Vadeli Faiz Haddi ve Faiz Koridor Sistemi .135 2.4.1.2.8. Rezerv Opsiyon Mekanizması (ROM).139 2.4.1.2.9. Döviz Kuru Politikası (Alım-Satım Müdahaleleri ve Sterilizasyon) .140 2.4.1.2.10. İletişim Politikası.141 2.4.1.2.11. Selektif Kredi Politikası ( Firma ve Hanehalkı Kredileri Ayrımı).142 2.4.1.2.12. Diğer Politika Araçları.146 2.4.1.3. Merkez Bankası, Kaydi Para Üretimi ve Senyoraj.147 2.4.1.4. Küresel Piyasa Risk Göstergeleri .164 2.4.1.4.1. TED Marjı (TED Spread).164 2.4.1.4.2. Küresel Ekonomik Belirsizlik Endeksi .165 2.4.1.4.3. VIX (Volatilite) Endeksi .166 2.4.1.4.4. Markit Endeksi (Küresel Satın Alma Yön. Anketi) .167 2.4.1.4.5. Michigan Tüketici Güven Endeksi.167 2.4.1.4.6. JP Morgan EMBI+ Endeksi .168 2.4.1.4.7. Kredi Temerrüt Takas Primi ( CDS) .169 2.4.1.4.8. Reel Konut Fiyat Endeksi.170 2.4.2. Maliye Politikaları .170 2.4.2.1. Maliye Politikaları Amaçları ve Sınırlılıkları.171 2.4.2.2. Maliye Politikaları Araçları.171 2.4.2.2.1. Kamu Harcamaları.173 2.4.2.2.1.1. Mal ve Hizmet Alımına Yönelik Kamu Harcamaları .179 2.4.2.2.1.2. Kamu Transfer Harcamaları.181 2.4.2.2.2. Kamu Gelirleri Politikası.182 2.4.2.2.3. Borçlanma Politikası .187 2.4.2.3. Etkin Risk ve Borç Yönetimi .192 2.4.2.3.1. Risk Yönetimi.193 2.4.2.3.1.1. Kredi Riski.193 2.4.2.3.1.2. Likidite Riski .194 2.4.2.3.1.3. Piyasa Riski.200 2.4.2.3.1.4. Operasyonel Risk .204 2.4.2.3.2. Borç Yönetimi .204 2.4.2.3.2.1. Reel Faiz Haddi >Ekonomik Büyüme Durumunda .205 xiv 2.4.2.3.2.2. Farklı Büyüme Hızlarının Olduğu Durumda .206 2.4.2.3.2.3. Farklı Reel Faizlerin Olduğu Durumda .207 2.4.2.3.2.4. Belirli Senyoraj Geliri Durumunda.208 2.4.2.3.2.5. Faiz Dışı Açık > Senyoraj Geliri Durumunda .209 2.4.2.4. Borç Likiditasyonunda Ortodoks ve Heteredoks Politikalar.209 2.4.2.5. Borç Sınırı, Mali Kural ve Mali Politika Manevra Alanı.213 2.4.3. Yapısal Düzenlemeler.221 2.4.3.1. Mali Şeffaflık .222 2.4.3.2. Merkez Bankası Bağımsızlığı .225 2.4.3.2.1. Araç Bağımsızlığı ve Amaç Bağımsızlığı .226 2.4.3.2.2. Ekonomik Bağımsızlık .226 2.4.3.2.3. Politik Bağımsızlık .226 2.4.3.2.4. Yasal Bağımsızlık ve Pratikte Bağımsızlık .226 LİTERATÜR VE MAKRO - EKONOMETRİK ANALİZ.230 3.1 .Literatür İncelemesi . 230 3.1.1 Ekonomik Büyümeyi Etkileyen Faktörler.231 3.1.2 Hanehalkı Borçluluğunu Belirleyen Faktörler.245 3.1.3 Konu Hakkında Diğer Teorik ve Amprik Çalışmalar.249 3.2 .Karşılaştırmalı Makro Analiz . 269 3.2.1 Kriz Öncesi ve Sonrası Makro ile Finansal Değişkenlerin Gelişimi.269 3.3 .Ekonometrik Analiz . 276 3.3.1 Ekonomik Büyümeyi Etkileyen Makro ve Finansal Değişkenler ( PIIGS Ülkeleri) : Panel Veri Analizi.276 3.3.1.1 Ekonometrik Metodoloji: Panel Veri Analizi .277 3.3.1.2 Ampirik Bulgular.278 3.3.2 Türler Bazında Borç Analizi ve Hanehalkı Borçluluğunu Etkileyen Faktörler ( Türkiye, ABD ve Japonya).283 3.3.2.1 Ekonometrik Metodoloji: ARDL Sınır Testi Analizi & VAR Analizi .283 3.3.2.1.1 Türkiye .285 3.3.2.1.2 ABD.289 3.3.2.1.3 Japonya.290 3.3.2.2 Ampirik Bulgular.291 xv 3.3.2.2.1 Türkiye .291 3.3.2.2.1.1 Hanehalkı Borçluluğunu Etkileyen Faktörler (ARDL Sınır Testi Modeli) 292 3.3.2.2.1.2 Türler Bazında Borç Analizi (VAR Modeli, Etki-Tepki Fonksiyonu ve Varyans Ayrıştırma ) : Bulgular.295 3.3.2.2.2 ABD Borç Analizi: Bulgular.297 3.3.2.2.3 Japonya Borç Analizi: Bulgular .298 3.3.3 Türkiye Özel Sektör Borçluluğu Öngörü Projeksiyonu .301 3.3.3.1 Ekonometrik Metodoloji: ARIMA (Otoregresif Tümleşik Hareketli Ortalama) Modeli.301 3.3.3.2 Ampirik Bulgular.303 4. TARTIŞMA VE SONUÇ .304 5. KAYNAKLAR .320 6. EKLER .345 ÖZGEÇMİŞ . 386

This report presents results from a project that NOVA has carried out in collaboration with Fafo on behalf of the Norwegian State Housing Bank. The purpose of the project is to provide new and updated knowledge about developments that may affect the Norwegian housing market in the coming years. The analyses in this report are based primarily on the survey EU- SILC 2012, with attached register data from 2011. EU-SILC 2012 contains a module with questions about housing conditions. In addition, we have used register data on migrant workers' movement between municipalities in Norway, and information from the Population and Housing Census 2011. The report can be read as an update of previous reviews of the EU-SILC surveys in Norway with additional modules on housing conditions (1997, 2001, 2004 and 2007), but we also present new topics and analysis. We represent the results as an anthology with independent chapters. The introductory chapter provides a context for the findings in the rest of the report, by presenting figures for the number of dwellings in Norway, some aspects of housing policy including the emergence of social housing as a priority in welfare policy, and some figures on population trends. It is emphasized in the chapter that the population in Norway is increasing, much as a result of labour migration. Consequently, the number of occupied dwellings and housing prices increase. At the same time the population ages, which increases the demand for universal access in housing. The theme of the first article is housing standards and accessibility in 2012. A main conclusion from this review is that the housing stock changes slowly, so that the results resemble those from the similar review of EU-SILC 2007. By far the most common type of house in Norway is single dwelling, while just under a quarter of all households live in an apartment or townhouse. There is also stability in housing sizes. Most respondents (58 per cent) live in homes with three to five rooms (the figure in 2007 was 60 per cent). There has been no increase in the number of households living in small homes, just under 20 percent of households live in dwellings with one or two rooms. 7 per cent of Norwegian households are overcrowded by the broadest objective definition, and a clear majority says that their residence has "just the right size". Moving is far more common among the youngest age groups, and is also common among people with short periods of residence in Norway. This indicates a pattern where young adult move several times before they eventually find a home to grow old in. Relatively few say they are experiencing problems with their housing or immediate neighbourhood. The problem mentioned most often is noise: 12 percent report that they experience noise from road traffic or neighbours while indoors in their own home. The final issue discussed in this chapter is housing conditions for people with disabilities. About a third of all homes have no physical barriers that prevent disabled people from entering, and 38 percent have all rooms located on the entry level. This is a higher proportion than what was found in 2007. In the second article, the topic is housing expenses. High relative housing expenses is defined as housing expenses in excess of 25 percent of total income. Comparison with data from the late 1990s suggests that the proportions experiencing this problem are very stable over time. Young households have high housing expenses, while older households have low housing expenses. Furthermore, it is especially singles and single parents who have high relative housing expenses. We find high relative housing expenses among households living in Oslo and Akershus, compared to the rest of the country. These patterns were also found in 2007. The chapter also presents some figures for indebtedness. We take the recommendation that the debt should not exceed three times the total income as a starting point. We see that the proportion of households with a mortgage of more than 3 times their gross income decreases with age. Among 20 -year-olds more than every fourth household have such debt burdens, while the same is true for just fewer than one in five households among 30 year olds. Article three is about the rental market. Most Norwegians visit the rental market one or more times during their life. The rental market is often used in transitional periods of life, such as in education, periods with temporary employment, and immediately after family breakup. The rental sector is also important for those who do not want to, or for various reasons are unable to, buy their own home. The typical tenant is a young and single person with low incomes. Renting contracts are largely short term. Tenants tend to have short residence time and many have plans to move. The probability of remaining a tenant however increases with increasing time in the rental market. The Norwegian rental market is dominated by private hire, and there are relatively few institutional landlords. This gives the Norwegian rental market an informal character with a lack of transparency, which can make it difficult for vulnerable groups to get a foothold in this market. The informal structure of the rental sector also makes it challenging to implement legal regulations. In the fourth article we look specifically at older households' housing situation. The elderly are less mobile in the housing market than younger people. Despite this, more than every tenth household where the reference person is 67 years or older changed residence in the last five years before the interview. The proportions that have moved in old age can still be higher, since five years is a relatively short measurement period - especially for the oldest old. Many seniors live in a home that is specially adapted for a household member with disabilities, but there is also a significant proportion who does not live in such housing and who feel they ought to have a special arrangement of the dwelling. This is reported by approximately every tenth household where the reference person is 67 years or older. In this study, we use two definitions of vulnerability in the housing market: (1) Individuals and households who have low income and live in unsuitable dwellings, and (2) those who are disadvantaged by definition 1, or have low incomes and at the same time high relative housing costs. Their situation is the topic of the fifth article. We find that 7 per cent of the respondents are vulnerable by definition 1, while 12 per cent come across as vulnerable if we rely on definition 2. Whichever of these two definitions we rely on, the same groups come across as most likely to be vulnerable: those most at risk are young adults and single parents, and there is also a high percentage of tenants among the vulnerable. In the sixth and final article, we seek to identify mobility patterns among immigrants in Norway. This article uses a different data set, namely registry data on all residents in Norway. We measure moving as change of municipality of residence from one year to another, which means that we only look at the moving patterns of people who have stayed in Norway for at least two consecutive years in the period under investigation. The total number of transfers between municipalities was slightly lower in 2009-2010 than in 2005-2006. This is mainly because Norwegians moved less. Immigrants' higher proportion of movements, and the fact that the proportion of immigrants had increased in the period, explains why the number of relocations were not further reduced. In 2006, the immigrants were responsible for 16 percent of all relocations, and this percentage increased to 22 percent in 2010. All immigrant groups are more likely to move between municipalities in their first years in Norway. Immigrants from countries in Asia and Africa have the highest propensity to move to Oslo and Akershus, while migrant workers from the European Economic Area also move to other regional centres in Rogaland ( Stavanger), Hordaland (Bergen ) or Sør-Trøndelag (Trondheim). The main results of the articles are summarized in the final chapter. The results are discussed in light of the social changes that are presented in the introductory chapter, and it is pointed out how the results can be seen in the context of policy making. Major changes in the size and composition of the population affect the demand for housing. Which dwellings are available, and the price levels in the housing market, influences the expectations and opportunities individual households have on this market. A central challenge in housing policies is to ascertain to what extent the housing market balances supply and demand in a satisfactory manner so that measures to correct undesirable outcomes may be applied. Analyses of living conditions, including housing conditions, based on surveys such as EU-SILC is an important source of information in this context, but should be complemented and combined with information from other data sources. Surveys often underestimate the number of disadvantaged people in the housing market, and thus provide unreliable information about the processes that lead into, and out of, difficult positions with regard to housing. ; Tidligere har bolig vært tema for Statistisk sentralbyrås levekårsundersøkelser i 1997, 2001, 2004 og 2007. I 2012 ble boforhold innlemmet som en nasjonal modul i EU-SILC. På oppdrag fra Husbanken har NOVA i samarbeid med Fafo analysert data fra sistnevnte undersøkelse. Rapporten gir en tilstandsrapport om boforholdene i Norge i 2012, og kan leses som en oppdatering av lignende studier som NOVA har gjennomført på bakgrunn levekårsanalysene tidligere. Denne rapporten inneholder artikler om boligstandard og tilgjengelighet, boutgifter og boutgiftsbelastning, leiemarkedet, eldres boligsituasjon, vanskeligstiltes situasjon på boligmarkedet og flyttemønstre blant arbeidsinnvandrere. Artiklene er skrevet av Anne Hege Strand, Anne Skevik Grødem, Roy A. Nielsen og Hans Christian Sandlie.

