Nicolas of Verona was a 14th Century Franco-Italian poet, courtier to Nicolas Ist of Estonia, to whom, in 1343, he dedicated one of his works. He wrote 3 epic poems identical in their metrical form but each of profoundly different inspiration: La Pharsale (3166 verses) speaks of the military war between Caesar and Pompey of Thessaly for the control of Rome, la Prise de Pampelune, or Continuation de l'Entrée d'Espagne (6116 verses) is an account which relates to the traditional adventures of Roland and of Charlemagne of Spain prior to the defeat at Roncesvalles and the Passion (994 verses) narrates the last days of Christ.These 3 chansons de geste were written in Franco-Italian, a purely hybrid literary language which was probably never spoken but which enabled Italian authors to adapt la geste and French heroes for a already pre-humanist North Italian aristocratic and bourgeois audience. Each draws its content from clearly identifiable sources: The Fet des Romains, a French compilation of 12th Century ancient history, l'Entrée d'Espagne a Carolingian epic about an anonymous man from Padua, The Chronicles of Turpin and The Gospels to which it would be proper to add certain apocryphal captions commonly used in the middle ages.The set of themes are classical and the military struggle plays an important role but the setting of the adventures which are told is particularly innovative in that it only keeps a minimal and purely ornamental role for the supernatural elements of traditional epic: The divine is reduced to insubstantiality and God is a hidden God.This stems from the fact that the spirit of the chanson de geste was re-interpreted insofar as was possible in the pre-humanist conception. Henceforth the epic hero had similarities to storybook characters and the psychological depth he acquired conferred him a new status that of a man placed in the centre of the world. The political project of Nicolas of Verona was of an astonishing modernity and advocated a true democracy in the image of the freedom of the Roman Republic. The moral sense of the work reserves a central role for caution by making it the foundation of every fair and just action.The philosophical sense of the text is in itself totally original: the author reconciles classical Christian virtues and neo-stoic wisdom. Thus, humility becomes ascesism and the heroic death of the martyr for his faith is allied to that of an ancient sage. The demand for restraint and the determination to be surprised by nothing (nihil mirari), far from the epic fortitudo, as well as the respect for the nature of man appear as new imperatives. Nicolas of Verona doesn't deny the difficulty of such an ideal and sets it along side that of the absolute virtue of the sage for purely human domestic wisdom and a parenetic. The moral is of the essence. ; Nicolas de Vérone est un poète franco-italien du XIVe siècle, courtisan de Nicolas Ier d'Este, à qui il dédicace, en 1343, une de ses œuvres. Il a écrit 3 poèmes épiques de forme métrique identique mais d'inspirations profondément différentes : la Pharsale (3166 vers) raconte la guerre armée qui opposa César et Pompée en Thessalie pour la maîtrise de Rome, la Prise de Pampelune, ou Continuation de l'Entrée d'Espagne (6116 vers), est un récit qui se rattache à la tradition des aventures de Roland et de Charlemagne en Espagne avant la défaite de Roncevaux et la Passion (994 vers) narre les derniers jours de la vie du Christ.Ces 3 chansons de geste sont rédigées en franco-italien, cette langue hybride purement littéraire et probablement jamais parlée qui permet aux auteurs italiens d'adapter la geste et les héros français à un public aristocratique et bourgeois d'une Italie du Nord déjà pré-humaniste. Chacune puise son contenu à des sources clairement identifiées : les Fet des Romains, compilation française d'histoire ancienne du XIIe siècle, l'Entrée d'Espagne, épopée carolingienne d'un anonyme Padouan, la Chronique de Turpin et les Evangiles, auxquels il convient d'ajouter quelques légendes apocryphes largement répandues au Moyen Age.Les thématiques sont classiques et la lutte armée y occupe une place de choix mais le cadre des aventures narrées est singulièrement novateur en ce qu'il ne conserve aux différents éléments surnaturels de la tradition épique qu'une place minime et purement ornementale : le divin se réduit jusqu'à l'inconsistance et Dieu est un Dieu caché.Cela vient du fait que l'esprit de la chanson de geste est réinterprété à l'aune des conceptions pré-humanistes : le héros épique s'apparente désormais à un personnage romanesque et l'épaisseur psychologique qu'il gagne lui confère un statut nouveau d'homme placé au centre du monde. Le projet politique de Nicolas de Vérone est d'une étonnante modernité et prône une véritable démocratie, à l'image de la République romaine des libertés. Le sens moral de l'œuvre réserve à la prudence une place centrale en en faisant le fondement de toute action juste et droite.C'est que le sens philosophique des textes est lui-même tout à fait inédit : l'auteur concilie les vertus chrétiennes classiques et une sagesse néo-stoïcienne. Ainsi, l'humilité se fait ascèse et la mort héroïque du martyr de la foi s'apparente aux exemples des sages antiques. L'exigence de modération et la volonté de ne s'étonner de rien (nihil mirari) bien loin de la fortitudo épique, ainsi que le respect de sa nature apparaissent comme des impératifs nouveaux. Nicolas de Vérone ne nie pas la difficulté d'un tel idéal et réserve une place, à côté de la vertu absolue du sage, pour une sagesse domestique purement humaine et une parénétique. La morale s'est faite optative.
Nicolas of Verona was a 14th Century Franco-Italian poet, courtier to Nicolas Ist of Estonia, to whom, in 1343, he dedicated one of his works. He wrote 3 epic poems identical in their metrical form but each of profoundly different inspiration: La Pharsale (3166 verses) speaks of the military war between Caesar and Pompey of Thessaly for the control of Rome, la Prise de Pampelune, or Continuation de l'Entrée d'Espagne (6116 verses) is an account which relates to the traditional adventures of Roland and of Charlemagne of Spain prior to the defeat at Roncesvalles and the Passion (994 verses) narrates the last days of Christ.These 3 chansons de geste were written in Franco-Italian, a purely hybrid literary language which was probably never spoken but which enabled Italian authors to adapt la geste and French heroes for a already pre-humanist North Italian aristocratic and bourgeois audience. Each draws its content from clearly identifiable sources: The Fet des Romains, a French compilation of 12th Century ancient history, l'Entrée d'Espagne a Carolingian epic about an anonymous man from Padua, The Chronicles of Turpin and The Gospels to which it would be proper to add certain apocryphal captions commonly used in the middle ages.The set of themes are classical and the military struggle plays an important role but the setting of the adventures which are told is particularly innovative in that it only keeps a minimal and purely ornamental role for the supernatural elements of traditional epic: The divine is reduced to insubstantiality and God is a hidden God.This stems from the fact that the spirit of the chanson de geste was re-interpreted insofar as was possible in the pre-humanist conception. Henceforth the epic hero had similarities to storybook characters and the psychological depth he acquired conferred him a new status that of a man placed in the centre of the world. The political project of Nicolas of Verona was of an astonishing modernity and advocated a true democracy in the image of the freedom of the Roman Republic. The moral sense of the work reserves a central role for caution by making it the foundation of every fair and just action.The philosophical sense of the text is in itself totally original: the author reconciles classical Christian virtues and neo-stoic wisdom. Thus, humility becomes ascesism and the heroic death of the martyr for his faith is allied to that of an ancient sage. The demand for restraint and the determination to be surprised by nothing (nihil mirari), far from the epic fortitudo, as well as the respect for the nature of man appear as new imperatives. Nicolas of Verona doesn't deny the difficulty of such an ideal and sets it along side that of the absolute virtue of the sage for purely human domestic wisdom and a parenetic. The moral is of the essence. ; Nicolas de Vérone est un poète franco-italien du XIVe siècle, courtisan de Nicolas Ier d'Este, à qui il dédicace, en 1343, une de ses œuvres. Il a écrit 3 poèmes épiques de forme métrique identique mais d'inspirations profondément différentes : la Pharsale (3166 vers) raconte la guerre armée qui opposa César et Pompée en Thessalie pour la maîtrise de Rome, la Prise de Pampelune, ou Continuation de l'Entrée d'Espagne (6116 vers), est un récit qui se rattache à la tradition des aventures de Roland et de Charlemagne en Espagne avant la défaite de Roncevaux et la Passion (994 vers) narre les derniers jours de la vie du Christ.Ces 3 chansons de geste sont rédigées en franco-italien, cette langue hybride purement littéraire et probablement jamais parlée qui permet aux auteurs italiens d'adapter la geste et les héros français à un public aristocratique et bourgeois d'une Italie du Nord déjà pré-humaniste. Chacune puise son contenu à des sources clairement identifiées : les Fet des Romains, compilation française d'histoire ancienne du XIIe siècle, l'Entrée d'Espagne, épopée carolingienne d'un anonyme Padouan, la Chronique de Turpin et les Evangiles, auxquels il convient d'ajouter quelques légendes apocryphes largement répandues au Moyen Age.Les thématiques sont classiques et la lutte armée y occupe une place de choix mais le cadre des aventures narrées est singulièrement novateur en ce qu'il ne conserve aux différents éléments surnaturels de la tradition épique qu'une place minime et purement ornementale : le divin se réduit jusqu'à l'inconsistance et Dieu est un Dieu caché.Cela vient du fait que l'esprit de la chanson de geste est réinterprété à l'aune des conceptions pré-humanistes : le héros épique s'apparente désormais à un personnage romanesque et l'épaisseur psychologique qu'il gagne lui confère un statut nouveau d'homme placé au centre du monde. Le projet politique de Nicolas de Vérone est d'une étonnante modernité et prône une véritable démocratie, à l'image de la République romaine des libertés. Le sens moral de l'œuvre réserve à la prudence une place centrale en en faisant le fondement de toute action juste et droite.C'est que le sens philosophique des textes est lui-même tout à fait inédit : l'auteur concilie les vertus chrétiennes classiques et une sagesse néo-stoïcienne. Ainsi, l'humilité se fait ascèse et la mort héroïque du martyr de la foi s'apparente aux exemples des sages antiques. L'exigence de modération et la volonté de ne s'étonner de rien (nihil mirari) bien loin de la fortitudo épique, ainsi que le respect de sa nature apparaissent comme des impératifs nouveaux. Nicolas de Vérone ne nie pas la difficulté d'un tel idéal et réserve une place, à côté de la vertu absolue du sage, pour une sagesse domestique purement humaine et une parénétique. La morale s'est faite optative.
