Santrauka. Straipsnyje lyginamos tarpukario ir pokomunistinės agrarinių reformų pradinės sąlygos, eiga ir rezultatai, šį diachroninį palyginimą praplečiant ir kontroliuojant sinchroniniais palyginimais su analogiškais procesais kitose Rytų ir Vidurio Europos šalyse tarpukario ir pokomunistiniais laikais. Svarbiausius abiejų reformų panašumus lėmė 1949–51 m. kolektyvizacija, visus Lietuvos žemdirbius pastačiusi į padėtį, kurioje iki 1922 m. reformos buvo dvarų darbininkai kumečiai, kurie dalį atlyginimo gaudavo natūra – ordinarija. Jos dalis buvo dvaro inventoriumi bei gyvuliais dirbamas dvaro žemės sklypas, analogiškas kolūkiečių asmeninių pagalbinių ūkių sklypams. Skirtingai nuo Rusijos, Lietuvos kolūkiečiai nebuvo kolūkių baudžiauninkai, o tik kumečiai. Kaip ir dvarų iki 1922 m. reformos darbininkams, sovietiniams kumečiams buvo taikomas represinis darbo jėgos kontrolės režimas, suteikęs kolektyvinių ūkių vadovams faktinę "raudonųjų baronų" galią. Pagrindiniai tarpukario reformų Rytų Europos šalyse tikslai buvo anksčiau privilegijuotų tautinių mažumų galios apribojimas ir bolševizmo įtakos slopinimas. Tik Baltijos šalyse ji neturėjo neigiamų ekonominių pasekmių, ką Lietuvoje užtikrino kartu su dvarų parceliacija vykęs kaimų skirstymasis į vienkiemius. Palyginti su tarpukario reforma, pokomunistinė agrarinė reforma buvo mažiau nuosekli, nes jos eigą lėmė interesų konfliktas tarp naujos sovietinių kumečių kartos, suinteresuotų įprastų darbo vietų išsaugojimu, ir išėjusių į miestus buvusių žemės savininkų palikuonių. Kadangi Lietuva buvo viena tų pokomunistinių šalių, kuriose stipresnė buvo antroji stovykla, čia buvo įgyvendinta radikali restitucinė žemės reforma ir šeiminį ūkį restauruojanti de-kolektyvizacija. Dėl sovietmečiu įvykusios vienkiemių likvidacijos ir demografinių pokyčių, ji negrąžino Lietuvos kaimo ir žemės ūkio į 1940 m., bet sukūrė būklę, labiau primenančią Lietuvos kaimo situaciją iki 1922 m. reformos: gausus mažažemių ("trihektarininkų") sluoksnis, gatviniai kaimai (buvusios kolūkinės gyvenvietės), fragmentuota žemės valdų struktūra, iš žemės ūkio bendrovių (ŽŪB) išaugę arba naujai besikuriantys latifundiniai ūkiai, primenantys ikireforminius dvarus. Pačių ŽŪB, įsikūrusių kolūkių gamybiniuose centruose, pokomunistinė raida analogiška 1922 m. reformos apkarpytų dvarų, kurių nuosavybėje liko jų centrai, likimui: dauguma bankrutavo ir buvo išvaržyti, tačiau dalis virto konkurencingomis kapitalistinėms žemės ūkio įmonėmis. Savo ekonominiais rezultatais tarpukario reforma pranoksta pokomunistinę, nes po jos ir bendra žemės ūkio gamybos apimtis, ir jos produktyvumas tik augo, tuo tarpu kai pirmuoju pokomunistinės transformacijos dešimtmečiu abu rodikliai smuko. Ekskomunistinės kairės propaguota nuosaiki agrarinė reforma nebūtų leidusi išvengti gamybos apimties smukimo, nes tą apimtį užtikrino vėlyvuoju sovietmečiu žemės ūkiui sudarytos "ekonominio šiltnamio" sąlygos (dosnios subsidijos) ir neribota paklausa. Tačiau nuosaikesnė ar palaipsnė reforma veikiausiai būtų leidusi jau pirmajame dešimtmetyje padidinti žemės ūkio gamybos produktyvumą. Lietuvai tapus ES nare ir jos žemės ūkiui vėl patekus į "ekonominį šiltnamį", žemės ūkio veikla nebegali būti vertinama vien ekonominiais masteliais. Matuojant pokomunistinės agrarinės reformos padarinius Lietuvoje gamtosaugos vertybėmis, jie yra labai pozityvūs.Pagrindiniai žodžiai: 1922 m. žemės reforma Lietuvoje, pokomunistinė agrarinė reforma Lietuvoje, represinė darbo jėgos kontrolė, tarptautinis tarpukario ir pokomunistinių agrarinių reformų palyginimas.Key words: Land reform in Lithuania in 1922, post-communist agrarian reform ir Lithuania, repressive control of labour, international comparison of the interwar and post-communist agrarian reforms.ABSTRACTA COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AGRARIAN REFORMS IN THE FIRST AND THE SECOND REPUBLIC OF LITHUANIAThe paper compares the initial conditions, the course and the outcomes of the interwar (1922) and the post-communist (since 1989) agrarian reforms in Lithuania, controlling and enlarging these diachronic comparisons with synchronic comparisons of the analoguos processes in other Eastern and Central European countries at the same times. Most important similarities between both reforms were created by the collectivization in 1948–1951, which for all Lithuaniam tillers shaped the condition in which before the 1922 reform the wage workers (kumečiai) at the large estates were living and working. They received in money only part of their salaries. Another part was paid in kind, including a land plot which was cultivated using the inventory and draught animals provided by landlord. This is quite similar to the small plots allocation for personal use to collective farms workers, and how they were cultivated. However, differently from the workers of collective farms in Russia, who untill late 1960s had no passports, Lithuanian collective farmers were not made serfs, because the passportization of Lithuanian countryside population was implemented by Soviet auhorities as part of their efforts to suppress resistance movement. Similarly to agrarian wage workers before 1922, collective farm workers were subject to the repressive labour force control regime, providing for managers of collective farms the de facto power of "red barons". Main aims of the interwar agrarian reforms were the restriction of power of the formerly privileged minorities and suppression of Communism. However, only in the Baltic States the reforms had no negative economic outcomes. In Lithuania, such outcomes were preempted by the dispersion of villages into individual settlement farms, which proceeded along with the parcellization of large estates. Comparing with interwar reform, post-communist agrarian reform was less consistent, because its course was under heavy impact of the interest