-Dennis Walder, Robert D. Hamner, Derek Walcott. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1993. xvi + 199 pp.''Critical perspectives on Derek Walcott. Washington DC: Three continents, 1993. xvii + 482 pp.-Yannick Tarrieu, Lilyan Kesteloot, Black writers in French: A literary history of Negritude. Translated by Ellen Conroy Kennedy. Washington DC: Howard University Press, 1991. xxxiii + 411 pp.-Renée Larrier, Carole Boyce Davies ,Out of the Kumbla: Caribbean women and literature. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1990. xxiii + 399 pp., Elaine Savory Fido (eds)-Renée Larrier, Evelyn O'Callaghan, Woman version: Theoretical approaches to West Indian fiction by women. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. viii + 126 pp.-Lisa Douglass, Carolyn Cooper, Noises in the blood: Orality, gender and the 'vulgar' body of Jamaican popular culture. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. ix + 214 pp.-Christine G.T. Ho, Kumar Mahabir, East Indian women of Trinidad & Tobago: An annotated bibliography with photographs and ephemera. San Juan, Trinidad: Chakra, 1992. vii + 346 pp.-Eva Abraham, Richenel Ansano ,Mundu Yama Sinta Mira: Womanhood in Curacao. Eithel Martis (eds.). Curacao: Fundashon Publikashon, 1992. xii + 240 pp., Joceline Clemencia, Jeanette Cook (eds)-Louis Allaire, Corrine L. Hofman, In search of the native population of pre-Colombian Saba (400-1450 A.D.): Pottery styles and their interpretations. Part one. Amsterdam: Natuurwetenschappelijke Studiekring voor het Caraïbisch Gebied, 1993. xiv + 269 pp.-Frank L. Mills, Bonham C. Richardson, The Caribbean in the wider world, 1492-1992: A regional geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. xvi + 235 pp.-Frank L. Mills, Thomas D. Boswell ,The Caribbean Islands: Endless geographical diversity. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992. viii + 240 pp., Dennis Conway (eds)-Alex van Stipriaan, H.W. van den Doel ,Nederland en de Nieuwe Wereld. Utrecht: Aula, 1992. 348 pp., P.C. Emmer, H.PH. Vogel (eds)-Idsa E. Alegría Ortega, Francine Jácome, Diversidad cultural y tensión regional: América Latina y el Caribe. Caracas: Nueva Sociedad, 1993. 143 pp.-Barbara L. Solow, Ira Berlin ,Cultivation and culture: Labor and the shaping of slave life in the Americas. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. viii + 388 pp., Philip D. Morgan (eds)-Andrew J. O'Shaughnessy, Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630-1641: The other puritan colony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. xiii + 393 pp.-Armando Lampe, Johannes Meier, Die Anfänge der Kirche auf den Karibischen Inseln: Die Geschichte der Bistümer Santo Domingo, Concepción de la Vega, San Juan de Puerto Rico und Santiago de Cuba von ihrer Entstehung (1511/22) bis zur Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts. Immensee: Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft, 1991. xxxiii + 313 pp.-Edward L. Cox, Carl C. Campbell, Cedulants and capitulants; The politics of the coloured opposition in the slave society of Trinidad, 1783-1838. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1992. xv + 429 pp.-Thomas J. Spinner, Jr., Basdeo Mangru, Indenture and abolition: Sacrifice and survival on the Guyanese sugar plantations. Toronto: TSAR, 1993. xiii + 146 pp.-Rosemarijn Hoefte, Lila Gobardhan-Rambocus ,Immigratie en ontwikkeling: Emancipatie van contractanten. Paramaribo: Anton de Kom Universiteit, 1993. 262 pp., Maurits S. Hassankhan (eds)-Juan A. Giusti-Cordero, Teresita Martínez-Vergne, Capitalism in colonial Puerto Rico: Central San Vicente in the late nineteenth century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. 189 pp.-Jean Pierre Sainton, Henriette Levillain, La Guadeloupe 1875 -1914: Les soubresauts d'une société pluriethnique ou les ambiguïtés de l'assimilation. Paris: Autrement, 1994. 241 pp.-Michèle Baj Strobel, Solange Contour, Fort de France au début du siècle. Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994. 224 pp.-Betty Wood, Robert J. Stewart, Religion and society in post-emancipation Jamaica. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992. xx + 254 pp.-O. Nigel Bolland, Michael Havinden ,Colonialism and development: Britain and its tropical colonies, 1850-1960. New York: Routledge, 1993. xv + 420 pp., David Meredith (eds)-Luis Martínez-Fernández, Luis Navarro García, La independencia de Cuba. Madrid: MAPFRE, 1992. 413 pp.-Pedro A. Pequeño, Guillermo J. Grenier ,Miami now! : Immigration, ethnicity, and social change. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. 219 pp., Alex Stepick III (eds)-George Irving, Alistair Hennessy ,The fractured blockade: West European-Cuban relations during the revolution. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. xv + 358 pp., George Lambie (eds)-George Irving, Donna Rich Kaplowitz, Cuba's ties to a changing world. Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993, xii + 263 pp.-G.B. Hagelberg, Scott B. MacDonald ,The politics of the Caribbean basin sugar trade. New York: Praeger, 1991. vii + 164 pp., Georges A. Fauriol (eds)-Bonham C. Richardson, Trevor W. Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, color, and culture among West Indians in Costa Rica. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Afro-American studies, 1993. xxi + 198 pp.-Gertrude Fraser, George Gmelch, Double Passage: The lives of Caribbean migrants abroad and back home. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. viii + 335 pp.-Gertrude Fraser, John Western, A passage to England: Barbadian Londoners speak of home. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992. xxii + 309 pp.-Trevor W. Purcell, Harry G. Lefever, Turtle Bogue: Afro-Caribbean life and culture in a Costa Rican Village. Cranbury NJ: Susquehanna University Press, 1992. 249 pp.-Elizabeth Fortenberry, Virginia Heyer Young, Becoming West Indian: Culture, self, and nation in St. Vincent. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. x + 229 pp.-Horace Campbell, Dudley J. Thompson ,From Kingston to Kenya: The making of a Pan-Africanist lawyer. Dover MA: The Majority Press, 1993. xii + 144 pp., Margaret Cezair Thompson (eds)-Kumar Mahabir, Samaroo Siewah, The lotus and the dagger: The Capildeo speeches (1957-1994). Port of Spain: Chakra Publishing House, 1994. 811 pp.-Donald R. Hill, Forty years of steel: An annotated discography of steel band and Pan recordings, 1951-1991. Jeffrey Thomas (comp.). Westport CT: Greenwood, 1992. xxxii + 307 pp.-Jill A. Leonard, André Lucrèce, Société et modernité: Essai d'interprétation de la société martiniquaise. Case Pilote, Martinique: Editions de l'Autre Mer, 1994. 188 pp.-Dirk H. van der Elst, Ben Scholtens ,Gaama Duumi, Buta Gaama: Overlijden en opvolging van Aboikoni, grootopperhoofd van de Saramaka bosnegers. Stanley Dieko. Paramaribo: Afdeling Cultuurstudies/Minov; Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, 1992. 204 pp., Gloria Wekker, Lady van Putten (eds)-Rosemarijn Hoefte, Chandra van Binnendijk ,Sranan: Cultuur in Suriname. Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen/Rotterdam: Museum voor Volkenkunde, 1992. 159 pp., Paul Faber (eds)-Harold Munneke, A.J.A. Quintus Bosz, Grepen uit de Surinaamse rechtshistorie. Paramaribo: Vaco, 1993. 176 pp.-Harold Munneke, Irvin Kanhai ,Strijd om grond in Suriname: Verkenning van het probleem van de grondenrechten van Indianen en Bosnegers. Paramaribo, 1993, 200 pp., Joyce Nelson (eds)-Ronald Donk, J. Hartog, De geschiedenis van twee landen: De Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba. Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek, 1993. 183 pp.-Aart G. Broek, J.J. Oversteegen, In het schuim van grauwe wolken: Het leven van Cola Debrot tot 1948. Amsterdam: Muelenhoff, 1994. 556 pp.''Gemunt op wederkeer: Het leven van Cola Debrot vanaf 1948. Amsterdam: Muelenhoff, 1994. 397 pp.
Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors. ; Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors.
Myanmar has a unique opportunity to enable people's participation in change by promoting transparency and accountability throughout the public sector, including in revenue collection, the management of public expenditure, public policy making, and service provision. This can have a pivotal impact on the effectiveness of the public sector and thereby its ability to promote inclusive growth. In Myanmar, the public sector's historically narrow revenue base and its limited role in public service delivery have led to weak development outcomes. A history of opacity and lack of public engagement in policymaking have fueled corruption and compounded the loss of public trust in government.
This paper uses a global general equilibrium simulation model to quantify the effects of lifting economic sanctions on Iran with and without strategic responses. Iran benefits the most, with average per capita welfare gains ranging from close to 3 percent, in the case when Iran's crude oil exports to the European Union recover to half their pre-embargo level, to 6.5 percent, in the best case of complete recovery of oil exports to the European Union, successful domestic reforms that enable a strong supply response, and increased market access for Iranian exports in developed markets. Iran could achieve benefits close to the upper range if Gulf Cooperation Council oil exporters limit their crude oil exports to support the oil price. If they do nothing, however, the price of oil will decline by 13 percent in the case of complete recovery of oil exports to the European Union, leaving net oil importers better off and net oil exporters worse off.
This systematic country diagnostic (SCD) discusses on Belize's ability to promote faster poverty reduction and greater shared prosperity which will depend on how well the country deals with its main sources of vulnerability. The main areas in need of a big push that could have the highest potential impact on the twin goals are : (i) improving education and skills; (ii) addressing crime and violence; and, (iii) increasing resilience to climate change and natural disasters. Strengthening resilience to natural disasters and climate change along with improvements in the existing infrastructure in Belize are critical to support the twin goals to end extreme poverty, and promote shared prosperity in poorer segments of society. Sustainable progress towards the achievement of the twin goals of reducing poverty and boosting shared prosperity in Belize will also require prioritizing fiscal sustainability. This SCD is structured in six chapters that range from a brief description of the main features of Belize to the discussion of priorities for growth and shared prosperity. Chapter 1 presents the country context, highlighting Belize's main features as a small upper middle income country that faces high volatility associated with its size and vulnerability to exogenous shocks. Chapter 2 discusses trends in poverty and shared prosperity. Chapters 2 through 5 discuss the main underlying factors that have been found to influence Belize's growth performance as well as its economic, social and environmental sustainability. Each of these chapters discuss in greater detail the nature of the challenges, dig deeper into exploring the likely causes of these challenges, and identify policy areas that could be critical for boosting growth and inclusion and ensuring sustainability. These chapters also identify knowledge and data gaps on areas where new information could help strengthen a diagnosis and inform specific actions in the priority areas. The sixth and final chapter has three important and distinctive features. First, it provides a synthesis of the analysis and findings of the previous chapters. Second, it provides a discussion of the approach used to identify the priorities for action in Belize. And, third, it concludes with a discussion of the priorities to boost shared prosperity and ensure economic, social and environmental sustainability in Belize.