The article is an extended and revised version of the report published in April 2020 in Russian: E. Puchkov, N. Knyaginina, I. Novoselov, Sz. Jankiewicz, Covid-19 and GIA-2020: strategies for conducting final exams in foreign and Russian universities // Modern Education Analytics. Express edition No. 4. April 20, 2020. URL: https://ioe.hse.ru/mirror/pubs/share/359132748 (15.06.2020). ; COVID-19 pandemic has changed the functioning of all levels of education systems. Schools and universities had to quickly adapt and change their procedures according to conditions created by the epidemic. Long perceived as additional and backup solutions, different distance learning technologies, particularly internet-based, became the main solution for the continuation of education on all levels. Several issues have stood out particularly with this seismic change – one of those is the issue of final examinations in universities. This issue is especially crucial in Russia, where the successful passing of a state final examination, which combines majority of the topics from the study program, is a prerequisite for graduation. This paper aims to analyze and present different strategies which were used for final university examinations in different countries and universities of the world and compare it with the Russian practices. ; Evgenii Puchkov: epuchkov@hse.ru ; Nadezhda Knyaginina: nknyaginina@hse.ru ; Ivan Novoselov: inovoselov@hse.ru ; Szymon Jankiewicz: syankevich@hse.ru ; Evgenii Puchkov – analityk Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja), doktorant w Instytucie Edukacji Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jego zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia relacji pomiędzy polityką edukacyjną a prawodawstwem w zakresie zrównoważonego rozwoju, umiędzynarodowienie edukacji oraz badania porównawcze prawodawstwa edukacyjnego. ; Evgenii Puchkov – Analyst of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia, Ph.D. student in the Institute of Education of Higher School of Economics. His research interests include issues of relationship between educational policy and legislation with sustainable development, internationalization of education and comparative study of educational legislation. ; Nadezhda Knyaginina – pracownik badawczy Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji w Wyższej Szkole Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja). Posiada tytuł specjalisty w dziedzinie prawa na Wydziale Prawa Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jej zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia prawa edukacyjnego, praw językowych, polityki językowej w działalności edukacyjnej, federalizmu w edukacji, jakości edukacji, standardów edukacyjnych i regulacji zapewniania jakości edukacji. ; Nadezhda Knyaginina – Research Fellow of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscowholding Specialist Degree in Law from Faculty of Law of Higher School of Economics. Her research interests include issues of educational law, language rights, language policy in educational activities, federalism in education, quality of education, education standards and regulation of quality assurance of education. ; Ivan Novoselov – asystent badawczy Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji w Wyższej Szkole Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja). Posiada tytuł magistra prawa finansowego, podatkowego i celnego, uzyskany na Wydziale Prawa Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jego zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia z zakresu prawa edukacyjnego, finansowego i budżetowego oraz studiów porównawczych z zakresu prawa edukacyjnego i finansowego. ; Ivan Novoselov – Research Assistant of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russiaholding Master Degree in Financial, Tax and Customs Law from Faculty of Law of Higher School of Economics. His research interests include issues of educational law, financial and budgetary law and comparative studies of educational and financial legislation. ; Szymon Jankiewicz – doktor, prodziekan Wydziału Prawa, kierownik Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji w Wyższej Szkole Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja), doktor (kandydat nauk) prawa finansowego Instytutu Prawodawstwa i Prawa Porównawczego przy Rządzie Federacji Rosyjskiej oraz magister prawa finansowego, podatkowego i celnego na Wydziale Prawa Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jego zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia prawa edukacyjnego, prawa finansowego, regulacji finansowych i budżetowych działalności edukacyjnej i instytucji edukacyjnych oraz regulacji zapewniania jakości kształcenia. ; Szymon Jankiewicz – Ph.D. Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Law, Head of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia with Ph.D. (Candidate of Sciences) in Financial Law from The Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation as well as Master Degree in Financial, Tax and Customs Law from Faculty of Law of Higher School of Economics. His research interests include issues of educational law, financial law, financial and budgetary regulation of educational activities and educational institutions and regulation of quality assurance of education. ; Evgenii Puchkov - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; Nadezhda Knyaginina - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; Ivan Novoselov - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; Szymon Jankiewicz - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; 7News. Coronavirus in Australia: Several universities won't record students' failed units during crisis, https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/health-wellbeing/coronavirus-in-australia-several-universities-wont-record-students-failed-units-during-crisis-c-949545. ; Bristol University. Assessment Options When Teaching Online. https://www.bristol.ac.uk/digital-education/guides/coronavirus/assessment/. ; Catholic University of Leuven. Exams 2020 General Guidelines https://admin.kuleuven.be/td/examens2020/en/general-guidelines. ; Examus, https://ru.examus.net. ; Federal Law No. 273-FZ of December 29, 2012 "On Education in the Russian Federation". ; Free University of Brussels. Back to Campus, https://www.vub.be/en/backtocampus#home. ; Harvard Crimson, Harvard Courses Turn to Monitored Exams, Open-Book Assessments, and Faith in Students As Classes Move Online, https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2020/3/27/harvard-coronavirus-online-exams-academic-integrity/. ; Harvard Crimson. Harvard Law School Shifts to Mandatory Credit-Fail Grading System. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2020/3/21/harvard-coronavirus-law-school-credit-fail/. ; HSE University. Proctoring, https://elearning.hse.ru/proctoring2/. ; Interfax. Moscow State University will hold State Exams and Theses Defense Online, https://www.interfax.ru/russia/703559. ; Interfax. State Exams Were Cancelled in Several Ural Federal University Institutes, https://www.interfax-russia. ru/ural/main/gosekzameny-otmenili-v-ryade-institutov-urfu. ; ITMO University. Proctoring: How to Pass Exams Online, https://de.ifmo.ru/?node=news&id=2161. ; Izvestia. Ministry of Science and Higher Education Affirms the Right of Universities to Cancel State Exams, https://iz.ru/1000499/2020–04-16/v-minobrnauki-zaiavili-o-prave-vuzov-rossii-otkazatsia-ot-gosekzamenov. ; Kommersant. «Hands of the Student Should be Visible on the Screen»: Kommersant Learned How Exam Session Will be Handled during Quarantine, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4314144. ; Law.com. Remaining 'T-14' Law Schools Yield to Mandatory Pass/Fail Pressure https://www.law.com/2020/03/31/with-passfail-now-the-norm-outlier-law-schools-face-student-backlash/?slreturn=20200525050454. ; Law.com. With Pass/Fail Now the Norm, Outlier Law Schools Face Student Backlash, https://www.law.com/2020/03/31/with-passfail-now-the-norm-outlier-law-schools-face-student-backlash/. ; Mare. How are we going to test (and do we let Big Brother watch)? https://www.mareonline.nl/en/background/how-are-we-going-to-test-and-do-we-let-big-brother-watch/. ; Nesavisimaya Gazeta, Students have rallied against proctoring, citing privacy concerns, https://www.ng.ru/content/articles/681938/. ; Order of Ministry of Higher Education and Science of Russian Federation № 648 of 8.05.2020 "On the activities of organizations subordinated to Ministry of Higher Education and Science of Russian Federation in the context of preventing the spread of a novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19) in the Russian Federation". ; Orgeon State University Exam Proctoring, https://ecampus.oregonstate.edu/services/proctoring. ; Oxford University. Open-Book Exams, https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/exams/open-book?wssl=1. ; Pervoe Studenheskoye Agesntvo. 700 students of HSE couldn't pass online exams due to hacker attack, https://pervoe.online/news/student-v-vuze/8642-ddos_ataka_hse/. ; Procedures of Conducting Final State Attestation in Bachelor, Spetsialist and Master Higher Education Programs (adopted by Order of Ministry of Higher Education and Science №636 of 29 June 2015). ; ProctorEdu Technology, https://proctoredu.ru. ; ProctorFree Solutions for Education, https://proctorfree.com/. ; ProctorU Services, https://www.proctoru.com/services/ ; QS. Italian Institutions Reveal Their Coronavirus Insights: An Interview Series, https://www.qs.com/italian-institutions-reveal-their-coronavirus-insights-an-interview-series. ; TASS. Financial University Cancelled State Exams Due to Coronavirus, https://tass.ru/obschestvo/8244377. ; The Guardian. Medical students take final exams online for first time, despite student concern, https://www.theguardian.com/education/2020/mar/22/coronavirus-forces-medical-students-sit-final-exams-online. ; The Guardian. UK students' union calls on universities to cancel summer exams, https://www.theguardian.com/education/2020/mar/31/uk-students-union-calls-on-universities-to-cancel-summer-exams. ; The New Paper. NUS students allegedly abuse Covid-19 measures to cheat on exam, https://www.tnp.sg/news/singapore/nus-students-allegedly-abuse-covid-19-measures-cheat-exam. ; The New York Times. With Coronavirus Disrupting College, Should Every Student Pass? https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/28/us/coronavirus-college-pass-fail.html. ; The New York Times. Keeping Online Testing Honest? Or an Orwellian Overreach? https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/10/us/online-testing-cheating-universities-coronavirus.html. ; The Verge. Exam Anxiety: How Remote Test-Proctoring Is Creeping Students Out, https://www.theverge.com/2020/4/29/21232777/examity-remote-test-proctoring-online-class-education. ; Times Higher Education. Asian universities face online assessment hurdles in virus crisis, https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/asian-universities-face-online-assessment-hurdles-virus-crisis. ; University of Alberta. COVID-19 (novel Coronavirus) Information, https://www.ualberta.ca/covid-19/index.html. ; University of Bologna, Online lessons and exams, https://www.unibo.it/en/services-and-opportunities/online-services/online-services-for-students-1/lessons-and-exams-online. ; University of Houston Proctoring Services, https://uh.edu/online/students/proctoring-students.php. ; University of Stirling. COVID-19 (coronavirus) FAQs for students on assessment and exams, https://www.stir.ac.uk/coronavirus/covid-19-coronavirus-faqs-for-students-on-assessment-and-exams/. ; University of Warwick. Examinations, https://warwick.ac.uk/services/academicoffice/examinations/. ; 25 ; 4 ; 257 ; 271