conflict between the new generation of the collective farms workers, interested to keep their working places, and those descendants of the former land owners, who left villages for cities. As far as Lithuania was one of those post-communist countries, where second group was stronger, in this country a radical restitutive land reform was implemented along with the de-collectivization which has restored family farming. However, because of the interjacent liquidation of the individual settlements (re-concentration of rural population in the villages) and demographic changes in the Communist time, it did restore in the Lithuanian countryside and agriculture the status quo of 1940. Rather, it has created the state that is more reminiscent of situation in the Lithuanian countryside before the agrarian reform of 1922: broad social stratum of small plots (3 ha) owners; villages; a fragmented land ownership structure; and large farms reminiscent of landed estates before 1922 reform. While some of them are new ventures (e.g. huge swine-breeding farms, operated by foreignly owned agrobusiness), many emerged out of agricultural partnerships, which were the fragments of the former collective farms. They were established by former collective workers to operate technological complexes of former collective farms which were too large for using by family farms. The evolution of these remainders of collective farms is similar to the evolution of the former landlord farms after their landholdings were reduced by agrarian reform of 1922. The reform left in ownership of the landlords the buildings and other estate with part of land (up to 80–150 ha). Most of these residual estates went bankrupt and were sold in parts at auctions, while some of the survived becoming competitive agricultural enterprises. Similarly, most efficient partnerships survived, expanded and became competitive large-scale corporate capitalist agricultural enterprises. The economic outcomes of the interwar reform are superior to those of post-communist reform: after the first reform, both the general agricultural output and the productivity increased, while both indicators decreased during the first decade of the post-communist agrarian reform. Ex-communist Left in Lithuania promoted moderate agrarian reform, involving transformation of collective farms into the private corporate capitalist agricultural companies. The author argues that such reform would not be able to prevent the reduction in output, because the output as of in 1989 was possible only under economic hothouse conditions of the late Soviet time for agriculture (lavish subsidies, unlimited demand, "price scissors" favouring agriculture). However, most probably, a more gradual reform would help to increase the agricultural productivity already during its first decade. After Lithuania was accepted to EU and its agriculture is in the "economic hothouse" again, the agricultural activites cannot be assessed only by economic criteria alone. If the outcomes of the post-communist agrarian reform are assessed by values of ecology, they are very positive indeed.
L'article a pour objectif de rappeler toutes les mesures administratives, de nature informative ou juridique, qui existent dans le champ réglementaire du Code de l'Environnement, puis de présenter les ZNIEFF, enfin de dresser la liste exhaustive de tous les milieux naturels qui bénéficient d'un statut de protection. L'accent est plus particulièrement mis sur les espaces forestiers, mais sont également mentionnés les sites littoraux ou périurbains. Enfin, quelques éléments de présentation et de réflexion sont donnés pour faire valoir, d'une part, que la connaissance scientifique est encore bien loin d'avoir étudié l'ensemble de la richesse biologique de la forêt tropicale humide et, d'autre part, que les dispositions de protection de la nature font intégralement partie de l'aménagement du territoire et du développement à réaliser en Guyane.
Le manque de références permettant au forestier l'identification des habitats naturels dont il assure la gestion est comblé par l'élaboration d'outils de vulgarisation dans le cadre d'un programme européen : - des guides de détermination et de gestion des habitats comprenant des clés de détermination et des fiches détaillées pour chacun des types d'habitats concernés par la directive "Habitats" ainsi que des fiches traitant des espèces forestières de l'annexe II de cette même directive et de l'annexe I de la directive "Oiseaux" ; un référentiel de terrain comprenant 150 points d'observation.
Gestionnaire de la majeure partie des dunes littorales de la côte atlantique française, l'Office national des Forêts a mis au point des techniques de contrôle souple de la mobilité des dunes bordières non boisées. Ces travaux sont modulés selon le contexte dynamique local et visent à répondre à une large gamme d'attentes sociales : protection de l'arrière-pays, conservation d'écosystèmes originaux, modération du recul des côtes.
Le CRPF Nord-Picardie, opérateur désigné pour l'élaboration du document d'objectifs (DOCOB) d'un site Natura 2000 majoritairement composé de forêts privées, s'est d'abord attaché à vaincre les réticences des propriétaires. A cette occasion, il a montré qu'on peut apaiser leurs craintes par la consultation préalable et le respect d'un minimum de formes. Les méthodes d'étude préalable aux aménagements forestiers ont montré un guand intérêt dans cette situation nouvelle. Elles permettent notamment de capitaliser les éléments de connaissance des habitats cartographiés pour élaborer des catalogues des stations et habitats forestiers. Sur ce site, la gestion qui est actuellement menée par les propriétaires est satisfaisante. Ce résultat était prévisible: la forêt est, en France et depuis plusieurs siècles, l'espace naturel le plus géré mais aussi le plus encadré.