Nicolas of Verona was a 14th Century Franco-Italian poet, courtier to Nicolas Ist of Estonia, to whom, in 1343, he dedicated one of his works. He wrote 3 epic poems identical in their metrical form but each of profoundly different inspiration: La Pharsale (3166 verses) speaks of the military war between Caesar and Pompey of Thessaly for the control of Rome, la Prise de Pampelune, or Continuation de l'Entrée d'Espagne (6116 verses) is an account which relates to the traditional adventures of Roland and of Charlemagne of Spain prior to the defeat at Roncesvalles and the Passion (994 verses) narrates the last days of Christ.These 3 chansons de geste were written in Franco-Italian, a purely hybrid literary language which was probably never spoken but which enabled Italian authors to adapt la geste and French heroes for a already pre-humanist North Italian aristocratic and bourgeois audience. Each draws its content from clearly identifiable sources: The Fet des Romains, a French compilation of 12th Century ancient history, l'Entrée d'Espagne a Carolingian epic about an anonymous man from Padua, The Chronicles of Turpin and The Gospels to which it would be proper to add certain apocryphal captions commonly used in the middle ages.The set of themes are classical and the military struggle plays an important role but the setting of the adventures which are told is particularly innovative in that it only keeps a minimal and purely ornamental role for the supernatural elements of traditional epic: The divine is reduced to insubstantiality and God is a hidden God.This stems from the fact that the spirit of the chanson de geste was re-interpreted insofar as was possible in the pre-humanist conception. Henceforth the epic hero had similarities to storybook characters and the psychological depth he acquired conferred him a new status that of a man placed in the centre of the world. The political project of Nicolas of Verona was of an astonishing modernity and advocated a true democracy in the image of the freedom of the Roman Republic. The moral sense of the work reserves a central role for caution by making it the foundation of every fair and just action.The philosophical sense of the text is in itself totally original: the author reconciles classical Christian virtues and neo-stoic wisdom. Thus, humility becomes ascesism and the heroic death of the martyr for his faith is allied to that of an ancient sage. The demand for restraint and the determination to be surprised by nothing (nihil mirari), far from the epic fortitudo, as well as the respect for the nature of man appear as new imperatives. Nicolas of Verona doesn't deny the difficulty of such an ideal and sets it along side that of the absolute virtue of the sage for purely human domestic wisdom and a parenetic. The moral is of the essence. ; Nicolas de Vérone est un poète franco-italien du XIVe siècle, courtisan de Nicolas Ier d'Este, à qui il dédicace, en 1343, une de ses œuvres. Il a écrit 3 poèmes épiques de forme métrique identique mais d'inspirations profondément différentes : la Pharsale (3166 vers) raconte la guerre armée qui opposa César et Pompée en Thessalie pour la maîtrise de Rome, la Prise de Pampelune, ou Continuation de l'Entrée d'Espagne (6116 vers), est un récit qui se rattache à la tradition des aventures de Roland et de Charlemagne en Espagne avant la défaite de Roncevaux et la Passion (994 vers) narre les derniers jours de la vie du Christ.Ces 3 chansons de geste sont rédigées en franco-italien, cette langue hybride purement littéraire et probablement jamais parlée qui permet aux auteurs italiens d'adapter la geste et les héros français à un public aristocratique et bourgeois d'une Italie du Nord déjà pré-humaniste. Chacune puise son contenu à des sources clairement identifiées : les Fet des Romains, compilation française d'histoire ancienne du XIIe siècle, l'Entrée d'Espagne, épopée carolingienne d'un anonyme Padouan, la Chronique de Turpin et les Evangiles, auxquels il convient d'ajouter quelques légendes apocryphes largement répandues au Moyen Age.Les thématiques sont classiques et la lutte armée y occupe une place de choix mais le cadre des aventures narrées est singulièrement novateur en ce qu'il ne conserve aux différents éléments surnaturels de la tradition épique qu'une place minime et purement ornementale : le divin se réduit jusqu'à l'inconsistance et Dieu est un Dieu caché.Cela vient du fait que l'esprit de la chanson de geste est réinterprété à l'aune des conceptions pré-humanistes : le héros épique s'apparente désormais à un personnage romanesque et l'épaisseur psychologique qu'il gagne lui confère un statut nouveau d'homme placé au centre du monde. Le projet politique de Nicolas de Vérone est d'une étonnante modernité et prône une véritable démocratie, à l'image de la République romaine des libertés. Le sens moral de l'œuvre réserve à la prudence une place centrale en en faisant le fondement de toute action juste et droite.C'est que le sens philosophique des textes est lui-même tout à fait inédit : l'auteur concilie les vertus chrétiennes classiques et une sagesse néo-stoïcienne. Ainsi, l'humilité se fait ascèse et la mort héroïque du martyr de la foi s'apparente aux exemples des sages antiques. L'exigence de modération et la volonté de ne s'étonner de rien (nihil mirari) bien loin de la fortitudo épique, ainsi que le respect de sa nature apparaissent comme des impératifs nouveaux. Nicolas de Vérone ne nie pas la difficulté d'un tel idéal et réserve une place, à côté de la vertu absolue du sage, pour une sagesse domestique purement humaine et une parénétique. La morale s'est faite optative.
Abstract The study analyzes the theoretical basis of the Philosophy for Children (P4C) program elaborated by Matthew Lipman. The aim is, firstly, to identify the main philosophical and pedagogical principles of P4C based on American pragmatism, and to locate their pedagogization and possible problems in Lipman's thinking. Here the discussion is especially targeted to the thinking of John Dewey and George H. Mead as well as Lev Vygotsky, whom Lipman himself names as the most pivotal sources for his own thinking. On the other hand, the study aims at opening up new perspectives and thematizations on P4C from the viewpoint of the continental tradition of thought. The essential principles of P4C connected with reasonableness and judgment are ultimately interpreted as a neo-Aristotelian effort to contextualize philosophy by tracing it back to moderation, the man's ability to consider and solve problems that he meets in practical life kata ton orthon logon – by doing right things in the right place at the right time in the right way. This phronetic idea of 'humanizing modernity' combined with the evolution of the adult-child concept is argued to be one of the conditions for the possibility of P4C, yet leaving unsolved the basic problems involving pedagogical action as such. John Dewey's ideas arising from the critique of the modern philosophy of consciousness, focusing on the significance of philosophy in practical human life and linked to the basic nature of human knowing and intellectual growth and, further, to the ideal of a democratic community, are shown to form the main intellectual sources of P4C. Dewey's philosophy as a general theory of education means a solid linking of the concepts of experience and inquiry to the practice of education. This is based on the naturalistic conception of man according to which man is built in dynamic transaction with his environment, experiencing the true meanings of his ideas in the consequences of his actions as he tries to solve problematic situations. So, inquiry as a method of reflective thinking forms the basis for education based on intellectual growth. A condition for it is a context meaningful for the child in which the paradigm of inquiry can be realized authentically. It is therefore important in education to provide circumstances that stimulate the child's curiosity, initiating a process of inquiry that further enables, through the formation of reflective habits, the development of a democratic community. The purpose of the pedagogical interaction taking place in the process of inquiry is to produce educative experiences for the child, making the pedagogical relationship vanish at the same time. The idea is that in pedagogical action the child's subjectivity, his desire and impulses are adapted to the tradition, yet generating at the same time a prospective, reflective habit, thus freeing the educatee to think intelligently for himself. The study shows the articulation of these principles in Lipman's practical effort to convert the classroom into a community of inquiry, but it also argues that the above-mentioned Bildung theoretical core problem of pedagogical action, related to its paradoxical special characteristics to produce autonomous subjectivity, is not thematized. In connection with this issue, the educational thinking of Kant and Hegel is discussed especially from the viewpoint of philosophy teaching. To provide a new perspective for the discussion, the study outlines the community of inquiry as an 'educative space' from the viewpoints of the pedagogical relationship typical of hermeneutic pedagogy and of non-reflective functional structures and phenomena based on pedagogical intuition that are linked to it. ; Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksessa eritellään Matthew Lipmanin kehittelemän Filosofiaa lapsille (P4C) ohjelman teoreettisia perusteita. Tarkoituksena on ensinnäkin identifioida P4C:n amerikkalaiseen pragmatismiin palautuvat filosofiset ja pedagogiset pääperiaatteet sekä paikallistaa niiden pedagogisoituminen sekä mahdolliset ongelmat Lipmanin ajattelussa. Tällöin tarkastelun kohteena on erityisesti John Deweyn ja Georg H. Meadin ajattelu sekä lisäksi Lev Vygotsky, jotka kolme Lipman itse nimeää oman ajattelunsa merkittävimmiksi lähteiksi. Toisaalta tutkimuksessa pyritään avaamaan P4C:lle uusia näkökulmia ja tematisointeja mannermaisen ajatteluperinteen näkökulmasta. P4C:n keskeiset järkevyyteen ja arvostelukykyyn liittyvät periaatteet tulkitaan viimekädessä uusaristotelisena pyrkimyksenä kontekstualisoida filosofia palauttamalla se kohtuullisuuteen, ihmisen kykyyn harkita ja ratkaista käytännöllisessä elämässä kohtaamiaan ongelmia kata ton orthon logon – tekemällä oikeita asioita oikeassa paikassa oikeaan aikaan oikealla tavalla. Tämä 'modernin inhimillistämisen' froneettinen idea yhdistyneenä aikuinen-lapsi käsitteen evoluutioon argumentoidaan P4C:n yhdeksi mahdollisuusehdoksi, joka jättää kuitenkin pedagogiseen toimintaan sinänsä liittyvät perusongelmat ratkaisematta. John Deweyn modernin tietoisuusfilosofian kritiikistä nousevat, filosofian merkitystä ihmisen käytännöllisessä elämässä korostavat näkemykset, jotka liittyvät inhimillisen tietämisen ja älyllisen kasvun perusluonteeseen sekä edelleen demokraattisen yhteisön ideaaliin osoitetaan P4C:n keskeisiksi intellektuaalisiksi lähteiksi. Dewey'n filosofia yleisenä kasvatuksen teoriana merkitsee kokemuksen ja tutkimuksen käsitteiden kiinteää kytkemistä kasvatuksen käytäntöön. Tämä perustuu naturalistiseen ihmiskäsitykseen, jonka mukaan ihminen rakentuu dynaamisessa transaktiossa ympäristönsä kanssa kokien ideoidensa todet merkitykset toimintansa seurauksissa pyrkiessään ratkaisemaan ongelmallisia tilanteita. Tällöin tutkimus reflektiivisen ajattelun metodina muodostaa perustan älylliseen kasvuun perustuvalle kasvatukselle. Sen ehtona on sellainen lapselle merkityksellinen konteksti, jossa tutkimuksen paradigma voi toteutua autenttisena. Kasvatuksessa on siten tärkeää luoda olosuhteet, jotka stimuloivat lapsen uteliaisuutta käynnistäen tutkimuksen prosessin, joka edelleen mahdollistaa reflektiivisten tapojen muodostumisen kautta demokraattisen yhteisön kehittymisen. Tutkimuksen prosessissa tapahtuvan pedagogisen interaktion tarkoituksena on tuottaa lapselle kasvattavia kokemuksia häivyttäen samalla pedagogista suhdetta. Ajatuksena on, että pedagogisessa toiminnassa lapsen subjektiviteetti, hänen halunsa ja impulssinsa sovittuvat traditioon generoiden samalla kuitenkin tulevaisuuteen suuntautuvaa, reflektiivistä tapaa vapauttaen näin kasvatettavan ajattelemaan älykkäästi itse. Tutkimuksessa osoitetaan näiden periaatteiden artikuloituminen Lipmanin käytännöllisessä pyrkimyksessä muuntaa koululuokka tutkivaksi yhteisöksi, mutta samalla kuitenkin argumentoidaan, että mainittu pedagogisen toiminnan sivistysteoreettinen ydinongelma liittyen sen paradoksaaliseen erityisluonteeseen autonomisen subjektiviteetin tuottamiseksi ei tematisoidu. Tämän kysymyksen yhteydessä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan Kantin ja Hegelin kasvatusajattelua erityisesti filosofian opetuksen näkökulmasta. Uutena avauksena tutkimuksessa hahmotellaan tutkivaa yhteisöä 'kasvattavana tilana' hermeneuttiselle pedagogiikalle ominaisen pedagogisen suhteen ja siihen kytkeytyvien ei-reflektiivisten, pedagogiseen intuitioon perustuvien toimintarakenteiden ja ilmiöiden näkökulmasta.