The contribution aims to illustrate the evolution of national and European legislation on the subject of the protection of unaccompanied minors; the effectiveness of the Italian discipline and the French one in a comparative perspective as well as the European strategy are the core of the analysis. The adoption of the Italian Law 7 Aprile 2017 n. 47, so called Zampa Law, represents an important step towards the recognition of a complete protection of migrant child in the national background; the study on the enforcement of the reform will allow the evaluation of the Italian legal system's efficiency. On the other hand, I will analyze the remedies offered by the French system; in this context the regulation concerning children in civil code gets along with different legal source. Particular attention will be paid to the state of art in the European context looking for common rules or guidelines. The analysis of national and European results will be the objective of some conclusive remarks. ; cinzia.valente@unimore.it ; Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy) ; Aït Ahmed L., Gallant E., Meur H., Quelle protection pour les mineurs non accompagnés? Actes du colloque du 21 juin 2018, 2019. ; Albano F., Minori stranieri non accompagnati nella prospettiva dell'autorità garante per l'infanzia e l'adolescenza, "Minorigiustizia" 2017, 3. ; Alikhan S., Floor M., Guardianship Provision Systems for Unaccompanied and Separated Children Seeking Asylum in Europe: Initial Mapping, Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Bureau for Europe, 2007 in: http://www.un hcr.org.ua/img/uploads/docs/ Guardianship%20 Procedures%20euro-pe_2007_ENG.doc ; Attias D, Khaiat L., Les enfants non accompagnes. L'Etat du droit et des bonnes pratiques en France, "Societè de legislation comparèee" 2017, 11. ; Barone L., L'accoglienza dei minori stranieri non accompagnati: tra norma giuridica e agire sociale, 2016. ; Bertozzi R., Le politiche sociali per i minori stranieri non accompagnati: pratiche e modelli locali in Italia, Milano 2005. ; Bruno T., I minori stranieri non accompagnati. Analisi ragionata della L. 7 aprile 2017, n. 47, Piacenza 2017. ; Candia G., Carchedi F., Giannotta F., Tarzia G., Minori erranti. L'accoglienza ed i percorsi di protezione, Roma 2009. ; Cascone C., Brevi riflessioni in merito alla legge n. 47/2017 (Disposizioni in materia di misure di protezione dei minori stranieri non accompagnati): luci e ombre, "Diritto, Immigrazione e Cittadinanza" 2017, 2, p. 1. ; Cittadini in crescita, 3-4/, 2002, disponibile al seguente indirizzo: http://www.minoriefamiglia.it/download/moyersoen-tarzia.pdf. ; CNAPE, Rapport. Accompagner & accueillir les mineurs non accompagnes. Au regard de leur besoins, 2018, https://www.infomie.net/IMG/pdf/1_cnape_rapport_accompagnement_accueil_mna_2018.pdf. ; Communication from the European Commission, COM(2006) 367 final, Towards an EU Strategy on the Rights of the Child, Brussels 4 July 2006. ; Conseil de l'Europe, Determination de l'age: politiques, procedures et pratiques dese tats members du Conseil de l'Europe respectueues des droit de l'enfant dans le contexte de la migration, 2017, https://rm.coe.int/determination-de-l-age-politiques-procedures-et-pratiques-des-etats-me/168074b724. ; Cordiano A., Diritti sociali e diritto privato: il caso dei minori stranieri non accompagnati fra rete di protezione e complessi intrecci istituzionali, [in:] Minori e immigrazione: quali diritti?, C. Fratea, I. Quaranti, Napoli 2015. ; Council of Europe, Family reunification for refugee and migrant children. Standards and promising practices, 2020. ; Cukani E., Soggetti vulnerabili e tutela dei diritti: il caso dei minori stranieri non accompagnati, "Consulta on line", 2019, 2. ; Bonnet D., Delanoe D., Senovilla D., Vuattoux A., Carayon L., Mattiussi J., Przibyl S., Zucconi F., Jeunes en migration, entre defiace et protection, 17 mars 2020. ; De Robbio C., Stranieri e diritto: immigrazione, diritti umani e misure di prevenzione; soggiorno e permanenza nello Stato; lavoro, famiglia e tutela dei minori; reati e trattamento processuale; procedure di espulsione, Pisa 2018. ; Drigo C., La tutela legale: l'esperienza dell'Ufficio del Pubblico Tutore del Veneto, "Peace Human Rights" 2009, 2. ; Eba Nguema N., La protection des mineurs migrants non accompagnè en Europe, "La Revue des droits de l'Homme" 2015, 7. ; EMN (European Migration Network), Policies, Practices and Data on Unaccompanied Minors in the EU Member States and Norway, Synthesis Report, 2015 in https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/publications/policies-practices-and-data-unaccompanied-minors-eu-member-states-and-norway_en. ; European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, The protection of children in migration, COM(2017) 211 final, Brussels, 12 April 2017. ; European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Guardianship system for children deprived of parental care in the European Union. With a particular focus on the role in responding to child traficking, Publications Office of the European Union, 2015. ; European Union Agency for Fundamental, Rights, Recolating unaccompined children: applying good practices to future schemes, Publications Office of the European Union, 2020. ; Farrow C., A review of European research findings on children in migration, [in:] Conference Report: Focus on Children in Migration – From a European Research and Method Perspective, S. Swärd, L. Bruun, Warsaw 2007. ; Farrugia R., Touzenis K., The international protection of unaccompanied and separated migrant and asylum seeking children in Europe, [in:] Migrationg alone. Unaccompanied and separated. Children's migration to Europe, J. Kanics, D. Senovilla Hernández, K. Touzenis, UNESCO 2010. ; Fulchiron H., La circulation des personnes et de leur statut dans un monde globalisé, 2019. ; Fulchiron H., Malaurie P., Droit de la famille, 7 ed., Paris 2020. ; Gelblat A., Medard Inghilterra R., L'interet superieur de l'enfant: radiographie d'une exigence constitutionelle, "La Reveu des droit de l'homme" 2019, 19. ; Giovannetti M., l'accoglienza incompiuta. Le politiche dei comuni italiani verso un sistema di protezione nazionale per i minori stranieri non accompagnati, Bologna 2008. ; Giovannetti M., Percorsi di accoglienza e di esclusione dei minori non accompagnati, "Diritto, Immigrazione e cittadinanza" 2008, 2. ; Guarnier T., La condizione giuridica dei minori stranieri non accompagnati in Italia: inadeguatezze e rischi del sistema di accoglienza, [in:] Temi attuali sui diritti sociali in un'ottica multidisciplinare, M. C. De Cicco, A. Latino, Napoli 2016. ; House of Lords, European Union Committee, Children in Crisis: Unaccompanied Migrant Children in the EU, 2016, in https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/34/34.pdf. ; Julien-Laferriere F., Droit des etrangers, Paris 2000. ; Kanics J., Senovilla Hernández D., Protected or merely tolerated? Models of reception and regularization of unaccompanied and separated children in Europe, [in:] Migrationg alone. Unaccompanied and separated chindren's migration to Europe, J. Kanics, D. Senovilla Hernández, K. Touzenis, UNESCO 2010. ; Lavaud Legendre B., Tallon A., Mineurs et traite des etres humains en France. De l'identification a la prise en charge. Quelles pratiques? Quelles protetiones?, Chronique sociale 2016. ; Lupo O., Disposizioni a favore dei minori, [in:] Codice degli stranieri commentato. Testo unico dell'immigrazione spiegato articolo per articolo e annotato con la giurisprudenza, U. Terraciano, O. Lupo, Santarcangelo di Romagna 2011. ; Blondel M., Le mineur isolè etranger demandeur d'asile emn France: entre necessitè de protection et resistence seuritaire, "La revue des Droits de l'Homme" 2018, 13. ; Masson B., Mineurs isoles etrangers: le sens d'une appellation, "Migrations Societè" 2010, 22. ; Menjivar C., Undocumented and unaccompanied: children of migration in the European Union and the United States, "Journal of Ethnic and migration studies" 2019, 45. ; Miazzi L., Perin G., Legge 94/2009: peggiora anche la condizione dei minori stranieri in Diritto, "Immigrazione e cittadinanza" 2009, 4. ; Miazzi L., Minori non accompagnati nelle legge 189/2002: un passo avanti e mezzo indietro sulla strada dell'integrazione, "Diritto, Immigrazione e cittadinanza" 2002, 3. ; Ministere de la Justice, Rapport annuel d'activitè 2019, Mission mineurs non accompagnes, mai 2020 in: www.justice.gouv.fr. ; Morgano F., Unaccompnied minors (UAMS) in the European Union, "Osservatorio Nazionale sui minori stranieri non accompagnati" 2020, 4. ; Morozzo Della Rocca P., Gli interventi a protezione dei minori stranieri o appartenenti a gruppi minoritari, [in:] Tutela civile del minore e diritto sociale della famiglia, L. Lenti, Milano 2012. ; Morozzo Della Rocca P., Immigrazione, asilo e cittadinanza, Sant'Arcangelo di Romagna 2018. ; Moyersoen J., Tarzia G., L'evoluzione della normativa sui minori stranieri non accompagnati, "Cittadini in crescita" 2002, 4. ; Papoutsi E., The Protection of Unaccompanied Migrant Minors Under International Human Rights Law: Revisiting Old Concepts and Confronting New Challenges in Modern Migrant Flows, "American University International Law Review" 2020, 35, 2. ; Parusel B., Unaccompanied minors in the European Union – definitions, trends and policy overview, "Social works and society international on line journal" 2017, 15, 1. ; Perin G., Il trattamento giuridico dei minori stranieri non accompagnati al compimento della maggiore età: uno sguardo comparato all'esperienza francese, "Minorigiustizia" 2008, 3. ; Peris Cancio L. F., Peggio se vulnerabili: gli effetti del decreto sicurezza sui minori non accompagnati, "Minorigiustizia" 2019, 1. ; Pisillo Mazzeschi R., Pustorino P., Viviani A., Diritti umani degli immigrati tutela della famiglia e dei minori, Napoli 2010. ; Polli A., I minori stranieri non accompagnati in Italia. Protezione, accoglienza, integrazione: la dimensione quantitativa del fenomeno, [in:] I minori stranieri in Italia, R. Cadin, L. Manca, V. R. Pellegrini, Roma 2014. ; Rordorf R., Flussi migratori e globalizzazione, "Minorigiustizia" 2019, 1. ; Savio G., I metodi di accertamento dell'età cronologica dei sedicenti minori stranieri tra giurisprudenza e prassi applicative, "Questione Giustizia on line", 5 marzo 2015. ; Senovilla Hernandez D., Analyse d'une categorie juridique recente: le mineur etranger non accompagnè, separè ou isolè, "Revue europeenne des migrations internationales" 2014, 30, 1. ; Sulima S., Children on the move in Europe, between biopolitics ad human rights protection, [in:] Child migration and biopolitics: old and new experiences in Europe, B. Scutaru, S. Paoli, 2020. ; Valletta S., Profili costituzionali per la tutela dei minori stranieri, 2016. ; Van Keirsbilck B., Working Paper on the Implementation of Guardianship Systems in 12 European Countries, Brussels 2005. ; 19 ; 1 ; 289 ; 315

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 기계항공공학부, 2020. 8. 민경덕. ; Abstract The Effect of Turbulent Flow on the Combustion Cyclic Variation in a Spark Ignition Engine using Large-Eddy Simulation Insuk Ko Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering The Graduate School Seoul National University At the present, the problem of worldwide air pollution has emerged as an important issue and many countries are trying to solve the problem. Emission regulations have been tightened around the world in an effort to reduce emissions from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. From 2014, Tier 3 emissions standards in the United States (U.S.) and EURO6 regulations in the European Union (EU) are adopted. Currently, CO2 is also being strongly enforced annually. To meet the tightened CO2 regulations, the development of high efficiency engines is actively being carried out by each vehicle manufacturer. In the development of high efficiency engines, the key point is the increase in thermal efficiency. Many technologies have been developed to increase thermal efficiency and are being applied to mass-production engines. However, there is currently a cycle-to-cycle variation (CCV) of combustion as the biggest obstacle to engine development. Therefore, research on the CCV is also being actively carried out. Because the causes that affect the cycle deviation are various and complex, it is difficult to conduct detailed research on the source of the CCV through experimental studies. Therefore, the 3D simulation is actively carried out as an alternative. In the present study, the CCV phenomenon of combustion was reproduced using large-eddy simulation (LES) approach and the investigation on the source of CCV are conducted. Currently, the engine simulation using LES is immature. Therefore, it is necessary to consider each sub-model for accurate simulation. First, three Sub-grid scale (SGS) turbulence models were evaluated with particle image velocimetry (PIV) data from the single-cylinder transparent combustion chamber (TCC-III) engine. The dynamic structure model (DSM) was adopted for this study, based on the analysis of the flow field and the predicted SGS turbulent velocity compared to the PIV data. Secondly, the G-equation was employed as a combustion model. The model can be used in the corrugated flamelets regime and the thin reaction flamelets regime. The turbulent burning velocity of the model is quite complicated to simulate the turbulent flame included in the two regimes. Therefore, in this study, the combustion regime of the target engine operating condition was found by using Reynolds averaged navier-stokes equation (RANS) approach and was identified to the corrugated flamelets regime. Thus, the G-equation was modified for the corrugated flamelets regime. Thirdly, an ignition model reflecting the characteristics of LES was developed. The lagrangian particles were employed to realize the ignition channel and the secondary electric circuit model was implemented to predict the spark energy, restrikes phenomena and the end of ignition time. The one of the key features of the ignition model developed in this study is that a simplified empirical function is implemented to realize the thermal diffusion during arc phase. After ignition phase, the channel grows by chemical reaction and the flame propagation progresses. The turbulent flame brush thickness term is introduced to predict the transition state between the laminar flame propagation and the turbulent flame propagation. Finally, when the channel is grown sufficiently, flame is propagated in the 3D field by the G-equation Finally, 30 LES cycles were performed to identify the cause of the CCV and validated against the experimental data. The sources of the CCV are mainly from the small scale turbulent flow and the large scale turbulent flow. The small scale turbulent flow effect was investigated and the fact that the small scale turbulent flow is related to the tumble motion is identified. In terms of the large scale turbulent flow, the effect of the local vortex on the flame propagation was found through the detailed analysis of the flow field. In particular, the vortex produced by wall flow on the secondary tumble plane is an important factor. A new piston shape was designed to strengthen the vortex formation by wall flow. The result of new piston case shows the reduced combustion CCV than the base case. This research provides the guide how to investigate the sources of the combustion CCV and how to reduce the combustion CCV for the future engine development Keywords: SI engine, LES, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics), CCV (Cycle-to-cycle variation), Ignition model, SGS model Student Number: 2013-20641 ; 국 문 초 록 현재 전 세계 대기오염 문제가 중요한 이슈로 떠오르고 많은 나라들이 이 문제를 해결하기 위해 노력하고 있다. 