Alongside the destruction of habitat, the impact of invasive alien species (IAS) is considered as one of the most important threats to global biodiversity. Therefore, international directives as well as national legislation call for measures to prevent the further spread of already established IAS as well as to limit their negative effects on native flora and fauna. This study deals with one of these non-native species – the American mink (Neovison vison). In order to get information about ecology and behaviour of this semiaquatic carnivore, a small population in a north German fishpond area, where mink has been spreading since the 1970s, was investigated. During the years 2003 to 2006 data about annual and circadian activity patterns, space use, territorial system as well as feeding habits and their variations during different seasons were collected. For this purpose, altogether 14 individuals (nine males, five females) were monitored using radio-telemetry. Based on the results, the potential impact of American mink on indigenous species was discussed and implications for mink control and management were deduced. American mink are difficult to radio tag. The small difference between their head and neck circumferences mean that the radio collars must be worn tightly to prevent loss. A methodological evaluation of conventional collar transmitters revealed that in six out of eight cases serious skin injuries on the necks were the consequences. Therefore, all radio collars were removed and radio transmitters were surgically implanted in the peritoneal cavity of mink by veterinarians. One male bit open the sutures and died after emergency surgery, but in 13 cases implantation did not affect survival or reproduction of the mink. With reference to animal welfare, intraperitoneal implantation of radio transmitters (in combination with observation and quarantine for several days after operation) instead of external radio collars were recommended for long term telemetry studies of American mink. Analyses of annual activity patterns revealed significant differences in seasonal activity rates. Both sexes reduced their average activity rates in cold winter months (October to February) to about 23 %. This energy-saving strategy is possible because of sufficient food availability, especially of fish, at this time. In March, male as well as female mink considerably increased their activity to almost 40 % due to the mating season. In summer months, during the pup-raising period (May to August), female activity continued to be high (between 40 and 50 %). However, male mink which are not involved in rearing the young, were less active (about 30 %) until July. But in August and September, the time of juvenile dispersal followed by changes in the territorial system and intraspecific aggression, activity rates of males increased again up to 43 %. Circadian activity rhythms differed markedly between sexes. All investigated females exhibited a perennial diurnal pattern. Three of five investigated male mink showed typical nocturnal activity throughout the year. Two males displayed arrhythmic behaviour; they did not prefer any time of the day for activity. On the one hand, gender differences in annual as well as circadian activity patterns of American mink reflect the diversity in ecological constraints, primarily the investment into reproduction. On the other hand, the different temporal strategies of sexes may have the potential to reduce intraspecific, especially intersexual competition. Investigating territorial systems and space use of mink, in comparison to other European studies, relatively large home ranges combined with a quite low population density were observed. In summer months male mink used on average 15.4 km length of waterway and female mink used on average 9.3 km length of waterway. In accordance with the trend of activity rates, male and female mink reduced their large summer home ranges by more than half during the cold winter period. But all-season male mink used significantly larger areas than female mink. High intersexual overlapping rates of home ranges and low levels of intrasexual overlapping of neighbouring home ranges confirm intrasexual territoriality of American mink. Probably, the low population density (0.6-0.7 individuals/km2) allows such high variations in seasonal and sexual home range size. During the mating season males considerably enlarged their home ranges and roamed nearly through the entire study area in search of receptive females. The shifting of stable temporary home ranges observed within one season or between the same seasons of consecutive years demonstrates the highly dynamic nature of spatial behaviour among American mink. The recorded characteristic features of spatial and temporal behaviour should be considered when planning monitoring- and management measures of this invasive carnivore. For instance, the reduced home ranges and activity rates during winter months should be taken into account in mink trapping projects. Analyses of more than 2500 scatsamples of radio tracked mink show that investigated animals principally prey on fish, small mammals and birds (eggs inclusive). There were significant seasonal variations of diet composition. In spring, the three categories of prey - fish, mammals and birds (eggs inclusive) - were hunted in similar amounts. During summer, birds and their eggs made up the main part of the diet followed by mammals. In autumn, the proportion of birds in the mink diet decreased, whereas fish gained in importance. This trend continued during the winter period, when mink preyed almost exclusively on fish. Throughout the entire year amphibians, crustaceans, insects, molluscs and reptiles were found only occasionally in scatsamples. Among birds, the mink preyed mainly on the Eurasian Coot (Fulica atra) followed by the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Mammalian prey was clearly dominated by the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) and among fish, mink hunted especially perch (Perca fluviatilis), roach (Rutilus rutilus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Results clearly demonstrate that mink is an opportunistic predator, which hunts its prey according to availability and vulnerability, respectively. Despite the high portions of fish in the autumn and winter diet, the economic damage to fishery caused by mink seems to be low. Perch and roach were preyed on in higher frequencies than the carp which is economically relevant. However, high predation on birds and their eggs during the breeding season indicates a potential negative impact of mink on waterfowl. To summarise, it can be noted that characteristic features of the anthropogenically influenced study area affect feeding habits, activity patterns, space use and density of local mink population. In this regard the management of fishponds, which influences seasonal availability of habitat- and food resources for mink, plays an important role. American mink is regarded as "invasive", because a negative impact on native species has been proved by several European studies. Consequently, this study recommends management with a focus on effective monitoring and, if necessary, control or exclusion measures adapted to the specific local requirements. Furthermore, to prevent additional introductions into the wild, the still existing farms have to be protected against outbreaks and liberations. In the long term, a general ban on the trade and keeping of American mink would be desirable.