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OBJECTIVE: In this study, we conducted a survey of all the institutions that provide treatment for psychoactive substances in the state of Espirito Santo, Brazil during the period 2004-2005. METHOD: We used a snowball sampling technique to include all the treatment facilities in our State in which we employed a semi-structured interview instrument for key informants at each institution. We present descriptive results and test differences between groups using the Chi-square test. RESULTS: In Espirito Santo, 250 institutions provide treatment for psychoactive substances and are distributed as follows: governmental (17.6%), nongovernmental (22.8%), and self-help groups (59.6%). Of these 250 institutions, 85 provide direct care, with the majority found in the Central region (70.6%) and followed by the Northern (15.3%) and Southern (14.1%) regions. The majority of those that provide direct care are private nonprofit centers (16.8%) institutions with ties to religious organizations make up nearly one-third (30.6%) of direct care providers. The drugs most consumed by those seeking care are alcohol (82.4%), tobacco (81.2%) and marijuana (68.2%). The institutions generally give assistance to people in the 26-45 years age group (89.4%); with regard to gender, the institutions take care of: men (31.8%), women (5.9%), and both sexes (56.5%). The treatment models most used are psychosocial (58.8%), therapeutic community (47.1%) and biomedical (43.5%) and the work is evaluated through the team technique (72.9 %). CONCLUSIONS: In the state of Espirito Santo, indirect care services are many times greater than those that offer direct care and the majority of all services are in the Central region. The populations in the mainland have a comparative disadvantage when it comes to treatment options for psychoactive substance use. We observed that a significant number of institutions that provide drug abuse treatment have financial support from religious organizations. The Espirito Santo State survey demonstrates the necessity of a decentralized provision of specialized care for psychoactive substance users, with substantially more services directed to the Northern and Southern regions of the state. Moreover, the emphasis of these new institutions should be on outpatient care. ; OBJETIVO: Foi realizado um levantamento de todas as instituiçõesque proporcionam tratamento para dependência de substâncias psicoativas no Estado do Espírito Santo, Brasil, durante o período de 2004-2005. MÉTODO: Foi utilizado o método de amostragem bola-de-neve para incluir todos os estabelecimentos de tratamento no Estado e empregada uma entrevista semi-estruturada para informantes-chave em cada instituição. Os resultados descritivos foram apresentados e as diferenças testadas entre os grupos, utilizando o teste de qui-quadrado. RESULTADOS: No Espírito Santo, 250 instituições proporcionam tratamento para dependência de substâncias psicoativas e se distribuem da seguinte forma: governamentais (17,6%), não-governamentais (22,8%) e grupos de auto-ajuda (59,6%). Destas 250 instituições, 85 proporcionam assistência direta e a maioria se encontra na região Central (70,6%), seguido pela região Norte (15,3%) e Sul (14,1%). A maioria daquelas que fazem o atendimento direto são instituições privadas e sem fins lucrativos (16,8%); as que possuem vínculos com organizações religiosas compõem quase um terço do total (30,6%) de prestadores de serviços diretos. As drogas mais consumidas pelos que buscaram atendimento são álcool (82,4%), tabaco (81,2%) e maconha (68,2%). As instituições geralmente atendem pessoas na faixa etária entre 26 e 45 anos (89,4%); com relação ao sexo, as instituições que atendem somente homens perfazem 31,8%; as que só atendem mulheres, 5,9%; e ambos os sexos, 56,5%. Os modelos de tratamento mais utilizados são o psicossocial (58,8%), a comunidade terapêutica (47,1%) e o biomédico (43,5%), sendo o trabalho avaliado por meio da técnica de grupo (72,9%). CONCLUSÕES: No Estado do Espírito Santo, os serviços de atendimento indireto são muito maiores do que os que oferecem atendimento direto; a maioria dos serviços está na região central do Estado. As populações do interior do Estado estão em desvantagem quanto às opções de tratamento para o uso de substâncias psicoativas. Foi observado que um número significativo de instituições que provêem tratamento para o abuso de drogas tem apoio financeiro de organizações religiosas. A pesquisa no Estado do Espírito Santo demonstra a necessidade da descentralização do atendimento especializado para os usuários de substâncias e de consideravelmente mais serviços direcionados às regiões Norte e Sul do Estado. Além disso, a ênfase dessas novas instituições deve ser o tratamento ambulatorial. ; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) ; Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) ; Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo Núcleo de Estudos sobre o Álcool e outras Drogas ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP) Unidade de Pesquisa em Álcool e Drogas ; University of Texas Unidade de Pesquisa em Álcool e Drogas Population Research Center ; UNIFESP, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem ; UNIFESP, Unidade de Pesquisa em Álcool e Drogas ; SciELO

Tämä tutkimus analysoi avovankilajärjestelmää lempeänä vankeusmuotona ja inhimillisenä tapana kohdella lainrikkojia. Järjestelmän tavoitteena on saattaa yhteen rangaistava ja yhteiskunnan yleisesti hyväksymät sosiaaliset normit. Tutkimus keskittyy ensisijaisesti vankien kokemuksiin heidän tullessaan vankilaan. Tutkimuksessa käsitellään myös vankilan sosiaalista maailmaa, vankien kohtaamia ongelmia sekä vankilassa että sen ulkopuolella sekä myös mahdollisia vaaroja vankien uudelleenintegroitumisen aikana. Tutkimus hyödyntää kirjallisuutta, joka käsittelee vankien kokemaa stigmatisoitumista sekä vaikeuksia, joita he kohtaavat pyrkiessään tuottaviksi yhteiskunnan jäseniksi. Termi Lempeä oikeus viittaa tässä väitöskirjassa suomalaisen vankilajärjestelmän poliittiseen ja sosiologiseen ymmärrykseen sekä selitykseen, kuinka Suomi on onnistunut säilyttämään kohtuullisen alhaiset vangitsemisluvut 1960-luvulta lähtien toisin kuin monessa muussa länsimaassa. Tutkimuksen aineisto koostuu: A) Kyselystä (lomake liiteessä 1) otsikolla Julkinen asenne rikollisuutta kohtaan . Kysely suoritettiin viidessä suuressa suomalaisessa kaupungissa vuonna 2004. B) Osallistuvan havainnoinnin menetelmällä vuoden 2004 aikana kerätystä materiaalista Huittisten avovankilassa sekä 15 vangin haastatteluista vankeusaikana ja vapautumisen jälkeen. He myös vastasivat kyselylomakkeeseen otsikolla Vankien kyselylomake (liite 2). C) Aineistosta Poliisin ja väestön kohtaamisia , joka koostuu 12 kuukauden aikana tehdyistä havainnoista tamperelaisessa yökerhossa vuonna 2002. Väitöskirjassa käytetään sekä kvalitatiivisia, että kvantitatiivisia metodeja. New School of Convict Criminology:n (Ross and Richards) näkemyksen mukaan tutkimus tarjoaa kvantitatiivisen analyysin vankien kokemuksista suomalaisessa avovankilassa käyttäen sisäpiiri-näkökulmaa käytännön havainnoista vankilaelämässä. Tutkimus saavuttaa tavoitteensa kolmen itsenäisen tutkimuskysymyksen kautta: Kuinka avovankila saa aikaan muutoksia vankien minäkuvassa läpi vankeuden? Kuinka vangit sopeutuvat vankilamaailmaan ja kuinka heidän sopeutumisstrategiansa muuttuvat vankeusaikana? Ja viimeiseksi, kuinka vangit näkevät kokemuksensa ja asettuvat avovankilajärjestelmään Suomessa? Tutkimuksen johtopäätös on, että kuntoutusta painottavien menettelytapojen käyttö Suomessa verrattuna vankilan käyttämiseen pelkästään rangaistuksen välineenä, on lisännyt sekä vankilassa olevien että yleensä sosiaalisten ihmisryhmien struktuurien ja toiminnan ymmärtämistä. Lisäksi näiden ehkäisevien ja kuntouttavien toimintamallien käyttäminen yhteistyössä vankeinhoito- ja koulutushenkilökunnan kanssa niin muurien sisällä kuin ulkopuolella on myötävaikuttanut Suomen alhaisiin rikosten uusiutumislukuihin. ; This study analyses the open prison system as a gentle way of incarceration and as a humane way of treating offenders with the objective of bringing malefactors in line with society s accepted social norms. The primary focus of the study is on the experiences of prisoners (during their time in prison) as they enter the prison. The study also make sense of the prison s social world, the various problems that the prisoners face both inside and outside the prison, as well as the potential hazards connected with re-entry into the outside world. The study extrapolates from the literatures on stigma faced by prisoners and the dilemmas they face as they try to become productive members of the society. The term Gentle justice in this dissertation refers to the political and sociological understanding of Finnish penal system and to an explanation of why Finland has been able to maintain rather low rates of imprisonment since the 1960s, in contrast to opposite trends in most other Western countries. The analytical data utilised in this work comprises: A) A questionnaire survey on Public Attitude to Crime conducted in five major cities in Finland in 2004. The questionnaire is presented in Appendix 1. B) One year of participant observations made in Huittinen open prison including interviews conducted with 15 inmates at the time of their incarceration and after their release as well as their answers to the Questionnaire for Inmates . The questionnaire can be found in Appendix 2. C) The data on The Police and Citizens actual encounters which consists of the observations completed during a period of twelve months in a nightclub in the city of Tampere in 2002. The dissertation utilises a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. In the perspective of the New School of Convict Criminology (Ross and Richards), the study offers a qualitative analysis of prison experience in an Open Prison in Finland by using one s insider perspective to inform on the actual observations of prison life. The study accomplishes its objective through three interdependent research questions: How does open prison induce changes in inmates self-definitions throughout their reformatory period? How do the inmates adapt to the prison world and how do their adaptation strategies change during their prison careers? And finally, how do the inmates see their experience and orient themselves within the open prison system in Finland? The conclusion of the study is that, the introduction of the policies which laid emphasis on rehabilitation rather than using the prison institution as mere punishment tool in Finland have contributed to a better understanding of the structure and functioning not only of prison populations but of social groups in general. In addition, these methods of prevention and rehabilitation in conjunction with correctional, educational staff within and outside the prison walls steadfastly upholding these policies have contributed to the low recidivism rate in Finland.