This paper quantifies the contributions to poverty reduction observed in Sri Lanka between 2002 and 2012/13. The methods adopted for the analysis generate entire counterfactual distributions to account for the contributions of demographics, labor, and non-labor incomes in explaining poverty reduction. The findings show that the most important contributor to poverty reduction was growth in labor income, stemming from an increase in the returns to salaried nonfarm workers and higher returns to self-employed farm workers. Although some of this increase in earnings may point to improvements in productivity, defined as higher units of output per worker, some of it may simply reflect increases in food and commodity prices, which have increased the marginal revenue product of labor. To the extent that there have been no increases in the volumes being produced, the observed changes in poverty are vulnerable to reversals if commodity prices were to decline significantly. Finally, although private transfers (domestic and foreign) helped to reduce poverty over the period, public transfers were not as effective. In particular, the reduction in the real value of transfers of the Samurdhi program during 2002 to 2012/13 slowed down poverty reduction.
Turkey's demographic and economic transformation has been one of the world's most dramatic, with urban growth and economic growth proceeding hand in hand. Distinguishing Turkey from many other developing countries has been the pace, scale, and geographical diversity of its spatial and economic transformation. Fast-growing secondary cities bring added challenges that define Turkey's second-generation urban agenda. New and differentiated service standards will need to be established across both dense urban built-up areas and small villages and rural settlements within the newly-expanded metropolitan municipality administrative area. These developments make planning, connecting, and financing important policy principles for Turkey's second-generation urban development agenda. This policy brief frames a second-generation urban development agenda to support Turkey's transition from upper middle income to high income.
A slow-moving tropical depression caused persistent heavy rains in the Solomon Islands between April 1 and 4, 2014. The highest recorded daily rainfall associated with this event was 318mm in Honiara on April 3. The rains caused flash flooding in Honiara, Guadalcanal, Isabel, Malaita, and Makira-Ulawa. More than 732mm of rain was recorded over four days at the Honiara rain gauge, although heavier rainfall was reported inland. On April 5, as the system moved away from the Solomon Islands, it was upgraded to Tropical Cyclone Ita. The Solomon Islands government has worked with the international community, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders to address humanitarian response needs. The government has sought assistance from Pacific humanitarian team personnel (which is led by the United Nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs), and has also requested supplies to support response efforts. The methodology used for assessing the effects of a disaster or extreme event proceeds from the bottom up: information about the effects of the event is captured sector by sector, and the data are aggregated to arrive at the event s total effect on society and the economy. The ultimate goal of the assessment is to measure in monetary and social terms the disaster's impact on the society, economy, and environment of the affected country or region.
Increasingly, eGovernment (the use of ICTs in order to achieve better government) is moving its focus from web presence and electronic service provision to striving for an interoperable public sector. Interoperability refers to the ability for information exchange across organizational borders, concerning technology as well as business aspects. Policy for such change has been formulated and implementation is currently taking place in many government sectors. In such programs there is a strong need for coordination with regard to the way in which interoperability is to be implemented. Interoperability work requires coordination, as it is a complex endeavour because of the interrelatedness of information systems, public services, departments and organizations, as well as policies, constraints and regulations. In order to achieve interoperability, architectural approaches are increasingly used in the public sector to try to coordinate interoperability work. One such approach, Enterprise Architecture (EA), is becoming increasingly influential. EA has been defined as an overview of the complete business processes and business systems, both in terms of how they overlap and their interrelatedness. However, previous research show that state-of-the-art EA is seldom fully applied in practice. Previous research has also proposed that information infrastructures and architectures should be seen as evolving dynamically during the implementation process through changing relationships between actors. The implementation of IS architecture for interoperability is thus seen as an evolving process of social production. As the research field is still immature further research on the evolution of public information infrastructures and architectures is needed, as well as how the strategic alignment of handling of goals, and ambiguities in implementation is done. This thesis hence addresses the challenges of implementing national public sector interoperability as an evolving process by addressing the research question: How is interoperability interpreted and enacted by different actors in public sector implementation? In order to approach the research question, an interpretive case study is performed. The case studied in this thesis is from the implementation of the Strategy for eHealth in Sweden, where healthcare is mainly publicly funded, and catered for by 20 county councils (who mainly focus on healthcare, and 290 municipalities (who also cater for a great deal of other public services). The case is an example of how interoperability is implemented, from the early stages of outlining a general picture of goals and requirements, to the formulation of a strategy and an architecture. This case is also an example of how EA influences an interoperability program through enterprise thinking. The research uses an interpretive case study approach influenced by Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT is used as a toolbox for telling stories about technology in practice, as emergent in socio-material relations. A number of complementary qualitative methods are used. These include semi-structured interviews, observations and document analysis, with the foremost part of the empirical material being first-hand. In order to understand interoperability implementation in the public sector I examine the background to eGovernment implementation, by contrasting conceptualizations of eGovernment evolution to contemporary theories of public policy implementation. It is shown that, during the last decade, stage models have been used as tools for describing, predicting and directing the evolution of eGovernment. The stage model approach has been criticized for presenting a linear development which has little empirical support and delimits the understanding of eGovernment development as a dynamic process. Newer stage models have started to take this criticism into consideration and alternative models on eGovernment have also been developed. Consequently, eGovernment implementation is in this thesis perceived as a process in which technologies, policies and organizations are in a process of mutual shaping, where policymaking and policy implementation are intermingled. Implementing interoperability is hence not a matter of disseminating a policy that is to be implemented in every setting exactly as stated on paper, but a process in which the goals and means of interoperability are constantly being negotiated. Also, EA has been proposed as an approach to treat technology and business in the public sector as interrelated. However, since previous research show that state-of-the-art EA is seldom fully applied in public sector practice, the concept of enterprise thinking is developed in this thesis. Enterprise thinking is intended to be a concept that describes EA as a contemporary zeitgeist which in practice is adopted in varying ways. The results of the thesis show how interoperability in eHealth was roughly outlined before implementation although still containing conflicts and ambiguities. Central to this thesis is the controversy of defining "the enterprise", as the health care sector was delimited as one enterprise, which became increasingly problematic during implementation. This to a large extent concerned municipalities, whose business area stretched much wider than just the health care sector, and hence the definition of the enterprise became problematic. Another central aspect was legal obstacles to cooperation, as there was a clash between the values of efficiency and patient privacy as a result of a new law that had been implemented in order to allow for information sharing. The legal grounds for sharing information proved to be problematic, which lead to that several involved actors perceived that a large portion of the patients in health care could not benefit from interoperability as their information could not be shared despite this law. The legal challenges also dampened the enthusiasm for the eHealth program as a whole. The program had also outlined a technology architecture before implementation. This architecture was however treated in conflicting ways, both as a blueprint (something to be implemented) and a tool for communication (as a way of discussing what was to be implemented). For instance, several municipalities perceived that the planned infrastructure was unsuitable to their business needs (as it did not meet the requirements of other actors in eGovernment), and thus questioned it, using it as a tool for communication rather than a blueprint. Meanwhile, other actors argued that the blueprint had already been decided, and thus needed to be implemented. The case also shed light on the use of informal networks, outside traditional bureaucracy, as a means to deal with interoperability. Such networks were used in order to align actions and perceptions of a large number of autonomous municipalities. This revealed issues concerning local decision as knowledge of, and resources for, ICT and architectural work was lacking in several municipalities. Also, as the networks lacked formal power no decisions could be taken jointly, but in the end had to be negotiated locally. This made coordinated decision making hard as the processes were lengthy and often lacked clear incentives. Furthermore, ambiguous feedback from national authorities, as well as an overall lack of understanding among local actors, concerning what was legal to do in terms of procurement and information sharing, complicated the situation further. These findings are summarized in four main conclusions; The process of defining which organizations are to be made interoperable, or what is to be considered as "the enterprise", is a political process which might be brought into question and require re-negotiations throughout implementation, as the drawing of boundaries of "the enterprise" can be filled with conflict. Different perspectives on an enterprise, from different architectural viewpoints, are often described as complementary, and it has previously been shown that different architectural metaphors can be used by different actors during implementation. However, in practice, different use of metaphors for architectures can open up for discussion and conflict. These may not only be different, but may also contradict other actors' use of metaphors, since different metaphors might clash. Interoperability work can be a novel task for some local governments. Therefore, there is a need for negotiation and to establish forms of formal decision making and informal dissemination because such structures might be lacking. It should be anticipated that implementation might be slow because of a lack of understanding about interoperability programs (particularly in terms of something other than ICT). In addition, there may be few forums for coordinated decision making, or there may be obstructions in the form of prior formal and legal arrangements. Enterprise thinking is interconnected with Enterprise Architecture as a zeitgeist for interoperability work. It draws upon EA as an ideal, whilst acknowledging that public organizations are influenced by this zeitgeist, although practical conditions might not allow for adoption of an EA approach. Enterprise thinking thus refers to the notion of EA as an ideal, not as a specific way of applying EA. Enterprise thinking has a process focus on interoperability. ICT, business goals, and work practices are perceived as interconnected, and hence need to be treated from a holistic perspective. How this is approached is, however, dependent upon the context in which it is implemented. Further research efforts could approach how enterprise thinking affects interoperability work in the long run with a longitudinal approach. Also, as this thesis has shown