내연기관 차량의 배기 가스 배출량을 줄이기 위해 전 세계적으로 배출가스 규제가 강화되었다. 2014년부터 미국은 Tier 3 배기배출물 규정을 유럽연합은 EURO 6 규정을 채택하고 있다. 현재 연비 규제인 CO2도 매년 강력하게 강화되고 있다. 강화된 CO2 규정을 충족시키기 위해, 고효율 엔진의 개발은 각 차량 제조사에 의해 활발하게 이루어지고 있다. 고효율 엔진 개발에서 핵심은 열효율 증가이다. 열효율을 높이기 위해 많은 기술이 개발되어 양산 엔진에 적용되고 있다. 그러나 현재 엔진 개발에 가장 큰 장애물로 연소 사이클 간 편차가 있다. 따라서 사이클 편차에 대한 연구도 활발히 진행되고 있다. 사이클 편차에 영향을 미치는 원인은 다양하고 복잡하기 때문에, 실험 연구를 통해 사이클 편차의 근본 원인에 대한 상세한 연구를 실시하기 어렵다. 따라서 대안으로 3D 시뮬레이션을 활용한 연구가 활발히 진행되고 있다. 본 연구에서는, 연소의 사이클 편차 현상을 Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) 유동 해석 방법을 이용하여 재현하고 사이클 편차의 원인에 대한 연구를 진행한다. 현재 LES를 이용한 엔진 시뮬레이션은 아직까지 미숙한 단계이다. 따라서 정확한 시뮬레이션을 위해 각 물리적 현상을 구현할 수 있는 모델을 구현해야 한다. 먼저, 3개의 sub-grid scale (SGS) 난류 모델을 단기통 광학 엔진의 (TCC-III) particle image velocimetry (PIV) 측정 결과로 평가하였다. PIV 데이터와 비교한 유동장 및 예측된 SGS 난류속도에 대한 분석을 바탕으로 본 연구에서는 dynamic structure model (DSM)이 채택되었다. 둘째로, G-equation 모델을 연소 모델로 선택하였다. G-equation 모델은 Pitsch[1]에 의해 LES 적용 가능 하도록 개발되었다. 이 모델은 corrugated flamelets regime과 thin reaction flamelets regime에서 사용될 수 있다. 연소 속도 모델은 두 연소 환경에 포함된 난류 연소를 모사하기 위해 상당히 복잡하다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 RANS 를 이용하여 대상 엔진 작동 조건의 연소 환경을 찾아 내었고, 연소 환경은 corrugated flamelets regime에 속한 것을 확인 하였다. 따라서 기존의 G-equation 연소 모델을 corrugated flamelets regime에 맞도록 변경 하였다. 셋째로, LES의 특성을 반영한 점화 모델이 개발되었다. Lagrangian 개념을 이용하여 점화 채널을 구현하고, 2차 전기 회로 모델을 이용하여 점화 에너지, 리스트라이크, 점화 시간 종료 등을 예측하였다. 본 연구에서 개발된 점화 모델의 주요 특징 중 하나는 아크 페이즈 중 열 팽창 현상을 구현을 위해 간단한 경험 함수를 이용한다는 것이다. 아크 페이즈 후, 점화 해널은 화학 반응에 성장하고 화염 전파가 진행된다. 난류 화염 두께는 층류 화염 전파와 난류 화염 전파 사이의 천이 상태를 예측하기 위해 도입되었다. 마지막으로 점화 채널이 충분히 커지면 G-equation 의해 3D 계산 영역에서 화염 전파가 구현된다. 마지막으로 30개의 LES 사이클을 수행하여 연소의 사이클 편차 원인을 분석하고 실험 데이터를 이용하여 시뮬레이션의 정확도를 검증하였다. 연소의 사이클 편차의 원인은 주로 작은 규모의 난류 유동과 큰 규모의 난류 유동에서 나온다. 난류 모델로 구현된 작은 규모의 난류 유동과 큰 규모의 난류 유동에 속한 텀블 값을 같이 분석 하였다. 작은 규모의 난류 유동은 텀블 값과 관계가 있다는 사실을 파악 하였다. 큰 규모 난류 유동 측면에서는 국부적인 유동의 소용돌이가 화염 전파에 미치는 영향을 유동장을 상세히 분석하여 확인되었다. 특히 2차 텀블면에서 벽면 유동에 의해 생성되는 소용돌이가 연소의 사이클 편차에 미치는 중요한 요인임을 밝혀 내었다. 벽면 유동에 의한 소용돌이 형성을 강화하기 위해 새로운 피스톤 현상을 설계 하였다. 새로운 피스톤 형상의 결과는 베이스 피스톤보다 연소의 CCV가 줄어들었다. 본 연구는 향후 엔진 개발을 위해 연소 CCV의 원인을 조사하는 방법과 연소 CCV를 줄이는 방법에 대한 방법론을 제시한다. 주요어: 전기점화 엔진, LES, 전산유체역학, 사이클 편차, 점화모델, 난류모델 학 번: 2013-20641 ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Background and Motivation 1 1.2 Literature Review 10 1.2.2 Turbulence Modeling 12 1.2.3 Combustion Modeling 16 1.3 Research Objective 20 1.4 Structure of the Thesis 22 Chapter 2. Sub-grid Scale Turbulence Model 24 2.1 The Fundamentals of Turbulent Flow 23 2.1.1 The Energy Cascade 23 2.1.2 The Energy Spectrum 27 2.2 Sub-grid Scale Turbulence Model 29 2.2.1 Zero-equation Model 31 2.2.1.1 Smagorinsky Model 31 2.2.1.2 Dynamic Smagorinsky Model 32 2.2.2 One-equation and Non-viscosity Model 34 2.2.2.1 Dynamic Structure Model 34 2.3 Evaluation of Turbulence Models 37 2.3.1 Numerical Configuration 40 2.3.2 Comparison of Sub-grid Scale Model 45 Chapter 3. Modeling of Gasoline Surrogate Fuel 59 3.1 Literature Review 55 3.2 Determination of Surrogate Component 56 Chapter 4. Combustion Model for LES 63 4.1 The Laminar Burning Velocity 59 4.1.1 Literature Review 59 4.1.2 The Correlation for the Laminar Flame Speed 62 4.2 G-equation Model for LES 69 4.3 Sub-filter Turbulent Burning Velocity 73 Chapter 5. Lagrangian Ignition Model 82 5.1 Literature Review 77 5.2 Modeling of Ignition 81 5.2.1 Initialization of Particles 82 5.2.2 Channel elongation 83 5.2.3 Electric circuit model 83 5.2.4 Plasma channel expansion. 88 5.2.5 Ignition channel development 94 5.2.6 Restrike 95 5.2.7 Transition between ignition and flame propagation 96 Chapter 6. Experimental and Numerical Setup 106 6.1 Experimental Setup 99 6.2 Numerical Setup 104 Chapter 7. Simulation Results of Combustion CCV 116 7.1 Validation of Simulation Results 109 7.2 Correlation between Combustion Phase and Peak Pressure 115 7.3 Investigation of turbulent flow effect on CCV 121 7.3.1 Small Scale Turbulent Flow Effect on CCV 121 7.3.2 Large Scale Turbulent Flow Effect on CCV 127 7.4 Method for Reduction of CCV 156 7.4.1 Investigation of the Controllable Source of CCV 156 7.4.2 Result of New Designed Piston 166 Chapter 8. Conclusions 182 Chapter 9. Bibliography 186 국 문 초 록 201 ; Doctor

While the United States and Europe share a set of basic values and interests, debates across the Atlantic do repeatedly occur, particularly since the end of the Cold War. Transatlantic relations under the Trump Administration have experienced noticeable political tensions that were last witnessed under the Bush Administration in the early years of the millennium. There is a sense of déjà vu in Europe, given that despite Donald J. Trump's unusual rhetoric, the issues in hand are not necessarily new. Washington's take on the international order and transatlantic relations is best described by the concept of conservative internationalism, which differs from other U.S. foreign policy approaches yet continues to be in contrast with the more liberal views in Europe. ; csizmazia.gabor@uni-nke.hu ; Gábor Csizmazia – assistant lecturer and acting Operative Director at the American Studies Research Institute of the National University of Public Service (Hungary). His main area of research is contemporary U.S. foreign and security policy, particularly with regard to East-Central Europe. ; National University of Public Service, Hungary ; Andrews, D.M., The United States and Its Atlantic Partners: The Evolution of American Grand Strategy, "Cambridge Review of International Affairs", Vol. 17, No. 3 (October 2004). ; Daalder, I.H., The End of Atlanticism,"Survival", Vol. 45, No. 2 (Summer 2003). ; De La Baume, M., Heikkilä, M., Conservative MEPs wary of backing text condemning Trump, police brutality, "Politico.eu", June 16, 2020, Online: https://www.politico.eu/article/conservative-meps-wary-of-backing-text-condemning-donald-trump-police-brutality-racism/ (access: September 12, 2020). ; Ellyatt, H., Germany won't abandon its massive gas pipeline with Russia yet, analysts say, CNBC, September 14, 2020, Online: https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/14/germany-likely-to-stick-with-nord-stream-2-despite-navalny-poisoning.html (access: September 15, 2020). ; European External Action Service, Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe. A Global Strategy for the European Union's Foreign And Security Policy, June 2016. ; Fukuyama, F., The End of History? "The National Interest", No.16, Summer 1989. ; Gordon, M.R,: Jim Mattis, in Ukraine, Says U.S. Is Thinking of Sending Weapons, "The New York Times", August 24, 2017, Online: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/24/world/europe/mattis-ukraine-russia.html (access; September 12, 2020). ; Granieri, R.J., Whose West is Best?, "Foreign Policy Research Institute", July 10, 2017, Online: https://www.fpri.org/article/2017/07/whose-west-best/ (access: September 12, 2020). ; Grygiel, J., The Return of Europe's Nation-States. The Upside to the EU's Crisis, "Foreign Affairs", September/October 2016. ; Haddad, B., Trump is getting the European army he wanted, "Politico", November 14, 2018, Online: https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-army-angela-merkel-emmanuel-macron-donald-trump-getting-what-he-wanted/ (access: September 1, 2020). ; Hanson, V.D., New World Order, We Hardly Knew Ye. "Hoover Digest", No. 1. (Winter 2019). ; Herszenhorn, D.M., Trump's relationship with Europe goes from bad to nothingness, "Politico", June 3, 2020, Online: https://www.politico.com/news/2020/06/03/donald-trump-europe-strategy-300074 (access: September 2, 2020). ; Jackson, E.B., et. al., Snap Poll: What Foreign-Policy Experts Make of Trump's Coronavirus Response, "Foreign Policy", May 8, 2020, Online: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/05/08/snap-poll-what-foreign-policy-experts-think-trump-coronavirus-response-election/ (access: September 12, 2020). ; Jahn, B., Liberal internationalism: historical trajectory and current prospects. "International Affairs", Vol. 94, No. 1. (January 2018). ; Kagan, R., Of Paradise and Power. America and Europe in the New World Order, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2003. ; Kant, I., Perpetual Peace. A Philosophical Essay, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1903. ; Kaufman, J.P., The US perspective on NATO under Trump: lessons of the past and prospects for the future, "International Affairs", Vol. 93, No. 2 (March 2017). ; Kartinschnig, M., Mike Pompeo's summer feel-good tour of Europe, "Politico", August 14, 2020, Online: https://www.politico.com/news/2020/08/14/mike-pompeos-summer-feel-good-tour-of-europe-395200 (access: September 12, 2020). ; Kupchan, Ch. A., The Atlantic Order in Transition. The Nature of Change in U.S.-European Relations, [in:] Anderson, J.J., et. al. (eds.), The End of the West? Crisis and Change in the Atlantic Order, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2008. ; Layne, Ch., America as European Hegemon, "The National Interest", No. 72 (Summer 2003). ; Lind, J. & Wohlforth, W.C., The Future of the Liberal Order Is Conservative. "Foreign Affairs", Vol. 98. No. 2. (March/April 2019). ; Lohmann, S., Extraterritorial U.S. Sanctions, "SWP Comment, Stiftung für Wissenschaft und Politik", February 5, 2019, Online: https://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/comments/2019C05_lom.pdf (access: September 9, 2020). ; Lundestad, G., "Empire by Invitation" in the American Century, "Diplomatic History", Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring 1999). ; McMaster, H.R., Cohn, G.D., America First Doesn't Mean America Alone, "The Wall Street Journal", May 30, 2017, Online: https://www.wsj.com/articles/america-first-doesnt-mean-america-alone-1496187426 (access: September 13, 2018). ; Mead, W.R., Special Providence. American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World, Routledge Taylor & Francis Books, New York, 2002. ; Mead, W.R., The Jacksonian Revolt, "Foreign Affairs", Vol. 96, No. 2 (March/April 2017). ; Mead, W.R., The Case Against Europe, "The Atlantic", April 2002, Online: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/04/the-case-against-europe/302466/ (access: September 6, 2020). ; Mitchell, A.W., Anchoring the Western Alliance, United States Department of State, June 5, 2018, Online: https://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/2018/283003.htm (access: September 13, 2018). ; Morin, R., Trump calls Macron's comments on building a European army to defend against US 'insulting', "Politico", November 9, 2018, Online: https://www.politico.eu/article/trump-calls-macrons-comments-on-building-a-european-army-to-defend-against-u-s-insulting/ (access: September 1, 2020). ; Nau, H.R., Conservative Internationalism: Armed Diplomacy under Jefferson, Polk, Truman, and Reagan. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2013. ; Nau, H.R., Conservative Internationalism, "The American Interest", Summer (May/June) 2014. ; Nau, H.R., Conservative Internationalism, "Policy Review", No. 150, August & September 2008. ; Rettman, A., EU gagged on 'fundamental' shift in Middle East,"euobserver", May 14, 2018, Online: https://euobserver.com/foreign/141805 (access: September 12, 2020). ; Ross, W., Navarro, P., The Trump Trade Doctrine: A Path to Growth & Budget Balance. "RealClearPolicy", October 17, 2016, Online: https://www.realclearpolicy.com/articles/2016/10/18/the_trump_trade_doctrine_a_path_to_growth__budget_balance.html (access: September 1, 2020). ; Soros, A., A Biden victory could reset transatlantic relations, European Council on Foreign Relations, July 6, 2020, Online: https://www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_a_biden_victory_could_reset_transatlantic_relations (access: September 12, 2020). ; Tamkin, E., For love or money? Why Central European leaders are visiting the White House. "The Washington Post", May 2, 2019, Online: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/05/02/love-or-money-why-central-european-leaders-are-visiting-white-house/ (access: September 12, 2020). ; The White House, National Security Strategy of the United States of America, December 2017. ; The White House, Remarks by President Trump to the People of Poland, July 6, 2017, Online: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-people-poland/ (access: September 21, 2018). ; The White House, Statement by President Donald J. Trump on Signing the "Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act", August 2, 2017, Online: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/statement-president-donald-j-trump-signing-countering-americas-adversaries-sanctions-act/ (access: September 12, 2020). ; Toosi, N., Pompeo rolls out a selective vision of human rights, "Politico", July 16, 2020, Online: https://www.politico.com/news/2020/07/16/mike-pompeo-human-rights-hierarchy-366627 (access: September 12, 2020). ; Trump, D.J., Transcript: Donald Trump's Foreign Policy Speech, "The New York Times", April 27, 2016, Online: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/28/us/politics/transcript-trump-foreign-policy.html (access: September 11, 2018). ; United States Department of Defense, Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of The United States of America. Sharpening the American Military's Competitive Edge. January 2018, Online: https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf (access: October 10, 2020). ; United States Department of State, Secretary of State Michael R. Pompeo Remarks to the Press, July 8, 2019, Online: https://www.state.gov/secretary-of-state-michael-r-pompeo-remarks-to-the-press-3/ (access: September 12, 2020). ; United States Senate, Washington's Farewell Address to the People of the United States. 