Baznīca un vardarbība: funkcionāla modeļa meklējumi. Maģistra darbs savu idejisko un praktisko ievirzi guvis balstoties uz manu pieredzi, trīs gadus strādājot par audzinātāju Centrā pret vardarbību "Dardedze" ar novārtā pamestiem un no emocionālas, fiziskas vai seksuālas vardarbības cietušiem bērniem un viņu vecākiem, kā arī nepilnos divos gadus gūto pieredzi strādājot par kapelānu NBS Kājinieku skolā. "Nav iespējams aptvert tās visas garīgās krīzes, no kurām cilvēkus ir izvedusi ticība. Tā nepieviļ pat tur, kur viss ir pievīlis, visam pienācis gals: tā paceļ kritušo, iedveš cerību vīlušamies, stiprina cīnītāju, paceļ pazemoto." Ticība, kā pamats attiecībām, kurām nav nekāda cita pamata to atjaunošanai, ir vienīgais drošais ceļš, kas ved pie patiesības, kas izved brīvībā no savu vēlmju un otra pakļaušanas verdzības. To teorētiski atklāju ar salīdzinošo metodi, risinot domātāju Emanuēla Levinas un Renē Žerarda izvirzītos apgalvojumus un piedāvātos risinājumus vardarbības problēmai. Baznīcas loma mūsdienu pasaulē ir saistīta ar patieso realitāti, kura to ietekmē. Vardarbība ir stabila parādība, tā mūs vairs ne ar ko nevar pārsteigt. Tā ir iesakņojusies cilvēkos un to pieņem kā sabiedrības normu, pie kuras īpaši strādā valstu un starpvalstu institūcijas, lai noteiktu un regulētu tās devianta robežu. Savā maģistra darbā es sasniedzu izvirzīto mērķi: parādīt baznīcas pārstāvju – kapelānu lomu NBS struktūrā, īpaši parādot tā nozīmi starptautiskajās misijās. To es veicu, atklājot praktisku modeli, kā baznīca var dot savu ieguldījumu vardarbības problēmas risināšanā, deleģējot kapelānus kā oficiālus baznības pārstāvjus darbam Latvijas NBS, to struktūrvienību un apakšvienību vadības grupās, esot iesaistītiem darbā ar personālu, lai rūpētos par tā reliģisko, garīgo un morālo aprūpi. Baznīca vienīgā spēj sniegt pietiekamu izskaidrojumu vardarbības problēmai, atklājot tās cēloņus, kas sakņojas iedzimtā grēka stāstā un izpaužas grēkāža mehānisma darbībā, ko ir iespējams likvidēt, atklājot mimētikas teoriju un personīgā dzīvē absorbējot Kristus Pasijas notikumu. Mana darba tēze: Baznīcai ir būtiska loma vardarbības problēmas risināšanā: kapelāna darbs – ekskluzīva iespēja mūsdienās, apstiprinās V.Lauciņa veiktajā pētījuma par Kristīgās mācības lomu starptautiskajās militārajās operācijās dienošo karavīru skatījumā, aptaujājot tajās dienošos karavīrus, ka arī mana personīga pieredzē, strādajot ar Kājinieku skolas personālu. ; Church and Violence: In search of a functional model. For my Master's work, I received my ideas and practical view from my experience which follows: working three years as a care-taker at the Center Against Abuse "Dardedze" working with children who had suffered from neglect, emotional, physical and sexual abuse, as well as their mothers who in many cases, were also victims of abuse. Also from expierienc working one-and-a-half years as a chaplain at the N.B.S. School of Footsoldiers. It's impossible to grasp all of, the spiritual crisis through which faith has succesfully carried them through. Faith doesn't disappoint even when everything has disappointed and everything has come to an end: it lifts up the fallen, breathes in hope to the disappointed, strengthens the warrior, and lifts up the meek. Faith, as the foundation for relationships, which have no other hope for restoration, is the only safe road that leads to truth, which leads to freedom from self-will and slavery of anothers'. I theoretically present this with the method of comparison, solving thinkers Emanuel Levin's and Rene Gerard's conclusions and offered solutions for the problem of abuse. The role of the church in today's world is connected with reality which it effects. Abuse is a common element of society which can't surprise us with anything anymore. It is rooted into people, and has come to be accepted as a norm in society on which focuses state and outer-state institutions in order to control and regulate its deviated boundaries. On my Master's project I gained my desired goal: to show a representative of the church- the role of a chaplain in the structure of the N.B.S., especially showing his meaning in international missions. I accomplished this by revealing a practical model, how it is possible to give what you have gained to the church in abuse-solving by delegating chaplains as official church representatives in the Latvian N.B.S. to structure regiments and under regiments in leadership groups being involved with personell in order to be taking care of their religious, spiritual, and moral well-being. Only the church can give enough insight into the abuse problem revealing its causes, which root in the adopted sin-nature, which people are born with, story, and shows itself in the scapegoat, mechanism activity, which is able to be liquidated by revealing the mimetic theory, and absorbing the Passion of Christ happening in the personal life. My projects thesis: The church has an actual role in the in the solving of the problem of abuse.The work of a chaplain- an exclusive opportunity in today's world, will support V. Laucina performed study about The role of Christian education in international military operations in the views of serving soldiers, interviewing serving soldiers, including my own personal experience working with the Footsoldier's School personell.