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34 ; Der Einfluss invasiver, gebietsfremder Arten wird neben der Habitatzerstörung als eine der größten Gefährdungen der Biodiversität weltweit angesehen. Sowohl internationale Umweltvereinbarungen als auch die nationale Gesetzgebung fordern daher Maßnahmen, die eine weitere Ausbreitung bereits etablierter invasiver Neozoen verhindern und deren negative Einflüsse minimieren. Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit einer dieser Neozoen - dem Amerikanischen Nerz bzw. Mink (Neovison vison). Um Erkenntnisse zu Ökologie und Verhalten des semiaquatischen Musteliden in Deutschland zu gewinnen, wurden Daten zu tages- und jahreszeitlichen Aktivitätsmustern, zu Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem sowie zur Nahrungswahl und den jahreszeitlichen Unterschieden im Beutespektrum der Art erhoben. Dafür konnten in den Jahren 2003 bis 2006 in einem Fischteich-Gebiet in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, wo sich Minke bereits seit den 1970er Jahren etabliert haben, insgesamt 14 Individuen (neun Männchen, fünf Weibchen) radiotelemetrisch überwacht werden. Anhand der Ergebnisse wird einerseits der potentielle Einfluss des gebietsfremden Raubsäugers auf einheimische Arten abgeschätzt und diskutiert. Andererseits werden die Ergebnisse herangezogen, um effektive Monitoring- und Managementmaßnahmen abzuleiten. Eine methodische Evaluation von Halsbandsendern zeigte, dass in sechs von acht Fällen die getesteten Halsbänder, die aufgrund des sehr ähnlichen Hals-Kopf-Umfanges der Individuen relativ eng angelegt werden müssen, Hautverletzungen verursachten. Infolgedessen wurden die Halsbandsender gegen durch Tierärzte operativ in die Bauchhöhle eingesetzte Implantationssender ausgetauscht. Auch bei allen nachfolgend gefangenen Tieren wurden die Sender implantiert. Bei insgesamt 14 durchgeführten Erstimplantationen beeinflussten mit Ausnahme eines Falles (Tod durch Aufbeißen der Naht) die Implantate weder das Überleben, noch die Reproduktion der Minke. Daher ist v.a. in Hinblick auf Tierschutzaspekte die Senderimplantation (in Kombination mit einer Mehrtages-Quarantäne) anstatt der Verwendung von externen Halsbandsendern zu empfehlen. Die Analyse der circannuellen Aktivitätsmuster ergab signifikante Unterschiede der saisonalen Aktivitätsraten. Während der kalten Wintermonate (Oktober bis Februar) zeigten beide Geschlechter mit durchschnittlich etwa 23 % eine vergleichsweise geringe Aktivität. Diese energiesparende Verhaltensweise war möglich, da auch im Winter ein ausreichend hohes Nahrungsangebot, vor allem an Fisch, vorhanden war. Im März kam es sowohl bei den Männchen als auch bei den Weibchen zu einem durch die Paarungszeit verursachten, beträchtlichen Anstieg der mittleren Aktivitätsraten auf fast 40 %. In den Sommermonaten (Mai bis August) waren die weiblichen Tiere, durch die Anforderungen der Jungenaufzucht bedingt, anhaltend häufig aktiv (zwischen 40 und 50 %). Die Aktivitätsraten der nicht an der Jungenaufzucht beteiligten Männchen dagegen nahmen im April wieder ab, um bis zum Juli auf einem vergleichsweise geringen Niveau von etwa 30 % zu bleiben. Sie stiegen jedoch während der Monate August und September erneut auf etwa 43 % an. Zu dieser Zeit wandern gewöhnlich die Jungtiere ab und suchen sich ein eigenes Streifgebiet (= Aktionsraum), dadurch kommt es zu Änderungen im Territorialsystem und damit einhergehenden innerartlichen Auseinandersetzungen. Beide Geschlechter unterscheiden sich stark in ihren tageszeitlichen Aktivitätsrhythmen. Alle Weibchen waren ganzjährig tagaktiv. Von den fünf untersuchten Männchen zeigten drei typische Nachtaktivität im gesamten Jahresverlauf. Die beiden anderen männlichen Tiere verhielten sich in ihren Aktivitätsrhythmen indifferent, sie zeigten das ganze Jahr über keine Präferenzen für eine bestimmte Tageszeit. Die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede sowohl in den circannuellen als auch in den circadianen Aktivitätsmustern spiegeln zum einen die verschiedenen Anforderungen an die Geschlechter wieder, vor allem die Investitionen in die Fortpflanzung. Zum anderen können die geschlechtsspezifisch unterschiedlichen Zeitnutzungs-Strategien zu einer Minimierung der innerartlichen, vorzugsweise der intersexuellen Konkurrenz führen. Die Analyse der Telemetriedaten hinsichtlich Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem ergab im Vergleich zu anderen europäischen Studien relativ große individuelle Aktionsräume verbunden mit einer geringen Populationsdichte im Untersuchungsgebiet. So erstreckten sich die durchschnittlich genutzten Sommerstreifgebiete der Männchen auf 15,4 km und die der Weibchen auf 9,3 km Flusslauf bzw. Teichufer. Entsprechend dem Trend der saisonalen Aktivitätsmuster, reduzierten beide Geschlechter ihre großen Sommerstreifgebiete während der Winterhalbjahre um mehr als die Hälfte der Fläche. Allerdings nutzten die Männchen zu allen Jahreszeiten wesentlich größere Aktionsräume als die weiblichen Minke. Große Streifgebietsüberlappungen zwischen den Geschlechtern sowie verhältnismäßig niedrige Überlappungsraten der benachbarten Streifgebiete von Tieren des gleichen Geschlechts bestätigen die intrasexuelle Territorialität der Art. Die erheblichen Unterschiede der saisonalen und geschlechtsspezifischen Aktionsraumgrößen werden vermutlich durch die ermittelte, vergleichsweise geringe Populationsdichte (0,6-0,7 Individuen/km2) ermöglicht. Die ausgedehnte und sich fast über das gesamte Untersuchungsgebiet erstreckende Raumnutzung der Männchen während der Paarungszeit ist durch die Suche nach fortpflanzungsbereiten Weibchen bedingt. Die Raumnutzung der untersuchten Minke unterliegt einer hohen Dynamik, dies wird durch die häufige räumliche Verschiebung temporär stabiler Streifgebiete innerhalb einer Jahreszeit oder auch zwischen den gleichen Jahreszeiten aufeinanderfolgender Jahre verdeutlicht. All diese ermittelten charakteristischen Besonderheiten im Raum-Zeit-Verhalten der Art sollten bei der Entwicklung von Monitoring- und Managementkonzepten berücksichtigt werden. So müssen beispielsweise bei der Fallenjagd im Winter die zu dieser Zeit stark verkleinerten Streifgebiete und die reduzierten Aktivitätsraten Beachtung finden. Die Analyse der über 2500 Losungsproben telemetrierter Minke zeigte, dass sich die untersuchten Tiere hauptsächlich von Fisch, Kleinsäugern und Vögeln (inklusive deren Eiern) ernährten. Dabei traten allerdings signifikante saisonale Unterschiede in der Nahrungs-zusammensetzung auf. So wurden im Frühjahr die drei Beutekategorien Fisch, Kleinsäuger sowie Vögel und deren Eier in ähnlichen Anteilen erbeutet. Während des Sommers bildeten Vögel und Vogeleier die Hauptbeute, gefolgt von Kleinsäugern. Im Herbst verringerte sich der Vogel- und Kleinsäugeranteil im Beutespektrum zugunsten von Fisch. Dieser Trend setzte sich bis in den Winter fort; in dieser Jahreszeit ernährten sich die Minke fast ausschließlich von Fisch. Amphibien, Reptilien, Krebstiere, Insekten und Mollusken wurden im gesamten Jahresverlauf nur gelegentlich gefressen. Innerhalb der Gruppe der Vögel prädierten die Minke vor allem Blässhühner (Fulica atra), gefolgt von Stockenten (Anas platyrhynchos). Das Kleinsäuger-Beutespektrum wurde eindeutig von der Schermaus (Arvicola terrestris) dominiert und unter den Fischen erbeuteten die Minke vorzugsweise Flussbarsche (Perca fluviatilis), Plötzen (Rutilus rutilus) und Karpfen (Cyprinus carpio). Die Ergebnisse der Nahrungsanalyse bestätigen den Mink als einen opportunistischen Prädator, der seine Beutetiere je nach Verfügbarkeit bzw. dem erforderlichen Jagdaufwand nutzt. Trotz des hohen Fischanteils in der Herbst- und Winternahrung ist der durch den Mink verursachte ökonomische Schaden schätzungsweise relativ gering. Flussbarsch und Plötze wurden in höheren Frequenzanteilen erbeutet als der wirtschaftlich relevante Karpfen. Die starke Prädation von Wasservögeln und deren Eiern besonders in den Frühjahrs- und Sommermonaten weist allerdings auf einen potentiell negativen Einfluss des invasiven Raubsäugers auf diese Tiergruppe hin. Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass die spezifischen Charakteristika des anthropogen geprägten Untersuchungsgebietes sowohl Nahrungsökologie und Aktivitätsmuster als auch Raumnutzung und Populationsdichte der lokalen Minkpopulation beeinflussen. Eine besondere Rolle hierbei spielt die Bewirtschaftung der Fischteiche, denn vor allem daraus resultiert für die Minke eine saisonal unterschiedliche Verfügbarkeit an Lebensraum und Nahrung. Negative Auswirkungen des Amerikanischen Nerzes auf die einheimische Tierwelt wurden in anderen europäischen Ländern belegt und rechtfertigen die Einstufung dieser Art als "invasiv". Demzufolge wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein Management empfohlen, bei dem der Focus auf einem effektiven Monitoring und gegebenenfalls auf zweckmäßigen, an die lokalen Bedingungen angepassten Fang- oder Abwehrmaßnahmen liegt. Zudem sollten, um einer weiteren Ausbringung in das Freiland vorzubeugen, die wenigen noch existierenden Minkfarmen besser gegen Ausbrüche bzw. Freilassungsaktionen gesichert werden. Langfristig ist ein generelles Besitz- und Vermarktungsverbot für die Art wünschenswert.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34
An international round-robin study on the Ames fluctuation test [ISO 11350, 2012], a microplate version of the classic plate-incorporation method for the detection of mutagenicity in water, wastewater and chemicals was performed by 18 laboratories from seven countries. Such a round-robin study is a precondition for both the finalization of the ISO standardization process and a possible regulatory implementation in water legislation. The laboratories tested four water samples (spiked/nonspiked) and two chemical mixtures with and without supplementation of a S9-mix. Validity criteria (acceptable spontaneous and positive control-induced mutation counts) were fulfilled by 92-100%, depending on the test conditions. A two-step method for statistical evaluation of the test results is proposed and assessed in terms of specificity and sensitivity. The data were first subjected to powerful analysis of variance (ANOVA) after an arcsine-square-root transformation to detect significant differences between the test samples and the negative control (NC). A threshold (TH) value based on a pooled NC was then calculated to exclude false positive test results. Statistically, positive effects observed by the William's test were considered negative, if the mean of all replicates of a sample did not exceed the calculated TH. By making use of this approach, the overall test sensitivity was 100%, and the test specificity ranged from 80 to 100%.
The purpose of this paper is to illuminate the ill effects of neoliberal ideology on labor and education in the United States since the defeat of Keynesian economics in the United by the 1980s (Aronwitz, 2001; Robertson, 2007; Winfield, 2012). That is, neoliberal policy bears significant responsibility in the decline of labor and public schooling in the United States. Concurrently, over the past few decades there has been a significant transfer of wealth from poor and middle-class Americans to the very top of the income distribution (Piketty, 2014). While the wealthiest Americans have benefited from much lower taxes on their wealth in the past few decades, there has been a concurrent hollowing of the middle class due largely to automation and less to offshoring (Autor, 2010). Moreover, Congress and state legislatures have reduced appropriations to K-12 and higher education considerably (Leachman & Mai, 2014; Giroux, 2014; Mitchell, Palacios, & Leachman, 2014). Yet at the same time, some of the more affluent Americans have supported the privatization of K-12 (Ravitch, 2010; 2014), a lucrative investment maneuver (Levine & Levine, 2014). Interestingly, these initiatives siphon dwindling funds away from struggling public education (Levine & Levine, 2014; Ravitch, 2014). Thus, it appears the elite are akin to parasites, extracting sustenance from education and labor. That is why this proposal is significant. Furthermore, this paper draws upon a variety of information to include various government and private research reports on labor and education funding. It also draws from theoretical work in economics and education. Also, it should be noted this work is filtered through the lens of Critical Theory. References Abel, J. R., Deitz, R., & Su, Y. (2014). Are recent college graduates finding good jobs?Current Issues in Economics and Finance, 20(1), pp. 1-8. Retrieved from www.newyorkfed.org/research/publication_annuals/index.html Alexander, M. 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Money as debt II: Promises unleashed [Documentary]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_IgcmsqnVM Haggerson, N. L. (1991). Philosophical inquiry: Ampliative criticism. In E. C. Short (Ed.), Forms of curriculum inquiry (pp. 43-60). Albany: State University of New York Press. Kellner, D. (1005). Cultural studies, identity and politics between the modern and the post modern media culture. London, England: Routledge. Kumashiro, K. K. (2015). Review of proposed 2013 federal teacher preparation regulations. Report of the National Education Policy Center website. Retrieved from http://nepc.colorado.edu/thinktank/review-proposed-teacher-preparation Leachman, M. & Mai, C. (2014). Most states still funding schools less than before the recession.Retrieved from Center on Budget and Policy Priorities website: http://www.cbpp.org/files/10-16-14sfp.pdf Levine, M. & Levine, A. G. (2014). Following the money: There's no business like the ed business. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84, 377-386. Liptak, A. (2014, April 2). Supreme Court strikes down overall political donation cap. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/03/us/politics/supreme- court-ruling-on-campaign-contributions.html?_r=0 Longworth, R. C. (1998). Global squeeze: The coming crisis for first-world nations. Chicago, Illinois: Contemporary Books. Louis, D., Robert, D., & Flahive, G. (Producers), & Crooks, H. & Roy, M. (Directors). (2011). Surviving Progress [Documentary]. United States: Big Picture Media Corporation. Nelson, J. A. (2006). Economics for humans. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. Newfield, C. (2008). Unmaking the public university: The forty-year assault on the middle class. Cambridge, England: Harvard University Press. McLaren, P. & Farahmandpur, R. (2005). Teaching against global capitalism and the new Imperialism. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Medina, J. (2014, June 10). Judge rejects teacher tenure for California. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/03/us/politics/supreme-court-ruling-on- campaign-contributions.html?_r=0 Mills, C. W. (2000). The Power Elite. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1956) Mitchell, M., Palacios, V., & Leachman, M. (2014). States are still funding higher education below pre-recession levels. Retrieved from Center on Budget and Policy Priorities website: http://www.cbpp.org/files/5-1-14sfp.pdf Morton, T. (2013). Hyperobjects: Philosophy and ecology after the end of the world. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Ravitch, D. (2010). The death and life of the great American school system: How testing and choice are undermining education. New York, New York: Basic Books. Ravitch, D. (2014). Reign of error. New York, New York: Vintage Books. Reckhow, S. & Snyder, J. W. (2014). The expanding role of philanthropy in education Politics. Educational Researcher, 43, 186-195. Reich, R. (2015, Feburary 2). The share-the-scraps economy [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://robertreich.org/post/109894095095 Rhoads, R., Berdan, J., & Toven-Lindsey, B. (2013). The open courseware movement in Higher education: Unmasking power and raising questions about the movement's Democratic potential. Education Theory, 63(1), 87-110. Rifkin, J. (2014). The zero marginal cost society: The internet of things, the collaborative commons, and the eclipse of capitalism. New York, New York: PalgraveMacMillan. Robertson, S. (2007). 'Remaking the world': Neo-liberalism and the transformation of Education and teachers' labor. Report of the Centre for Globalization, Education, and societies, University of Bristol. Retrieved from http://www.bris.ac.uk/education/people/academicStaff/edslr/publications/17slr Sahin, A., Song, J. Topa, G., & Violante ,G. (2014). Mismatch Unemployment. American Economic Review, 104, 3529-3564. doi:10.1257/aer.104.11.3529 Saltman, K. (2012). The rise of venture philanthropy and the ongoing neoliberal assault on public education: The Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation. In Watkins, W. H. (Ed.), The assault on public education: Confronting the politics of corporate school reform (pp. 55-78). New York, New York: Teachers College Press. Savage, C. & Apuzzo, M. (2014, July 9). U.S. spied on 5 American muslims, a report says. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/10/us/politics/nsa- snowden-records-glenn-greenwald-first-look.html Shear. M. D. (2014, May 25). Colleges Rattled as Obama Seeks Rating System. The New YorkTimes. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/26/us/colleges-rattled-as- obama- presses-rating-system.html Sloterdijk, P. (2009). 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Liberia had an estimated 4.3 million hectares of forests in 2011, comprising approximately 50 percent of Liberia's landmass. These forests support very high levels of biodiversity, provide a wide range of ecosystem services (for example, bush meat, medicines, construction materials, and charcoal), and generate employment and revenue from commercial and chainsaw logging. Encouraging inward investment while striking a sound balance between different interests, respecting the legal and customary rights of local people, and conserving biodiversity represents a major challenge. This project focuses on the mining sector, which has the potential to become a significant engine for growth and broader-based development. It explores the feasibility of implementing a national biodiversity offset scheme in Liberia to help minimize adverse impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services resulting from mining. A Liberian national offset scheme will entail the application of a common methodology to ensure that conservation benefits are at least equivalent to biodiversity losses due to mining investments. The report is presented in seven chapters. Chapter one gives introduction. Chapter two discusses the conservation imperatives for Liberia and conveys a sense of the quality and extent of biodiversity within Liberia. Chapter three describes the challenge of securing conservation outcomes in Liberia as well as the prevalence of threats to biodiversity. Chapter four discusses the potential for biodiversity offsets to help secure conservation outcomes. Chapter five covers the legal, policy, and institutional framework in support of biodiversity offsets. Chapter six discusses the methodological aspects of implementing a national biodiversity offset scheme, together with the challenges of securing and effectively managing sources of funding. Chapter seven summarizes the report's suggested next steps to implement a road map for biodiversity offsets in Liberia.
{EM}INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS - ICSU{/EM}{/p} {P}{B}SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL Newsletter No. 69, December 1998{/B}{/P} {P}{B} Code Number:NL98004 {BR} Sizes of Files: {BR} Text: 145K {BR} Graphics: Line drawings (gif) - 32K{BR} Photographs (jpg) - 52K {/B}{P} {P}{B}WORLD CONFERENCE ON SCIENCE{/B}{BR} {I}Budapest, Hungary, 26 June - 1 July 1999{/P} {/I} {P}{B}Science for the 21st century: {I}A new commitment{/B}{/P} {/FONT}{P}{/P} {/I}{P}The main goal of this important meeting, which around 2,000 participants are expected to attend, is to bring together policy makers from both the political and the administrative world, and members of the scientific community at large, to reflect together on the future of scientific research, its impact on society and the demands of society on science.{/P} {B}{P}Vostok Lake, Antarctica{/P} {/B}{P}Dr Peter D. Clarkson Research,{BR} {P}A common perception is that Antarctica is a frozen continent and that is predominantly correct. In the more northerly coastal regions of the continent, particularly in the Antarctic Peninsula, summer temperatures may rise above 0C and, on warm sunny days, streams may flow from melting glaciers and snow fields. Not surprisingly, therefore, there are many small lakes and ponds that can lose their ice cover during the summer. What is surprising, however, is that the largest known lake in Antarctica is about twenty-five times the area of Lake Geneva in Switzerland (or somewhat smaller in area than Lake Ontario on the United States-Canada border, but it has a larger volume of water) and it is sandwiched between the bedrock of the continent and about 4 km of the overlying ice sheet.