how the use of different architectural metaphors can clash, further research could focus on the positive and negative effects of negotiations being initiated by such conflict. From a project management perspective the risks and benefits of using smaller projects as "enrolment devices" for interoperability programs, where an architecture cannot be pushed but is voluntary, should be of interest. Furthermore the use of EA as an ideal which cannot be fully followed in several public settings, although might intentionally be used as a guiding light, is interesting for further research. For instance, it would be of interest to see how the rhetoric of EA may be applied in practice in order to legitimate programs. This is of interest as to examine to which extent the use of such concepts influence actual practice, or if they are only "empty words". The conceptualization of enterprise thinking proposed in the conclusions of this thesis can be used in further research. Indeed, they could be useful for investigating different approaches, influenced by EA, in different contexts. For instance, it may be of interest to countries that might not share the same institutional characteristics of Sweden, but are influenced by enterprise thinking in different ways. This would be of interest for outlining different practical approaches to enterprise thinking. Also, the further development in Sweden specifically could be of interest, as other sectors are at the time of writing preparing their own interoperability programs, and aim to benefit from the lessons learned in the healthcare sector. ; I ökande utsträckning har e-förvaltningens (användningen av IKT för att förbättra verksamheten i offentlig sektor) fokus förflyttats från webb-närvaro och elektroniska tjänster mot att sträva efter en interoperabel offentlig sektor. Interoperabilitet avser möjligheten för informationsutbyte över verksamheters olika gränser, vilket innefattar teknologiska såväl som organisatoriska aspekter. Policys för sådana förändring har utarbetats och implementeras för närvarande i flera offentliga organisationer. I sådana program finns det ett starkt behov av samordning gällande det sätt på vilket interoperabilitet skall genomföras. Interoperabilitetsarbete kräver således samordning, eftersom det är en komplex uppgift på grund sammanvävda informationssystem, offentliga tjänster, organisationer, policys, begränsningar och regler. För att uppnå interoperabilitet används arkitekturella tillvägagångssätt alltmer inom den offentliga sektorn, för att försöka samordna arbetet. Ett sådant tillvägagångssätt, Enterprise Architecture (EA), har fått ett ökande inflytande. EA har definierats som en översikt av hela affärsprocesser och affärssystem, både vad gäller hur de överlappar med varandra och hur de hänger samman. Dock visar tidigare forskning att EA i praktiken sällan tillämpas fullt ut. Tidigare forskning har också påvisat att informationsinfrastrukturer och arkitekturer bör ses som dynamiskt framväxande under implementeringsprocessen, genom förändrade relationer mellan aktörer. Implementering av informationssystemsarkitektur för interoperabilitet bör därmed ses som en framväxande och socialt producerad process. Då forskningsområdet fortfarande är omoget behövs ytterligare forskning om framväxten av offentliga informationsinfrastrukturer och arkitekturer, samt hur strategisk sammanjämkning av mål och oklarheter i implementeringen sker. Denna avhandling behandlar därför utmaningarna som finns i implementeringen av interoperabilitet i offentlig sektor, som en framväxande process, genom att behandla frågeställningen: Hur tolkas och sätts interoperabilitet i praktiken av olika aktörer under implementering i offentlig sektor? För att närma sig frågeställningen utförs en tolkande fallstudie. Fallet som studerats i denna avhandling är från implementeringen av strategin IT-strategin för vård och omsorg (eHälsostrategin) i Sverige, där vården i huvudsak är offentligt finansierad, och tillhandahålls av 20 landsting (som huvudsakligen fokuserar på sjukvård), och 290 kommuner (som också tillhandahåller en mängd andra offentliga tjänster). Fallet är ett exempel på hur interoperabilitet implementeras, från de tidiga skeden då en generell bild av mål och krav målas upp, till utformningen av en strategi och en arkitektur. Detta fall är också ett exempel på hur EA påverkar ett interoperabilitetsprogram via "enterprise thinking". En fallstudie genomförs med en tolkande ansats, influerad av Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT används som en verktygslåda för att berätta historier om teknik i praktiken, som framväxande genom sociomateriella relationer. Merparten av det empiriska materialet har samlats in i förstahand och ett antal kompletterande kvalitativa metoder används. Dessa metoder inkluderar semi-strukturerade intervjuer, observationer och dokumentanalys. För att förstå interoperabilitetsimplementering i offentlig sektor undersöker jag bakgrunden till implementation av e-förvaltning, genom att kontrastera begreppsbildningar av hur e-förvaltningen växer fram mot samtida teorier om implementation i offentlig sektor. Jag påvisar att under det senaste decenniet har stegmodeller använts som verktyg för att beskriva, förutsäga och styra utvecklingen av e-förvaltning. Denna typ av modeller har kritiserats då de framhåller en linjär utveckling som har bristande empiriskt stöd och begränsar förståelsen för e-förvaltningens framväxt som en dynamisk process. Nyare stegmodeller har börjat ta hänsyn till denna kritik och alternativa modeller på e-förvaltning har också utvecklats. Följaktligen ses i denna avhandling implementeringen av e-förvaltning som en process där teknik, policy och organisationer är i en ständig process av ömsesidig påverkan, där policyskapande och policyimplementering är sammanvävt. Att implementera interoperabilitet är därför inte en fråga om att sprida en policy som skall genomföras av varje aktör så som det står angivet på pappret, utan en process där mål och metoder för interoperabilitet ständigt omförhandlas. EA har föreslagits som ett tillvägagångssätt för att behandla teknik och verksamhet som integrerade. Dock, eftersom tidigare forskning visar att EA sällan tillämpas fullt ut i praktiken i offentlig sektor, så utvecklas begreppet enterprise thinking i denna avhandling. Enterprise thinking är avsett att vara ett koncept som beskriver EA som en samtida tidsandan som i praktiken närmas på olika sätt. Resultaten i avhandlingen visar hur interoperabilitet i e-hälsa skisserades ut grovt innan implementeringen, i en bild som innehöll konflikter och tvetydigheter. Centralt för denna avhandling är problematiken i att definiera verksamheten ("the enterprise"), då hälso- och sjukvårdssektorn var avgränsad som en verksamhet, vilket blev allt mer problematiskt under implementeringen. Detta berörde till stor del kommuner, vars verksamhetsområde sträcker sig mycket bredare än bara hälso- och sjukvården. Därmed blev definitionen av verksamheten problematisk. En annan central aspekt var juridiska hinder för samverkan, då det fanns en konflikt mellan värdena effektivitet och patientens integritet. Detta var delvis en följd av en ny lag som hade införts just i syfte att möjliggöra informationsutbyte. De rättsliga grunderna för att dela information visade sig vara problematiska, vilket ledde till att flera inblandade aktörer uppfattade att en stor del av patienterna i vården inte kunde dra nytta av interoperabilitet, eftersom deras information inte kunde delas trots denna lagändring. De rättsliga utmaningarna dämpade också entusiasmen för eHälsoprogrammet som helhet. Programmet hade också skisserat ut en teknikarkitektur innan implementeringen. Denna arkitektur behandlades dock på motstridiga sätt, både som en "ritning" (en klar bild av vad som skulle genomföras) och som ett verktyg för kommunikation (som ett sätt att diskutera vad som skulle genomförts). Till exempel uppfattade flera kommuner att den planerade infrastrukturen var olämpliga för deras verksamhetsbehov (då den inte uppfyllde kraven från andra aktörer inom e-förvaltning), och ifrågasatte därmed den genom att använda arkitekturen som ett verktyg för kommunikation snarare än en ritning. Samtidigt menade andra aktörer att man redan hade tagit beslut om denna ritning och att den därmed skulle följas. Fallstudien kastar också ljus på användningen av informella nätverk, utanför den traditionella byråkratin, som ett sätt för att arbeta med interoperabilitetsfrågor. Sådana nätverk användes i syfte att sammanjämka åtgärder och uppfattningar hos ett stort antal självstyrande aktörer. Detta visade på en problematik gällande lokalt beslutsfattande och resurser gällande IKT och arkitekturellt arbete, då kompetenser och erfarenheter för detta saknades hos flera kommuner. Relaterat till detta är att i de nätverk där diskussionerna fördes saknades även formell makt, och inga beslut kunde fattas gemensamt därigenom. I slutändan var man istället tvungna att diskutera de frågor som togs upp där lokalt. Detta gjorde samordnat beslutsfattande svårt eftersom processerna var långa och ofta saknade tydliga incitament. Dessutom fanns en problematik i att nationella aktörer ofta gav tvetydig respons på frågor, samt en allmän brist på förståelse bland lokala aktörer, gällande vad som var lagligt att göra beträffande upphandling och informationsutbyte. Detta komplicerade situationen ytterligare. Dessa resultat sammanfattas i fyra huvudsakliga slutsatser; 1. Processen med att definiera vilka organisationer som skall göras interoperabla, eller vad som ska betraktas som "verksamheten", är en politisk process som kan ifrågasättas och kräva omförhandlingar under implementeringen, eftersom hur man definierar gränserna kring "verksamheten" kan vara konfliktfyllt. 2. Olika perspektiv på en verksamhet, från olika arkitekturella perspektiv, beskrivs ofta som komplementära, och det har tidigare visats att olika arkitekturella metaforer kan användas av olika aktörer under implementeringen. I praktiken kan dock olika användning av arkitekturella metaforer öppna upp för diskussion och konflikt. Dessa är inte nödvändigtvis bara annorlunda och komplementära, utan kan också motsäga andra aktörers användning av metaforer, då olika metaforer kan kollidera. 3. Interoperabilitetsarbete kan vara en ny uppgift för lokala aktörer. Det finns därför ett behov av förhandlingar och att upprätta former för formellt beslutsfattande och informell "spridning" av information eftersom strukturer för detta kan saknas. Detta kan vara en långsam process på grund av bristande förståelse för interoperabilitetsprogram (särskilt i fråga om att de skulle handla om något annat än bara IKT). Dessutom finns ibland få (om ens några) forum för samordnat beslutsfattande, och det kan även finnas formella och legala hinder för detta. 4. Enterprise thinking ("verksamhetstänkande") är sammankopplat med Enterprise Architecture, som är en tidsanda för interoperabilitetsarbete. Det bygger på EA som ett ideal, då offentliga organisationerna påverkas av denna tidsanda, men att praktiska förutsättningar kanske inte möjliggör att man antar en EA-strategi. Enterprise thinking hänvisar således till EA-begreppet som ett ideal, och är alltså inte ett specifikt sätt att tillämpa EA. Enterprise thinking har ett processfokus på interoperabilitet. IKT, verksamhetens mål och arbetsrutiner ses som sammanlänkade och måste därför behandlas utifrån ett helhetsperspektiv. Hur man närmar sig detta i praktiken är dock beroende på i vilken kontext det implementeras. Vidare forskning skulle kunna behandla hur enterprise thinking påverkar interoperabilitetsarbete på lång sikt, med en longitudinell ansats. Då denna avhandling visar på hur användningen av olika arkitekturella metaforer kan kollidera föreslås ytterligare forskning som fokusera på de positiva och negativa effekterna av att förhandlingar initieras av sådana konflikter. Från ett projektledningsperspektiv kan riskerna och fördelarna med att använda mindre projekt som symboler för att få med flera aktörer i interoperabilitetsprogram fokuseras. Detta är i synnerhet intressant i arkitekturprogram där en arkitektur inte kan tvingas på aktörerna, men att implementation är frivillig. Användning av EA som ett ideal som ofta inte kan följas fullt ut i offentlig sektor, men avsiktligt användas som en ledstjärna, är intressant för vidare forskning. Till exempel skulle det vara intressant att se hur EA-retorik kan tillämpas i praktiken för att legitimera program. Det är av intresse att undersöka i vilken utsträckning användningen av dessa begrepp påverkar verksamheten, eller om de bara är tomma ord. Begreppet enterprise thinking föreslås som användbart för vidare forskning. Det kan vara användbart för att undersöka olika tillvägagångssätt, influerade av EA, i olika kontexter. Exempelvis kan det vara av intresse att se till länder som inte har samma institutionella egenskaper som Sverige, men påverkas av enterprise thinking på olika sätt. Detta skulle vara av intresse för att undersöka på vilka olika sätt enterprise thinking närmas i praktiken. Även den fortsatta utvecklingen i Sverige kan vara av särskilt intresse, då andra sektorer i skrivande stund förbereder egna interoperabilitetsprogram och ämnar dra nytta av lärdomar från arbetet inom vårdsektorn.