Oskar Strnad, Josef Frank und Oskar Wlach arbeiteten nach ihrem Studium an der Wiener Technischen Hochschule seit Anfang der zehner Jahre zusammen. Ihre Konzeption von Architektur hatte mit dem neobarocken Späthistorismus ihres Lehrers Carl König ebensowenig gemeinsam wie mit Josef Hoffmann und der Wiener Werkstätte. Mit Adolf Loos verband sie dagegen nicht zuletzt der Einfluss der theoretischen Schriften Camillo Sittes. Loos, vor allem aber Strnad und Frank übertrugen Sittes städtebauliche Peinzipien auch auf Einfamilienhäuser. Der Ausgangspunklt des Entwurfsprozessess war die Bewegungslinie zum, in das und im Gebäude. Sich allmählich steigernde Raumdimensionen führen auf die Ruhezone des Wohnraums, der "Piazza" des Hauses, hin. Ein künstlerischer Anspruch besteht dabei nicht; das Haus soll alle Möglichkeiten in sich bergen – auch die, sich "geschmacklos", aber mit persönlichen Gegenständen einzurichten –, ohne sie dem Bewohner aufzuzwingen. Eine gewisse Unordnung wird dabei als Symptom eines dynamischen Prozesses aufgefasst, als der sich das Leben und, als seine Spiegelung, das Haus versteht. Spuren dieses Prozesses können sich als Folgen etwa von Planänderungen oder Umbauten auch am Haus selbst finden. Gleichzeitig soll das Haus sich seiner Umgebung gegenüber, ganz wie ein zivilisierter Mensch, "anständig benehmen" und nicht seine Modernität marktschreierisch anpreisen. Strnad und Frank setzen sich mit dieser undogmatischen Grundeinstellung in den zehner Jahren in erster Linie vom Ästhetizismus der Wiener Werkstätte und Josef Hoffmanns ab. Seit der zweiten Hälfte der zwanziger Jahre distanzierte sich Frank vor allem vom Dogmatismus des internationalen Funktionalismus des Bauhauses und Le Corbusiers. Strnad, Frank und Wlach waren bereits seit Anfang der zehner Jahre von einem Kreis gleichgesinnter Studienkollegen umgeben, der sich ständig vergrößerte. Die Freude am theoretischen Formulieren ihrer Prinzipien war dabei ein Charakteristikum Loos' und der Wiener Schule. Seit Mitte der zwanziger Jahre schlossen sich der kleinen, aber auch international beachteten und geschätzten "Wiener Gruppe" auch einige Altersgenossen und Studienkollegen an, die zuvor eher traditionell oder in der Nachfolge der Wiener Werkstätte gearbeitet hatten. Wie bei den Begründern der Wiener Schule handelte es sich fast ausschließlich um Architekten aus dem liberalen, assimilierten jüdischen Bürgertum. Die Bauherren entstammten der gleichen Schicht wie die Architekten; oft waren sie Freunde oder Verwandte der Architekten. Auch die (ebenfalls fast ausschließlich jüdischen) Studenten von Adolf Loos bildeten einen wichtigen Teil der Wiener Schule. Der Einfluss des Lehrers Loos verband sich dabei mit dem Strnads und Franks. Seit Mitte der zwanziger Jahre kamen zu den an der Technischen Hochschule ausgebildeten Architekten Absolventen der Meisterklassen von Josef Hoffmann und Oskar Strnad an der Kunstgewerbeschule. In ihrem undogmatischen Zugang zu architektonischen Fragen stellte die Wiener Moderne der Zwischenkriegszeit eine bisher zu wenig beachtete Alternative zum internationalen Funktionalismus dar. Architektur wurde in Wien als offenes System aufgefasst; das heißt Veränderungen, Umbauten und Erweiterungen waren ebenso Teil des Konzepts wie die Fähigkeit der Gebäude, zu altern. Dem Bewohner werden alle Möglichkeiten des Wohnens offengelassen; das Haus ist der Hintergrund seines Lebens und unterstützt ihn in einer offenen, dialektischen Weltsicht. Diese zum Prinzip des Entwurfsprozesses gemachte offene Grundhaltung beinhaltet auch eine politische Dimension; die nichtjüdischen Vertreter der Wiener Schule waren zum größten Teil sozialdemokratisch orientiert und ließen sich mit wenigen Ausnahmen nicht durch den Nationalsozialismus korrumpieren. Die Wiener Schule, so eine These dieser Arbeit, konnte mit den Gegebenheiten der Sache freier operieren als der "klassische" Funktionalismus, der formale Fragen per se negierte. An eine stilkritische Darstellung der Wiener Schule schließt sich ein ausführlicher Architektenkatalog mit Werk- und Schriftenverzeichnissen. ; Following their studies at the Viennese Technical College, Oskar Strnad, Josef Frank and Oskar Wlach began working together in the early 1910s. Their concept of architecture had as little in common with their teacher Carl König's neo-baroque late historicism as with Josef Hoffmann and the Wiener Werkstätte. Like Adolf Loos, however, they were to some extent influenced by the theories of Camillo Sitte. Loos, but above all Strnad and Frank, applied Sitte's principles of urban building also to single family housing. The starting point of the design process was the linear movement towards, into, and within the building. Gradually increasing room dimensions lead to the rest area of the living space, the "piazza" of the house. No claim is made that this is artistic; the house should hold all kinds of possibilities - even that of furnishing it in a "tasteless" way, but with personal objects - without imposing any of them on the inhabitant. A certain disorder is here regarded as a symptom of a dynamic process, represented by both life and, its reflection, the house. The house itself can also display signs of this dynamic process in the results of planning changes or conversions. At the same time, the house should, like a civilised person, "behave properly" towards its environment, and not loudly and blatantly sell its modernity. With this undogmatic fundamental philosophy in the 1910s, Strnad and Frank contrasted with the aestheticism of the Wiener Werkstätte. Since the second half of the 1920s, Frank especially distanced himself from the dogmatism of the international Functionalism of the Bauhaus and Le Corbusier. From the beginning of the 1910s, Strnad, Frank, and Wlach were surrounded by an ever-growing circle of like-minded fellow students. Writing down their theories was a characteristic of Loos and the Viennese School. From the mid 1920s, the small but internationally noticed and respected "Vienna Group" was joined by some contemporaries and fellow students who had previously worked rather traditionally or as followers of the Wiener Werkstätte. Like the founders of the Vienna School, these were almost exclusively architects of the liberal, assimilated Jewish bourgeoisie. The clients belonged to the same class as the architects; often they were friends or relatives of the architects. The (almost exclusively Jewish) students of Adolf Loos formed an important part of the Vienna School. The influence of their teacher Loos was here combined with that of Strnad and Frank. From the mid 1920s, architects who had studied at the technical college were joined by graduates from the masterclasses of Josef Hoffmann and Oskar Strnad at the arts and crafts college. With its undogmatic approach to questions of architecture, Viennese modernism between the wars, which has been given too little attention so far, presented an alternative to international functionalism. In Vienna, architecture was regarded as an open system; i. e., changes, conversions and extensions were as much part of the concept as the buildings' ability to age. All possibilities of living were left open to the inhabitant; the house is the background to his life and supports him in an open, dialectical view of the world. This open attidude as the principle of the design process also implies a political dimension; the non-Jewish members of the Vienna School were mostly Social Democrats and, with few exceptions, were not corrupted by National Socialism. According to one thesis developed in this work, the Viennese School could operate more freely with the given facts than the "classical" functionalism which denied any questions of form per se. A description focussing on the stylistic criteria of the Vienna School is followed by a concise catalogue of architects listing their works and theoretical writings.
The Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) learned with immense shock and sadness of the passing on of Professor Samir Amin on Sunday, 12th August 2018. Subsequently, Prof. Samir Amin's body was interned at Père Lachaise in Paris on 1st September 2018 at a site provided by the French Communist Party. The Council was represented at the burial by Prof. Fatow Sow and Dr. Cherif Sy; two members of the CODESRIA community who have worked with Samir Amin for a while. For CODESRIA, this marks nothing less than the end of an era in the history of African social research given the many pioneering roles the late Professor Amin played as a scholar, teacher, mentor, friend, and revolutionary. Samir was many things to us as a Council; for the younger members of the community, it meant much more to be in his company at the numerous CODESRIA meeting he attended. A model for three generations of African and, indeed, radical scholars globally, Samir was that giant Baobab tree whose grandeur of intellect and spirit made him a worthy role model. While serving as Director of the United Nations African Institute for Economic Development and Planning (IDEP), he hosted the initial scaffolding of the CODESRIA at IDEP, brought together and nurtured new talent that laid the foundations which launched Council on a path of growth and resilience to what it is to-date. As the final note on his reflections contained in this Bulletin illustrates, while serving as CODESRIA's founding Executive Secretary, Samir worked very closely with Abdalla Bujra and later Thandika Mkandawire, to shape the initial years of CODESRIA's intellectual identity and trajectory. After CODESRIA relocated from the premises of IDEP to a new home in the Fann Residence part of Dakar, Samir Amin remained engaged with Council and its community of scholars, participating actively and effectively in all its activities. This 15th General Assembly of CODESRIA is perhaps the first Assembly without Samir Amin presence. In all previous General Assemblies, Samir has been a notable presence even giving the Cheikh Anta Diop Lecture at the 10 Assembly in Kampala, Uganda. It is at the General Assembly that many young academics interacted with Samir, often for the first time and indeed experiencing the awe of his presence. Though Samir is absent at the current Assembly, there is no doubt that his intellectual and revolutionary spirit is definitely present just as the thoughts and ideas that he shared so generously and to the very end will continue to inspire reflection and debate. Samir Amin's intellectual journey was a long and illustrious one. It was a journey marked by commitments that distinguished him as a scholar of unparalleled convictions. He died still an unapologetic socialist academic or, as the title of his memoir reads, 'an independent Marxist' whose work was driven by an unshakeable conviction to confront and oppose totalizing economic orthodoxies. He treated this confrontation and opposition as a prelude to social transformation. He was steadfast in his belief that the world must shift away from capitalism and strive to build new 'post-capitalist' societies. He described capitalism as a small bracket in the long history of human civilization. His works identify and record the multiple crises of capitalism, a system he described as senile and obsolete. In its place, Samir Amin formulated a political alternative that he envisioned would proceed by i) socializing the ownership of monopolies, ii). definancializing the management of the economy and iii) deglobalising international relations [cited in Campbell, 2015: 286]. For him, these three directions provided the basis of an active politics of dismantling capitalism; a politics he committed his skill and energy mobilizing for. Even as he grew older, he mustered fresh bursts of energy to continue the struggle and to the very last days when he was in Dakar, he was apart of the team of scholar/ activists gathered together by International ENDA Third World Network to draft the Alternative Report on Africa (Dakar, 2018). CODESRIA was apart of this process and the Report will by shared at this General Assembly. Many of Samir Amin's writings make the point repeatedly on the urgent necessity to dismantle the 'obsolete system' known as capitalism. However, none was as emphatic in rethinking the underlying cultural underpinning of the 'obsolete system' like Eurocentricism. In that engaging publication, he provided a rggesounding critique of world history as is centered around Eurocentric modernity and invites us to understand modernity as an incomplete process that, to survive its current crises, will need 'economic, social and political reconstruction of all societies in the world.' Embedded in this argument is a long held position about the importance of the Bandung moment (1955) as a moment of an alternative globalization based on Afro-Asian solidarity. It is from this perspective that one understands why Samir Amin emphasized the importance of China [see tribute by Sit Tsui and Yan Xiaohui in this bulletin]. Afro-Asian solidarity was the basis upon which Samir Amin located his alternative politics which also defined his towering global outlook and presence. There is no doubt that Samir Amin's intellectual presence was defined by depth of knowledge, complexity of thought and fidelity to Marxist organising principles. There is no way of summarizing the corpus of work he produced, the revolutionary engagements he undertook and the transformative potential that led him to remain steadfast even when many others were only too happy to find a good reason to backtrack and conform. His work is enormous in volume but also in the depth of its knowledge and relevance to society. He provoked and joined debates across the globe but more importantly with comrades in Latin America and Asia, those of the dependency and underdevelopment school but also later from a South-South perspective. In CODESRIA's flagship journal Africa Development alone, Samir Amin published twenty articles. A biodata document he shared with the Council has 24 books in English and 41 in French. He is published in English, French, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish to name but these few languages. In all these publications and in the various languages, Samir Amin articulated his belief in alternatives, and as indicated above, this belief remained strong even to the last month of his life on earth. Born to an Egyptian father and French mother on 3rd September 1931 in Cairo, Egypt, Samir Amin's convictions owe much to the context of his childhood all the way from Port Said in northern Egypt to Cairo where he schooled. He spent his early life in Egypt where he attended his formative schooling before proceeding to France to pursue higher education at Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris ("Sciences Po"). Here, he earned a diploma in 1952 and later a PhD in 1957 at the Sorbonne. Samir later earned another diploma in mathematical statistics from L'institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques. He had always been interested in radical thought and action from early on, noting in an interview that he already considered himself a communist in Secondary School. Even though he and his cohort did not know what communism really meant in their early childhood, they assumed it meant "equality between human beings and between nations, and it meant that this has been done by the Russian revolution." It is not surprising that with this pedigree, Samir Amin focused in his graduate research on "The origins of underdevelopment – capitalist accumulation on a world scale" and emphasized in his work that underdevelopment in the periphery was, in large measure, due to the working of the capitalist system. He consequently underscored the need to search for socialist alternatives to liberal globalisation. Samir Amin returned to Cairo in 1957, worked briefly in Gamal Abdel Nasser's Institute for Economic Management (1957–1960) before heading to work as an adviser in the Ministry of Planning in Mali (1960- 1963). Subsequently, Samir Amin's intellectual life became largely internationalist in orientation, and anchored principally on the question of accumulation as key to understanding underdevelopment. He maintained the sojourn between France where he took up a Professorship in 1966 and Dakar, Senegal his adopted home where he worked for ten years, from 1970 to 1980 at IDEP. Later in 1980, he founded the Third World Forum, originally hosted at the CODESRIA Secretariat, and lent his considerable weight to the institutionalisation of ENDA and the World Forum for Alternatives. His support for revolutionary politics is marked not just in the books and papers he published but also in the lecture circuit where he spoke to audiences about the undeniable relevance of radical politics. Samir Amin's thinking was in large measure defined by the solidarity built around the Bandung Confer- ence of 1955. This remained a critical touchstone in his work in which non-western civilisations and his- tories played an important role. Bandung, for him, inaugurated a different pattern of globalisation, the one he called 'negotiated globalisation.' Though not asufficientbasisforcomplete"de-linking"from'ob- solescent capitalism', Samir Amin saw in Afro-Asian solidarity possibilities and pathways to that delinking; the process, as he explained, by which you submit "ex- ternal relations to the needs of internal progressive so- cial changes and targets." The notion of 'delinking' oc- cupied a major place in Samir Amin's thinking and is positioned in contrast to 'adjustment' that was the pre- ferred approach of the Bretton Woods Institutions. As Mamdani shows elsewhere in this Bulletin, there are major problematic elements of this notion that Samir Amin continued to grapple with. But ultimately, Samir Amin noted that delinking is in fact a process that, de- pending on the societies implementing it, can be used to install graduated level of autonomous development instead of countries in the periphery remaining locked into and merely adjusting to the trends set by a funda- mentally unequal capitalist system. In Samir Amin, we found the true meaning of praxis; a thinker who insisted that his work has immediate relevance to society. His departure deprives us of the practical energy he brought to our meetings and debates; and denies radical thinkers a model around whom they found the compass that enabled them to navigate the treacherous, indeed murderous, waters of capitalism. We however are lucky to have lived in his company, to have learned from his fountain of knowledge and to have shared in the passion of his convictions. The Council plans to invigorate the value of his legacy by celebrating him during this 15th General Assembly but also beyond the confines of the Assembly. Thus, this edition of the Bulletin contains two intertwined sets of essays; all organised around Samir Amin. In the one instance, we have a selection of messages in his memory. One the other, we have a selection of essays he authored. Separately, we will re-publish all the essays he published in Africa Development in a special issue of the journal to provide them in one collection for posterity. But whichever way, and as his own reflection in the essay published in this volume and his memoirs show, CODESRIA is an inheritance that Samir Amin bequeathed the African social science community. As such, it is fitting that the Bulletin designed for the 15th CODESRIA General Assembly is also a Bulletin that publishes essays in his honour. The choice of theme for the General Assembly predates the passing on of Samir Amin. But the theme itself is one that was dear to Samir Amin. It is our pleasure therefore to present the essays contained here as essays that shed light on a life lived fully but also that open up a space to explore the unfulfilled promises of globalisation. We hope that at the end of it, this will be a fitting study in honour of our departed icon but also a commentary on the key issues the 15th General Assembly explored.
In recent times World and Global History became the fast growing sections of international historiography, mainly due to the interest in North American universities, but also followed by an increasing interest in other world regions. The first European Congress in World and Global History, held from September, 22 to 25, 2005 at the University of Leipzig, explored the field and tried to answer if there are specific European traditions and practices to write and research world history in a global age. In the following section reports from the panels organised during this conference give an impression of a first step towards a new way to think and to discuss about history on the European continent but also in contact with scholars from Australia, the Americas, Asia and Africa.