{/P} {P}{B}Harmful Algal Blooms{/B}{/P} {P}A new International Programme on Global Ecology and Oceanography{/P} {/B} {P}Elizabeth Gross,{/P} {P}The last two decades have been marked by an extraordinary expansion in the occurrence of the marine phenomenon we now call "harmful algal blooms". These blooms of toxic or harmful micro-algae, often inaccurately referred to as "red tides", represent a significant and expanding threat to human health and fisheries resources throughout the world. They take many forms, ranging from massive accumulations of cells that discolor the water, to dilute, inconspicuous populations that are noticed only because of the harm caused by the highly potent toxins these cells contain. The impacts of these phenomena include: mass mortalities of wild and farmed fish and shellfish; human poisonings and fatalities from the consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish; alterations of marine ecosystem structure through adverse effects on larvae and other life history stages of commercial fisheries species; and the death of marine mammals, sea birds, and other animals. On this last point, there is now a growing appreciation of the extent to which HABs impact resources other than shellfish and fish. Human illnesses and fatalities due to five syndromes associated with harmful algae are being recorded around the world in increasingly large numbers.{/P} {B} {P}The Fifth IGBP Scientific Advisory Council Meeting{BR} Nairobi, Kenya, {/FONT}{I}1 to 7 September 1998{/P} {/B}{/I}{P}Sheila Lunter, {/P} {P}Despite a postponement and a preparation that was marked by adversity, a successful Fifth Scientific Advisory Council (SAC-V) Meeting of IGBP was held in Kenya. Many African scientists attended the meeting, which had a total participation of some 170 scientists. SAC-V was hosted by the Kenyan National Academy of Science (KNAS), with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) generously offering the use of the conference facilities at their headquarters in Gigiri, just outside Nairobi.{/P} {P}{B}NEW RESEARCH PROJECT UNDERWAY{/P} {P}Health and the environment{/P} {/B}{/FONT}{P}Heike Schroeder, {/P} {P}Health has become one of the major new integrative global change research areas, and indeed the links between environment and health are becoming increasingly visible and complex. Extreme weather patterns highlighted by the recent El Niño cycle, emergent diseases, viral mutations and environmental degradation are all contributing to this development.{/P} {P}{B}DIVERSITAS/IBOY{/B} {br}An International Biodiversity Observation Year{/P} {P} H.A. Mooney, C.S. Adam, A. Larigauderie and J. Sarukhan.{/P} {P}{B}What is DIVERSITAS?{/B}{/P} {/B}{P}DIVERSITAS is an international programme of biodiversity science which was created in 1991. It is cosponsored by six international scientific organisations: the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS), the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS), the International Council for Science (ICSU), and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP).{/P} {B}{P}DIVERSITAS - START - WCRP - IGBP - IHDP{/P} {P}Chair & Directors Forum{/P} {/B}{P}Heike Schroeder,{/P} {P}Global Change System for Analysis, Research and Training (START) and the Global Environmental Change (GEC) programmes held their annual Chairs and Directors Forum on 14-16 August 1998, in Bonn, Germany. The purpose of this Forum is to provide an opportunity for the programmes' Executive Directors and Scientific Chairs to exchange information on an informal basis and discuss new and ongoing activities and ways for the programmes to enhance collaboration and streamline their research efforts.{/P} {P}{BR} {I}{B}Spotlights on science{/I}{/B} {/P} {P}{B}The International Union of Crystallography{/B}{/P} {/B}{P}M. Dacombe{/P} {P}The International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) was formed in 1947 and formally admitted to ICSU on 7 April in that year. Its main objects are: to promote international cooperation in crystallography; to contribute to the advancement of crystallography in all its aspects; to facilitate international standardization of methods, of units, of nomenclature and of symbols used in crystallography; and to form a focus for the relations of crystallography to other sciences. It does this primarily through its publications, the work of its Commissions and Sub-Committees, and its triennial Congresses.{/P} {P}{B}International Union for Pure and Applied Biophysics {br}IUPAB{/P} {/B}{P}A.C.T. North,{/P} {P}Most biophysicists have probably had the same experience as me and been faced by a look of blank incomprehension after giving the answer "biophysics, "to the question "what is your subject?".{/P} {B}{I}Meeting reports{/P} {/I}{P}ICSU/CODATA{BR} 16th Biennial International CODATA Conference and General Assembly{/P} {I}{P}Habitat Center, New Delhi, India,{BR} Nov. 8 - 14, 1998{/P} {/B}{/I}{P}Report by Professor Paul G. Mezey, {P}{B}SATELLITE MEETINGS{BR} {/B}The Conference was preceded by two CODATA Task Group Satellite Meetings and Symposia, held at the Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi. On November 6 and 7, 1998, the CODATA Task Group for Data Sources in Asia-Oceania held a Meeting and Seminar, whereas on November 7, 1998, the CODATA Task Group for Data/information and Visualization held a Study-Tutorial Workshop on "Information, Visualization, and Management of Heterogeneous Systems". Both meetings were well attended. The high scientific level and the special Tutorial feature of the Data/Information and Visualization Task Group Symposium provided inspiration for future, similar meetings.{/P} {P}{/P} {B}{P}Electronic Publishing in Science {br}Report on a joint AAAS/ICSU Press/UNESCO Workshop in Paris{/P} {/B}{P}D.F. Shaw, {BR} {P}Forty-three participants accepted invitations from the joint organising committee and represented an international range of interests covering the Universities, Learned Societies, National Science Academies, National and Institutional Libraries and STM Publishers, as well as commercial information brokers and consultants.{/P} {B}{P}Dairy Foods in Health{BR} International Conference, Wellington, New Zealand{/P} {/B} {P}Specialists from 22 countries as far apart as Canada, Finland, Japan and Thailand attended the International Dairy Federation's Nutrition Week from 9-11 March 1998. The New Zealand hosts, the Milk and Health Research Centre of Masey University and the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, welcomed 191 participants to an ambitious programme with leading nutrition scientists from all around the world. A dinner cruise was arranged on Wellington Harbour for participants. The kind weather and the festival atmosphere in Wellington combined to make the event enjoyable for all.{/P} {B}{I}{P}Calendar{/P}{/B}{/I} Details of forthcoming events from 1 January 1999 - 25 March 1999 {B}{P}ICSU/IGFA{BR} Global Change Research{/B}{/P} {P}The International Group of Funding Agencies for Global Change Research (IGFA) is an informal body of representatives of agencies and ministries of 21 countries plus the European Union responsible for the funding of global change research.{/P} {B}{P}{I}Science and technology{/I}{/B}{/P} {P}{B}Identification of science and technology priorities for Asian Regional Cooperation{/B}{/P} {P}B. Babuji{/P} {P}The following topics were presented for discussion:{/P} {LI}Country presentations on S & T status {/LI} {LI}Current and emerging global S & T senario {/LI} {LI}Identification of priority areas for Asian regional cooperation {/LI} {LI}Modes of cooperation {/LI} {LI}Resource mobilisation and way forward{/LI} {/P} {P}{B}Easing the burden on young scientists{/B}{/P} {/B}{P}Daniel Schaffer, {/P} {P}Two of the principal aims of the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) are to promote the careers of young scientists in the developing world and to help scientific institutions in the South to strengthen their decision-making and research capabilities. These two goals came together in the TWAS Prize for young scientists.