The aim of this article is to describe the history of the Department of Archaeology in Vilnius University from 1940 (the establishment) to 1966, when the department was integrated into the newly formed Lithuanian SSR Department of History. This article refers to the works of other authors, memorials and archival material.The circumstances surrounding the establishment of the Department of Archaeology go back to 1939, when the province of Vilnius was given back to Lithuania. Then the question of restructuring the Vilnius University also arose. On December 12th, 1939, the Parliament passed a highereducation law, which stated that the activities of the Lithuanian university would begin on December 15th, 1939, along with the opening of the Faculty of Humanities (FH) on the same day. For this reason the staff and students from the Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas had to be moved to Vilnius. The relocation was set to begin after January 1st, 1940.The first meeting of the FH Council was held in Kaunas, on January 5th, 1940. It was decided to establish the Seminar of Archaeology with freelance docent J. Puzinas as its Head. The University museums of Archaeology and Ethnography were also entrusted to his care. Senior assistant Juozas Baldžius was elected to be his aid, while on February 15th, 1940, R. Volkaitė was elected as the museologist of the Archaeology museum. Thus began the career of Professor Ph. D. Jonas Puzinas in Vilnius University, the most famous interwar Lithuanian archaeologist and the pioneer of scientific archaeology in Lithuania.The work did not stop in June of 1940, after first Soviet occupation, although there were some changes. In autumn semester of 1940 the Department of Ethnics was divided into two separate Departments of Ethnography and Archaeology.Department of Archaeology in Vilnius University was established in September of 1940. On the September 20th J. Puzinas was elected to head of the Department of Archaeology and on January 1st, 1941, he was equated to a professor with a Ph. D. In the FH Council meeting on of June 5th, 1941, R. Volkaitė was elected assistant of the Department of Archaeology. So there were two academic researchers working in the Department at that time.The work did not cease during the years of Nazi Germany occupation. In the autumn of 1941 docent J. Puzinas was once again elected Head of Department of Archaeology. On December 5th he was presented as candidate for election of extraordinary professor. Until J. Puzinas fled to the West, he also was the Dean of FH (from June 26th, 1941) and the member of Vilnius University Senate (from August 7th, 1941).Teaching of archaeology disciplines in the University was not reserved to archaeology students only, but also to Ethnography and Lithuanian History students. During the war the Department did not conduct archaeological research so students did not have any fieldwork practice. The Department's staff produced only a small amount of academic publications.In the summer of 1944 when the Red Army was approaching Vilnius, Professor J. Puzinas and his family fled to the West followed by M. Alseikaitė-Gimbutienė. However, the majority of archaeologists (former students of J. Puzinas), such as P. Kulikauskas, R. Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė and R. Jablonskytė-Rimantienė remained in Lithuania, continued their research and contributed to the preparation of specialists in the Department of Archaeology.At the beginning of second Soviet occupation in autumn of 1944, the Department of Archaeology became a part of the History and Philology Faculty. R. Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė and P. Kulikauskas worked in the Department.In 1947 the Departments of Archaeology, Ethnography and Art History in the History and Philology Faculty were reorganised into the Department of Museology. A few years later (in 1949) that Department was reorganised into the Department of Archaeology and Ethnography. R. Kulikauskienė became the Head of the Department and she held the post until 1962. P. Kulikauskas worked in this Department as anhourly paid scholar, whose primary job since 1948 was in the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences. In 1951 one of the first post-war graduate archaeologists Aldolfas Tautavičius started to work in the Department of Archaeology as hourly paid scholar; it was his secondary job from March 17th, 1954 to April 30th, 1959. These three researchers taught the major archaeology courses at the university.The scientific work of the lecturers could not be fully fledged for one reason. By the secret decree of Lithuanian Communist Party's (b) Central Committee, it was prohibited to mention the publications of researchers who fled to the West and were referred to as 'motherland traitors'. Therefore the names of J. Puzinas, Latvian archaeologists V. Ginters, F. Balodis, E. Šturms and some German archaeologists did not appear in the Lithuanian archaeologists' publications for the first post-war decades. There only were references to such publications as "Senovė", "Gimtasai kraštas", "Prussia" and others. For this reason some foreign researchers, who did not know the real situation, sometimes tauntingly wondered why Lithuanian archaeologists do not know the publications of their predecessors.Despite the difficulties in the post-war period, the Department of Archaeology and Ethnography successfully prepared professional archaeologists. 2 to 6 archaeologists graduated every year until 1962. Until that year 40 people received a degree in archaeology and part of them worked in various science institutions. In 1962 docent P. Kulikauskienė started to work at Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences. Docent P. Kulikauskas returned to the University and was the Head of the Department until 1966 when Department was closed.From 1948 to 1966 Vilnius University archaeologists did a lot of research on Lithuanian archaeological sites. University archaeologists were often organising expeditions together with the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences.The most important sites worth noting are: Linksmučiai burial ground (Pakruojis district), Laiviai burial ground (Kretinga dictrict), Nemenčinė hillfort (Vilnius district), Migonys archaeological complex (Kaišiadorys district), Kunigiškės-Pajevonys hillfort (Vilkaviškis district). The monuments' material, researched by the University archaeologists, was published in the form of scientific articles and monographs. In addition, a number of summarising articles were appeared in both Lithuanian and various USSR publications.R. Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė's work "Lietuvos archeologiniai paminklai ir jų tyrinėjimai" ("Lithuanian Archaeological Monuments and Their Research") has to be singled out. It was the first study book for students of archaeology, presenting the main types of archaeological monuments and some research results in the first half, while the second half dealt with heritage preservation and field research methodology."Lietuvos archeologijos bruožai" ("The Features of Lithuanian Archaeology") by P. Kulikauskas, R. Kulikauskienė and A. Tautavičius was published in 1961 and it was the biggest summarising work of Lithuanian archaeology yet, practically written by former and current University archaeologists. It was a very important event in the history of Lithuanian archaeology. The book described the research history of Lithuanian archaeological monuments, reviewed the sites from different periods with more detail than any previous publications, presented new data about the activities, crafts, trade relations, fortified and unfortified settlements of the Lithuanian people, discussed some questions about ethnic history of the Baltic tribes. This book not only summarised the research data of Lithuanian archaeological monuments, but also became a study book of Lithuanian archaeology.Concluding the Vilnius University Department of Archaeology (later – the Department of Archaeology and Ethnography) activities from 1940 to 1966, it must be noted that despite the war and post-war difficulties it prepared a lot of archaeology specialists for Lithuania. The staff of the Department of Archaeology made significant contributions investigating the sites of different archaeological periods, publishing and summarising the research material and preparing the most important publications about Lithuanian archaeology at the time. ; 1940 m. rugsėjį Vilniaus universitete buvo įsteigta Archeologijos katedra. Švęsdami katedros įkūrimo 70 metų jubiliejų, galime apžvelgti gana sudėtingą nueitą kelią, katedroje dirbusių žmonių veiklą, jų indėlį į Lietuvos ir baltų genčių archeologijos mokslą, specialistų archeologų rengimą. Galima iš karto pažymėti, kad Archeologijos katedros, kaip ir viso lietuviškojo Vilniaus universiteto, veikla nuo 1940 m. yra susijusi su sunkiu ir labai sudėtingu Lietuvos istorijos tarpsniu. [.]
[EN] Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are the most violent explosions in the Universe. Although they were first discovered over half a century ago, yet many problems remain unsolved. Since the successful launch of GRB dedicated missions such as Swift and Fermi, multi-wavelength ground-based observations have provided a new approach to better characterize these events, their host galaxies and understand the underlying physics around the newly born compact objects following the GRB itself. GRB 140629A was a long burst that triggered the Swift satellite and many facilities at different wavelengths followed up this event, including the optical (Swift/UVOT and various facilities worldwide), infrared (Spitzer) and X-rays (Swift/XRT). These data were taken between 40 seconds and 3 yr after the burst trigger, which made this burst a good case to investigate the properties of the dominant jet and its host galaxy. The absorption features displayed in the optical spectrum, taken with the 6.0m BTA telescope, confirmed the redshift of this GRB (z = 2.276 0.001). We found no strong spectral evolution when fitting the spectral energy distribution of the afterglow from the X-rays to optical wavelengths. The hydrogen column density NH was constrained to be 7.2×1021cm−2 along the line of sight. The afterglow in this burst could be explained by a blast wave jet with a long-lasting central engine expanding into a uniform medium in the slow cooling regime. At the end of energy injection, a normal decay phase was observed in both the optical and X-ray bands. An achromatic jet break was also found in the afterglow light curves 0.4 d after the trigger. We fitted the multi-wavelength data simultaneously with a model (based on numerical simulations) and found that the observations could be explained by a narrow uniform jet in a dense environment with a half-opening angle of 6:7 viewed 3:8 off-axis, implying a total released energy of 1:4 1054 erg. Using the redshift and opening angle, we found that GRB 140629A followed both the Ghirlanda and Amati relations. The peak time of the light curve was identified as the onset of the forward shock (181 s after trigger) and we could constrain the initial Lorentz factor (Γ0) in the range 82-118. After fitting the host galaxy spectral energy distribution, we found the host to be a low mass, star-forming galaxy with a star formation rate (SFR) of log(SFR) = 1.1+0.9−0.4 M yr−1. We also obtained a value for the neutral hydrogen density NHI by fitting the optical spectrum, from which we derived logNHI = 21:0 0:3, classifying this host as a damped Lyman-alpha system. High ionisation lines (N V,Si IV) were also detected in the optical spectrum. Furthermore, polarisation observations by the MASTER network indicated that this burst was weakly polarised. GRB 190829A was detected by both Fermi and Swift but what made a unique event out of it was the detection of very high energy (VHE) gamma-rays by the High-Energy Stereoscopic System telescopes (HESS). The prompt gamma-ray emission displayed two emission episodes separated by a quiescent gap of 40 s. We followed it up with the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio CANARIAS (GTC) and gathered observations of the afterglow of GRB 190829A and its underlying supernova during the following days. We determined the redshift of this event (z = 0.0785 0.005) and compared GRB 190829A to GRB 180728A, another GRB with similar prompt behaviour at VHE energies, and discussed the implications regarding the underlying physical mechanisms producing these two GRBs. Together with the prompt emission data, the 10.4 m GTC data was used to better understand the emission mechanisms and possible progenitors. In the detailed analysis of the multi-band observations of the afterglow, we found the observational properties of the multi-wavelength afterglow could be explained by the cooling frequency passing between the optical and X-ray bands at the early epoch. A few days after, we saw the transition from the afterglow spectrum to the underlying supernova (dubbed SN 2019oyw) spectrum, which dominated the light curve at later times. Although the prompt emission temporal properties of GRB 190829A and GRB 180728A were similar, the two gamma-ray pulses were different in the spectral domain. We also found that the SN 2019oyw associated with GRB 190829A is powered by Ni decay and could be classified as a Type Ic-BL (broad line) supernova. The spectroscopic and photometric properties of this supernova were consistent with those observed for SN 1998bw (also related to another burst, GRB 980425) but SN 2019oyw evolved much faster than SN 1998 bw. Besides these above mentioned two long-duration GRBs, we also investigated the prompt emission and the afterglow properties of a sample of shortduration gamma-ray bursts (sGRBs) including GRB 130603B and another eight sGRB events during 2012-2015. They were observed by several multi-wavelength facilities, including the 10.4m GTC telescope. Prompt emission high energy data of those events were obtained by INTEGRAL-SPI-ACS, Swift-BAT and Fermi- GBM satellites. The