Questions frequently arise whether the bilateral trade negotiation approach will help or hinder the achievement of an effective multilateral regime, and what route a particular country should follow to maximize its economic self-interests. Trade negotiations are a topic of growing importance not only in the multilateral but also in the regional and bilateral context. The United States (U.S.), for example, uses all three arenas to push trade liberalization, and the popularity of bilateral and regional trade deals as an alternative to slow negotiations at the World Trade Organization (WTO) is growing. But so is the anti-free trade sentiment among environmental and social-justice associations. Today, not only the question of bilateral and regional trade agreements as either building or stumbling blocks but also the question how free trade can be fair trade, i.e. how free trade can be designed in a sustainable way is debated. The integration of environmental aspects into free trade agreements (FTAs) illustrates that governments negotiating FTAs have to pursue a double-edged diplomacy in order to serve interests both on the international and domestic level. In this case, this means that governments have to serve both business and environmental groups' interests while at the same time negotiating with another country. The two-level diplomacy is especially challenging in asymmetric negotiations, i.e. negotiations between a smaller and a bigger country. It could be assumed that the smaller nation's bargaining power is generally very low. The case of New Zealand shows that there are other ways to achieve national interests in negotiations such as persuasion and the image of a good global citizen instead of using mere military and economic power. Based on the theoretical concept of two-level diplomacy, this book deals with the question whether domestic consultations on free trade agreements help to further integrate environmental issues into these trade agreements when the government is at the same time negotiating on the international level with the international counterparts. Consultation procedures between the government and interest groups are outlined, environmental issues to be dealt with in the negotiations are worked out and finally determinants for the integration of environmental aspects into trade agreements are identified and analysed. The objective of this study was to give an insight into the domestic dimension of international negotiations and to finally link the domestic level to the international level. This provides policy-makers and interest groups with a better understanding of the complexity of negotiations taking place both on the domestic and international level. Although New Zealand is here treated as a case study, general conclusions regarding internal and external factors influencing the integration of trade and environmental policies can be drawn by comparing three of the country's recent trade agreements: the New Zealand-Thailand FTA, the Trans-Pacific SEP and the WTO Fisheries Negotiations. ; Seit Mitte der 90er Jahre herrscht ein weltweiter Boom an bilateralen und regionalen Freihandelsabkommen.Insbesondere der asiatisch-pazifische Raum verzeichnete seit Ende der 90er Jahr den größten Zuwachs an bilateralen und regionalen Freihandelsabkommen. Dieser rapide Anstieg an Abkommen, die parallel zu WTO-Verhandlungen innerhalb der Doha Runde abgeschlossen wurden, lässt die Frage aufkommen, ob diese bilateralen und regionalen Freihandelsabkommen das multilaterale Handelssystem untergraben oder ihm nützen. Damit verbunden ist auch die Frage, welche Handelsstrategien ein Land verfolgen sollte, um seine wirtschaftlichen Interessen durchzusetzen und seine ökonomischen Gewinne zu maximieren. Obwohl Neuseeland ein starker Verfechter des Multilateralismus war und ist, sah es sich durch die internationalen Entwicklungen gezwungen, seine Handelsstrategie zu überdenken, um weiterhin auf dem globalen Markt wettbewerbsfähig bleiben zu können. Über 20 Prozent des neuseeländischen Bruttoinlandsprodukt (BIP) wird durch Außenhandel erwirtschaftet. Seit Anfang der 90er Jahre beinhaltet Neuseelands Handelspolitik daher offiziell bilaterale, regionale und multilaterale Ansätze. Neuseeland profitiert jedoch nicht ausschließlich von einem florierenden Handel sondern auch von seinem Image als sauberes und umweltfreundliches Land, das jedes Jahr Millionen von Touristen anzieht. Eine Studie hat gezeigt, dass zwischen 50 und 80 Prozent weniger Touristen nach Neuseeland kommen würden, sollten sie den Eindruck gewinnen, dass dieses Image nicht mehr der Realität entspräche. Ähnliches gilt für das Konsumverhalten in Bezug auf neuseeländische Agrarprodukte. Zum Beispiel würde der Kauf von Milchprodukten um mehr als 50 Prozent zurückgehen. Das allein ist schon ein Grund für die neuseeländische Regierung, ihre Handelspolitik nachhaltig zu gestalten, um negativen Umwelteffekten vorzubeugen. Hinzu kommen aber noch die internationalen Verpflichtungen im Rahmen der nachhaltigen Entwicklung und der Umweltpolitik (Neuseeland hat bereits über 100 multilaterale Umweltabkommen geschlossen). Ferner ist Neuseeland stark daran interessiert, das Land frei von Schädlingen und Krankheiten zu halten, da ein Ausbruch von beispielsweise Maul- und Klauenseuche insbesondere einer ökonomischen Katastrophe gleichkäme und Neuseeland Jahre bräuchte, um sich davon wieder zu erholen. Dies sind einige der Gründe, warum Neuseeland im Jahre 2001 die Verhandlung von Umweltaspekten in Freihandelsabkommen zu einer bindenden Regelung gemacht hat. Die neuseeländische Labour-Regierung hat dabei auch ihre Wählerschaft berücksichtigt, die zu einem nicht geringen Teil in der Umweltbewegung zu finden ist. Dieser Umstand würde dafür sprechen, dass nationale Interessengruppen einen bedeutsamen Einfluss auf die Regierung ausüben können, bis hin zur Gestaltung aktueller Handelspolitik. Ob diese Interessengruppen auch die eigentlichen Verhandlungen über Freihandelsabkommen beeinflussen können, soll in dieser Dissertation geklärt werden. Hier steht die Frage im Vordergrund, inwiefern nationale Aushandlungsprozesse Auswirkungen auf internationale Verhandlungen haben. Es geht nicht ausschließlich um die Frage, ob Interessengruppen durch nationale Aushandlungsprozesse auf internationale Verhandlungen Einfluss nehmen können, sondern vielmehr, warum sie ihren Einfluss geltend machen und wie sie versuchen, über die nationale Ebene Einfluss auf internationale Verhandlungen zu gewinnen. Im Mittelpunkt der Analyse steht daher die Interaktion zwischen politischen, administrativen und gesellschaftlichen Akteuren auf nationaler Ebene. Dabei konzentriert sich die Dissertation auf Verhandlungen über die Integration von Umweltaspekten in Freihandelsabkommen. Drei Fallbeispiele werden untersucht: das New Zealand-Thailand Closer Economic Partnership (CEP) Agreement, das Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (SEP) Agreement und die WTO Verhandlungen über Fischereisubventionen.

This thesis rests on the statement of fact: precautionary saving which stems from the incompleteness of insurance markets and the existence of borrowing constraints (Aiyagari [1994]) turns out to be important (Skinner [1988], Caballero [1991] Kasarosian [1997]). This mechanism is likely to modify the impact of redistribution and insurance policies. The precautionary saving behaviour depends on the level of idiosyncratic income risk. The goal of redistribution and insurance programs is to reduce the idiosyncratic income risk. Therefore, they are likely to interact with the precautionary saving behaviour. The thesis project is to get the precautionary saving mechanism into the assessment of the insurance and redistribution policies. Four tools of economic policy are investigated: the income and inheritance tax, the unemployment insurance and public debt. The current progressivities of income and inheritance tax reduced wealth inequality in the same proportion, however, modify differently the saving behaviour. The progressivity of the income tax reduces the saving of the richest households whereas the progressivity of the inheritance tax leads the poorest households to save for bequest motive. Contrary to Cahuc et Lehmann [2000], we show that a declining profile of unemployment benefits is able to reduce the trade-off between efficiency and equity when we take account of precautionary saving mechanism. The short term unemployed begins to save whereas he does not do when unemployment benefits are constant over time. Then, he can dissave to support his consumption when the unemployment episode goes on. Ayagari and McGrattan [1998] show that taking precautionary saving into account reasserts the positive role of public debt. However, they take no account of aggregate risk which increases idiosyncratic income risk. Therefore, they have under estimated the role of public debt. During recession the unemployment rate and the unemployment duration increase. Precautionary saving is less likely to be able to smooth consumption. Moreover during recession the interest rate is smaller. It is more difficult to save for precautionary motive because the cost of this self insurance is higher. The introduction of public debt in such environment enables to increase the interest rate. Precautionary saving becomes less costly. That is why aggregate risk leads to revise upwards the optimal level of public debt. ; Cette thèse part d'un constat : l'épargne de précaution qui découle de l'incomplétude des marchés d'assurance et d'une contrainte d'endettement s'avère importante (Skinner [1988], Caballero [1991] Kasarosian [1997]). Ce mécanisme est donc susceptible de modifier l'impact des politiques de redistribution et d'assurance. En effet, le comportement d'épargne de précaution dépend de l'importance du risque idiosyncrasique de revenu. Or les programmes d'assurance sociale et de redistribution ont pour objet de réduire le risque idiosyncrasique de revenu. Ils risquent par conséquent d'interagir avec le comportement d'épargne de précaution. Le projet de la thèse est alors d'intégrer le mécanisme d'épargne de précaution à l'évaluation des politiques d'assurance et de redistribution. L'analyse est circonscrite à quatre instruments de politique économique que sont les impôts progressifs sur le revenu et sur les successions, l'assurance chômage et la dette publique. Les progressivités de l'impôt sur le revenu et sur les successions telles qu'elles existent en France réduisent l'inégalité de patrimoine dans des proportions comparables mais affectent différemment le comportement d'épargne. La progressivité de l'impôt sur le revenu réduit l'épargne des plus riches alors que celle de l'impôt sur les successions crée une épargne pour le motif de legs pour les plus pauvres. Contrairement à Cahuc et Lehmann [2000], on montre qu'un profil décroissant des allocations chômage est en mesure de réduire le conflit d'objectif entre efficacité et équité dès lors que les agents épargnent pour le motif de précaution. La dégressivité telle qu'elle est introduite conduit le chômeur de court terme à épargner ce qu'il ne fait pas lorsque l'allocation chômage est constante. Il peut alors puiser dans cette épargne pour soutenir sa consommation lorsqu'il devient chômeur de long terme. L'analyse de Aiyagari et McGrattan [1998] réaffirme le rôle positif de l'endettement de l'Etat en présence d'épargne de précaution. Cependant, elle ignore une source non négligeable d'exacerbation du risque idiosyncrasique de revenu non assurable qu'est le risque agrégé. On montre qu'en présence de fluctuations macroéconomiques, le niveau optimal de la dette publique est bien plus élevé. L'existence de périodes de récession durant lesquelles le taux de chômage et sa durée augmentent rend moins effective l'épargne de précaution pour lisser la consommation. En outre, durant les périodes de récession, le taux d'intérêt est plus faible. L'épargne de précaution devient plus coûteuse et plus difficile à constituer. Comme la dette publique accroît le taux d'intérêt, elle rend moins difficile sa constitution.