Chapter 1 Introduction: Globalization and the Millennial Ascent of Individual Rights; Ino Rossi -- PART I. GLOBALIZATION AS A FIELD OF STUDY: CONCEPTUALIZING AND EXPLORING GLOBALIZATION: Introduction: Chapter 2. The Global Turn; Roland Robertson -- Chapter 3. Global Systemic Anthropology and the Analysis of Globalization; Jonathan Friedman -- Chapter4. Media, Sociocultural Change, and Meta-Culture; York Kautt -- Chapter 5. Globalization and the Challenge of the Anthropocene; Leslie Sklair -- Chapter 6. Conceptual Structures for a Theory of World Society; Rudolf Stichweh -- Chapter 7. Principles of Geo-Political Dynamics; Jonathan H. Turner -- Chapter 8. Transdisciplinarity in Globalization Research: The Global Studies Framework; Manfred B. Steger. PART: GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES: CULTURAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL: ON CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION : Chapter 9 Goals, Values, and Endemic Conflicts in the New Global Culture; Martin Albrow -- Chapter 10. The Affectual Landscape of Globalization: New Migration, Generalized Discontent, and Ressentiment; Jörg Dürrschmidt -- Chapter 11. Globalization, Cosmopolitanization, and a New Research Agenda; Joy Zhang.-. PART ON POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION : Chapter 12. Global Transformations in Polity, Policy, and Politics: World Polity, Europe, and the Nation-State; Didem Buhari Gulmez -- Chapter 13. The Politics of the Adjective Global: May's Global Britain and the 'New World'; Sabine Selchow -- Chapter 14. (Postmodern) Populism as a Trope for Contested Glocality; Barrie Axford -- Chapter 15. Globalization and the Rise of the Economic State: PRC and USA in Comparison; Guoguang Wu PART: ON ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: Chapter 16. Trade Globalization and Its Consequences; Michael C. Dreiling -- Chapter 17. The Political Economy of the United States and the Structure of the Millennial World-System; Salvatore Babones -- Chapter 18. Global Inequality and Capitalist World-Economy, 1500—Present: A Critique of Neo-Modernization Theories; Sahan S. Karatasli -- Chapter 19. Mind the Gaps! Clustered Obstacles to Mobility in the Core/Periphery Hierarchy; Marilyn Grell-Brisk and Christopher Chase-Dunn -- Chapter 20. Global Inequality and Global Poverty; Robert Holton. PART: ON ECOLOGICAL GLOBALIZATION: Chapter 21. Reconfiguring Ecology in the Twenty-First–Century. Social Movements as Producers of the Global Age; Geoffrey Pleyers -- Chapter 22. Globalization, Marginalization, and the External Arena; Robert Schaeffer -- Chapter 23. Global Indigenism and the Web of Transnational Social Movements; Christopher Chase-Dunn, James Fenelon, Thomas D. Hall, Ian Breckenridge-Jackson, and Joel Herrera -- PART: GLOBALIZATION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH: VIEWS FROM THE ASIA-PACIFIC: Globalization and Political Economy Chapter 24. Globalization in Asia or Asian Globalization?; Habibul Haque Khondker -- Chapter 25. China's Global Rise: From Socialist Self-reliance to the Embracement of Economic Globalization; Yin-wah Chu -- Chapter 26. The Newness of the Chinese Developmental State Under Xi's Administration; Falin Zhang -- Chapter 27. India's Transition: A New Complex of Capitalism and Hindu Nationalism; Anjan Chakrabarti, Anup Dhar, and Sayonee Majumdar -- Chapter 28. Socially Sustainable Globalization? The Domestic Politics of Globalization in Australia; Tom Conley. Part: Impact of Globalization on Culture -- Chapter 29. Neoliberalism Without Guarantees: The Glocality of Labor,Education, and Sport in Japan from the 1980s to the 2000s; Koji Kobayashi and Steven J. Jackson -- Chapter 30. "The Impact of Globalization on Chinese Culture and "Glocalized Practices" in China"; Ning Wang -- Chapter 31. Border-Crossing and Interfacing in Asia: Approaches, Patterns, and Consequences; Ming-Chang Tsai -- Chapter 32. Transformations in Kinship Relations in a Globalized India: Interrogating Marriage, Law, and Intimacy; Rukmini Sen Part: Globalization, Law and Democracy -- Chapter 33. The Ascent of Asian Strongmen: Emerging Market Populism and the Revolt Against Liberal Globalization; Richard Javad Heydarian -- Chapter 34. Globalization and Indian Political Modernity; Leïla Choukroune -- Chapter 35. Whose Democracy? Governing Indonesia in a Globalized World; Lena Tan PART: VIEWS FROM SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: Globalization and Political Culture -- Chapter 36. Globalization, Democracy, and Good Governance in Africa; Ngozi Nwogwugwu -- Chapter 37. Political Globalization in an African Perspective: Continuity and Change; Goran Hyden Globalization, Poverty and Economic Development -- Chapter 38. Human Capital Contribution to the Economic Growth of Sub-Saharan Africa: Does Health Status Matter? Evidence from Dynamic Panel Data; Abel Kinyondo and Mwoya Byaro -- Chapter 39. Globalization, Poverty, and Development in Africa: Looking Past to the Future; Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba, Ebenezer Babajide Ishola,and Israel Kehinde Ekanade -- Chapter 40. Africa's Industrialization and Prosperity: Time for Structural Change; David Sseppuuya PART: VIEWS FROM LATIN AMERICA: Globalization and Political Economy -- Chapter 41. Latin America: Between the Promises of Globalization and the Chimera of Nationalism; Ronaldo Munck -- Chapter 42. Globalization and the Transformation of Latin America's Political Economy; William I. Robinson -- Chapter 43. The Caribbean and Global Capitalism: Five Strategic Traits; Jeb Sprague -- Part Impact of Globalization on Culture: Chapter 44. Through Thick and Thin: Globalization and Contested Conceptualizations of the Rule of Law in Latin America; Craig L. Arceneaux -- Chapter 45. Indigenous People in Pluricultural Nations of Latin America; June Nash PART: DESIGNS FOR A FUTURE WORLD ORDER: Introduction: TOWARD A DEMOCRATIC GLOBALIZATION Chapter 46. Re-embracing the Masses Economically by Financialization; Jürgen Schraten -- Chapter 47. A Manifesto for Good Globalization: Or, the Manifesto as Method; Paul James -- Chapter 48. Forging a Diagonal Instrument for the Global Left: The Vessel; Rebecca Álvarez and Christopher Chase-Dunn -- Chapter 49. Alternatives to Neoliberal Globalization; Vishwas Satgar PART: ALTERNATIVE CIVILIZATIONAL DESIGNS: Chapter 50. Global Mobilization in the Name of Islam: the Global Imaginary of Political Islam; Amentahru Wahlrab and Rebecca A. Otis -- Chapter 51. Tian Xia: A Confucian Model of State Identity and Global Governance; Tongdong Bai -- Chapter 52. Russian Civilization and Global Culture: Alternative or Coexistence?; Ilya Ilyin and Olga Leonova -- Chapter 53. (Re)Constructing Neo-Confucianism in a "Glocalized" Context; Ning Wang PART: TOWARD AN INTER-CIVILIZATIONAL AND COSMIC WORLD ORDER: Chapter 54. From Cultural Pluralism and Civilizational Disintegration to a Global Cultural-cum-civilizational System; Alexander N. Chumakov -- Chapter 55. From World Politics to a World Political System; Olga Leonova and Ilya Ilyin -- Chapter 56. The Final Frontier of Global Society and the Evolution of Space Governance; Eytan Tepper -- PART. CONCLUSION: Chapter 57. Toward a New Globalization Paradigm and a UDHR-Based Inter-civilizational World Order - Ino Rossi.
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Analysis of Social Networks on Multiculturalism: Youtube Reaction Videos Abstract Multiculturalism is one of the most important concepts brought about by the disappearance of borders in the geographical and cultural areas, the acceleration of mobility and information flow in the international arena, and especially in the 20th century. The concept of multiculturalism, which has the ideals of preventing racism and discrimination, increasing tolerance and sensitivity towards differences and providing intercultural interaction, has been moved to a different dimension at the point where today's world has come. Multiculturalism serves cultural processes by gaining meaning in internet environments as a field that allows cultural construction processes to take place. The study aims to contribute to the definition of the concept of multiculturalism at the level of state policies as well as its definition in the digital field. In this direction, it is aimed to reveal the contribution of multiculturalism with examples via YouTube, one of the most used social networks worldwide. On YouTube, the channel containing the reactions of a user of different cultures by watching Turkish music videos and examples from this channel were analyzed using content analysis method. Structured Abstract: The most common interpretation of globalization is the idea that the world has become more homogeneous and standardized through a technological, commercial and cultural synchronization spreading from the West, and that globalization is connected with modernity. Globalization, which is frequently discussed today, is a comprehensive concept that is based on geographical discoveries and extends to the state it has taken under the influence of today's technological developments. In today's world, globalization has turned into a way of life and has become the normal of our daily lives. Globalization in general; the disappearance of national borders, allowing the free movement of goods, services and cultures around the world. Robertson says that globalization is centered around two main orientations. While the first refers to economic interdependence, the other refers to the globalization of institutions, communities and practices (2013: 136). Globalization includes several dimensions. The cultural dimension is among the most important of these. The cultural dimension of globalization can be considered within the scope of transportation, communication and communication as a result of its economic basis. The fact that different parts of the world are in contact with economic purposes has allowed different cultures to get to know each other, and cultures that include small groups to be noticed. Intercultural interaction has reached a high level with digital communication channels. The cultural dimension of globalization has led to the emergence of various concepts. Multiculturalism is one of these concepts. Multiculturalism, as a system of thought, defines the fair promotion of different cultures in the public sphere and the peaceful coexistence of different cultural communities within the same political organization (Dotycheva, 2009:12). In the digital age we live in, every field has a multicultural structure. The fact that communication tools enable universal communication has led to the emergence of social networks. The borderless structure of social networks directly serves multiculturalism. Youtube, chosen as the subject of analysis of the study, is a social network that is visited and content is produced by millions of people around the world. Cultural content is also produced on YouTube, where all kinds of videos can be shared. It allows a culture to introduce itself and spread it from various aspects. It does this effectively with the power of visuality. By accessing the content on this network from all over the world, it is possible to watch videos, obtain information, give feedback and contribute to the expansion of the content by producing. YouTube's "Kingdom of Luke" channel, chosen as the field of study, shows its experiences about different cultures by watching music clips from different countries. While creating content, it does a preliminary research about the video to watch instead of just watching. Considering the five videos selected as a sample, 60% of the videos explain the content and give information about the song. It gives information about the song genre in 40% of the videos. Explains the musical genres that have their own characteristics as "anthem" and "folk song" and indicates their characteristics. The channel owner gives information about the singers in 100% of the videos. Explain what kind of music the singers make, their life, their place and importance in Turkish music. In this way, he gets information about the culture he is foreign to through the artists. It gives historical information on 60% of the pieces. The channel owner makes inferences about culture in 60% of the videos he examines. All of these videos are pieces with historical content. He states that as a result of his viewing experience, he was influenced by pieces with historical content and shared a sense of victory and struggle. This shows that even though it is experienced by different societies, all world rights can develop common feelings in situations such as war, destruction and victory. There are Turkish and English comments in all of the videos and in the comments under the video. This shows that besides being watched by users from Turkey, it is watched by different cultures or that users use the universal language English to appeal to all cultures. Thanks to the video content, a content producer from a different culture gained knowledge as a result of his researches and impressions about the culture he is foreign to; It has made them accessible to millions of people by publishing them on the most used video sharing site all over the world. Many people had the opportunity to access this video, and those who watched the content had the opportunity to have information about Turkish culture. These contents, which contribute to the multicultural structure in the digital field, contribute to the empathy of different cultures with each other and to develop positive thoughts about culture; It emphasizes love and respect by preventing racism and discrimination. Keywords: Social Sciences, Social Networks, Globalization, Multiculturalism, YouTube