prompt emission data by INTEGRAL in the 0.1–10 MeV energy range for sGRB 130603B, sGRB 140606A, sGRB 140930B, sGRB 141212A, and sGRB 151228A did not show signs of the extended emission or the precursor activity and their spectral and temporal properties were found to be similar to those seen in case of other short-duration bursts. For sGRB 130603B, our new afterglow photometric data constrained the pre-jet-break temporal decay due to denser temporal coverage. Its afterglow light curve, containing both our new data as well as previously published photometric data, was broadly consistent with the interstellar medium (ISM) afterglow model. Modelling the host galaxies of sGRB 130603B and sGRB 141212A using the LePHARE software supported a scenario where the burst environment was undergoing moderate star formation activity. From the inclusion of our late-time data for the additional eight sGRBs, we were able to place tight constraints on the non-detection of the afterglow, host galaxy or any underlying 'kilonova' emission. Finally, our late-time afterglow observations of the short-duration GRB 170817A (related to the gravitational wave GW 170817) are also discussed and compared with the sub-set of short-duration GRBs. ; [ES] Los estallidos de rayos gamma (GRBs) son los fenómenos más energéticos del Universo que, descubiertos hace más de medio siglo, presentan en la actualidad muchos incógnitas que aún están por resolver. Tras el lanzamiento exitoso de Swift y Fermi, la observación de los GRBs en múltiples longitudes de onda está proporcionando un nuevo enfoque para poder comprender mejor este fenómeno. Uno de los GRBs estudiados en este trabajo ha sido GRB 140629A, un estallido de larga duración que detectó el satélite Swift y que se pudo observar en diferentes longitudes de onda, obteniéndose un conjunto de datos abundantes que incluye el óptico (por medio de Swift/UVOT y de otras instalaciones astronómicas en todo el mundo), infrarrojo (Spitzer) y rayos X (Swift/XRT). Los datos analizados se tomaron entre 40 segundos y 3 años después del GRB, haciendo de este un caso propicio para poder investigar las propiedades tanto de la emisión colimada como de la de la galaxia anfitriona. A través de las líneas de absorción características presentes en el espectro óptico se derivó el corrimiento al rojo de este GRB (z = 2.276 0.001). Por otro lado, la evolución de la distribución espectral de energía en el rango del óptico a los rayos X no es significativa. La densidad de columna de hidrógeno NH se midió en 7.2 ×1021cm−2 a lo largo de la línea de visión. La postluminiscencia observada se puede explicar por medio de la existencia de un chorro colimado resultante de la onda expansiva procedente de un motor central de larga duración, produciéndose la expansión en un medio uniforme y en el régimen de enfriamiento lento. También al final de la fase de inyección de energía, se observa una fase de declive tanto en la banda óptica como en la de rayos X. Igualmente se encuentra una desviación (rotura) de la caída del flujo observado de la postluminiscencia, de manera acromática, en las curvas de luz de la posluminiscencia 0.4 d después del GRB. Ajustamos los datos de las múltiples longitudes de onda de manera simultáneamente con un modelo basado en una simulación numérica y encontramos que las observaciones pueden explicarse por un chorro uniforme estrecho en un ambiente denso con un ángulo de abertura de 6:7 visto 3:8 fuera de su eje, lo que implica que se liberó una energía total de 1:4 1054 erg. Usando el valor del corrimiento al rojo y el ángulo de abertura, encontramos que GRB 140629A obedece las relaciones de Ghirlanda y Amati. Desde el momento del máximo de la curva de luz, identificado como el inicio de la onda de choque que se propaga en el tiempo (181 s después del disparo), el factor de Lorentz inicial (Γ0) debe situarse en el rango 82-118. Haciendo un ajuste de los valores fotométricos de la galaxia anfitriona, encontramos se trata de una galaxia de baja masa con formación estelar y una tasa de formación estelar de log(SFR)=1.1+0.9−0.4 M yr−1 . Obtenemos un valor de la densidad del hidrógeno neutro NHI ajustando el espectro óptico, logNHI = 21:0 0:3, clasificando este sistema como un sistema de Lyman-alfa amortiguado. Las líneas de alta ionización (N V, Si IV) también se detectan en el referido espectro. Y las observaciones de polarización realizadas por el telescopio MASTER indican que este estallido es un evento débilmente polarizado. El segundo evento de los estudiados ha sido GRB 190829A, que fue detectado por Fermi y Swift y también a rayos-gamma de muy alta energía (VHE) por HESS (Sistema estereoscópico de alta energía). La emisión temprana mostró dos episodios de emisión separados por un intervalo sin actividad alguna con una duración de 40 s. Presentamos las observaciones del 10.4 m Gran Telescopio CANARIAS (GTC) en relación a la post-luminiscencia de GRB 190829A y su supernova subyacente. El corrimiento al rojo de este evento se detectó con z=0.0785 0.005. También comparamos GRB 190829A con GRB 180728A, un estallido con un comportamiento similar, y discutimos las implicaciones en los mecanismos físicos subyacentes que producen estos dos GRBs. Los datos fotométricos multi-banda junto con la observación espectroscópica de este evento se tomaron con el telescopio GTC de 10.4m. Junto con los datos de la emisión inicial, los datos del GTC se utilizan para comprender los mecanismos de emisión y el posible progenitor. En el análisis detallado de las observaciones multibanda del resplandor, encontramos que este evento es consistente con el paso de la frecuencia de enfriamiento entre las bandas ópticas y de rayos X en épocas tempranas. Luego estudiamos la supernova subyacente 2019oyw, que domina las fases más tardías. Aunque las propiedades temporales de emisión rápida de GRB 190829A y GRB 180728A son similares, los dos pulsos de rayos-gamma son diferentes en el dominio espectral. Encontramos que SN 2019oyw, asociada con GRB 190829A se puede explicar por la desintegración de Ni y ha sido clasificada como una supernova de Tipo Ic-BL. Las propiedades espectroscópicas y fotométricas de esta supernova son consistentes con las observadas para SN 1998bw (asociada a GRB 980425), pero mostrando una evolución más rápida. Además de los dos GRBs de larga duración reseñados anteriormente, también investigamos la emisión rápida y las propiedades de la postluminiscencia del estallido de rayos gamma de corta duración GRB 130603B así como de otros 8 eventos GRB de corta duración, detectados durante el periodo 2012-2015, y observados por varias instalaciones en diferentes longitudes de onda, incluyendo el telescopio GTC de 10.4 m de diámetro. Los satélites INTEGRAL (SPI-ACS), Swift (BAT) and Fermi (GBM) obtuvieron datos de alta energía de dichos GRBs. Los datos de emisión temprana por INTEGRAL en el rango de energía de 0,1 a 10 MeV para sGRB 130603B, sGRB 140606A, sGRB 140930B, sGRB 141212A y sGRB 151228A no muestran ningún indicio de la emisión extendida o la actividad precursora y sus propiedades espectrales y temporales son similares a los que se ven en el caso de otros GRBs de corta duración. Para sGRB 130603B, nuestros nuevos datos fotométricos en relación a la posluminiscencia restringen el decaimiento temporal previo al desvío en la curva de luz producida por la expasión del chorro, gracias a haber dispuesto de una cobertura temporal más completa. La curva de luz de la postluminiscencia, que contiene tanto nuestros datos fotométricos nuevos como los publicados anteriormente, es consistente con el modelo de post-luminiscencia atravesando un medio de tipo interestelar (ISM). El modelado de las galaxias anfitrionas de sGRB 130603B y sGRB 141212A, utilizando el software LePHARE, respalda un escenario en el que el entorno de la explosión en la galaxia huésped está experimentando una actividad de formación estelar moderada. A partir de la inclusión de nuestros datos para los otros 8 GRBs de corta duración anteriormente referidos, podemos imponer restricciones estrictas a la no detección de la postluminiscencia, la galaxia anfitriona o cualquier emisión de kilonova subyacente. Nuestras observaciones tardías en el tiempo, de la post-luminiscencia de sGRB 170817A / GW170817 también se discuten y comparan con el subconjunto de GRBs de corta duración. ; With funding from the Spanish government through the Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence accreditation SEV-2017-0709. ; Peer reviewed
In M.-V. werden wesentliche politische Entscheidungen regelmäßig von Hinweisen auf Bevölkerungsprognosen begleitet. Dabei sind es Bevölkerungsvorausberechnungen, deren Ergebnisse maßgeblich von den getroffenen Annahmen, den zugrundeliegenden Bevölkerungsdaten und der Methodik abhängen. In Kombination mit deren weiteren Prinzipien handelt es sich eher um Modelle, deren Aussagekraft bezüglich eines langen Prognosezeitraumes stark limitiert ist. Da alternative Instrumente demgegenüber deutlich zurückstehen, können Infrastrukturentscheidungen nicht in ausreichendem Maße abgesichert werden. Vor dem Hintergrund, dass M.-V. bspw. durch eine geringe Bevölkerungsdichte oder eine Vielzahl kleiner Gemeinden gekennzeichnet ist, sollte es die oberste Prämisse sein, langfristig weithin akzeptierte Strukturen zu schaffen, die den Gemeinden eine Perspektive gibt. In diesem Sinne ist der bisherige Ansatz der Stärkung der Zentren und der infrastrukturellen Marginalisierung der übrigen Gemeinden nicht erstrebenswert. Diesem Ansatz wird eine Flexibilisierung von Infrastruktur entgegengestellt, mit der alles erfasst wird, was im politisch gesetzten Auftrag bestehende Funktionsdefizite ausgleicht oder abdeckt. Gleichzeitig wird dem Begriff der Daseinsvorsorge eine Absage erteilt, da von Grunddaseinsfunktionen bei einem staatlichen Rückzug aus der Fläche nicht mehr gesprochen werden kann. Andernfalls würden bspw. die über 65-Jährigen nicht in die Zentren "flüchten". Zudem muss festgehalten werden, dass mit der Flexibilisierung des Begriffes Infrastruktur auch eine Neuinterpretation der Begriffe Mobilität und Verkehr einhergeht. Mobilität zeichnet bisher durch eine technische Überbetonung aus und zielt auch auf Ortsveränderungen ab. Damit überschneidet sich Mobilität definitorisch mit Verkehr. Zugleich ist die Rolle der Infrastruktur von nachrangiger Bedeutung. Die Integration des flexiblen Infrastrukturbegriffes führt zu einer Mobilität, die einfach die Fähigkeit zur Interaktion beschreibt und Verkehr wird zu konkreten Handlungen von Subjekten oder sozialen Gruppen. Beide sind dann nur noch von den individuellen Präferenzen und der Infrastruktur abhängig, wobei die Unplanbarkeit der individuellen Präferenzen festgehalten werden muss. Die infrastrukturelle Abhängigkeit zeigt sich auch bei Vulnerabilität und Resilienz. Während Vulnerabilität für Prozesse und deren Wirkungen auf Systeme sowie Organisationen in Abhängigkeit von Infrastruktur steht, bezeichnet Resilienz den Umgang mit vulnerablen Prozessen in Abhängigkeit von der Infrastruktur und der Zielsetzung. Aufgrund der nur unzureichend vorhandenen Informationen über die Gemeinden in M.-V. stand die Verbesserung der empirischen Basis gegenüber de-taillierten Maßnahmen im Fokus. Ganz allgemein vollzog sich auf der Gemeindeebene zwischen 1990 und 2012 eine sehr vielschichtige Entwicklung. Das betrifft neben der Einwohnerzahl auch die altersgruppenspezifische Betrachtung, die der Beschäftigung sowie die Gemeindefinanzen. In Bezug zu den Einwohnerzahlen führte der Zensus zu eine deutlichen Bereinigung der Statistik. Jedoch wurde eine Rückrechnung für frühere Jahre per Gerichtsentscheid für unzulässig erklärt. Daher behalten die Werte vor 2011 ihre Gültigkeit. Während in den Jahren vor 2000 eine deutliche Suburbanisierung erkennbar war und sich in den Stadt-Umland-Bereichen entsprechende arbeitsräumliche Verflechtungen etablierten, hat sich die Suburbanisierung in der Folgezeit stark abgeschwächt und teilweise ins Gegenteil verkehrt. Getragen wird diese Entwicklung insbesondere durch die 20 - 25 sowie die über 65-Jährigen. Während bei den 20 - 25 Jährigen die ökonomischen Motive überwiegen, welche eine selektive Reurbanisierung stützt, hat die Wanderung der über 65-Jährigen eher infrastrukturelle Gründe. Die infrastrukturelle Marginalisierung der kleinen Gemeinden trifft auf eine Altersgruppe, die in zunehmenden Maße zu keiner Kompensation mehr fähig ist und so in Richtung der zentralen Orte abwandert. Alternativ zieht es diese Altersgruppe auch in touristisch bedeutsame Gemeinden. Damit tritt eine planerisch opportune Wanderungsbewegung ein, welche die Prämisse der Stärkung der Zen-tren unterstützt. Diese Segregation vollzieht sich vor einer dispersen Siedlungsstruktur, welche durch die politische Rahmensetzung und gezielte Vermarktungsstrategien in der Vergangenheit verfestigt wurde, die den individuellen Präferenzen viel Freiraum ermöglichte. Die Infrastrukturkonzentration destabilisiert die Strukturen und fördert wiederum die Arbeitsplatzkonzentration in den Zentren. Allein die Ober- und Mittelzentren vereinten 2012 60 % der SV Beschäftigungsverhältnisse. Die Arbeitsplätze sind damit weit stärker konzentriert als die Bevölkerung und hohe Auspendlerquoten die Folge. Dabei obliegt der Ausgleich infrastruktureller Defizite den Gemeinden, die wiederum eine hohe fremdbestimmte Ausgabenlast zu bewältigen haben. Demgegenüber steht ein KFA, der sich nicht an den realen Aufwendungen orientiert, so dass infolgedessen die Investitionen reduziert wurden. Des Weiteren sind finanzielle Spielräume kaum vorhanden. Im Ergebnis markiert bspw. die selektive Bevölkerungsentwicklung oder die Handlungsunfähigkeit der Gemeinden, die aus der Entwicklung der Gemeindefinanzen resultiert, jeweils einen vulnerablen Prozess, die bisher nicht adäquat bewältigt werden. Die Stärkung der Zentren kann nur im Hinblick auf die politische Zielsetzung als eine positive Resilienzstrategie für eine Handvoll Gemeinden bezeichnet werden. Um eine zukünftige Alternativendiskussion anzuregen, wurden die Gemeinden im Anschluss einer multivariaten Analyse unterzogen. Zur Absicherung der Ergebnisse wurde eine Prüfung auf Normalverteilung sowie eine Untersuchung auf stochastische Unabhängigkeit vorgeschaltet. Die Prüfung auf Normalverteilung hat ergeben, dass diese für keine der 165 Variablen vorlag. Die maßgebliche Ursache hierfür liegt in der Betrachtungsebene der administrativen Einheiten und dem hohen Anteil der Gemeinden bis 2.000 Einwohner. Allerdings sind die Gemeinde gerade Untersuchungsgegenstand dieser Arbeit, so dass sich eine Änderung der Betrachtungsebene ausschloss. Folglich führte die Gliederung der administrativen Einheiten in M.