2000, Online: https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/WashFarewell.pdf (access: October 10, 2020). ; United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Assistant Secretary of State U.S. Policy in Europe. Subcommittee hearing of Assistant Secretary A. Wess Mitchell, June 26, 2018, Online: https://www.foreign.senate.gov/listen/us-policy-in-europe-062618 (access: September 22, 2018). ; Vela J.H., Trump poised to hit EU with billions in tariffs after victory in Airbus case, "Politico", September 14, 2019, Online: https://www.politico.eu/article/trump-poised-to-hit-eu-with-billions-in-tariffs-after-airbus-win/ (access: September 3, 2020). ; Wemer, D.A., The United States is back in Central Europe, state department official says, "Atlantic Council", July 17, 2019, Online: https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/the-united-states-is-back-in-central-europe-state-department-official-says/ (access: September 2, 2020). ; Wright, T., Trump Is Choosing Eastern Europe, "The Atlantic", June 6, 2018, Online: https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/06/trump-is-choosing-eastern-europe/562130/ (access: September 21, 2018). ; 25 ; 3 ; 9 ; 26

ABSTRACT The main objectives of this study is to determine the interactions between deposit interest rates, foreign exchange rates and stock market index (LQ45) in Indonesia pre and post crisis 2008. The data period before the crisis is October 2000 until November 2008. The data period after the crisis is December 2008 until December 2015. Descriptive quantitative analysis is used in this research. Descriptive analysis method is performed by using analytical table and graphic. Quantitative analysis method is performed by making a regression equation econometric model with time series method to describe the presence or absence of the influence of the independent variable towards the dependant variable. The result showed that during the pre crisis 2008, unidirectional causality existed from Deposit Interest Rates towards Foreign Exchange Rates, Stock Market Index (LQ45) towards Deposit Interest Rates, Deposit Interest Rates towards Stock Market Index(LQ45), and Stock Market Index (LQ45) towards Foreign Exchange Rates. The result post crisis 2008 showed that unidirectional causality existed from Foreign Exchange Rates towards Deposit Interest Rates, Deposit Interest Rates towards Foreign Exchange Rates, and Stock Market Index (LQ45) towards Foreign Exchange Rates. It is found that the direction of causality between the three variables tends to demonstrate a hit-and-run behavior and changes according to the lag selection. This implies that great caution should be taken when interpreting granger causality result. Keywords: Deposit Interest Rates, Foreign Exchange Rates, Stock Market Index, LQ45, Granger Causality and Subprime MortgageBIBLIOGRAPHY (2008, September 15). Retrieved September 15, 2016, from CNBC: http://www.cnbc.com/id/26708143(2016, November 1). Retrieved from Investing: https://www.investing.com/indices/jakarta-lq45(2016, September 21). Retrieved September 12, 2016, from Consumer Financial Protection Bureau: http://www.consumerfinance.gov/askcfpb/110/what-is-a-subprime-mortgage.htmlInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)'s International Financial Statistics. (2016, October 22). Retrieved from http://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=60998108(2018, October 8). Retrieved October 8, 2018, from www.idx.co.id: http://www.idx.co.id/media/1482/lq45-index-methodology-by-idx.pdf(2018). Retrieved July 03, 2018, from Oxford Dictionaries: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/interest_rate(2018). Retrieved July 3, 2018, from Cambridge Dictionary: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/interest-rate(2018). Retrieved July 04, 2018, from Cambridge Dictionary: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/certificate-of-depositInternational Monetary Fund. (2018). Retrieved July 3, 2018, from http://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=61545855Ahmed, M., Rehman, R., & Raoof, A. (2010). Do interest rate, exchange rate effect stock returns? A Pakistani perspective. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics(50), 146-150.Ajayi, R., & Mougoue, M. (1996). On the dynamic relation between stock prices and exchange rates. Journal of Financial Research, 19, 193-207.Alam, M. M., & Uddin, M. G. (2009). Relationship between interest rate and stock price: Empirical evidence from developed and developing countries. International Journal of Business and Management Vol.4, No. 3, 43-51.Alam, S., Butt, M. S., & Iqbal, A. (2001). The Long-run Relationship between Real Exchange Rate and Real Interest Rate in Asian Countries: An Application of Panel Cointegration. The Pakistan Development Review, 577-602.Allaro, H. B., Kassa, B., & Hundie, B. (2011). A time series analysis of structural break time in themacroeconomic variables in Ethiopia. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 6(2), 392-400.Amadeo, K. (2016, July 26). Retrieved from The Balance: https://www.thebalance.com/what-caused-2008-global-financial-crisis-3306176CEO, D. (2016, November 19). Retrieved from Tribuneindia: http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/fixed-deposit-best-option-for-risk-averse-investors/230726.htmlCho, D., & West, K. (2001). Interest Rates and Exchange Rates in the Korean, Philippine, and Thai Exchange Rate Crisis. NBEP, Conference on Management of Currency Crisis. Monterey, California.Chow, H. K., & Kim, Y. (2004). The Empirical Relationship Between Exchange Rates and Interest Rates in Post-Crisis Asia. School of Economics and Social Sciences, Singapore Management University.Commission, T. F. (2011). The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report. Subprime Lending, 70.Commission, T. F. (2011). The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report, Final Report Of The National Commission On The Causes Of The Financial And Economic Crisis In The United States. Washington D.C: Official Government Edition.Dash, P. (2001). The Relationship between Interest Rate and Exchange Rate in India. Indian Economic Journal.Eichenbaum, M., & Evans, C. L. (1995). Some Empirical Evidence on the Effects of Shocks to Monetary Policy on Exchange Rates. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 4, 975-1009.Elton, E. J., Gruber, M. J., Brown, S. J., & Goetzmann, W. N. (2003). Modern Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Fama, E. F. (1991). Efficient Capital Market : II. The Journal Of Finance. Vol 46 No.5 December 1991, 1575-1617.Fang, W. (2000). Stock market process and expected depreciation over the Asian financial crisis. Applied Economics, 2001, 33, 905-912.Furman, J., & Stiglitz, J. (1998). Economic Crisis: Evidence and Insights from East Asia. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1-135.Goldfajn, I., & Gupta, P. (1999). Does Monetary Policy Stabilize the Exchange Rate Following a Currency Crisis? Working Paper of the International Monetary Fund.Granger, C. W. (1986). Developments in the Study of Cointegrated Economic Variables. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 213-228.Granger, C. W., & Newbold, P. (1974). Spurious Regressions In Econometrics. Journal Of Econometrics 2, 111-120.Granger, C., Huang, B. N., & Yang, C. (2000). A Bivariate Causality between Stock Prices and Exchange Rates: Evidence from Recent Asian Flu. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 40, 337-354.Grant, A. (1988). Handbook of Money and Capital Market. Connecticut: Quorum Books, Greendwood Press, Inc.Gujarati, D. N. (2003). Basic Econometrics Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.Gümüş, İ. (2003). Effects of the Interest Rate Defense on Exchange Rates During the 1994 Crisis in Turkey. Research Department Working Paper No.14 The Central Bank Of The Republic Of Turkey.Hidayat, T. (2017, February 14). Teguh Hidayat & Partners. Retrieved from http://www.thpartner.com/2016/02/what-is-lq45.htmlHyde, S. (2007). The response of Industry stock returns to market, exchange rate and interest rate risks. Managerial Finance, 693-709.Kasman, S. (2003). The relationship between exchange rate and stock prices: a causality analysis.Kayhan, S., Bayat, T., & Ugur, A. (2013). Interest Rates and Exchange Rate Relationship in BRIC-T Countries. Ege Academic Review, 227-236.Kearney, C. (1998). The causes of volatility in a small, internationally integrated stock market: Ireland, July 1975-June 1994. Journal of Financial Research, 21(1), 85-104.Keynes, J. M. (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.Koutoulas, G., & Kryzanowski, L. (1996). Macrofactor conditional volatility, time-varying risk premia and stock return behavior. Financial Review, 31, 169-195.Lean, H.-H., Halim, M., & Wong, W.-K. (2003). Bivariate Causality Between Exchange Rate and Stock Price On Major Asian Countries. Department Of Economics National University Of Singapore.Levi, M. D. (1996). International Finance The Markets and Financial Management of Multinational Business 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.Lo, A. W. (2016). What Is An Index? The Journal Of Portfolio Management Volume 42 Number 2, 2.M, K., & S, Y. A. (2013). Macroeconomic forces and stock prices: Evidence from the Bangladesh Stock Market. Bangladesh: Dhaka.Madura, J. (2012). Financial Institutions & Markets. Florence: Cengage Learning, Inc .Mankiw, N. G. (2009). Macroeconomics Seventh Edition. New York: Worth Publishers.Markowitz, H. (1952). Portfolio Selection. The Journal of Finance, Vol. 7, No. 1., 77-91.Mbulawa, S. (2015). Stock Market Performance, Interest Rate and Exchange Rate Interactions in Zimbabwe: A Cointegration Approach. International Journal of Economics, Finance and Management VOL. 4, NO. 2, 77-88.Mishkin, F. (2011). The Economics of Money Banking and Financial Market. Fourth Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson Canada.Mishkin, F. S. (2010). The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets Buku 2. Jakarta: Salemba Empat.Mukherjee, T., & Naka, A. (1995). Dynamic relations between macroeconomic variables and the Japanese stock market: an application of a vector error correction model. Journal of Financial Research, 18, 223-237.Pan, Ming-Shiun, Fok, R. C.-W., & Liu, A. Y. (2000). Dynamic Linkages Between Exchange Rates and Stock Prices: Evidence from Pacific Rim Countries. Working Paper, Financial Management Association Annual Meeting.Pettinger, T. (2017, January 20). Retrieved from Economicshelp: http://www.economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/exchangerate/factors-influencing/Purna, I., Hamidi, & Prima. (2009, May 26). Perekonomian Indonesia Tahun 2008 Tengah Krisis Keuangan Global. Retrieved September 23, 2016, from Kementerian Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia: http://www.setneg.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3698Ramasamy, B., & Young, M. (2001). The Causality between Stock Return and Exchange Rate. Research Paper Series University of Notthingham Malaysia.Sánchez, M. (2005). The Link Between Interest Rates And Exchange Rates. Do Contractionary Depreciations Make A Difference? European Central Bank Working Paper Series No.548 / November2005, 6.Saragih, F. D., & Nugroho, B. Y. (2014). Dasar - Dasar Keuangan Internasional. Jakarta: PT.Raja Grafindo Persada.Sargent, T. J., & Wallace, N. (1981). Some Unpleasant Monetarist Arithmetic. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review, No.5, Fall, 1-17.Saunders, A., & Cornett, M. M. (2012). Financial Markets And Institutions Fifth Edition. In A. Saunders, & M. M. Cornett, Financial Markets And Institutions Fifth Edition (p. 344). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.Sharpe, W. F. (1991). The Arithmetic of Active Management. Financial Analysts Journal, 7-9.Tambunan, T. T. (2010). Modern Economy. The Indonesian Experience with Two Big Economic Crises, 156-167.Tandelilin, E. (2010). Portfolio dan Investasi. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Pirlagar-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 642 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 499 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 129 ha by forest and about 14 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 69 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 69 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 4 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 22 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26(4) 17(3) Guava - 15(2) Maize - 43(7) Sapota - 15(2) Bajra - 58(9) Pomegranate - 56(9) Groundnut - 17(3) Musambi 24(4) 32(5) Sunflower 9(1) 32(5) Lime 24(4) 32(5) Redgram - 57(9) Amla - 43(7) Bengal gram 41(6) 2(<1) Cashew - - Cotton 41(6) 2(<1) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 44(7) Jamun - 56(9) Tomato - 26(4) Custard apple 41(6) 2(<1) Brinjal 24(4) 34(5) Tamarind - 56(9) Onion 24(4) 17(3) Mulberry - - Bhendi 24(4) 34(5) Marigold - 59(9) Drumstick - 57(9) Chrysanthemum - 59(9) Mango - 7(1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Pirlagar-1 is located at North latitude 160 51' 57.153" and 160 49' 59.55" and East longitude 770 19' 43.401'' and 770 17' 21.799" covering an area of about 641.90 ha coming under Yampada, Gajarakota, Himalapura and Chinthanapalli Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Pirlagar-1 micro watersheds of Bewanahalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 32 (91.43 %) were marginal and 3 (8.57%) were small farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (54.78%) men and 71 (45.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.95%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.68 per cent illiterates, 1.91 percent were functional literates, 45.22 per cent pre university education and 2.55 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 37.58 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.67, hired labour (men) available was 7.57 and hired labour (women) available was 5.43.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 61.01 per cent (19.07 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 38.99 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 18.00 live bore wells wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 51.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Paddy, and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Paddy was Rs.37615.01 , 50412.01 and 128062.01 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.90 and 1: 1.05 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 96614.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47471.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 54 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. 2  Regarding marketing channels, 94.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (100.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (100.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (2.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (11.43%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (2.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hankunti-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 391 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area has loamy soils, 93 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 28 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 18 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  An area of about 2 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 36 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 64 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 86 per cent and sufficient in 14 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 109 (28) 107 (27) Pomegranate 109 (28) - Maize 109 (28) 107 (27) Guava 109 (28) - Bajra 109 (28) 107 (27) Jackfruit 109 (28) - Groundnut - 107 (27) Jamun 109 (28) - Sunflower 109 (28) - Musambi 109 (28) - Cotton 109 (28) 107 (27) Lime 109 (28) - Red gram 109 (28) - Cashew - 131 (34) Bengalgram - 216 (55) Custard apple 109 (28) 129 (33) Chilli 109 (28) 107 (27) Amla 109 (28) 129 (33) Tomato 109 (28) 107 (27) Tamarind 109 (28) - Drumstick 109 (28) - Marigold 109 (28) 107 (27) Mulberry 109 (28) 22 (6) Chrysanthemum 109 (28) 107 (27) Mango 109 (28) - Jasmine 109 (28) 107 (27) Sapota 109 (28) - Crossandra 109 (28) 107 (27) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Findings of the socio-economic survey  The survey was conducted in Hankunti-2 is located at North latitude 150 12' 20.596" and 150 10' 38.087" and East longitude 760 3' 14.596'' and 760 1' 41.401" covering an area of about 391.64 ha coming under Hanakunti and Betageri Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hankunti-2 micro watersheds of Bettageri sub-watershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 37 total respondents, 12 were marginal, (32.43 %) were small 5 (13.51%), 7 (18.92 %) were Semi medium and 7 (18.92 %) were medium and 1 (2.70 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 90 (55.56%) men and 72 (44.44 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.59%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 17.90 per cent illiterates, 21.60 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.02 per cent middle school education, 24.07 per cent high school education, 10.49 per cent of them had PUC education, 9.88 per cent attained graduation.  About, 62.16 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 32.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 39.51 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 81.08 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 10.81 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 75.68 per cent possess TV, 43.24 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.30 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.84 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.41 per cent possess tractor and 13.51 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 16.22 per cent possess local cow and 5.41 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 8.88 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.44.  Further, 5.41 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 71.99 per cent (70.91 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 24.11 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 8.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 21.62 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Sorghum, Groundnut, Bengal gram and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 93.98 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 5.41 percent possessed bank account and 5.41 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 5.41 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Sorghum, Groundnut, Sunflower and Bengal gram was Rs.32568.16, 19035.23, 18433.29, 27266.34, 34457.13 and 34399.77 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.50, 1: 0.90, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.60, 1:1.40 and1:1.60 respectively.  Further, 27.03 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 29.73 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 117078.38 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57375.68 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 26 horticulture trees and 128 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 86.49 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.41 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 91.89 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.95%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 81.08 per cent of the households and 18.92 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 37.84 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.89 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 10.81 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (105.41%), pulses (91.89%) and oilseeds (2.70%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (45.95%) wild animal menace on farm field (40.54%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.16%), inadequacy of irrigation water (37.84%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.27%), high rate of interest on credit (51.35%), low price for the agricultural commodities (75.68%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.86%), inadequate extension services (2.70%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (13.51%), Less rainfall (5.41%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (2.70%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kunikeri-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 515 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soils and 7 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 18 per cent of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 59 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 34 per cent in the microwatershed.  About 29 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 62 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 27 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 103 (20) 71 (14) Sapota 131 (25) 99 (19) Maize 102 (20) 72 (14) Pomegranate 131 (25) 99 (19) Bajra 148 (29) 93 (18) Musambi 131 (25) 99 (19) Groundnut 29 (6) 335 (65) Lime 131 (25) 99 (19) Sunflower 102 (20) 60 (12) Amla 162 (31) 230 (45) Red gram 102 (20) 60 (12) Cashew 45 (9) 182 (35) Bengalgram - 174 (34) Jackfruit 131 (25) 98 (19) Cotton 58 (11) 116 (22) Jamun 58 (11) 172 (33) Chilli 103 (20) 71 (14) Custard apple 162 (31) 230 (45) Tomato 103 (20) 71 (14) Tamarind 58 (11) 160 (31) Brinjal 74 (14) 246 (48) Mulberry 161 (31) 218 (42) Onion 45 (9) 275 (53) Marigold 102 (20) 72 (14) Bhendi 45 (9) 275 (53) Chrysanthemum 102 (20) 72 (14) Drumstick 145 (28) 140 (27) Jasmine 102 (20) 72 (14) Mango 58 (11) 103 (20) Crossandra 102 (20) 72 (14) Guava 44 (9) 186 (36)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kunikeri-1 is located at North latitude 150 18' 3.842" and 150 15' 42.427" and East longitude 760 13' 44.407'' and 760 12' 27.153" covering an area of about 514.95 ha coming under Kunakeri and Lachanakeri Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 32 respondents, 10 (31.25%) were marginal, 7(21.88%) were small and 6 (18.75%) were semi medium and 4 (12.50%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (58.90%) men and 60 (41.10%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.47%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 44.52 per cent illiterates and only 6.16 per cent attained graduation.  About, 68.75 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.13 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 48.63 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 81.25 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 3.13 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.88 per cent possess TV, 53.13 per cent possess mixer grinder and 90.63 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 21.88 per cent of the households possess plough and only 15.63 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 12.50 per cent possess local cow and 3.13 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.27 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.77.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (39.77 ha), 63.21 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.97 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 4.00 bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Red gram, Bengal gram, cotton, sugarcane and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 68.89 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Red gram, Bengal gram and Groundnut was Rs.33504.09, 31123.35, 26149.12, 15712.88 and 42321.08 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.00, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.80 and 1:2.20 respectively.  Further, 6.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 28.13 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 78946.88 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 53700.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture crop 1 coconut trees in the fields and 30 neem and 3 tamarind forest species in their field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs 6.25. for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 3.13 per cent depends on own funds and 6.25 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 93.75 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 6.25 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 71.88 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (9.38 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 65.63 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 93.75 per cent of the households and 6.25 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 84.38 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 87.50 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 87.50 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 9.38 per cent do not possess PDS card. Cereals (90.63%), pulses (81.25%), oilseeds (25.00%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (65.63%) wild animal menace on farm field (62.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (50.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (59.38%), high rate of interest on credit (43.75%), low price for the agricultural commodities (50.