This research focuses on the uses and appropriation of mobile socio-technical information and communication devices (DISTIC) in sub-Saharan Francophone Africa. It aims to analyze the uses and appropriation of cell phones (ordiphone and smartphone), computers, digital tablets, the Internet and digital networks (platforms, social networks, application, etc.) in the context of socio-economic and professional development and information and digital culture. It is in line with the work carried out on the acculturation of technology. It essentially integrates the issue of development with digital media and is also inspired by work in the sociology of innovation, uses, appropriation, dissemination, but especially the social insertion of digital tools in the daily practices of African users. She will build her theoretical framework taking into account the contributions of Nora Quebral for the communication for socio-economic development. The concept of "capability" developed by Amartya Sen is very relevant in the context of a developing country.Over the past 30 years, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have experienced unprecedented development in both developed and developing countries. They have become a "new vector" that is increasingly indispensable for economic growth and have transformed the planet into a small digital village. These ICTs, and mainly mobile DISTICs, have changed the behavior of the workforce. The combination of computing and telecommunications has unquestionably made it possible to collect, process and circulate information around the world — in real time. Indeed, in an international context dominated by the "technological revolution" as symbols of modernity and factors of integration into the world economy, the major challenges of globalization increasingly impose the need for each country to integrate harmoniously into the information society, or now the new buzzword: the digital society. Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa in general and Niger in particular, the field of this study, are lagging behind due to several difficulties: economic, technological, political and entrepreneurial. Although mobile DISTICs are recognized by international institutions as "levers" for development, they do not translate into a coherent policy. Sub-Saharan Africa still seems to be limited by several constraints (mismatch between supply and social demand, lack of qualified human resources, lack of infrastructure, high cost of connection, illiteracy, technological dependence of the South on the North, etc.).However, some quantitative studies show the progression of mobile telephony and mobile Internet in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Niger. On the other hand, qualitative studies on their use are very rare, notably because of the great difficulty researchers have in establishing a relationship of mutual trust with the people interviewed in Niger. This chapter will address, not the results of the study, but the issues, methodologies and collection strategies implemented specifically in the Niger field. The thesis, relying mainly on qualitative empirical data, will highlight, on the one hand, the meteoric explosion of mobile communication devices in Africa, and the difficult adoption of these tools by African users to produce a socio-economic change. ; La présente recherche porte sur les usages et appropriations des dispositifs socio-techniques d'information et de communication (DISTIC) mobiles en Afrique francophone subsaharienne. Elle se propose d'analyser les usages et l'appropriation des téléphones mobiles (ordiphone et smartphone), de l'ordinateur, des tablettes numériques, de l'Internet et des réseaux numériques (plateformes, réseaux sociaux, applications, etc.) dans le cadre du développement socio-économique, professionnel et de la culture informationnelle et numérique. Elle s'inscrit dans la lignée des travaux menés sur l'acculturation de la technique. Elle intègre essentiellement la problématique du développement avec les supports numériques et s'inspire également des travaux en sociologie de l'innovation, des usages, de l'appropriation, de la diffusion, mais se situe surtout à l'ancrage social des outils numériques dans les pratiques quotidiennes des utilisateurs africains. Elle construira son cadre théorique en tenant compte des apports de Nora Quebral concernant la communication pour le développement socio-économique. Le concept de « capabilité » développé par Amartya Sen est très pertinent dans le contexte d'un pays en développement, il est utilisé.Au cours de ces 30 dernières années, les Technologies de l'Information et de la Communication (TIC) ont connu un développement sans précédent aussi bien dans les pays développés que ceux en voie de développement (PED). Elles sont devenues un « nouveau vecteur » indispensable de la croissance économique de l'entreprise et ont transformé la planète en un petit village numérique. Ces TIC, et principalement les DISTIC mobiles, ont changé le comportement du personnel. L'association de l'informatique et des télécommunications a permis incontestablement de collecter, traiter et faire circuler l'information dans le monde — en temps réel. En effet, dans un contexte international dominé par la « révolution technologique » comme symboles de modernité et facteurs d'intégration à l'économie mondiale, les grands enjeux de la mondialisation imposent de plus en plus la nécessité pour chaque pays de s'intégrer harmonieusement au sein de la société de l'information, ou désormais le nouveau syntagme en vogue : la société numérique. L'Afrique francophone subsaharienne en général et le Niger en particulier, terrain de cette étude, y sont à la traîne en raison de plusieurs difficultés : économiques, technologiques, politiques et entrepreneuriales. Or, si les DISTIC mobiles sont reconnus par les institutions internationales comme des « leviers » au service du développement, ils ne se traduisent pas par une politique cohérente. L'Afrique subsaharienne semble encore limitée par plusieurs contraintes (décalage entre l'offre et la demande sociale, manque de ressources humaines qualifiées, manque d'infrastructure, cherté de la connexion, analphabétisme, dépendance technologique du Sud à l'égard du Nord, etc.).Toutefois, certaines études quantitatives montrent la progression de la téléphonie mobile et de l'Internet mobile en Afrique subsaharienne dont le Niger. En revanche, les études qualitatives sur leurs usages sont très rares, notamment en raison de la grande difficulté des chercheurs à établir une relation de confiance réciproque avec les personnes interrogées au Niger. La thèse, en s'appuyant essentiellement sur des données empiriques qualitatives, met en évidence, d'une part, l'explosion fulgurante des dispositifs mobiles de communication en Afrique, et, d'autre part, la difficile adoption de ces outils par les utilisateurs africains pour produire un changement socio-économique.
The article is dedicated to the Masonic ideas influence on a symbolism interpretation in anthropology, vision of the Masonic symbolism in Masonic ideas influence on a modern philosophical discourse. The symbolic codes investigation was opening space for a philosophical discourse, human identity and self-equivalence searches. Masons and philosophers of the 20th century had been working on a same cultural and semantic field, with the same cultural, historical and epistemological universals, considering symbols as a priori language and a priori form of learning. The existence archetypes, sense-creating codes search led Masons to the vision that symbols did not contain the final content, but gave a wide field of the interpretation possibilities, were a gnoseological key, a tool for a self-learning and a "super-reality" learning, for the adept's gnoseological qualities forming. Masonic ideology was based on "ascribing" to the certain objects some special symbolic meaning, on conviction that by means of symbols it was possible to teach laymen the basics of the independent and free learning process. Masonic convictions say that symbol is marking the space-time relations, performing the communicative processes. Philosophers of the 20th century (C. Levi-Strauss, E. Cassirer, N. Berdyaev and others) gave to the symbols meanings of the objective character and of the values, they opened the reality levels, for which a non-symbolic language did not fit. They considered a person to perceive the symbols of the object and not the object itself. Walking a "Masonic path", these philosophers supposed that symbols were forming the goal-setting senses which could be conceived by civilizations, values, tastes, fashion. So, for people of Modernity, "society" became a symbol of the people's uniting in the name of the progress and the democracy. Philosophers began looking at the society as at the historical self-realization process, as at the knowledge and self-knowing tool. It can be assumed that "Masonic phenomenon" in European philosophy influenced the scientific search directions forming. The classified masonic discourses gave birth to the thoughts which later transformed into philosophical concepts of the 20th century. ; В статье рассматривается в сравнительном аспекте масонский символизм и трактовка символа в современной философии человека и философском дискурсе. Сегодня, когда в научном сообществе присутствуют противоречивые оценки масонства, когда масонская философия только вырывается из искусственной маргинализации, а в обществе появился интерес к «альтернативной» философии, актуальным является освещение взаимовлияния масонского символического дискурса и новых школ философии ХХ в. Научная новизна заключается в изменении стереотипных подходов к исследованию процесса формирования философской мысли XIX-XX вв., в выявлении особого масонского влияния на процессы появления новых философских смыслов. Впервые масонская символика, как определенная система мировосприятия, рассматривается в контексте одного из первоисточников философских систем ХХ в. Исследование символических кодов открывало простор для философского дискурса, поисков человеческой идентичности, тождественности. Масонская идеология базировалась на «приписывании» определенным объектам особого символического значения, на убежденности, что с помощью символов возможно научить новообращенных основам самостоятельного и свободного процесса познания. Масонским является убеждение, что символ маркирует пространственно-временные отношения, осуществляя коммуникативные процессы. Философы ХХ в. (К. Леви-Стросс, Э. Кассирер, Н. Бердяев и др.) Наделяют символы свойствами объективности и ценности, раскрывают уровни реальности, для описания которых несимволическая речь не подходит. Идя «масонской тропой», эти философы обосновывают, что человек воспринимает символы объекта, но не сам объект и что именно символы формируют целеполагания смыслов, положенных в основу ценностей, вкусов, моды. Результатом исследования стало открытие своеобразного «масонского феномена» в европейской философии ХХ в. В масонских дискурсах рождались мысли, которые впоследствии пересекались с философскими концепциями ХХ в. Можно утверждать, что масоны и философы ХХ в. работали на одном культурном и семантическом фоне, с одними культурно-историческими и эпистемологическими универсалиями, рассматривая символы как априорный язык и априорную форму познания. Поиск архетипов бытия, смыслообразующих кодов привел масонов к видению того, что символы не содержат в себе окончательного значения, а предоставляют широкое поле возможностей для интерпретаций, выступают гносеологическим ключом, инструментом к самопознанию и познанию «сверхреальности». ; У статті розглядається у порівняльному аспекті масонський символізм та трактування символу в сучасній філософії людини та філософському дискурсі. Сьогодні, коли в науковій спільноті присутні контроверсійні оцінки масонства, коли масонська філософія тільки виривається зі стану штучної маргіналізації, а в суспільстві з'явився інтерес до «альтернативної» філософії, актуальним є висвітлення взаємовпливу масонського символічного дискурсу і нових шкіл філософії ХХ ст. Наукова новизна полягає у зламі стереотипних підходів до дослідження процесу формування філософської думки ХІХ-ХХ ст., у виявленні особливого масонського впливу на процеси появи нових філософських сенсів. Вперше масонська символіка, як певна система світосприйняття, розглядається в контексті одного з першоджерел філософських систем ХХ ст. Дослідження символічних кодів відкривало простір для філософського дискурсу, пошуків людської ідентичності, самототожності. Масонська ідеологія базувалася на «приписуванні» певним об'єктам особливого символічного значення, на переконаності, що за допомогою символів можливо навчити навернених основам самостійного і вільного процесу пізнання. Масонським є переконання, що символ маркує просторово-часові відносини, здійснюючи комунікативні процеси. Філософи ХХ ст. (К. Леві-Стросс, Е. Кассирер, М. Бердяєв та ін.) наділяють символи властивостями об'єктивності та цінності, розкривають рівні реальності, для опису яких несимволічна мова не підходить. Йдучи «масонською стежкою», ці філософи обгрунтовують, що людина сприймає символи об'єкта, але не сам об'єкт і що саме символи формують цілепокладання сенсів, покладених в основу цінностей, смаків, моди. Результатом дослідження стало відкриття своєрідного «масонського феномену» у європейський філософії ХХ ст. У масонських дискурсах народжувалися думки, які згодом перетинались з філософськими концепціями ХХ ст. Можна стверджувати, що масони та філософи ХХ ст. працювали на одному культурному та семантичному тлі, з одними культурно-історичними та епістемологічними універсаліями, розглядаючи символи як апріорну мову та апріорну форму пізнання. Пошук архетипів буття, сенсотвірних кодів привів масонів до бачення того, що символи не містять в собі остаточного змісту, а надають широке поле можливостей для інтерпретацій, виступають гносеологічним ключем, інструментом до самопізнання та пізнання «надреальності»