-V. in Abhängigkeit von den Einwohnerzahlen zu Autokorrelationen zwischen den einzelnen Variablen. Diese Zusammenhänge bestanden auch bei Variablen mit einem zeitlichen Trend, so dass als Folge der Prüfung auf stochastische Unabhängigkeit die Clusteranalyse in zwei Analysen mit jeweils einem Variablenblock geteilt wurde. Die Anzahl der betrachteten Variablen reduzierte sich hierbei auf insgesamt 88. Das Resultat der ersten Clusteranalyse waren 5 Klassen, wobei Rostock eine eigene Klasse bildete. Die anderen Städte wie Greifswald, Stralsund, Neubrandenburg, Wismar sowie Schwerin formten ihrerseits einen Cluster und die übrigen Gemeinden verteilten sich auf die anderen drei Klassen. Insbesondere zahlreiche Tourismusgemeinden und zentrale Orte traten in einem eigenen Cluster deutlich hervor. Die Dominanz der großen Gebietskörperschaften zeigte sich auch in der zweiten Clusteranalyse, wobei sich die Struktur mit 6 Klassen als sehr stabil erwies. Die Ergebnisse wurden nach-folgend in einer Typisierung zusammengefasst, wobei sich 14 Regionaltypen erga-ben, deren Interpretation 7 Haupttypen offenbarte. Neben Rostock als Regiopole treten u. a. Regionalzentren, Kleinstgemeinden oder Gemeinden mit eingeschränkter Leistungsfähigkeit auf. Durchaus bemerkenswert ist der Umstand, dass einige Gemeinden von Usedom und Rügen eher Stadt-Umland-Gemeinden entsprechen und solche mit einer eingeschränkten Leistungsfähigkeit eher im Osten des Landes anzutreffen sind. Daneben sind Tourismusgemeinden ähnlich strukturiert wie Mittelzentren und zahlreiche Grundzentren grenzen sich lediglich über ihren Status von anderen Landgemeinden ab. Darüber hinaus grenzt sich diese Gliederung deutlich von der des Landes mit den ländlichen Gestaltungsräumen ab. Zur Identifizierung dieser wurden Kriterien herangezogen, die stochastisch nicht unabhängig sind, welche zur Basis für ein politisch motiviertes Ranking wurden. Die damit aufgeworfene These von der fragwürdigen Zukunftsfähigkeit, ist in erster Linie politisch determiniert. Insgesamt zeigt sich mit der Handlungsmaxime "Stärkung der Zentren" ein vulnerabler Prozess, der sich in der Gemeindeentwicklung deutlich niederschlägt. Zur Vermeidung einer weiteren Vertiefung ist zunächst eine theoretische Neuausrichtung, wie sie in Grundzügen vorgestellt wurde, notwendig. Dabei ist die Forderung, dass Infrastruktur flexibilisiert werden muss, nicht neu. Sie wurde bspw. schon in Zusammenhang neuer interkommunaler Kooperationsformen postuliert. Die bisherige normative Fixierung der langfristigen Infrastrukturentwicklung über ROG und LPlG manifestiert die Reduzierung des ländlichen Raumes auf seinen existentiellen Kern und ignoriert gewachsenen Strukturen und individuelle Präferenzen der lokalen Bevölkerung. Im nächsten Schritt sollten die Bevölkerungsprognosen um andere Instrumente ergänzt werden, um frühzeitig bestimmte Entwicklungen aufzudecken und zu gestalten. Hierbei sollten die Akteure vor Ort, insbesondere die Gemeinden, auch in der Lage sein, die Gestaltungskompetenz wahrzunehmen. Das setzt voraus, dass zur Erfüllung der Pflichtaufgaben keine Liquiditätskredite erforderlich sind. Sollte eine aufgabengerechte Finanzausstattung nicht möglich sein, muss die derzeitige Aufgabenverteilung zwischen den Kommunen, dem Land sowie dem Bund neu geregelt werden. Eine fremdbestimmte Aufgabenträgerschaft und starre Richtwerte hinsichtlich der infrastrukturellen Ausgestaltung sind Mittel der Vergangenheit, die eine Flexibilisierung und mehr gemeindliche Selbstverantwortung nicht zulassen. Danach kann man beginnen über eine Gemeindegebietsreform Organisationsschwächen zu beseitigen und eine Resilienzstrategie zu verfolgen, die sich nicht allein in einer weiteren Infrastrukturkonzentration erschöpft. ; In Mecklenburg-West Pomerania essential political decisions are regularly accompanied by indications of projections by the population. These population´s projections´ results depend to a large extent on assumptions, population data and the methodology used. In combination with their further principles, these are rather models, the significance of which is strongly limited in relation to a long prognosis period. As alternative instruments are clearly less adequate, infrastructure decisions cannot be sufficiently covered. Against the background that Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, for example, is characterized by a low population density or a multitude of small municipalities, it should be the top premise to create widely accepted structures which give a perspective to the communities. So the previous approach to strengthening the centers and infrastructural marginalization of other municipalities is not desirable. This approach is made possible by a more flexible infrastructure, with which everything is recorded and which compensates or covers existing functional deficits in political tasks. At the same time, the term "services for the public" is denied, since there is no longer any reason to speak of basic existential functions in case of a state withdrawal from the area. Otherwise, the over 65-year-olds would not "escape" to the city centers. In addition, it is important to note that a more flexible interpretation of the concept of infrastructure also includes a reinterpretation of the concepts of mobility and transport. Mobility so far has been characterized by technical over-interpretation and is also aimed at changes in location. So the definition of mobility overlaps with the definition of traffic. At the same time, the role of infrastructure is of subordinate importance. The integration of a flexible infrastructure concept leads to a definition of mobility that simply describes the ability to interact, whereas traffic describes concrete actions of subjects or social groups. Both are dependent on individual preferences and infrastructure only, while the unpredictability of individual preferences must be documented. Infrastructural dependency is also evident in vulnerability and resilience. While vulnerability stands for processes and their effects on systems as well as organizations depending on infrastructure, resilience describes a handling of vulnerable processes depending on infrastructure and objectives. Due to insufficient information about communities in Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, the focus was on an improvement of the empirical basis compared to detailed measures. Since chapter 2.5 drew a wide conclusion, the following text will be limited to the essentials. Between 1990 and 2012 there was a very complex development at the community level in general. Apart from the number of inhabitants, this also applies to age group-specific considerations, considerations of employment and to community finances. In relation to the number of inhabitants, the census led to a clear adjustment of statistics. However, a retroactive accounting for previous years was declared inadmissible through court decision. Therefore, the values before 2011 remain valid. While a clear suburbanization was apparent before 2000, and the city-surrounding areas were able to establish appropriate interdependencies of working space, suburbanization in the later period has strongly weakened and partially reversed. This development is particularly supported by 20 to 25 as well as by over 65-year-olds. While in 20 to 25-year-olds, which support a selective reurbanization, economic motives prevail, the migration of over 65-year-olds has rather infrastructural reasons. The infrastructural marginalization of small communities comes upon an age group which is increasingly unable to compensate and thus moves towards more central locations. Alternatively, this age group is also attracted by communities of touristic interest. In this way there is a planning opportune migration which supports a strengthening of the centers. This segregation takes place before a dispersed settlement structure, which has been consolidated in the past by political framework and targeted marketing strategies, which allowed the individual preferences a great deal of freedom. The concentration of infrastructure destabilizes structures and, in turn, supports concentration of employment in the centers. In 2012 the upper and middle centers solely combined 60% of employment conditions for employees required to pay social security contributions (SV). Workplaces are therefore much more concentrated than the population which results in high commuter rates. The communities are responsible for balancing the infrastructural deficits, which in turn have to cope with a high, otherdirected output workload. On the other hand, there is a municipal financial equalization (KFA), which is not based on real expenses and which lead to a reduction of investments. In addition, there are hardly any financial scopes. As a result, for example, the selective population development or the paralysis of communities, which result from the development of community finances, mark a vulnerable process which has not yet been handled adequately. Strengthening the centers can only be described as a positive resilience strategy for a small number of communities in regards to political objectives. In order to stimulate a future discussion of alternatives, the communities were subsequently subject to multivariate analysis. In order to secure the results, a check for normal distribution as well as an investigation on stochastic independence was executed. The test for normal distribution showed that this was not the case for any of the 165 variables. The main reason for this is the choice of perspective on the administrative entities as well as the high proportion of municipalities with up to 2,000 inhabitants. However, the community is this paper's object of investigation, so that a change in the level of observation was impossible. Consequently, a structuring of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania's administrative units, which are depending on the number of inhabitants, leads to autocorrelations between the individual variables. These correlations also existed in variables with a temporal trend so that, as a result of the stochastic independence test, the cluster analysis was divided into two analyses, each consisting of one variable block. The number of variables considered thus reduced to a total of 88. The result of the first cluster analysis were 5 classes, with Rostock forming a separate class. The other cities, such as Greifswald, Stralsund, Neubrandenburg, Wismar, and Schwerin, formed another cluster and the rest of the communities is spread to the remaining three classes. Especially numerous tourist communities and central locations emerged clearly within their own cluster. The dominance of large regional authorities was also shown in the second cluster analysis, whereas a structure including 6 classes proved to be very stable. The results were then summarized in a typing, resulting in 14 regional types, whose interpretation revealed 7 main types. In addition to Rostock as a regiopolis, there were regional centers, small communities or municipalities with limited capacity. The fact that some communities of Usedom and Rügen rather tend to correspond to city-surrounding communities and that those with a limited capacity are more likely to be found in the east of the country is very remarkable. In addition, tourism communities are similarly structured as middle centers and numerous lower-order centers are only separated from other rural communities by their status. In addition, this structure is clearly different from that of rural design areas. In order to identify these, criteria were used which are not stochastically independent and which have become the basis for a politically motivated ranking. The consequential thesis of a questionable sustainability is, above all, politically determined. Overall, the guiding principle "strengthening of the centers" results in a vulnerable process, which is clearly reflected in community development. In order to avoid further specializations, a theoretical reorientation, as basically presented in this paper, is necessary. Demands for a more flexible infrastructure are not a novelty. It has already been postulated, for example, in the context of new inter-communal forms of cooperation. The previous normative fixation of the long-term infrastructure development via regional planning laws (ROG) and country planning acts (LPlG) manifests the reduction of rural areas to their existential core and ignores organically grown structures as well as individual preferences of the local population. As a next step, the population forecast should be supplemented by other instruments in order to identify and shape certain developments at an early stage. In this case local actors, particularly communities, should be able to make use of those shaping skills. This presupposes that no liquidity loans are required in order to fulfill the mandatory tasks. If sufficient financial resources cannot be made available, the current distribution of tasks between communities, the state and the federal government must be revised. An other-directed task assignment and rigid guidelines regarding the infrastructure design are outdated means which allow neither more flexibility nor more municipal self-responsibility. After that, it might be possible to eliminate organizational weaknesses through a district reform and pursue a resilience strategy, which is no longer limited to a further concentration of infrastructure.