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (46.88%), inadequate extension services (18.75%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (37.50%), Less rainfall (31.25%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (3.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Pirlagar-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 642 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 499 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 129 ha by forest and about 14 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 69 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 69 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 4 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 22 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26(4) 17(3) Guava - 15(2) Maize - 43(7) Sapota - 15(2) Bajra - 58(9) Pomegranate - 56(9) Groundnut - 17(3) Musambi 24(4) 32(5) Sunflower 9(1) 32(5) Lime 24(4) 32(5) Redgram - 57(9) Amla - 43(7) Bengal gram 41(6) 2(<1) Cashew - - Cotton 41(6) 2(<1) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 44(7) Jamun - 56(9) Tomato - 26(4) Custard apple 41(6) 2(<1) Brinjal 24(4) 34(5) Tamarind - 56(9) Onion 24(4) 17(3) Mulberry - - Bhendi 24(4) 34(5) Marigold - 59(9) Drumstick - 57(9) Chrysanthemum - 59(9) Mango - 7(1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Pirlagar-1 is located at North latitude 160 51' 57.153" and 160 49' 59.55" and East longitude 770 19' 43.401'' and 770 17' 21.799" covering an area of about 641.90 ha coming under Yampada, Gajarakota, Himalapura and Chinthanapalli Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Pirlagar-1 micro watersheds of Bewanahalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 32 (91.43 %) were marginal and 3 (8.57%) were small farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (54.78%) men and 71 (45.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.95%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.68 per cent illiterates, 1.91 percent were functional literates, 45.22 per cent pre university education and 2.55 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 37.58 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.67, hired labour (men) available was 7.57 and hired labour (women) available was 5.43.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 61.01 per cent (19.07 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 38.99 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 18.00 live bore wells wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 51.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Paddy, and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Paddy was Rs.37615.01 , 50412.01 and 128062.01 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.90 and 1: 1.05 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 96614.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47471.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 54 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. 2  Regarding marketing channels, 94.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (100.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (100.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (2.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (11.43%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (2.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

URS Corporation (URS) was retained by Oncor Electric Delivery Company, LLC (Oncor) to conduct an intensive cultural resources survey of the new Permian Basin - Culberson 138 kilovolt (kV) Double-Circuit Transmission Line Project (Project) right-of-way (ROW) located in Culberson, Reeves, and Ward Counties, Texas. The proposed 70-foot (ft) (21-meter [m]) wide Project ROW encompasses approximately 825 acres and traverses a total of approximately 97 miles of rural lands between the existing Oncor Permian Basin Switching Station, located approximately four miles west of Monahans, Texas in Ward County, to the existing Oncor Culberson Switching Station, located approximately 17 miles south of the Texas/New Mexico state line in Culberson County. This includes 88.7 miles of the original route, along with 8.3 miles of additional segments that were evaluated. Currently, the Project is not subject to federal funding or permitting; therefore, no review under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, is required. Should the Project subsequently become subject to federal funding or permitting, the cultural resources investigations and site evaluations reported herein will be updated and coordinated with the Texas Historical Commission (THC) as part of fulfilling any Section 106 requirements that may arise at a later date. While the majority of the Project is located on private land, an approximately 6-mile long segment of the Project ROW traverses lands owned by University Lands (UL), which is a political subdivision of the State of Texas. Consequently, this portion of the project falls within the purview of the Antiquities Code of Texas, which requires the THC to review actions that have the potential to disturb prehistoric or historic sites in the public domain. In order to comply with the Antiquities Code, Antiquities Permit No. 7848 was obtained from the THC for the UL-owned lands, and the survey methods for this portion of the Project followed the THC's archaeological survey standards for Texas. For the remaining areas of the Project, all cultural resources investigations were carried out in conformance with the methodologies outlined in the THC-approved Generic Research Design for Archaeological Surveys of Oncor Electric Delivery Electric Transmission Line Projects in Texas (PBS&J 2008). The cultural resources survey was conducted between December 7, 2015 and May 5, 2016, and consisted of an intensive 100 percent pedestrian survey and shovel testing within the Project ROW. The survey resulted in the identification of 16 newly-recorded sites and one previously recorded site (41WR85). Site forms were completed for each of the 16 newly identified archaeological sites, and trinomials were obtained from the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory. In addition, 16 isolated finds (IFs) were identified; however no site forms were prepared for IFs. All sites within the Project ROW were located in areas of eroded and/or mixed soils, lacked diagnostic artifacts, and were found to exhibit poor integrity context due to prior disturbances. Based on these observations, the portions of these sites within the Project ROW do not meet National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) and State Antiquities Landmark (SAL) eligibility requirements. However, because each of these sites appears to extend beyond the current Project ROW boundary, they have not been evaluated in their entirety and their overall NRHP and SAL eligibility is recommended to be Undetermined. Due to a lack of research potential and integrity, all IFs are recommended as not eligible for NRHP or SAL designation. During the survey, a small bedrock cavity was observed at site 41CU835. Due to safety concerns about the surrounding ground stability, this feature could not be fully investigated. The ground immediate adjacent to the cavity, as well as the upper two feet of the cavity, did not present any indications that it was culturally related, or that the cavity extended much deeper. The entirety of the observed cavity appeared to be too narrow to have served as an effective place of interment. However, based on survey level data, the cultural utilization of this feature could not be entirely ruled out. It was recommended that construction activities avoid this cavity and that site monitoring during construction be conducted, until such time as any cultural association is definitively ruled out, or until it can be confirmed that no construction impacts to the cavity would take place. A geomorphological assessment revealed that selected areas within the Project ROW potentially exhibit the necessary pedologic and geomorphic conditions for the deep burial and preservation of cultural deposits. These areas represent a combined total of 15.5 linear miles (25 kilometers) of Project ROW. In accordance with the Generic Research Design, monitoring was recommended for any transmission pole excavations in the areas that were assessed as exhibiting high geoarchaeological potential. An interim draft report of the foregoing recommendations was submitted to the THC on April 27, 2017. On May 26, 2017, the THC concurred with all interim report recommendations. During preparations for the monitoring effort, URS was notified by Oncor that a majority of the Project had already been constructed, including those areas recommended for monitoring. The only location that had not yet been constructed was the bedrock cavity at site 41CU835. On May 24, 2017, a meeting between Oncor, URS, and the THC resulted in an agreement that monitoring should be undertaken during construction activities near the bedrock cavity at site 41CU835. In addition, it was agreed that spot-checks would be performed within a subset of the previously constructed structures within high geoarchaeological probability areas, including portions of the Project owned by UL. Following completion of these tasks, it was agreed that a comprehensive revised draft report of investigations and findings (current report) would be submitted to the THC for review and project closure. Subsequent investigations at the bedrock cavity at 41CU835 were carried out from July 10-11, 2017. During the site visit, it was established that the cavity is located approximately 30 m to the southeast of the proposed location of monopole structure No. 56/3. Following additional inspections, it was possible to rule out any prehistoric use of this natural feature. The immediate area around the cavity was taped off for safety reasons so that other related construction activities would not adversely impact the cavity or surrounding area. On July 11, 2017, monitoring was carried out for the excavation of monopole structure no. 56/3. Soil stratigraphy was recorded for the total depth of the excavation, which was 20 ft. No cultural materials were identified From August 12-13, 2017, URS archaeologists performed spot-checks for 99 monopoles, including 53 structures within the Project ROW extending approximately 10 kilometers (km) west of the Pecos River in Reeves County; 22 structures within the Project ROW extending approximately 4 km east of the Pecos River in Ward County; and 24 structures within the Project ROW extending approximately 4.5 km across Monument Draw within UL in Ward County. Spot-checking included visual inspection and photo documentation of disturbances, as well as ground surface inspection to identify cultural resources. The Project ROW around each monopole exhibited construction related disturbances from equipment access roads and from drilling operations. No evidence was found that indicated any deeply buried cultural resource sites were impacted from auguring. Within the intervening areas between monopoles, however, a total of two previously unrecorded, low-density historic surface scatters (41RV128 and 41RV129) and three new IFs (H-07, H08, and P-28) were identified and recorded. Both sites were found to exhibit poor integrity due to prior disturbances, and low research potential due to minimal information potential. The portions of these sites within the Project ROW were not found to meet NRHP and SAL eligibility requirements. However, because each of these sites appears to extend beyond of the current Project ROW boundary, they have not been evaluated in their entirety and their overall NRHP and SAL eligibility is recommended to be Undetermined. The three new IFs are recommended as not eligible for NRHP or SAL designation. Based on the final results of the survey, monitoring, and spot-checking investigations, no cultural resources sites eligible for listing in the NRHP or that merit SAL designation within the Project ROW will be affected by the Project, and it is recommended that the project be allowed to proceed. Should the dimensions of the Project ROW change, additional archaeological investigations may be warranted. Should any unmarked prehistoric or historic human remains or burials be encountered at any point during the project, the area of the remains is considered a cemetery under current Texas law. All cemeteries are protected under State law and cannot be disturbed. Section 28.03(f) of the Texas Penal Code provides that intentional damage or destruction inflicted on a human burial site is a state jail felony. If a cemetery is identified in the Project ROW, all work in the immediate area of the discovery must cease and the THC must be notified by contacting the History Programs Division at (512) 463-5853 and the Archeology Division at (512) 463-6096. Following consultation with the THC, a treatment or avoidance plan would be developed and implemented. No artifacts were collected during the survey. Pursuant to 13 TAC 26.17, correspondence, field records, and photographs generated during field investigations have been prepared for permanent curation at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, Austin, Texas.