The recent history of protecting the territorial independence of Ukraine in the face of growing danger and uncertainty includes the potential for social conflict, which requires the formation of the fundamental foundations of a possible model of value-semantic measurement of its results. The aim.A special approach of moral and political understanding of the paradoxical relationship between the implementation of the canons of state justice in relation to its citizens - the ethical fuses of military operations - the personal understanding of good and evil by each participant in current events is being formed, therefore the purpose of this article is to try to analyze the planetary problem of keeping humanity from tragic armed conflicts and the catastrophes of world wars due to military parity and the authoritatively recognized leadership of certain countries in the world order. The research methodology is basedon comparative, analytical, dialectical, historical-logical analysis provide the possibilities of the theory of morality for the analysis of the basic components of the socio-philosophical dimension of military conflict. The statement of basic materials. The study results in the substantiation of the ethical concept of planetary consensus for the sake of love of life as a socio-cultural phenomenon, it includes the practice of historical selection of an ideal understanding of the world based on the interaction of religious-ethical and political-ideological dimensions of human existence. The ideal of peace acquires in its meaning the foundations of a functional system of balancing between the ideas of social utopia and social life of achieving order and prosperity, so after the end of the Cold War and the situation of a further increase in the number of countries of the nuclear club, in fact, the idea of eternal peace was destroyed forever, but the following ideas of its preservation arise.Today there is an understanding of such a situation as the "diminishing usefulness of war", its recognition helps the methodological formation of effective relationships between members of certain alliances for the sake of improving the quality of life of the world community in connection with the reduction of unprofitable military spending. On the other hand, all the best intellectual forces in the world were thrown to achieve an effective result between the use of material and technical resources and the most accurate execution of military operational tasks - its result is the use of the capabilities of modern high-precision weapons.We can assert that any humanity is preserved in the mental definition of individual situations, because "ethics in general" does not exist, it is present only in individual cases - this is the ethics of processes with the help of which the possibilities of the situation are used. The conclusions prove the idea that the planetary consensus still remains an ideal reference point for the relationship of countries with different cultural, religious, political preferences, and only an appeal to the ethical principles of coexistence and understanding of the eternity of the life of the person himself in the generic sense can contribute to the achievement. The dream of an international order today can only be strengthened in parallel with the growth of the asymmetric nature and threats from the wars of the fourth generation, therefore, how this paradox of modernity will be resolved remains an open question, and the ideal of peace as a creative project of the Ukrainian state's defense power is a practical task for our young country. ; Новітня історія захисту територіальної незалежності України в умовах зростаючої небезпеки й невизначеності містить у собі потенцію соціального конфлікту, який вимагає формування принципових засад можливої моделі ціннісно-смислового вимірювання його результатів. Формується особливий підхід морального і політичного осмислення проблематики парадоксального співвідношення між реалізацією канонів державної справедливості відносно своїх громадян – етичних запобіжників військових дій – особистісного розуміння добра і зла кожним учасником теперішніх подій, тому метою даної статті є спроба проаналізувати планетарну проблему утримання людства від трагічних збройних конфліктів і катастрофи світових війн завдяки військовому паритету та авторитетно-визнаного лідерства певних країн у світовому порядку. Методи компаративного аналізу, аналітичного, діалектичного, історико-логічного забезпечують можливості теорії моралі для аналізу базових складових соціально-філософського виміру військового конфлікту. Результатами дослідження стає обґрунтування етичної концепції планетарного консенсусу заради любові до життя як соціокультурного феномену, вона включає в себе практику історичної селекції ідеального розуміння миру на засадах взаємодії релігійно-етичного та політико-ідеологічного вимірів людського існування. Ідеал миру набуває у її межах значення основи функціональної системи балансування між ідеями соціальної утопії та суспільної практики досягнення порядку та добробуту, так після закінчення холодної війни та ситуації подальшого збільшення кількості країн ядерного клубу, фактично назавжди була знищена ідея вічного миру, але виникають наступні ідеї його збереження. Сьогодні з'являється розуміння такого положення як «убывающая корисність війни», його визнання допомагає методичному формуванню ефективних взаємовідносин між членами певних альянсів заради покращення якості життя світової спільноти у зв'язку зі скороченням неприбуткових військових витрат. З іншого боку, всі найкращі інтелектуальні сили світу було кинуто для досягнення ефективного результату між використання матеріально-технічних ресурсів і максимально-точного виконання військових оперативних завдань – результатом стало використання можливостей сучасної високоточної зброї. Можемо стверджувати, що будь яка людяність зберігається у мисленому визначенні одиничних ситуацій, тому що «етика взагалі» не існує, вона є присутньою тільки в окремих випадках – це етика процесів за допомогою якої використовуються можливості ситуації. У висновках доведено ідею того, що планетарний консенсус дотепер залишається ідеальним орієнтиром для взаємовідносин країн з різними культурними, релігійними, політичними уподобаннями і тільки звернення до етичних принципів співіснування і розуміння вічності життя самої людини у родовому значенні може сприяти його досягненню.Мрія про міжнародний порядок сьогодні може укріплюватися тільки паралельно із зростанням асиметричного характеру та погроз з боку війн вже четвертого покоління, тому яким чином буде відбуватися вирішення зазначеного парадоксу сучасності залишається відкритим питанням, а ідеал миру як креативний проєкт оборонної могутності української держави є практичним завданням для нашої молодої країни.
The recent history of protecting the territorial independence of Ukraine in the face of growing danger and uncertainty includes the potential for social conflict, which requires the formation of the fundamental foundations of a possible model of value-semantic measurement of its results. The aim.A special approach of moral and political understanding of the paradoxical relationship between the implementation of the canons of state justice in relation to its citizens - the ethical fuses of military operations - the personal understanding of good and evil by each participant in current events is being formed, therefore the purpose of this article is to try to analyze the planetary problem of keeping humanity from tragic armed conflicts and the catastrophes of world wars due to military parity and the authoritatively recognized leadership of certain countries in the world order. The research methodology is basedon comparative, analytical, dialectical, historical-logical analysis provide the possibilities of the theory of morality for the analysis of the basic components of the socio-philosophical dimension of military conflict. The statement of basic materials. The study results in the substantiation of the ethical concept of planetary consensus for the sake of love of life as a socio-cultural phenomenon, it includes the practice of historical selection of an ideal understanding of the world based on the interaction of religious-ethical and political-ideological dimensions of human existence. The ideal of peace acquires in its meaning the foundations of a functional system of balancing between the ideas of social utopia and social life of achieving order and prosperity, so after the end of the Cold War and the situation of a further increase in the number of countries of the nuclear club, in fact, the idea of eternal peace was destroyed forever, but the following ideas of its preservation arise.Today there is an understanding of such a situation as the "diminishing usefulness of war", its recognition helps the methodological formation of effective relationships between members of certain alliances for the sake of improving the quality of life of the world community in connection with the reduction of unprofitable military spending. On the other hand, all the best intellectual forces in the world were thrown to achieve an effective result between the use of material and technical resources and the most accurate execution of military operational tasks - its result is the use of the capabilities of modern high-precision weapons.We can assert that any humanity is preserved in the mental definition of individual situations, because "ethics in general" does not exist, it is present only in individual cases - this is the ethics of processes with the help of which the possibilities of the situation are used. The conclusions prove the idea that the planetary consensus still remains an ideal reference point for the relationship of countries with different cultural, religious, political preferences, and only an appeal to the ethical principles of coexistence and understanding of the eternity of the life of the person himself in the generic sense can contribute to the achievement. The dream of an international order today can only be strengthened in parallel with the growth of the asymmetric nature and threats from the wars of the fourth generation, therefore, how this paradox of modernity will be resolved remains an open question, and the ideal of peace as a creative project of the Ukrainian state's defense power is a practical task for our young country. ; Новітня історія захисту територіальної незалежності України в умовах зростаючої небезпеки й невизначеності містить у собі потенцію соціального конфлікту, який вимагає формування принципових засад можливої моделі ціннісно-смислового вимірювання його результатів. Формується особливий підхід морального і політичного осмислення проблематики парадоксального співвідношення між реалізацією канонів державної справедливості відносно своїх громадян – етичних запобіжників військових дій – особистісного розуміння добра і зла кожним учасником теперішніх подій, тому метою даної статті є спроба проаналізувати планетарну проблему утримання людства від трагічних збройних конфліктів і катастрофи світових війн завдяки військовому паритету та авторитетно-визнаного лідерства певних країн у світовому порядку. Методи компаративного аналізу, аналітичного, діалектичного, історико-логічного забезпечують можливості теорії моралі для аналізу базових складових соціально-філософського виміру військового конфлікту. Результатами дослідження стає обґрунтування етичної концепції планетарного консенсусу заради любові до життя як соціокультурного феномену, вона включає в себе практику історичної селекції ідеального розуміння миру на засадах взаємодії релігійно-етичного та політико-ідеологічного вимірів людського існування. Ідеал миру набуває у її межах значення основи функціональної системи балансування між ідеями соціальної утопії та суспільної практики досягнення порядку та добробуту, так після закінчення холодної війни та ситуації подальшого збільшення кількості країн ядерного клубу, фактично назавжди була знищена ідея вічного миру, але виникають наступні ідеї його збереження. Сьогодні з'являється розуміння такого положення як «убывающая корисність війни», його визнання допомагає методичному формуванню ефективних взаємовідносин між членами певних альянсів заради покращення якості життя світової спільноти у зв'язку зі скороченням неприбуткових військових витрат. З іншого боку, всі найкращі інтелектуальні сили світу було кинуто для досягнення ефективного результату між використання матеріально-технічних ресурсів і максимально-точного виконання військових оперативних завдань – результатом стало використання можливостей сучасної високоточної зброї. Можемо стверджувати, що будь яка людяність зберігається у мисленому визначенні одиничних ситуацій, тому що «етика взагалі» не існує, вона є присутньою тільки в окремих випадках – це етика процесів за допомогою якої використовуються можливості ситуації. У висновках доведено ідею того, що планетарний консенсус дотепер залишається ідеальним орієнтиром для взаємовідносин країн з різними культурними, релігійними, політичними уподобаннями і тільки звернення до етичних принципів співіснування і розуміння вічності життя самої людини у родовому значенні може сприяти його досягненню.Мрія про міжнародний порядок сьогодні може укріплюватися тільки паралельно із зростанням асиметричного характеру та погроз з боку війн вже четвертого покоління, тому яким чином буде відбуватися вирішення зазначеного парадоксу сучасності залишається відкритим питанням, а ідеал миру як креативний проєкт оборонної могутності української держави є практичним завданням для нашої молодої країни.