Antecedentes. El trastorno depresivo es una las entidades clínicas más investigadas en la población médica; también se han estudiado los síntomas depresivos en el ámbito universitario. Los niveles inusualmente altos de estrés y depresión en los estudiantes de medicina tienen implicaciones importantes que se extienden más allá de la educación médica. Objetivos. Determinar la prevalencia y severidad de la sintomatología depresiva en la población estudiantil de primero a décimo semestres, de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, en la ciudad de Bogotá y valorar posibles factores asociados. Material y métodos. Estudio descriptivo transversal. Muestra no aleatoria de 295 estudiantes de medicina de 17-28 años (81 por ciento de la población total de estudiantes). Se administro, en sus salones de clase, la Escala Auto-aplicada de Zung para depresión. Se obtuvo y clasificó según severidad la prevalencia de sintomatología depresiva, también se obtuvieron datos pertinentes a edad, género, conformación familiar, si el estudiante tenía padre y/o madre militares y semestre académico. Los semestres se clasificaron en niveles bajo, medio y alto, de acuerdo al nivel adaptativo, transición de ciencias básicas a clínicas, exigencias y carga académica. Se realizó un análisis de correlación y de asociación entre los factores mencionados y la prevalencia de los síntomas depresivos. Resultados. La prevalencia de sintomatología depresiva leve fue de 26,1 por ciento, 21,7 por ciento de moderada y 5,4 por ciento de severa. Con una prevalencia global de 53,2 por ciento. Esta prevalencia disminuyó desde la edad de 21 años en adelante, aunque no de forma relevante; tampoco se halló relación significativa entre la edad y la presencia de síntomas depresivos. Hubo diferencia importante entre hombres y mujeres, hallándose una mayor prevalencia de síntomas depresivos en el género femenino (p=0,028). Se evidenció una relación significativa entre la presencia de síntomas depresivos y los niveles semestrales bajos (p=0,004), los estudiantes que no tenían padres militares (p=0,012) y aquellos que convivían con abuelos (p=0,011). Conclusión. La sintomatología depresiva es importante en la población estudiantil médica. Los estudiantes de medicina tuvieron el doble de probabilidad de sufrir de síntomas depresivos que la población general. Los resultados son útiles para el análisis de la salud mental en el medio universitario y como guía para planear estudios longitudinales. Se requieren estudios de mejor diseño para confirmar los hallazgos aquí expuestos. Se requiere intervención mediante actividades de promoción, prevención e identificación de casos en las facultades de medicina. ; Background. Depressive disorder is one of the most investigated clinic entities in medical population and even depressive symptoms have been preliminary studied at medical schools. Unusually high stress and depression levels among medical students have important consequences that are likely to persist beyond the duration of medical education. Objectives. Determining the prevalence of depressive symptoms, its severity and associated factors in student population at Universidad Militar Nueva Granada medical school from first to tenth semester in Bogotá city. Materials and methods. Cross-sectional epidemiological study. Non-probabilistic sample of 295 medical students aged 17-28 (81% from total population). The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale was administered to the subjects in their classroom obtaining the depressive symptoms prevalence and then classifying it in depressive levels. Factors like age, gender, academic semester, family members, and if student had military parents were evaluated. Each semester was classified in three categories: low, medium and high, according to adaptation, academic workload, and transition from basic to clinic sciences. Correlation analysis and chi-square were used for evaluating the association between depressive symptoms and the factors mentioned above. Results. Depressive symptoms prevalence was 26, 1% for mild severity level, 21, 7% for moderate level and 5, 4 for severe level. Global prevalence was 53, 2%. It was shown that this prevalence decreased from the age of 21 upward, but like between age and depressive symptoms, there wasn't significant association. It was found an important difference between males and females, with females having more depressive symptoms (p=0,028). Also there were significant associations between depressive symptoms and low semester levels (p=0,004), students without military parents (p=0,012), and subjects living with grandparents (p=0,011). Conclusions. Depressive symptoms have an important representation in medical student population. Medical students had twice probability to suffer depressive symptoms than general population. The results are useful for mental health analysis at university environments and to guide prospective studies. Further epidemiological investigations and clinic evaluation at medical schools are necessary for reach an exact and reliable diagnostic level. Likewise, promotion and prevention health activities that detect vulnerable subjects are very important at public health and preventive psychiatry.

Studi recenti hanno dimostrato in Petrarca un'autocoscienza lucidissima del significato ideologico della rappresentazione geografica e insieme del senso che questa assume nella biografia culturale del poeta. Con l'Itinerarium Petrarca cerca di superare l'orizzonte della crisi politica trecentesca stabilendo un orizzonte alternativo che coinvolge l'amico Mandelli e insieme, attraverso le cerchie dei primi lettori napoletani e ferraresi, la posterità. Ma questo processo si registra in modalità diverse anche nelle epistole Familiari e metriche: con questo modello implicito di Petrarca pone la patria italica su un piano superiore in un'epoca in cui essa non esiste ancora come soggetto politico, e ne individua le specificità ricavandole dalla propria esperienza di viaggio e di lettura, frammentarie e discontinue nella formulazione ma unitarie nel disegno, che fanno del viaggio un unico grande tropo della coscienza di Petrarca. Il contributo di Francesco Stella sperimenta l'applicazione ad alcune epistole metriche di Petrarca delle analisi sulla retorica dello spazio che sono state tentate per altri grandi scrittori latini. Se è vero che «il Canzoniere non parla se non degli occhi» (Bertone), potremmo dire infatti che le epistole metriche non cantano se non i luoghi, sempre percepiti dagli occhi del poeta o di quelli cui, come specchi di sé, si rivolge. Quasi ogni lettera contiene descrizioni di regioni e città, racconti di viaggio e ambientazioni di aneddoti, confronti fra paesi e nazioni, ricordi di località e cataloghi di popoli, di venti, di fiumi e di prodotti che rappresentano non tanto sentimenti e umori quanto spazi culturali e proiezioni biografiche. Si direbbe che la modalità peculiare di Petrarca è la spazializzazione delle categorie mentali e soprattutto storiche, l'esternalizzazione del soggetto culturale. L'indagine coglie in una poesia latina che è (a un'analisi puntuale dei modelli) assai più medievale di quanto non si sia voluto credere, il punto di innesto della nuova estetica dello spazio, quella appropriazione della geografia alla percezione del soggetto lirico che è la rivoluzione petrarchesca del canzoniere. Se nella poesia volgare di Petrarca il paesaggio diventa Reflexionsraum del soggetto e insieme sguardo esterno che gli dona una nuova oggettività, in quella latina questa operazione è realizzabile solo entrando in dialogo intertestuale con la tradizione (anche recente) che ne ha generato il linguaggio, col repertorio retorico che ne consente la comunicabilità. ; Recent studies have shown an extremely clear self-conscience in Petrarch of the ideological meaning of geographical representation, and the sense that it assumes in the cultural biography of the poet. With Itinerarium, Petrarch seeks to go beyond the horizon of 4th Century political crisis, setting an alternative which involves his friend Mandelli together with posterity, through circles of the first Neapolitan and Ferrarese readers. But this process is registered differently even in the Familiar and metrical epistles: this implicit Petrarchan model put the Italian motherland on a higher plane during an era in which it was still non-existent as a political force. He identified individualities extracted from his experiences of travelling and reading, which were fragmentary and discontinuous in expression but whole in design and made travelling a unique, grand trope of Petrarch's conscience. Francesco Stella's contribution tests the application to some of Petrarch's metrical epistles of analyses of the rhetoric of space, which had been tried by other great Latin writers. If it is true that «the Canzoniere speaks nothing if not the language of the eyes» (Bertone), we could in fact say that it is not the metrical epistles, but the places which sing, perceived by the eyes of the poet or of those to whom, as mirrors of themselves, they appear. Almost every letter contains descriptions of regions and cities, tales of journeys and settings of anecdotes, comparisons between towns and countries, memories of localities and scores of people, of winds, of rivers and of products which represent not only sentiments and moods, but cultural spaces and biographical projections. It could be said that Petrarch's characteristic manner is the scattering of the mental and particularly historical classes, the externalisation of the cultural subject. The research is gathered in a Latin verse, which (upon careful analysis of the models) is much more medieval in that it is not meant to be believed, the point of insertion of the new aesthetic of space, of the appropriation of geography to the perception of the lyrical subject that is the Petrarchan revolution of the Canzoniere. If, in the vulgar poetry of Petrarch, the landscape becomes a Reflexionsraum of the subject while at the same time an external look, giving it a new objectivity, in his Latin work, this procedure can only be carried out entering into inter-textual dialogue with the tradition (even recent) that has created an entire language, with the rhetorical repertoire that gives us the ability to communicate.