Rino Pensato. La raccolta locale. Milano: Editrice Bibliografica, 2000. 230 p. ISBN 88-7075-556-8. Eur 15,49.Un manuale pratico, un prontuario, viene definito dallo stesso autore questo libro. In ogni caso non si tratta di una nuova edizione del volume del 1984, Le fonti locali in biblioteca, di cui Rino Pensato era stato coautore con Valerio Montanari. In quello la trattazione era distesa, riportando le varie posizioni del dibattito sul tema della storia locale, della documentazione locale nel loro svilupparsi nel tempo, fino a occuparsi degli aspetti riguardanti il personale. Adesso sembra che finalmente sia giunto il momento di sistematizzare, sedimentare in una guida pratica i criteri della buona gestione di questa componente essenziale della missione di ogni biblioteca pubblica, tanto centrale quanto dibattuta e a volte insufficientemente valorizzata. Una guida pratica quindi, sia per le nuove generazioni che si affacciano alla professione, sia per chi decida solo ora di portare a compimento un progetto, non sempre e non in ogni biblioteca abbastanza curato in tutte le sue implicazioni.Proprio per questo quindi, prima di passare alla seconda parte, la più corposa del volume, quella dedicata alla gestione della raccolta, era doveroso e inevitabile riassumere e piuttosto diremmo portare a epilogo e sintesi i principi che danno motivo a una raccolta locale, come raccolta speciale nella biblioteca pubblica. Dopo aver esaurito in poche pagine del primo capitolo la rievocazione del dibattito storico sui temi della biblioteca e la memoria storica locale, dove si accenna agli antichi problemi dell'erudizione, alla cerniera fra le funzioni generali della biblioteca e quelle specializzate in storia locale, alla tensione necessaria non tanto verso la conservazione quanto verso la trasmissione del sapere e lo sviluppo delle conoscenze, l'attenzione si rivolge interamente ai temi di maggiore attualità.Chi non abbia dato importanza in passato allo sviluppo di questa raccolta e ai servizi che in essa trovano origine, forse oggi, nell'epoca di Internet, potrebbe sentirvisi ancor meno incline. È proprio su questo punto invece che l'autore riesce a essere innovativo rispetto alla tradizione e ai temi del volume del 1984, e allo stesso tempo anche convincente.La questione non era di poco conto e la letteratura cui fare riferimento si trova a uno stadio di elaborazione ancora iniziale, come lo sono di fatto le esperienze, in questa nostra attuale fase detta della "biblioteca ibrida".I principi generali trovano il loro fondamento sia nel Manifesto Unesco sia nelle Linee guida per le biblioteche pubbliche dell'IFLA, che nella loro ultima edizione escono definitivamente solo un anno dopo questo libro, al quale sono note solo le versioni preliminari. Il punto di riferimento specializzato è sempre di ambito anglosassone, ed è il lavoro di John Hobbs, Local history and the library, risalente al 1962. Dopo l'avvento di Internet ci sono nuove esperienze, nuove idee, ma ovviamente è ancora presto perché si possa parlare di nuove soluzioni. La proposta del nostro autore, sullo stimolo di riflessioni, questa volta provenienti dalla biblioteconomia francese degli ultimi decenni, è molto semplice: l'unico modello possibile per affrontare il dilemma localismo-globalizzazione è la biblioteca pubblica localmente universale. Non ci soffermeremo qui su questo concetto per nulla togliere al piacere della lettura del testo integrale, al quale non potremmo rendere ragione in poche parole.La prima data in cui si iniziò a lavorare per una raccolta locale in biblioteca è forse il 1824, quando a Londra la Guildhall Library si dedicò ai documenti sulla City. A quasi due secoli di distanza, e dopo l'inizio dell'epoca di Internet, ha un senso riconfermare che la raccolta locale è un progetto che deve trovare volontà e riferimenti di continuità, e che deve prevedere l'affluenza costante in biblioteca di documentazione secondo un programma sistematico e coordinato, sulla cui base organizzare anche la fornitura di servizi specializzati e mirati. Principi e linee guida autorevoli, esempi di carte delle collezioni e statuti bibliografici costituiscono così, anche in un manuale pratico come questo, materiali utilissimi e riferimenti concreti, dei quali vengono proposte non solo le indicazioni bibliografiche, ma anche interi brani introdotti da commenti.La seconda parte del volume, più cospicua, passa quindi a trattare in modo esauriente e sistematico ogni aspetto della gestione della raccolta e i suoi servizi. Il modello organizzativo interno suggerito è, secondo la tradizione più affermata, quello di dare alla raccolta una configurazione a sé stante all'interno della biblioteca. Sono descritti cinque modelli autorevoli ed effettivamente praticati: il dipartimento di studi locali, nel caso di biblioteche medio grandi; la raccolta locale chiusa o riservata nel caso di fondi o documenti antichi; lo scaffale aperto nel caso di raccolte di piccole dimensioni; la raccolta distribuita, ma recuperabile attraverso il catalogo; la raccolta mista e articolata in più sezioni. Esiste inoltre un modello di gestione che riguarda la cooperazione, che può presentarsi in tre modi: raccolta centralizzata, raccolta centralizzata con nuclei diffusi, varie raccolte con una centralizzazione di tipo virtuale. Nell'abbondante argomentazione, occorre dire che proprio il modello di gestione in rete resta quello meno accuratamente esposto ed esemplificato, a riprova del fatto che l'intera trattazione cui è dedicato questo volume posa non su teorie, ma su esperienze e su risultati concreti conseguiti e verificabili, cosicché dove le testimonianze si fanno meno copiose anche l'esposizione diventa più sintetica.La raccolta locale viene quindi affrontata nei suoi vari aspetti, tra i quali quello della copertura geografica è tra i più scottanti e delicati, e alla cui definizione vengono offerti parametri utili per chi abbia bisogno di risolvere concretamente il problema di delimitare la propria area di riferimento. Centrale alla trattazione inoltre l'ampio capitolo sulla connessione locale, corredato, come numerose altre parti del libro, e così come si conviene a un manuale pratico, di sintetiche tavole riepilogative. È qui, in sostanza, che viene stabilito cosa sia da ritenersi documento locale, lasciando tuttavia spazio a un'interpretazione più ampia rispetto a quella più propriamente intesa, tramite la definizione di uno schema a due livelli. Suggerimenti pratici per lo sviluppo della raccolta, esempi di statuti bibliografici, fonti, politica dei doni, controllo della produzione e metodi di censimento degli enti produttori, rapporto con archivi e musei, fanno parte delle indicazioni che, utilizzate come linee guida, o come liste di controllo, non risulteranno prive di utilità anche per chi abbia già al suo attivo una lunga esperienza professionale. Più sintetico invece il capitolo dedicato alla catalogazione, classificazione e indicizzazione, anche se non privo di interesse in particolare per la parte dedicata alla collocazione.Concludono il libro alcuni capitoli sui servizi al pubblico e altre attività. Pur essendo una semplice sistematizzazione di pratiche più o meno diffuse, anche questa parte rappresenta tuttavia una forte utilità proprio per il valore di ricognizione dei vari tipi di servizi che trovano effettivamente fondamento nella raccolta locale: informazioni generali, speciali, personalizzate e inoltre pubblicazioni, promozioni, mostre, attività didattiche.Per chi operi nelle biblioteche pubbliche non può esservi quindi più scusante per rinviare la decisione. E per chi volesse pensare che la materia possa riguardare solo piccole biblioteche, o comunque solo comunità di limitate dimensioni, varie pagine del volume sono dedicate alle raccolte locali nelle biblioteche delle grandi città storiche, avvalorate dalla citazione delle raccolte delle città di Monaco, Lione, Londra (Guildhall Library), Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Cambridge, Derby, York.La raccolta locale ha ora una guida contenente la miglior pratica. Si potranno fare scelte diverse, altri percorsi, ma non si potrà comunque ignorarla. Per chi desideri innovare, Internet soprattutto è un capitolo quasi del tutto da scrivere. Il volume non trascura di suggerire qualche punto di partenza per la navigazione, soprattutto qualche sito da cui trarre ispirazione. Ma molto tempo e molti tentativi ancora pensiamo che ci separino dal momento in cui si potrà iniziare a sistematizzare la materia anche sui criteri di gestione delle raccolte digitali e dei servizi locali a distanza.