The territory of the country measures 25,713 km2. In the north it borders Serbia and Kosovo, in the west Albania, in the south Greece and in the east Bulgaria. It is situated between 40o 51' and 42o 22' north latitude and 20o 27' and 23o 05' east longitude. The population that permanently resides in this territory, according to the last census is 2,022,547 inhabitants from diverse ethnic groups. The Macedonian population prevails with approximately 64% of the total number, but multi-ethnicity represents a solid basis for a rich ethnographic capacity which is included in the tourism offer of the Republic of Macedonia (Marinoski, 2008a). The city population is 59.78% of the total population. The economy experienced a radical change in its conditions. The most significant structural change in the economic system was the transition from socialist self-governing to capitalism, which led to a change of ownership from social to private and a clear determining of the title of ownership. Economic processes emphasised privatisation as the basis of the transition process. Unfortunately, the transition was implemented in a way that many companies and economic systems from the real sector were made bankrupt and liquidated and the overall economic conditions instead of being promoted, demonstrated a remarkable reduction in their development. The downturn of the economy meant that tourism development could not be supported. The decline of the population's standard of living affected the mobility of domestic tourists and the decline of the domestic tourism market. Furthermore, it is a fact that these processes of liquidation contributed in the Republic of Macedonia to the increase in unemployment. A large number of employees in the industry lost their jobs so they were forced to be engaged in other activities. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an important indicator of the economy of the Republic of Macedonia. According to data of the State Statistical Office derived from the annual accounts from business entities and other sources, the gross domestic product in 2014 amounted to 525,620 million denars or 9,727 million US $ while compared to 2013 it increased by 4.7%. The real growth rate of GDP, compared to 2013 was 3.5%. The final expenditure in 2014, compared to 2013, increased by 1.9% and in the structure of GDP it accounted for 86.8%. The share of exports of goods and services in GDP in 2014 was 47.8% (State Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia, n.d.a). Tourism resources of a natural and cultural character are abundant in the region. The natural values have basic, complex and complementary features. Mountains represent exceptionally significant tourist potential. The hilly to mountainous area accounts for 92.2% of the country's surface area. The average height of the country is 1,404 m above sea level. The country is mountainous with the highest peak measuring 2,764 m. There are 34 mountains on which there are 6 major winter sports centres. Equally attractive are the 14 larger gorges and canyons. As well as inactive volcanic landscapes there is one active solfatara. The climate is generally continental, whereas in the mountains it is a mountain climate and towards the open space of the Aegean and Adriatic Seas the climate is Mediterranean. The Republic of Macedonia is landlocked, but there are tectonic, glacial and artificial lakes. The river network consists of three major river basins whereas thermo-mineral springs represent the basis for locating 8 spa centres. There are plant species that are characteristic for the Mediterranean and the Euro-Siberian regions. Forest areas and forest land form a total of 1,288,915 hectares, or 50% of the country's complete territory. The most significant protected areas are the 3 national parks. The wildlife which forms the base for hunting activities is represented by mammals (mammalia) and birds (aves). There are a total of 47 registered hunting associations, which have their own hunting areas. Nine major fishing centres are located by the rivers as well as on the shores of tectonic and artificial lakes (Zikov & Vasil, 1997). Cultural tourism resources are represented by a rare abundance of archaeological sites that date back to the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, as well as to the period of ancient Roman culture, to the early Christian period and to the Middle Ages. Churches and monasteries are a real treasure and an important destination for visitors. They date back to the IX and XIX centuries. Mosques date back to the XIV and XIX centuries. Secular architecture is represented by the built fortified cities, towers, bridges, bazaars, inns, baths and palaces, cultural monuments in the form of urban architecture and distinguished urban settlements and individual houses, monuments and memorials – landmarks from recent history, museums and cultural centres, theatres, universities and major libraries, cultural or sports halls and archives. Ethnographic values and traditions include architecture, traditional economic activities, crafts, food, folkloric clothing as well as folk songs and dances. The most important events are the cultural, entertainment, sports, economic and scientific events. The political structure of the Republic of Macedonia has undergone significant changes. The country went through different political systems. After the Second World War, it was a part of the Yugoslavian federation, so the policies were mainly made at the central level whereby the republics aligned their decisions to the federation and suggested their own individual policies to the Central Committee of the Communist Party and to the bodies of the federation. The political system was characterised by statist and socialist characteristics although the beginnings of the self-governing system were introduced in 1953. Significant changes occurred in 1974 when the self-governing system adopted a greater decentralisation and increase of the individual powers of the republics. During this period the Republic of Macedonia gained more autonomy. There was an improved decentralisation of power towards the local level so that the municipalities also became a significant political structure within the country. Starting from 1980, the Republic of Macedonia entered a transition period which resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia. It was the only Yugoslavian republic that peacefully gained its independence. Since 1991, the country has been an internationally recognised state and a member of the United Nations (UN). In 2001, a military conflict occurred that was relatively quickly resolved by the signing of the Ohrid agreement. This agreement, among other solutions, allowed minority communities to participate according to the representation of the overall population in the state administration. The administrative-territorial structure of the state underwent significant changes which were in line with the autonomy and transition of the self-governing system towards the capitalist system. The separation of the legislature from the executive and the judicial authority was guaranteed by the constitution. The single party system transformed into a multi-party system and the rule of law was established. State governing was a parliamentary democracy. The highest legislative authority was the Parliament in which representatives were elected by parliamentary elections. It elects the Government of the Republic of Macedonia. The President of the country is elected by direct elections, leads foreign policy and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministries, besides participating in the decision-making of the government through its ministers, also have regional and local departments in major community centres through which operationally they implement state policies. The local departments for self-government in the country have an important place in the economic and social development of the country. They decide on the local infrastructure and its improvement as well as on the adoption of spatial and urban solutions that are of great importance for the development of tourism. The bodies of local self-government are managed by the mayor who is elected through local elections. The mayor presents his plans and their implementation to the Council which adopts these documents. The council members are also elected through local elections. In a political sense the local departments for self-government are autonomous in their decision-making. At state level, they are organised into the Association of Local Government Units – ZELS, which plays a significant role in inter-municipal cooperation as well as presenting to state institutions when they have common interests. At regional level, regions exist in which all municipalities are grouped. They are managed by Centres whose executives are elected by representatives of the units for local self-governance. They also enable the balanced economic development of the Republic of Macedonia and they do not have executive authority. In a political sense, numerous changes have taken place in the Republic of Macedonia. The country went from a socialist to a capitalist system, public ownership changed into private ownership, and the federal structure transformed into a unitary state. The country also had many turbulent periods of gaining independence and military conflict in order to establish a multi-party system and a general policy towards Euro-Atlantic integration processes. The legislature is separated from the executive and judicial autonomy. Representatives are elected through parliamentary elections as members of the Council which is appointed by the Government of the Republic of Macedonia. The President is also elected through presidential elections. Regions are established as functional territorial administrative units. The decentralisation processes in an administrative sense, are realised by the Mayor and the Council for local governance who are also elected through local elections.

Abstract Smallholders in the Amazon are one of the most important actor groups for achieving long-term maintenance of the remaining forests. They manage vast areas of forestlands based on customary rights, and possess significant local knowledge about their resources. Smallholders have been exploited and marginalized throughout centuries within paternalistic societies ruled by economic and political elites. More recently, in response to pressure from emerging societal movements, many national governments, supported by the international community, have recognized the rights and roles of smallholders living in rural, often still forested landscapes. During the 1990s, Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) proliferated throughout the Amazon region as a promising approach to halter deforestation and biodiversity loss, as well as to mitigate climate change. While SFM initially focused on the capacities of professionally working timber companies managing public forests in concessions, soon the need became obvious to consider the smallholders living in and from these forests. This gave rise to the concept of community-based forest management that primarily relates to the management of timber by small local forest owners based on legally authorized management plans grounded in the principles of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL). Accordingly, many different governmental and non-governmental organizations, supported by the international donor community, started initiatives to support this new approach. However, after many years of promotion of community-based forest management, experiences have been rather ambivalent. Despite some impressive success stories of some forest development projects, only very few smallholders adopted the proposed management schemes. This lack of broader success indicated a lack of compatibility between the regulatory and market frameworks for community-based forest management and the capacities and interests of smallholders. This raised the more general question if and to what degree the management of forests for timber under the specific conditions of the Amazon region is a feasible option for smallholders to generate the urgently required income in a sustainable way. Against this backdrop, this study aimed at analysing the effective potential of timber management for smallholders in the Amazon to provide orientation for the formulation of policies to promote community-based forest management for the benefits of smallholders. The study considered two critical impediments to community-based forest management: the locally absent technical skills and financial means needed to act successfully in timber markets; and a low abundance, unsatisfactory regeneration and productivity of marketable species in natural forests. Related to this, it is often argued that smallholders tend to seriously overexploit and damage their forests if not controlled. Accordingly, the study followed four research questions: i) What possibilities do smallholders have to engage in timber markets?; ii) What is the commercial potential of their primary and secondary forest areas?; iii) What are the effects of smallholders' timber logging on forests?; and, iv) What are the possibilities for long-term management of timber resources?. As part of the EU-financed international research project "Forest management by small farmers in the Amazon - An opportunity to enhance forest ecosystem stability and rural livelihood", this study addresses these three questions by empirically analysing 21 communities in four forest regions in Bolivia (Riberalta), Ecuador (Macas) and Peru (Pucallpa and Puerto Maldonado) selected for their relevance and representativeness regarding regional contexts in terms of markets characteristics, smallholder's management strategies, and forest characteristics. The analysis included three studies: i) A market and value-chain analysis to understand the role of smallholders in contemporary timber markets and to identify the barriers and potentials to make forest management an attractive source of income. ii) An analysis of the monetary value of timber in smallholders' primary and logged areas. iii) An assessment of the effects of smallholder's logging activities in primary and secondary forests on forest structure and composition through comparisons between primary and logged farm forests. In these studies, farm inventories were carried out in primary, secondary, and logged forests. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with smallholders about timber management practices, generated incomes, production costs, and timber marketing. Secondary information and expert interviews complemented information particularly related to the scientific names and ecological characteristics of the inventoried trees, production chains, and relevant legal aspects. Multivariate and univariate approaches were used to analyse farm forests, and to classify smallholders according to their forest management strategies. In a final step, the findings were used to calculate the financial and ecological potential of community-based timber management under consideration of different area size, logging intensity, and productivity scenarios. The market analysis revealed that the number of species with commercial potential for regional or international markets differed largely between the study areas. Whereas in Riberalta, Bolivia, 15 tree species were regarded as commercial, 22 commercial species were regarded as such in the Pucallpa and Puerto Maldonado regions in Peru, and up to 80 species in the Macas region in Ecuador. Accordingly, the stocking commercial volumes in the analysed forests varied from around 20 m-3 in Riberalta, Pucallpa and Puerto Maldonado, to up to 80 m-3 ha-1 in Macas. The specific numbers strongly varied between the different smallholder forest stands due to previous logging practices and local forest composition. Also, the prices paid by local traders for timber varied strongly. For Cedrelinga cateniformis, a timber tree species found in all the study regions, the price varied from only USD$ 3.7 in Riberalta, to USD$ 6.7 in Pucallpa and Puerto Maldonado, up to USD$ 16 m-3 of round wood in Macas. Accordingly, the monetary value of stocking timber volume for one hectare varied from USD$ 0 in a logged farm forest located near Riberalta, to USD$ 1,324 in a smallholder forest located in the Macas region. The analysed households used this potential to different degrees. It is possible to distinguish five general categories of smallholders: (1) Those not dependent on income from timber; (2) those requiring occasional income from timber; (3) smallholders requiring complementary income; (4) those obtaining their principal income from timber; and (5) smallholders specialized in timber harvesting and trade. Depending on market opportunities, forest conditions and the strategy of the smallholder, incomes from timber varied from USD$ 194 yr-1 in Pucallpa and Puerto Maldonado, to USD$ 216 in Riberalta, up to USD$ 2,589 in Macas. Forests previously logged by smallholders showed significant differences to pristine forests regarding basal area, number of trees and DBH distribution of the principal commercial species. Particularly, a large shift towards smaller size classes was observed. In secondary forests, the commercial timber potential depended in particular on the regeneration and dominance of commercial tree species. In some young secondary forests, dense regeneration of pioneer species with a commercial value in local markets dominated the forest composition. In other cases, only few commercially interesting trees were found. Projections of timber production for the next thirty years resulted in the volumes: between 7.4 m3 ha-1, 12.2 m3 ha-1, and 20.9 m3 ha-1 for Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador respectively, with large variations depending on previous logging practices. These values translate into Annual Allowable Cuts between 0.05 m3 ha-1 yr-1 in a stand located in Puerto Maldonado, up to 1 m3 ha-1 yr-1 in a still pristine forest in Ecuador. Considering the average forest areas of smallholder farms of 53 ha in Bolivia, 46 ha in Peru, and 31 ha in Ecuador, the yearly harvestable volume per smallholder is around 11.5 m3 yr-1, 12.5 m3 yr-1, and 7.2 m3 yr-1 in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, respectively. These translate into potential annual incomes of around USD$ 45 (Bolivia), USD$ 84 (Peru), and USD$ 115 (Ecuador) for the three countries. The potential annual net income also strongly varied depending on transport distance to the nearest road and the availability of horses and chainsaws. Thus, income prospects of forest that were three hours distant from a road were around USD$ 200 yr-1 compared to USD$ 1,000 yr-1 --- for a forest located near a road. These findings suggest that timber management can be financially attractive for smallholders particularly if value is added through the cutting of planks. However, in practice, this potential depends largely on local marketing possibilities and timber prices, the possibility of integrating into value-added chains, as well as the size, composition and state of the forest. In case of vibrant timber markets that absorb large volumes of a wide range of tree species, the financial attractiveness of timber logging is high. Even under less favourable conditions, smallholders tend to develop strategies to take advantage of an eventually existing potential for generating income from the logging of timber in their forests. The identified timber use strategies employed by smallholders in the study regions, although not under control of the forest authorities, so far have only moderately changed the structure and composition of forests at a level comparable with the one documented for sustainable timber management schemes. Timber growth projections for forests that have been logged by smallholders are comparable to those of logged areas under management plans. It can be concluded that the management of forests to produce timber can be attractive for smallholders as a complementary source of urgently required income while contributing in parallel to the long-term conservation of significant forest areas in the Amazon. Against this backdrop, it is highly recommended to more intensively support smallholder forestry in the region, above all by the formal recognition of local management schemes and a substantial improvement of local conditions for the commercialization of timber.