This thesis is a longitudinal examination of how the introduction of the Council of Europe's European Language Portfolio (ELP) has affected foreign/second language teaching and learning in Irish post-primary schools. It examines and evaluates the nature and implications of the experience of a number of teachers and learners who use the ELP in their classes. Chapter 1 sketches the European background of the ELP by presenting a brief overview of related issues, the Council of Europe and the policies it pursues as regards language education and the related projects it has organised. It then explains how the ELP was developed and piloted, and summarises current developments related to its successful implementation, dissemination and evaluation. The chapter also refers to the importance the ELP seems to have assumed on the agenda of policy makers outside the CoE, such as the European Union. The chapter goes on to provide an overview of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEF), offers a brief examination of the claims made h various publications concerning the effects the CEF/ELP can have on language education, and presents some of the most comprehensive attempts made so far towards an 'ELP-oriented pedagogy'. Finally, it presents the case for an in-depth longitudinal quantitative and qualitative exploration of whether the ELP actively promotes what it claims to promote, under which prerequisites, and how it works when superimposed on the FL/SL curricula currently in place. Chapter 2 discusses Irish post-primary language education, for which the ELP model in question was developed as a product of the 'Learner Autonomy Project' (LAP), and presents the main features of the LAP, the principal design features of this model and the work of the ELP Support Network (ELP SN) which offers on-going support to teachers using the ELP in Irish post-primary education. It also summarizes the findings of the predecessor of the current longitudinal project, the six-month ELP empirical evaluation project, conducted through the ELP SN. Finally, it presents an overview of self-determination theory, which supplemented the theoretical outlook, research methods and instruments of this project, and presents the theoretical background to this project. In Chapter 3, the rationale, methodology, environment, limitations and expected outcomes of the research project are discussed in some depth. Options followed related to the data elicitation instruments, confidentiality issues, and extended triangulation techniques are examined in considerable detail. Chapters 4 and 5 present and critically examine the project findings. Chapter 4 presents and examines summative project findings, while Chapter 5 discusses class- and teacher-specific findings. These two chapters draw from and should be read in tandem with the extensive data-containing appendices of the thesis, which exceed five thousand pages. This arrangement was employed since the large number and elaborate nature of the data elicitation instruments resulted in 'raw data' exceeding five thousand pages after a first 'data-reducing' codification of responses. As a result, it would be all but impossible to discuss the totality of the data in any meaningful way in the space available. At the same time, transparency and objectivity are best served by the current arrangement, where both the full recoded responses appear appended for the interested reader to peruse at leisure, and a critical analysis and discussion of the findings appears in the main body of the thesis, focusing on the themes which come out of the findings as most prominent and/or statistically significant. Chapter 6 offers a brief summary of the principal conclusions which can be reached on the basis of the project findings, and examines how these conclusions may inform language provision in Irish post-primary education as well as in other language learning settings. First, it examines what the project participants' (teachers' and learners') responses tell us about this specific ELP model, the curricula currently in place, their schools, the practices they followed in project classes, their teachers/students, and themselves. Then it briefly addresses the issue of whole-school development and the potential benefits of advocating an ELP-informed pedagogy and introducing portfoliobased learning and benchmarking in all subjects and not only FL teaching and learning. Next, it discusses the implications of the possible introduction of Content and Language Integrated Learning in post-primary education along with the ELP in response to some of the concerns raised by the project participants. Finally, it examines what the findings of this project may have to offer to similar projects and ELP development, implementation and evaluation conducted in settings other than Irish post-primary education. ; TARA (Trinity?s Access to Research Archive) has a robust takedown policy. Please contact us if you have any concerns: rssadmin@tcd.ie

Die Verbesserung der Luftqualität und damit der Lebensqualität der Bürger, gemeinsam mit einer langfristig gesicherten Energieversorgung der Europäischen Union, sind vorrangige Ziele der Europäischen Umwelt- und Energiepolitik. Ein Hauptverursacher von luftbelastenden Schadstoffemissionen und Verbraucher von vorwiegend nicht erneuerbaren Ressourcen ist der Verkehrssektor. Gerade in Ballungsräumen mit ihrer dichten Bebauung und hohen Bevölkerungs- und Verkehrsdichte sind die Umweltbelastungen des Verkehrs spürbar. Um diese Verkehrsbelastungen zu senken, ist es erklärtes Ziel der Städte und Gemeinden, den ÖPNV auszuweiten. Da der Nahverkehrsbus das vorwiegend eingesetzte Transportmittel im ÖPNV ist, wird von den Kommunen der Einsatz verbrauchs- und emissionsarmer Omnibusse angestrebt. Mögliche Antriebskonzepte nutzen u.a. selbstzündende bzw. fremdgezündete Verbrennungsmotoren sowie Brennstoffzellen. Abhängig vom Antriebskonzept können verschiedene flüssige und gasförmige Kraftstoffe, wie z.B. Diesel, Erdgas oder Wasserstoff, eingesetzt werden. Nun haben Bushersteller wie Busbetreiber das Problem, dass sie den vollen Umfang der ökologischen Chancen und Risiken bekannter und neuer Busantriebstechnologien meist nicht oder nur unzureichend einschätzen können. Um eine Aussage über die Umweltfreundlichkeit der verschiedenen Antriebsformen treffen zu können, ist eine ganzheitliche Betrachtung der einzelnen Bussysteme aus umweltlicher Sicht durchzuführen. Wesentlich dabei ist die Berücksichtigung des gesamten Lebenszyklus des Systems Nahverkehrsbus und der lokalen Einsatzbedingungen. Basierend auf dem Ansatz der Ganzheitlichen Bilanzierung und den Erkenntnissen aus den von der Europäischen Kommission geförderten Demonstrationsprojekten CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) und ECTOS (Ecological City Transport System) wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein Instrumentarium zur ökologisch-technischen Analyse und Optimierung von Nahverkehrsomnibussen entwickelt. Der Ansatz des Modells beruht auf der Untersuchung der vier wesentlichen Lebenszyklusbestandteile eines Bussystems, der Busherstellung, der Kraftstoffbereitstellung, dem Busbetrieb und schließlich der Busentsorgung. Zunächst wird ein modulares Modell für die Herstellung und Entsorgung der betrachteten Bustypen erstellt. Die Kraftstoffbereitstellung wird einschließlich der Gewinnung und Verarbeitung der benötigten Energieträger län-derspezifisch analysiert. Für den Busbetrieb wurde ein Modell erstellt, das die standortspezifischen Randbedingungen des Betriebs, wie zum Beispiel Geschwindigkeit, Topographie und Beladung, bei der Bestimmung des Kraftstoffverbrauchs und der Emissionen berücksichtigt. Anhand der Ergebnisse, welche mit Hilfe des in MS-Excel und in der Ökobilanzsoftware GaBi 4 umgesetzten Modells ermittelt wurden, lassen sich die drei Antriebstechnologien Diesel, Erdgas und Brennstoffzelle ökologisch vergleichen. Die Szenariofähigkeit des entwickelten Modells erlaubt die Optimierung der Bussysteme hinsichtlich u.a. Gesamtenergieverbrauch, Minimierung der Emissionen etc. Ferner kann das Umweltprofil ganzer Busflotten in Abhängigkeit ihrer Zusammensetzung berechnet werden. Die Validierung der quantitativen Ergebnisse des Modells erfolgt anhand von Messfahrten, die auf mehreren Strecken durchgeführt wurden und detaillierten Emissionsmessungen auf Rollenprüfständen. ; Improving citizens' quality of life through improvement of air quality and increasing the security of long-term energy supply for the European Union, are the priority goals of the European Environment and Energy policy. The transport sector is one of the largest sectors in the economy responsible for both emission of air pollutants and the use of predominantly non-renewable resources. The environmental impacts are particularly noticeable in congested urban areas where buildings, population and traffic are most dense. To reduce this impact, cities and municipalities have set specific targets to extend public transport systems. Local authorities aim to increase the use of low consumption and low emission transit buses since these are the most common form of transport in public transport networks. Achieving these objectives can be facilitated by different drive system concepts such as self-igniting and spark-igniting internal combustion engines as well as fuel cells. Depending on the drive system concept, different liquid or gaseous fuels can be employed e.g. diesel, natural gas or hydrogen. However, bus manufacturers and operators are left with the problem that they are typically not able to assess the full extent of the actual and potential ecological benefits and risks of existing and new bus drive systems adequately. A holistic environmental investigation of each bus system has to be carried out in order to determine the environmental-friendliness of the various drive systems. This requires a consideration of the whole life cycle of the bus system and the local operating conditions. This work developed an instrument for an ecological and technical analysis and optimisation of local transit buses. The work employs the Life Cycle Assessment approach and is based on findings of the CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) and ECTOS (Ecological City Transport System) fuel cell bus demonstration projects which were conducted with the funding support of the European Commission in ten different cities across Europe. The created model is based on the examination of a bus's four fundamental life cycle stages; its manufacture, the provision of fuel, its operation and finally its disposal. The model comprises two parts. Initially, a general model for the manufacture and disposal of the specific bus model is developed. It also comprises the analysis of the provision of fuel for each city site, including the extraction and processing of the relevant energy sources. Subsequently the second component of the model is compiled for bus operation that considers site-specific operation (factors such as speed, topography and load) for the definition of fuel consumption and resulting emissions. The model is implemented in both MS-Excel and the Life Cycle Assessment software, GaBi 4. The results obtained from the model enabled three drive system technologies (diesel, natural gas and hydrogen) to be ecologically compared. The model provides the ability to develop and ex-amine different scenarios which enables bus systems to be optimised with regard to their total energy consumption, the minimisation of their emissions etc. Furthermore, the environmental impact of an entire bus fleet can be examined taking into account the number and different type of buses in the fleet. The quantitative results of the model have been validated on several routes with real world test runs and with detailed emissions monitoring carried out on a dynamometer test bench.