The article is dedicated to the Masonic ideas influence on a symbolism interpretation in anthropology, vision of the Masonic symbolism in Masonic ideas influence on a modern philosophical discourse. The symbolic codes investigation was opening space for a philosophical discourse, human identity and self-equivalence searches. Masons and philosophers of the 20th century had been working on a same cultural and semantic field, with the same cultural, historical and epistemological universals, considering symbols as a priori language and a priori form of learning. The existence archetypes, sense-creating codes search led Masons to the vision that symbols did not contain the final content, but gave a wide field of the interpretation possibilities, were a gnoseological key, a tool for a self-learning and a "super-reality" learning, for the adept's gnoseological qualities forming. Masonic ideology was based on "ascribing" to the certain objects some special symbolic meaning, on conviction that by means of symbols it was possible to teach laymen the basics of the independent and free learning process. Masonic convictions say that symbol is marking the space-time relations, performing the communicative processes. Philosophers of the 20th century (C. Levi-Strauss, E. Cassirer, N. Berdyaev and others) gave to the symbols meanings of the objective character and of the values, they opened the reality levels, for which a non-symbolic language did not fit. They considered a person to perceive the symbols of the object and not the object itself. Walking a "Masonic path", these philosophers supposed that symbols were forming the goal-setting senses which could be conceived by civilizations, values, tastes, fashion. So, for people of Modernity, "society" became a symbol of the people's uniting in the name of the progress and the democracy. Philosophers began looking at the society as at the historical self-realization process, as at the knowledge and self-knowing tool. It can be assumed that "Masonic phenomenon" in European philosophy influenced the scientific search directions forming. The classified masonic discourses gave birth to the thoughts which later transformed into philosophical concepts of the 20th century. ; В статье рассматривается в сравнительном аспекте масонский символизм и трактовка символа в современной философии человека и философском дискурсе. Сегодня, когда в научном сообществе присутствуют противоречивые оценки масонства, когда масонская философия только вырывается из искусственной маргинализации, а в обществе появился интерес к «альтернативной» философии, актуальным является освещение взаимовлияния масонского символического дискурса и новых школ философии ХХ в. Научная новизна заключается в изменении стереотипных подходов к исследованию процесса формирования философской мысли XIX-XX вв., в выявлении особого масонского влияния на процессы появления новых философских смыслов. Впервые масонская символика, как определенная система мировосприятия, рассматривается в контексте одного из первоисточников философских систем ХХ в. Исследование символических кодов открывало простор для философского дискурса, поисков человеческой идентичности, тождественности. Масонская идеология базировалась на «приписывании» определенным объектам особого символического значения, на убежденности, что с помощью символов возможно научить новообращенных основам самостоятельного и свободного процесса познания. Масонским является убеждение, что символ маркирует пространственно-временные отношения, осуществляя коммуникативные процессы. Философы ХХ в. (К. Леви-Стросс, Э. Кассирер, Н. Бердяев и др.) Наделяют символы свойствами объективности и ценности, раскрывают уровни реальности, для описания которых несимволическая речь не подходит. Идя «масонской тропой», эти философы обосновывают, что человек воспринимает символы объекта, но не сам объект и что именно символы формируют целеполагания смыслов, положенных в основу ценностей, вкусов, моды. Результатом исследования стало открытие своеобразного «масонского феномена» в европейской философии ХХ в. В масонских дискурсах рождались мысли, которые впоследствии пересекались с философскими концепциями ХХ в. Можно утверждать, что масоны и философы ХХ в. работали на одном культурном и семантическом фоне, с одними культурно-историческими и эпистемологическими универсалиями, рассматривая символы как априорный язык и априорную форму познания. Поиск архетипов бытия, смыслообразующих кодов привел масонов к видению того, что символы не содержат в себе окончательного значения, а предоставляют широкое поле возможностей для интерпретаций, выступают гносеологическим ключом, инструментом к самопознанию и познанию «сверхреальности». ; У статті розглядається у порівняльному аспекті масонський символізм та трактування символу в сучасній філософії людини та філософському дискурсі. Сьогодні, коли в науковій спільноті присутні контроверсійні оцінки масонства, коли масонська філософія тільки виривається зі стану штучної маргіналізації, а в суспільстві з'явився інтерес до «альтернативної» філософії, актуальним є висвітлення взаємовпливу масонського символічного дискурсу і нових шкіл філософії ХХ ст. Наукова новизна полягає у зламі стереотипних підходів до дослідження процесу формування філософської думки ХІХ-ХХ ст., у виявленні особливого масонського впливу на процеси появи нових філософських сенсів. Вперше масонська символіка, як певна система світосприйняття, розглядається в контексті одного з першоджерел філософських систем ХХ ст. Дослідження символічних кодів відкривало простір для філософського дискурсу, пошуків людської ідентичності, самототожності. Масонська ідеологія базувалася на «приписуванні» певним об'єктам особливого символічного значення, на переконаності, що за допомогою символів можливо навчити навернених основам самостійного і вільного процесу пізнання. Масонським є переконання, що символ маркує просторово-часові відносини, здійснюючи комунікативні процеси. Філософи ХХ ст. (К. Леві-Стросс, Е. Кассирер, М. Бердяєв та ін.) наділяють символи властивостями об'єктивності та цінності, розкривають рівні реальності, для опису яких несимволічна мова не підходить. Йдучи «масонською стежкою», ці філософи обгрунтовують, що людина сприймає символи об'єкта, але не сам об'єкт і що саме символи формують цілепокладання сенсів, покладених в основу цінностей, смаків, моди. Результатом дослідження стало відкриття своєрідного «масонського феномену» у європейський філософії ХХ ст. У масонських дискурсах народжувалися думки, які згодом перетинались з філософськими концепціями ХХ ст. Можна стверджувати, що масони та філософи ХХ ст. працювали на одному культурному та семантичному тлі, з одними культурно-історичними та епістемологічними універсаліями, розглядаючи символи як апріорну мову та апріорну форму пізнання. Пошук архетипів буття, сенсотвірних кодів привів масонів до бачення того, що символи не містять в собі остаточного змісту, а надають широке поле можливостей для інтерпретацій, виступають гносеологічним ключем, інструментом до самопізнання та пізнання «надреальності»
The development of high-speed rail systems in recent decades, transitioning from single lines to a complex mode of transportation that encompasses many lines and cities and involves many kinds of services, requires a global assessment to understand the real utility of HSR for each city. Since the beginning, the literature and stakeholders have focused on the infrastructure itself. HSR systems were conceived to connect large metropolitan areas over distances of around 400-600 km. However, as this infrastructure generates impacts on the regions in between, it challenges how smaller cities en-route are still going to be serviced by rail. In many cases, local/regional authorities have actually applied pressure to secure specific HSR infrastructures that were originally designed primarily to serve bigger cities. Subject to the balance of power, technical feasibility, costs and financial contributions of local/regional authorities, HSR acquired a social and political compromise through which it served smaller cities on the lines. The local authorities of these smaller intermediate cities believe an HSR station in their locality is an iconic element needed for surviving the national competition between cities and an opportunity for urban and regional development. Being included in the HSR map generates important expectations for urban projects, based mainly (and sometimes excessively) on the 'image effect' of HSR in terms of modernity, accessibility and connectivity. Indeed, local and regional authorities often do their best to secure specific rail infrastructures to accommodate HSR services. Nevertheless, in their euphoria they usually forget to consider HSR operations. Yet it is the services supplied (routes, frequencies and timetables) that ultimately determine the utility of HSR for cities, and the real possibility of being connected to other cities. This focus on infrastructure has also been reflected in the scientific literature on the subject, in which scholars have mainly examined the socioeconomic impacts generated by the systems and improvements in accessibility provided by HSR. Such impacts are generally centred on the reduction of travel times generated and the benefits this improvement provides in terms of accessibility, mobility and socioeconomic development. However, at a time when medium- and long-distance accessibility is considered a key element of the attractiveness of cities and regions, it is necessary to think beyond infrastructures to also consider services. Improving long-distance/high-speed accessibility is not enough to induce economic development if adequate HSR services are not also implemented. In addition, in the context of HSR expansion, the quality of the operating services is just as important as securing an HSR infrastructure. The new panorama of HSR development, with its many possibilities for connections and services provided for the cities involved, highlights the need for a whole reassessment of HSR systems from a service-related perspective. Importantly, this dissertation focuses on the services and opportunities they provide for Spanish HSR cities in terms of accessibility and mobility choices. The aim of the dissertation is to characterise the supply of services of the different HSR connections found in HSR systems and to analyse their efficiency and utility for different same-day trip purposes. This will help us understand and identify the differences between cities in terms of possibilities for travelling in the current HSR map. This dissertation presents three main contributions and helps to answer key questions about the utility of HSR services for cities. 1) First, this dissertation highlights that the 'HSR brand' should not be considered the same for all the cities included in HSR networks. The evolution of HSR networks and services is opening up a new panorama in which the quality of the services determines different types of connections, highlighting the fact that an HSR system could play different roles in terms of connectivity and mobility choices. Among all the types identified, it is possible to recognise not only the 'early stage' HSR connections, which are those links between large cities located approximately 350–600 km apart, with high frequencies and speeds oriented to compete with air transport, but also other types, to which little consideration was given during the conception of the initial HSR system. The latter connections generally appear due to the development of the network (new lines and intermediate stops) and the bypasses connecting different lines. They offer a new perspective on the HSR service and establish a multirole network that can cover a wider range of possibilities from which travellers may benefit. 2) Second, this new scenario highlights the need to assess HSR systems from a different perspective based on the need to incorporate the characteristics of the supplied services into the accessibility analyses of the means of transport that are limited to fixed timetables, such as HSR systems. The main contribution of this dissertation is an efficiency analysis of the HSR system for same-day trips in the Spanish HSR network. Traditional accessibility analysis, usually location-based approaches that consider travel time as the main friction in network analyses, reveal the potential of network configurations but generally overestimate the outcomes, as they assume that all nodes in a network are equally well served in terms of frequencies and costs. However, in this dissertation, the efficiency measure proposed – the available time at a destination that can be gained with a given monetary investment – is a new approach to assessing the accessibility of transport networks. Therefore, this dissertation focuses on an analysis of the efficiency of HSR networks as a whole for different trip purposes, such as tourism, business and commuting, identifying and analysing the influence of the 'network effects' (different services, bypasses, transfers, etc.) in mobility choices. 3) Finally, this efficiency approach should not be understood without including the stations' integration in urban transport systems. HSR trips must be considered, including the influence of all the links in the whole transport chain, because the influence of access and egress times to/from HSR stations and their spatiotemporal variations are determinant in door-to-door HSR trips.