Problem setting. The status of the state and private partnership in Ukraine and the prospects of its development under conditions of the healthcare reform were examined. The cooperation of the state and private sector becomes increasingly important in a social sense, however the existing practice does not demonstrate the efficiency of the fulfillment of the assigned tasks. The conducted analysis allowed to determine the risks and problems of the implementation of the state and private partnership in the sphere of healthcare under current conditions in Ukraine. It was substantiated that the fulfillment of the concept of the state and private partnership in the healthcare system of Ukraine is one of the key issues of the state policy. Recent research and publications analysis. The involvement of a private partner in the field of healthcare is highly common in many countries of the world. The effectiveness of such cooperation is confirmed and described in a number of various studies. At the same time, authors' publications fail to mention the aspects of involving the private sector in the activities of municipal and state healthcare facilities, including under conditions of healthcare reform in Ukraine. Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. At the modern stage of reforming of the healthcare system which is an integral part of socioeconomic transformations in Ukraine, the problem of the state regulation of investment support for the development of healthcare sector is becoming ever more important. The main goal of the reform is to build such a model of the healthcare system which would ensure equal and fair access of all members of society to necessary medical services, their high quality and cost-effectiveness while maintaining socially expected volume of state guarantees. The purpose of this article is to reveal the prospects of the state and private partnership under conditions of implementation of the healthcare reform. Paper main body. Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine continues to play a key role in the institutional support of the state and private partnership in Ukraine. According to the regulatory document (Decree on the Ministry) it is entrusted with various functions related to the implementation of the state policy in this sector, and namely: monitoring the efficiency of the central, regional and municipal authorities in the field of the state and private partnership; verification of the fulfilment of the signed contracts on the state and private partnership; preparation and provision of information on the results of the state and private partnership to the public; monitoring and evaluation of various types of risks (and namely, general risk) of state partners within the framework of the contracts on the state and private partnership; accounting of contracts on the state and private partnership; organizing and conducting training in order to form and implement the contracts on the state and private partnership; monitoring of compliance with the requirements of current laws on the state and private partnership with respect to existing and new contracts. As of today, the development of the concept of the state and private partnership in the field of healthcare of Ukraine, unfortunately, is not a matter of priority of the state policy and modern budgeting system creates high financial risks for the state and private partnership which are related to short-term (yearly) budget cycles of planning and their annual approval procedures which are sometimes unnecessarily prolonged. Joint activities, distribution of products etc. may be forms of implementation of the projects of the state and private partnership and they may be financed from the funds of the state and local budgets, financial resources of the private partner, loaned funds and other sources which are not prohibited by laws. In this case, the legislation foresees the provision of support to projects of the state and private partnership through state guarantees, provision of funds from state and local budgets and other sources within the framework of the state-wide and local programmes. There are also preconditions for organizing high-tech centres for treating various types of diseases while using financial instruments of investors and staff capacity of the state healthcare facilities. However, presently there are certain doubts on the side of potential private partners regarding the possibility of implementation of long-term mutually beneficial cooperation. It resulted in the absence of transparency and clarity in the normative and legal regulation of the state and private partnership in Ukraine. Therefore, state and private partnership must ensure: The use of the mechanism for planning and funding projects of the state and private partnership because it contributes significantly to the interest of private domestic and foreign investors in participating in the state and private partnership. Normative and legal regulation of implementation of projects of the state and private partnership. Successful introduction of infrastructure projects of the state and private partnership into the activities of healthcare facilities. Construction of high-tech centres for treatment of various types of diseases. Increasing the accessibility of health services for the population and supporting the development of the private sector. Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The majority of projects were implemented in order to reduce the expenses incurred by state and municipal healthcare facilities and neither to increase the quality of provision of health services nor to optimize the expenditure for upgrading material and technical equipment. As a result, the efficiency of such state and private cooperation is one-sided and, as a rule, it has a positive impact solely on the private partner or a short-term result for a healthcare facility where such cooperation is implemented. In this case, the primary task laid as part of implementation of the state policy within the framework of healthcare reform, and namely improving the quality and accessibility of health services for the population of Ukraine, remains uncompleted on the side of the state and municipal healthcare facilities. However, there is a positive experience of involvement of private business in the process of introduction of infrastructure projects of the state and private partnership into the activities of healthcare facilities; confirmation of the relevance of the development for practical introduction of infrastructural projects of the state and private partners into the activities of facilities of the system of emergency medical care of Ukraine. Introduction of the mentioned infrastructural forms of the state and private partnership into the activities of emergency medical care facilities in Ukraine may be an effective instrument for reducing the share of the non-market sector in the field of healthcare while simultaneously increasing the efficiency of the state management. The involvement of the private sector helps to resolve several issues at once: Involvement of personnel oriented towards the provision of services which will contribute significantly to the competitive ability of the state and municipal facilities. Management which reacts quickly to changes on the market of health services which is somewhat restricted under conditions of budgetary legislation on the side of the state and municipal healthcare facilities and is sufficiently important for constantly adapting the needs of the population to the modern global requirements. Raising funds from partners for upgrading material and technical equipment, on the one hand, may significantly reduce financial losses with the involvement of the most up-to-date technologies or give the facilities an opportunity to receive modern services and equipment with the use of the funds of private partners. Reducing financial burden of expenses on local authorities and the state budget of Ukraine in general while keeping a healthcare facility in a satisfactory condition and corresponding level of provision of health services. Improvement of socioeconomic standard of living on account of an increase in accessibility of healthcare to the population of Ukraine in accordance with global requirements. All of this will finally result in a change of the situation in the healthcare sector, will help to build trust in the domestic medicine and increase the health of the nation in the overall perspective. Further research prospects in this direction should include the study of successful foreign experience for strengthening the state and private partnership and determining the feasibility of implementation of the best foreign practices under current conditions in Ukraine on account of development, adaptation and introduction of changes into the legal framework. ; Розглянуто стан державно-приватного партнерства в Україні та перспективи його розвитку в умовах реформи охорони здоров'я. Зауважено, що співпраця державного та приватного сектору набуває все більшого соціального значення, проте існуюча практика не демонструє ефективність у реалізації визначених цілей. На основі проведеного аналізу визначено ризики та проблеми в реалізації державно-приватного партнерства у сфері охорони здоров'я у сучасних умовах в Україні. Обґрунтовано, що реалізація концепції державно-приватного партнерства у системі охорони здоров'я України є одним із ключових питань державної політики.
Problem setting. The status of the state and private partnership in Ukraine and the prospects of its development under conditions of the healthcare reform were examined. The cooperation of the state and private sector becomes increasingly important in a social sense, however the existing practice does not demonstrate the efficiency of the fulfillment of the assigned tasks. The conducted analysis allowed to determine the risks and problems of the implementation of the state and private partnership in the sphere of healthcare under current conditions in Ukraine. It was substantiated that the fulfillment of the concept of the state and private partnership in the healthcare system of Ukraine is one of the key issues of the state policy. Recent research and publications analysis. The involvement of a private partner in the field of healthcare is highly common in many countries of the world. The effectiveness of such cooperation is confirmed and described in a number of various studies. At the same time, authors' publications fail to mention the aspects of involving the private sector in the activities of municipal and state healthcare facilities, including under conditions of healthcare reform in Ukraine. Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. At the modern stage of reforming of the healthcare system which is an integral part of socioeconomic transformations in Ukraine, the problem of the state regulation of investment support for the development of healthcare sector is becoming ever more important. The main goal of the reform is to build such a model of the healthcare system which would ensure equal and fair access of all members of society to necessary medical services, their high quality and cost-effectiveness while maintaining socially expected volume of state guarantees. The purpose of this article is to reveal the prospects of the state and private partnership under conditions of implementation of the healthcare reform. Paper main body. Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine continues to play a key role in the institutional support of the state and private partnership in Ukraine. According to the regulatory document (Decree on the Ministry) it is entrusted with various functions related to the implementation of the state policy in this sector, and namely: monitoring the efficiency of the central, regional and municipal authorities in the field of the state and private partnership; verification of the fulfilment of the signed contracts on the state and private partnership; preparation and provision of information on the results of the state and private partnership to the public; monitoring and evaluation of various types of risks (and namely, general risk) of state partners within the framework of the contracts on the state and private partnership; accounting of contracts on the state and private partnership; organizing and conducting training in order to form and implement the contracts on the state and private partnership; monitoring of compliance with the requirements of current laws on the state and private partnership with respect to existing and new contracts. As of today, the development of the concept of the state and private partnership in the field of healthcare of Ukraine, unfortunately, is not a matter of priority of the state policy and modern budgeting system creates high financial risks for the state and private partnership which are related to short-term (yearly) budget cycles of planning and their annual approval procedures which are sometimes unnecessarily prolonged. Joint activities, distribution of products etc. may be forms of implementation of the projects of the state and private partnership and they may be financed from the funds of the state and local budgets, financial resources of the private partner, loaned funds and other sources which are not prohibited by laws. In this case, the legislation foresees the provision of support to projects of the state and private partnership through state guarantees, provision of funds from state and local budgets and other sources within the framework of the state-wide and local programmes. There are also preconditions for organizing high-tech centres for treating various types of diseases while using financial instruments of investors and staff capacity of the state healthcare facilities. However, presently there are certain doubts on the side of potential private partners regarding the possibility of implementation of long-term mutually beneficial cooperation. It resulted in the absence of transparency and clarity in the normative and legal regulation of the state and private partnership in Ukraine. Therefore, state and private partnership must ensure: The use of the mechanism for planning and funding projects of the state and private partnership because it contributes significantly to the interest of private domestic and foreign investors in participating in the state and private partnership. Normative and legal regulation of implementation of projects of the state and private partnership. Successful introduction of infrastructure projects of the state and private partnership into the activities of healthcare facilities. Construction of high-tech centres for treatment of various types of diseases. Increasing the accessibility of health services for the population and supporting the development of the private sector. Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The majority of projects were implemented in order to reduce the expenses incurred by state and municipal healthcare facilities and neither to increase the quality of provision of health services nor to optimize the expenditure for upgrading material and technical equipment. As a result, the efficiency of such state and private cooperation is one-sided and, as a rule, it has a positive impact solely on the private partner or a short-term result for a healthcare facility where such cooperation is implemented. In this case, the primary task laid as part of implementation of the state policy within the framework of healthcare reform, and namely improving the quality and accessibility of health services for the population of Ukraine, remains uncompleted on the side of the state and municipal healthcare facilities. However, there is a positive experience of involvement of private business in the process of introduction of infrastructure projects of the state and private partnership into the activities of healthcare facilities; confirmation of the relevance of the development for practical introduction of infrastructural projects of the state and private partners into the activities of facilities of the system of emergency medical care of Ukraine. Introduction of the mentioned infrastructural forms of the state and private partnership into the activities of emergency medical care facilities in Ukraine may be an effective instrument for reducing the share of the non-market sector in the field of healthcare while simultaneously increasing the efficiency of the state management. The involvement of the private sector helps to resolve several issues at once: Involvement of personnel oriented towards the provision of services which will contribute significantly to the competitive ability of the state and municipal facilities. Management which reacts quickly to changes on the market of health services which is somewhat restricted under conditions of budgetary legislation on the side of the state and municipal healthcare facilities and is sufficiently important for constantly adapting the needs of the population to the modern global requirements. Raising funds from partners for upgrading material and technical equipment, on the one hand, may significantly reduce financial losses with the involvement of the most up-to-date technologies or give the facilities an opportunity to receive modern services and equipment with the use of the funds of private partners. Reducing financial burden of expenses on local authorities and the state budget of Ukraine in general while keeping a healthcare facility in a satisfactory condition and corresponding level of provision of health services. Improvement of socioeconomic standard of living on account of an increase in accessibility of healthcare to the population of Ukraine in accordance with global requirements. All of this will finally result in a change of the situation in the healthcare sector, will help to build trust in the domestic medicine and increase the health of the nation in the overall perspective. Further research prospects in this direction should include the study of successful foreign experience for strengthening the state and private partnership and determining the feasibility of implementation of the best foreign practices under current conditions in Ukraine on account of development, adaptation and introduction of changes into the legal framework. ; Розглянуто стан державно-приватного партнерства в Україні та перспективи його розвитку в умовах реформи охорони здоров'я. Зауважено, що співпраця державного та приватного сектору набуває все більшого соціального значення, проте існуюча практика не демонструє ефективність у реалізації визначених цілей. На основі проведеного аналізу визначено ризики та проблеми в реалізації державно-приватного партнерства у сфері охорони здоров'я у сучасних умовах в Україні. Обґрунтовано, що реалізація концепції державно-приватного партнерства у системі охорони здоров'я України є одним із ключових питань державної політики.