In its 40 years of existence, SIPRI has witnessed a shift from the clear-cut bipolar confrontation of the cold war to a much more complicated strategic environment. No simple formula such as North-South or West-West confrontation, a new US 'empire', or the identification of human categories like terrorism or Islam as 'the' enemy can be either intellectually or morally satisfying. Notions of danger and security have also become more complex over the past 40 years, shifting away -- in particular -- from any sense that armaments are the core of the problem. A wider spectrum of trans-state, intra-state and personal violence has taken the place of state-to-state conflict, and the salience of 'human security' threats such as epidemic disease and natural disasters has grown. Non-state actors of all kinds have gained in power, as security menaces but potentially also as contributors to solutions. Different levels of security response, from sub-national through national and regional to global, need to be integrated and correctly applied. In general, there has been a shift in preference towards ways of tackling threat and risk that are active, cooperative and interventionist even when not actually 'pre-emptive'. All regional security organizations now exhort their members to build up their military capacities for benign uses such as peace missions. The assumption increasingly seems to be that it is not arms and armed forces that are bad in themselves, but their use by bad people for bad purposes -- if these terms can be defined -- that must be prevented. Considering the scale of change in the substantial security environment, institutions like the UN, NATO, the EU and the OSCE have proved remarkably long-lived and adaptable. New ones have arisen in many regions to join them. Patterns of institutional action have, however, changed in a way that has blurred old divisions between security providers and those dealing with economic or other 'civilian' topics. The security importance of the latter is now better understood in the contexts both of complex crisis management and peace-building, and of tackling non-traditional threats like terrorism and proliferation. Organizations that can work in several dimensions at once, and can mobilize both resources and legislative powers, have an inherent advantage in this light (but also have special problems of governance). In the cold war, disarmament and arms control work was carried out in discrete institutional frameworks; its main successes came in the form of binding international legal instruments, including provisions for follow-up and monitoring. This process peaked around the mid-1990s; latterly, the 'treaty method' has come under fire from the USA and has shown some real weaknesses in terms of coverage, enforceability and enforcement. While the idea of universal constraints on dangerous objects or transactions is not dead yet and may mutate into new forms (such as UN Security Council Resolution 1540 on weapons of mass destruction), the control of weapons has proceeded more actively on various other fronts. Alternative methods include: voluntary and unilateral cuts in forces and weapons, enforced disarmament such as that imposed on Iraq, qualitative or 'soft' constraints on the way that military resources are used, weapon restrictions with a humanitarian motivation, international cooperation to control exports and transfers of sensitive goods and technologies, multi-element 'package' approaches to persuade individual states to refrain from or surrender dangerous capabilities. Various mixtures of such measures have brought solutions for some individual WMD-related problems and may yet solve others, but they work best when applied on a basis of clear international norms and in a setting of institutional cooperation. For a single country to act as judge and executioner raises questions of legitimacy and, as the past few years have shown, of effectiveness. Ultimately, all multinational institutions have more in common with each other than they do with unregulated national action in pursuit of the same goals. All face essentially the same challenge today: to preserve their self-belief and to keep building cooperative approaches in the face of hecklers and offenders from both outside and inside their ranks. In the brief space of the four decades since 1966 the world has witnessed positive transformations, not only with the end of the East-West confrontation but also, for example, in South-East Asia, Southern Africa and Latin America. There are also depressingly many instances of conflicts that have got no better or got worse, and of good causes that have not advanced at all. One thing that has not changed or has only become more obvious is the importance in security affairs of transparency, exact information and rigorous analysis. In today's world, actions need not only be well intentioned or inherently good, but must be shown and understood to be good in the face of the continuing profound diversity of world opinions. Progress in dealing with that challenge will be one key to how global security fares over SIPRI's next 40 years. Adapted from the source document.

Der Bart als phylogenetischer Restbestand unserer ehemaligen Vollbehaarung stellt evolutionär betrachtet eine spezialisierte Form der Körperbedeckung dar und signalisiert klaren Sexualdimorphismus. Als Symbol der Lebenskraft durch sein immerwährendes Wachstum und als optisches Zeichen der Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit wurde der Bart für die visuelle Kommunikation instrumentalisiert und zum exponierten Kultsignal. Der Zweck dieser Körperveränderung war und ist, den Naturzustand in eine idealisierte Überrealität zu transformieren, um soziales Ansehen zu erlangen. Die bewußte Formgebung eines Bartes ist deswegen Ausdruck einer kulturellen Überhöhung und somit Bestandteil des jeweiligen mentalen Körperbildes. Darum wurden Bärte geschnitten, geformt, gedreht, geflochten, gefärbt, gelockt, geölt, parfümiert, mit Goldstaub und selbst mit Goldfäden und Ersatzhaar ergänzt. Die Ausbildung von Rangordnungen und Gruppenzugehörigkeiten war die Folge. Die Kulturgeschichte der Völker zeugt ubiquitär von der Faszination, die Bärte ausübten und auch heute ausüben. Das Kultsignal des heiligen, göttlich omnipotenten Bartes wandelt sich im Lauf der Zeit körperbildästhetisch zum virilen kulturkreisabhängigen Individualausdruck. Die dadurch oder dafür ausgegrenzte Materialbasis soll dieses belegen. Einschränkend wird in der vorliegenden Ausarbeitung der Versuch unternommen, schwerpunktmäßig den Kommunikationswert der Bartgestaltung im europäischen Weltbildkontext, basierend auf antiker Überlieferung, interdisziplinär evolutions-, religions-, kunsttheoretisch und modesoziologisch zu analysieren und zu kommentieren, um bisher vernachlässigte Querverbindungen aufzuzeigen. Die Unvollständigkeit liegt in der Komplexität des Phänomens begründet. Das Phänomen Bart wurde bisher in der Literatur kulturhistorisch dokumentiert, aber wissenschaftstheoretisch in seiner Gesamtheit vernachlässigt, obwohl der Bart modesoziologisch und in neuerer Zeit soziopsychologisch eine erhebliche Rolle für die Kommunikation spielt. Ein Grund dafür mag unter anderem das dem Bart phänomenologisch Individuell-Subjektiv-Anhaftende sein, das der objektivierenden Verifikation wissenschaftlicher Methodik erschwerend im Wege steht. Der Bart stellt eine Sonderform für modesoziologische Fragestellungen dar, weil er Bestandteil des mentalen Körperbildes ist, das seinen Träger sowohl körpersprachlich als auch visuell vorstellt. Der Bart als Symbol für genuine Virilität, als Zeichen der Dominanz, politischer Gesinnung und Individualität stellt weiterhin ein sich ständig im modischen Wandel befindliches Bekenntnis am Schnittpunkt zwischen seelischem Körperbewusstsein und gefordertem konventionellen Öffentlichkeitsbildnis dar. Demzufolge entsprechen Bartmoden dem jeweils zugestandenen Spielraum für den Einzelnen im Zivilisationsprozeß. Ebenso belegt die Fülle der gegenwärtigen identitätsstiftenden Bartinszenierungen der Individualisten deutlich das Bedürfnis der Selbstdarstellung in der modernen Massengesellschaft. Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Stilepochen führt diesbezüglich sinnfällig den immerwährenden Wandel der unterschiedlichen Erscheinungsbilder des jeweiligen Bartbewusstseins vor Augen und bestätigt damit als modisches Phänomen die geistesgeschichtliche Entwicklung des Menschen. Durch die rasante technische Entwicklung, bezogen auf den gegenwärtigen medizinisch-biologisch-physikalisch-psychologisch-philosophisch-kunsttheoretisch-ethischen Diskurs über die Mensch-Maschine, wird sich das Bild vom Körper ändern und somit auch das Bartbewußtsein. Der Bart symbolisiert bisher den fortpflanzungsfähigen, gesunden Mann. In Zukunft jedoch wird die Bartoptik nur noch davon losgelöst für die virtuelle Mustererkennung von spielerischem Wert sein. ; The beard as part of phylogenetic remaining of our anterior completely hair-garment presents evolutionary a specialized form of body-covering and indicates unambiguously sexuell dimorphism. As symbol of vitality by constantly growth and as an optical indication of sexual ability for the reproduction, the beard gained in importance for visual communication and elevated for an exposed cultural signal. The purpose of corporally changing has been and still is, to transform the natural status quo into idealized surreality for gain social reputation. The conscious beard-styling therefore is an expression of cultural revaluation increase in value and regarding this, part of the mental body-image at any time. Therefore beards were skilful styled, oiled, perfumed and supplemented with golden dust, golden strings and hairy substitutes. This development resulted formation of order of social ranks and different groups of membership. The history of civilization gives evidence of the fascination, which causes beards by peoples all over the world. From the aesthetical point of view in time the body-sign beard, the holy symbol of divine omnipotency, changes into an individual virile expression depending on the cultural environment. Therefore the differentiated dividing source research shall give evidence. Restricted to this presented elaboration the attempt will be done, to analyse and comment on main focusly the value of communication of beard-styling, concerning European conception of the world, based on the classical antiquity, considering interdisciplinary evolutionary, religious, visual arts referenced and fashionsociological theories, to prove neglected cross references up to now. The complexity of this phenomenon causes unavoidable incompleteness. In the past the phenomenon beard has been documented in cultural history, but has been scientificly disregarded in its totality, though the beard currently fashionsociological and sociopsychological plays an influential role within communication. One reason may be, that the beard is attached with individual-subjective, which hinders the objectively verification of common scientific method. The beard represents an exceptional feature concerning innovative fashionsociological questions, because being part of the mental body-image, which presents his representative simultaneous as well as corporally and visually. The beard as symbol of genuine virility, of dominance, of a political-minded person and individuality presents furthermore a permanent in changing situated confession to the focal point between mental body-consciousness and demanded conventional public-image. Resulting this, beard-fashions are only in accordance with the respective given room to move for individuals in the process of civilization. As well proves the plurality current identity donating beard-imagery of individualists the desire of self-conscious expostion within the modern mass-society. The history of the epochal development of visual arts verifies relating to this perpetual change of the different appearances of the special beard-consciousness and confirms the fashionable phenomenon as human mental evolution. An appointed statistical verification testifies the relevance of the actual importance of the beard as fashionable bodysignal to communication. By the technical development, lining the current medical-biological-physical-psychological-philosophical-arttheoretical-ethical discourse of the human-machine, the body-image will be changed and also the beard-consciousness. Till now the beard symbolized the ability of reproduction of a healthy man. In future however beard-optics will be given only playful value isolated from thereby for the virtual pattern-identification.

Conclusion: During the past three decades there has been a significant transformation of work arrangements in countries like Australia, characterized by a relative decline in permanent/secure full-time employees and a commensurate growth in short-term contract, casual and other contingent work arrangements. This shift poses a significant challenge for OHS legislation that was designed on a presumption of employment relationships and a level of unionization that are now no longer the norm. In particular, these changes undermine the mechanisms for worker involvement that were a critical component of post-Robens legislative reform in Australia and many other countries and which have been shown to be important in achieving tangible improvement in health and safety outcomes. This paper has highlighted the extent of these deficiencies, including the virtual exclusion of subcontractors, the self-employed and leased workers, from participatory mechanisms (notably workplace health and safety committees and being represented by HSRs). There is also evidence that the involvement of temporary employees and home-based workers (who are employees) in workplace committees is problematic even though they are not formally excluded by legislation. Further, it was noted that declines in union membership had weakened the logistical infrastructure for effective worker involvement, especially in industries and workplaces were insecure or contingent work arrangements are pervasive. The paper then explored a number of ways of remedying these deficiencies, including revising general duty and participation provisions and associated codes and regulations; and developing new forms of representation. It has argued that new and more embracing responsibilities on consultation should be aimed at employers in multi-employer worksites and it suggests that the WorkCover NSW OHS Consultation Code may be a good example of one step in this direction. It points out that while the original measures on worker representation and consultation established a useful floor of rights, they were based on assumptions about the structure and organization of work as well as about the power of trade unions which no longer apply in the changed world of work we describe in the early part of the paper. As these changes appear to have negative consequences for both the health and safety and the representation of the increasing number of workers that experience them, we argue that measures on representation and consultation are in need of revision. We suggest for example that existing Australian measures on 'deeming' and qualifications in relation to 'designated work groups' may be both limiting and inadequate in addressing the realities of supporting representation on health and safety in a changed world of work. Moreover, we note that issues of representation on health and safety for workers in small enterprises strongly overlap with those in the other increasingly fragmented and precarious employment situations that we have described. Importantly, we have derived several further observations from this. First that there is some evidence that representing workers' interests in small enterprises through the use of mobile representatives from outside the enterprises such as is the case in a number of European countries does lead to improved health and safety arrangements in the enterprises concerned. Second that legislative support for such representation is one of the factors that enhances both its coverage and effectiveness of workers as can be demonstrated in countries such as Sweden and Italy where such provisions exist and can be inferred from the limited and partial nature of both coverage and effectiveness of voluntary measures in countries in which they are the norm. Conversely, measures that exempt small enterprises from legislative provisions on health and safety and/or worker representation do nothing to support the improved health and safety outcomes in these firms. Furthermore there is a strong argument to suggest that such measures are in fact discriminatory and promote inequality at work. Suggestions about the need for new and innovative regulatory approaches to address the unfavourable situations that are a product of the new structure and organization of work does not imply that existing measures have been entirely successful in dealing with the situations for which they were intended. We have noted that on some issues such as for example, training, issuing notices, risk assessment and consultation in advance of change there is still some way to go before such measures can be claimed to be fully operational — even in traditional workplaces. We have suggested that discussion of regulatory reform needs to take this observation into account alongside those we have made concerning the new situations of work. This account has been specifically focused on regulatory reforms that could address current weaknesses in the Australian situation. However, it should be clear that there are similar challenges in most advanced market economies. This means there is much more to be learned from international comparative analysis of both regulatory and non-regulatory strategies in this field.

This dissertation comprises a collection of self-contained game theoretical essays on different and detailed facets of power, freedom, and success. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction to the basic meaning of these concepts and their importance in welfare economics. The chapter includes a brief tour of the essays and how they conceptually and methodologically tie together. Chapter 2, 'Preferences and the Measurement of Power', which was written in collaboration with Manfred J. Holler and forthcoming in Journal of Theoretical Politics, examines a recent debate in the literature on power indices in which classical measures such as the Banzhaf, Shapley-Shubik, and Public Good indices have been criticized on the grounds that they do not take into account player preferences. It has been argued that an index that is blind to preferences misses a vital component of power, namely strategic interaction. In this vein there has been an attempt to develop so-called strategic power indices on the basis of non-cooperative game theory. This essay argues that the criticism is unfounded and that a preference-based power index is incompatible with the definition of power as a generic ability: 'the ability to effect outcomes'. It is claimed that power resides in, and only in, a game form and not in a game itself. Chapter 3, 'The Measurement of Freedom', which has been submitted to the American Political Science Review (APSR), is about the measurement specific freedoms – the freedom of an agent to undertake some particular action. In a recent paper in the APSR, Dowding and van Hees discuss the need for, and general form of, a 'freedom function' that assigns a value between 0 and 1 to a right or freedom and that describes the expectation that a person may have about being in a position to exercise ('being free to perform') that freedom or legal right. An examination of the literature shows that such a measure has never been properly defined. Based on the framework of a game form, this essay develops a very simple and natural measure of specific freedom that turns out to be the conditional variant of 'success', a measure that we know from the literature on voting power. Some properties and characteristics of the measure are discussed. Chapter 4, 'The Success of a Chairman', re-examines the so-called 'chairman's paradox' that was first noticed by Farquharson in his path breaking tract on sophisticated voting, Theory of Voting (1969). The Chairman's paradox is concerned with the case of a three member committee in which a particular player who has a regular and a tie-breaking vote – the 'chairman' – not only will do worse in specific instances under the plurality procedure for three alternatives than if he did not have such a vote, but will also do worse overall. That is, the chairman's a priori probability of success ('getting what one wants') for all possible games with linear (strict) preference orders is lower than that of the two regular members. It is demonstrated that this result, which comes about if voters act strategically rather than sincerely, is not as robust as it has been thought to be. By merely replacing the standard assumption of linear preference orders that do not allow for players to be indifferent with weak preference orders, which allow for indifference, we can escape from the paradox for the canonical case of three players and three alternatives. With weak preference orders, the a priori success of the chairman is now greater than that of the other two players. A new paradox of sophisticated voting is also detected and discussed. Chapter 5, 'Voting Rules in Insolvency Law: A Simple-Game Theoretic Approach', which was written in collaboration with Frank Steffen and published in the International Review of Law and Economics concerns an analysis of the voting rules in modern insolvency law. A chief characteristic of this law in Canada, Germany, the UK, and the US is the provision for 'workouts' or 'schemes of arrangement' by which insolvent companies can attempt to rehabilitate the business. If reorganization is chosen, the debtor has to devise a plan of action which will be voted upon by claimants. The voting rules, however, differ in each jurisdiction to a greater or lesser extent and as yet have not been analysed in any rigorous manner. This paper provides an approach based upon the theory of simple games to analyse the rules in terms of the ease which each of these regimes can pass (or hinder) plans and how these rules distribute value among claimants. Particular attention is given to the role of classification and the effect of coalition formation.

Unproductive enterprises that feed on productive businesses, are rampant in developing countries. These parasitic enterprises take divergent forms, some headed by violent bandits and brutal mafia bosses, others by organized middlemen or smart political insiders. All of them seem to have the profit motive in common. A consequence of parasitic enterprises is that societies may be locked into a self enforcing configuration of beliefs and practices that result in persistent poverty. In some instances the parasites are former youth gangs or rebel groups that are transformed to criminal enterprises feeding on private businesses (Collier 2000). Such bandits not only extort and control small-scale informal enterprises, street sellers and sweat shops, but the most professional among the plunderers prey on large-scale modern firms. One case in point is the lucrative businesses of kidnapping and extortion in Colombia, where guerrillas collect more than hundred million US dollars per year only from the oil industry alone (Hunter, 1996). Other parasitic enterprises act like a Mafia, providing protection, enforcing contracts, and mediating disputes for money. These enterprises apply force on a commercial basis to collect debt and enforce business contracts. "Problem solving" that normally belongs to the realm of the state is undertaken by violent entrepreneurs and their gangs, where the targets have to pay tributes to avoid damages. Even though these predatory forms of illegal activities can be found in industrialized countries – with the Sicilian and the We thank Kaushik Basu for productive discussions. We have also benefitted from useful comments by Sam Bowles and Karla Hoff. We are grateful for support from the Norwegian Research Council. 1 Parasites 2 American Mafia the best-known examples– they are more prevalent and more burdensome in developing countries and in the transition economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. In the transition countries the institutional vacuum created by the collapse of communism has opened the scene for extortion by such mafia-like parasites. Their activities belong to the growing shadow economy (Campos 2000). One example is private enforcement of business contracts, by threat of violence from criminal gangs, that became routine in the Russian business world in the 1990s. As Volkov observed, "[b]efore signing formal business contracts, companies acquire information on each other's enforcement partners (whom do you work with?)"(Volkov 1999 p.746). Such criminal gangs can obtain a considerable influence over private businesses. According to the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, criminal gangs in 1994 controlled 40,000 Russian businesses (Volkov 1999). Parasitic enterprises can also be run by middlemen who organize marketing boards with substantial monopsony power, or by wealthy land-owners who provide credit at exploitative interest rates. Political insiders set up their own parasitic enterprises that private sector companies have to consult and remunerate in order to have certain contracts signed. These activities, sometimes called straddling, are common in Africa. In Kenya, for example, president Moi allowed extensive straddling among politicians and bureaucrats in exchange for loyalty to the government (Bates 1983, Bigsten and Moene 1996). Finally, parasites are not always private enterprises, but can be found as corrupt politicians and bureaucrats who collect bribes and use their positions for own private benefit. All these kinds of parasitic rent appropriation activities that are directed towards private businesses flourish in the absence of a state that effectively protects property rights, and enforces contracts. Thus parasitic rent appropriation is different from regular rent-seeking that captures activities directed towards an active state undertaking regulations that private businesses wish to avoid or benefit from. While regular rent seeking distort political decisions via wasteful influence activities, parasitic rent appropriation challenges the state's monopoly of taxation, protection and legitimate violence. In this paper we highlight some of the causes and consequences of these parasitic behaviors. Our basic claim is based on the premise that entrepreneurs of both productive and parasitic enterprises to some extent are drawn from the same limited pool of entrepreneurs. Parasites 3 When this is the case, the rise of parasitic profit opportunities may cause economic stagnation and underdevelopment that in turn enhance the profitability of parasitic enterprises relative to productive enterprises. Thus parasitic rent appropriation may induce stagnation, while stagnation may induce parasitic activities. Together the two links can lead developing economies into a poverty trap. In order to study the consequences of parasitic profit opportunities, we embed parasitic activities within a big-push model of industrialization. Parasitic activities compete for scarce entrepreneurial resources, as in the seminal papers on the misallocation of talent to unproductive activities by Usher (1987), Baumol (1990), Murphy, Shleifer, and Vishny (1991 and 1993), and Acemoglu (1995).1 First, however we clarify what we mean by a poverty trap and how it is related to the concepts of strategic complementarity.

The paper describes the emergence of a new hybrid cultural and entrepreneurial agent in the context of the local cultural industries of Frankfurt on Main (Germany). The thesis of the paper is, that the culturepreneur is responsible for new place-making strategies apart the most visible and dominant one, such as the skyline in Frankfurt/M. The understandings of his place-making strategies offer insights in new forms of negotiation of an urban renewal process. Despite this it provides a new and important evaluation of the yet underestimated spatial category place in the process and formation of scenes, recently brought into discussion by sociologist R. Hitzler (2001). Places are the terrain of the post-industrial city where different and heterogeneous scenes are struggling. The analysis of the use and significance - out of the perspective of culturepreneurs - provides a new, yet in the field of social sciences unclear, reading of the existing urban condition. The context of the emergence of the type culturepreneur is framed by neoliberal governmental and political approaches, urban marketing campaigns such as the self-promotion as being a young and a cool city like Frankfurt/M. (or Berlin) are practicing it, in order to encourage individuals to launch ones own enterprise: The first results can best be seen in the field of the growing numbers of workers in the socalled creative (service-industry-related) sector. Besides that, the growing numbers of creatives, such as web-, fashion-, music and arts and crafts designers as well as club organizers are - viewed from an institutional perspective - an expression of complex changes of the role of the arts and media sector as growing mediator between the subsectors of culture and economy. Based on comparable results of A. McRobbie's studies (1999) in the creative sector of London (GB), this research shows that the agents of creative work are - especially since 1998 - on the one hand considered to be a symbolic forerunner and a pioneer of the politics of the new middle in Germany ('Politik der Neuen Mitte'). Thereby on a micro level we can observe agents, who reflect increasing values such as individual entrepreneuralism, bringing to light un-embedded as well as flexible labour situations. Besides their escalating sharp existential situation, they show a rising dependency of subsidies of different sponsors. Thereby creative work is squeezed and brokered by growing influences of venture capitalists using trendy popular culture products of the culturepreneurs as signs and symbols of their holistic idea serving the society. On the other hand, the growing numbers of relatively young and creative workers struggle to regain social and institutional embedding by setting up and creating new temporary and flexible alliances with different agents in the urban context, such as city governments as well as corporate firms. In sociological terms we cannot consider these actors as members of a completely individualized society anymore (Beck 2000), but as members of post-traditional communities or, like Hitzler proposed, new scenes (Hitzler 2001) amongst the culturepreneur plays a key and ma-jor formatting role, which is yet from the scientific perspective so far undefined. The paper argues that the analysis of the local cultural industry as a key factor in the creation of new labour forces in the metropolitan regions such as the Rhine-Main as well as stimulating atmospheres for service-related industries has to be connected to micro-spatial analysis of the emergence of new scenes. Sociological analysis provides valuable insights in the formation of new communities, but micro-geographical analysis can conceptually and methodologically provide a spatial understanding of complex place-making strategies of new post-traditional communities. Space is a yet an underestimated variable in the analysis of the emergence of new agents - such as the culturepreneurs - in the field of the local cultural industries. The conducted field research shows not only the fact that - from the perspective of individual agents (culturepreneurs) - place matters, but that the processes of professional socialisation is closely linked to a complex creative and necessarily practice with place in order to create a spatial network, that means a new socially-defined space. This process can first be seen as a necessary attempt in order to regain a professional place in the labour market, but second as a practice to get economic, social, and network-related attention by acting, staging and using (with) the variable place. Culturepreneurs develop - with new forms in the field of the economy of attention - these new geographies that can be read as a post-modern counterstrategy to the dominant place-making strategies, applied most visible with the geography of centrality in the case of Mainhatten (sic!), Frankfurt on Main.