{/P} {P}{B}South's Centres of Excellence{/B}{BR} {/B}(New volume published){/P} {P}Daniel Schaffer,{/P} {P}The Third World Network of Scientific Organizations (TWNSO), in collaboration with the South Centre and Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), has announced the publication of the second edition of Profiles for Scientific Exchange and Training in the South. With more than 430 entries, the book represents a unique inventory of the capabilities and accomplishments of the most prominent research and training centres in the developing world.{/P} {B}{I}{P}news in brief{/I}{/B}{/P} {P}{B}Fields Medal and the Nevanlinna Prize {br}International Congress of Mathematicians, Berlin 1998{/P} {/B}{P}In physics or literature they have the Nobel Prize, and in mathematics there is the "Fields Medal". This highest scientific award for mathematicians was presented at the opening ceremony of the "International Congress of Mathematicians" to Richard E. Borcherds, Maxim Kontsevich, William Timothy Gowers and Curtis T. McMullen. The International Mathematical Union also awarded the "Nevanlinna Prize" for outstanding work in the field of theoretical computer science to the mathematician Peter Shor.{/P} {B}{P}Food Security {I}{br}What have Sciences to Offer?{/P} {/B}{/I}{P}David Hall,{/P} {P}The author of this report was asked to examine what opportunities exist for the sciences to play in ensuring food security in the next century. In parallel to this, would there be a role for ICSU members and scientists of varied disciplines to play, which would be effective and not duplicate existing efforts?{/P} {B}{I}{P}Electronic Journal Publishing{/P} {/I}{P}A Reader{/P} {/B}{P}To further support our work in the strengthening and development of the dissemination of research results, we are in the process of bringing together a series of articles and Internet documents which we have found interesting and insightful.{/P} {/I}{B}{P}INASP adds new section to its web site{/P} {P}{/P} {/B}{P}INASP Links and Resources "Access to Information"{/P} {B}{P}Discovery of Polonium and Radium{/P} {P}{/P} {/B}{P}An International Conference on {I}The Discovery of Polonium and Radium: its scientific and philosophical consequences, benefits and threats to mankind {/I}was organized by the Polish Government in Warsaw in September 1998.{/P} {B}{P}TREASURER OF THE IUBMB RESIGNS{/P} {/B}{P}Dr R. Brian Beechey, the Treasurer of IUBMB, has tendered his resignation as from 31 December 1998, citing his wish to pursue other interests.{/P} {B}{I}{P}Book Marketing and Distribution:{/P} {/I}{/B}{P}A practical handbook for publishers in developing countries and related training programmes{/P} {B}{P}New edition of ICSU's blue book{/B} {br}UNIVERSALITY OF SCIENCE:{/P} {P}{/P} {P}A new edition of the handbook of ICSU's Standing Committee on Freedom in the Conduct of Science SCFCS has been printed.{/P} {B}{I}house news{/P} {/I}{P}New Environmental Science Officer appointed at ICSU{/B}{/P} {P}Anne Lorigouderie joined the ICSU Secretariat as Environmental Sciences Officer in September.{/P} {B}{P}Qiu Wei joins us from CAST{/P} {/B}{P}Qiu Wei succeeds Zhang Hong, on secondment from the China Association for Science and Technology for another period of six months as of November 1998. {/P} {B}{P}Catherine moves on{/P} {/B}{P}After four years at the ICSU Secretariat, Catherine Leonard left in December. During her time at ICSU, Catherine's responsibilities have included administering the ICSU Grants Programme and editing the ICSU Year Book. {/I}{P}{B}ICSU Grants Programme for 1999{/B}{/P} {P}ICSU is pleased to announce that around one million dollars has been awarded to ICSU bodies under the ICSU grants programme for 1999. Almost half that amount has been allocated to category I grants in the $50,000 - $100,000 range for new innovative projects of high profile potential.{/P} {B}{P}Looking ahead to the millennium{/P} {P}{/P} {/B}{P}For 2000, ICSU is opening up its Category I grants programme to all of ICSU's Joint Initiatives - as it did for the 1999 Programme- and to all ICSU Scientific Associates.{/P} {B}Obituary{/B}{/P} {/I}{P}Lars Ernster 1920-98{I} {/P} {/B}{/I}{P}Lars Ernster died in his 79th year in November. Although born in Budapest he spent almost all his working life in Sweden and most of his academic life at the University of Stockholm. He began a close and long association with ICSU in 1969 when he was appointed Secretary of the Swedish National Committee on Biochemistry and this led to greater demands on his organizational talents when shortly after this he took over the Chairmanship of the Organizing Committee for the highly successful 9th International Congress on Biochemistry, which was held in Stockholm in 1973.{/P} {B}{P}New Directions in Chemistry{/P} {P}15-17 July 1999, Hong Kong{/P} {P}{/P} {/B}{P}The first IUPAC Workshop on Advanced Materials: Nanostructured Systems (IUPAC-WAM-1) will be held on the campus of the Hong Kong University for Science and Technology from 15-17 July 1999.{/P} {P}Copyright 1998 ICSU Press
Für die Wirtschaft von Vietnam ist die Ausfuhr von Holzprodukten mit 3,8% des Bruttosozialprodukts ein wichtiger Bestandteil (Nguyen, 2011). Im Jahr 2010 benötigte die holzverarbeitende Industrie von Vietnam 6,4 Mio. m³ Rundholzäquivalente, von denen nur 1,6 Mio. m³ (25%) aus heimischen Wäldern stammte (To and Canby, 2011). Die restlichen 4,8 Mio. m³ (75%) wurden aus anderen Ländern eingeführt (Nguyen, 2009). Es ist Ziel der vietnamesischen Regierung, dass in Zukunft 80% des Rohholzverbrauchs der heimischen Holzindustrie aus den Wäldern (Naturwäldern und Plantagen) des Landes geliefert werden. Bis heute sind lediglich 1% der vietnamesischen für die Holzproduktion bestimmten Wälder (insgesamt mehr als 2,4 Mio. ha) in Bezug auf ihre Nachhaltigkeit zertifiziert, dieser Anteil soll bis 2020 auf 30% ansteigen. Um die genannten Ziele zu erreichen, ist es entscheidend, die Holzbereitstellungsketten in Vietnam weiterzuentwickeln. Die angestrebte Erhöhung der nationalen Holzversorgung wird dabei auch deutliche Änderungen im Bereich der Holzbereitstellung nach sich ziehen, und zwar sowohl bei der Nutzung von Naturwäldern als auch bei der Bewirtschaftung von Plantagenwäldern. Es ist sowohl aus nationaler Sicht wie auch im Hinblick auf die internationale Konkurrenzfähigkeit des Forst-Holz-Sektors von Vietnam entscheidend, dass diese Veränderungen so gestaltet werden, dass auch zukünftig eine nachhaltige Holzbereitstellung gewährleistet ist. Aus verschiedenen Gründen, wie z.B. niedrige Arbeitskosten, großes Angebot von Arbeitskräften gerade im ländlichen Raum, geringe Verfügbarkeit von Investitionskapital und auch wegen der kleinen und zerstreut liegenden Nutzungsflächen, bedient sich die Holzernte und –bereitstellung in Vietnam heute weit überwiegend traditioneller und handarbeits-intensiver Methoden. Parallel mit der geplanten höheren Nutzung werden zwangsläufig auch höher mechanisierte Systeme eingesetzt werden. Diesen Übergang zu begleiten und seine Konsequenzen für die Nachhaltigkeit abzuschätzen ist Oberziel der vorliegenden Arbeit. Unter Anwendung des Konzepts des Sustainability Impact Assessment (SIA), welches die drei Aspekte der Nachhaltigkeit (Wirtschaft, Ökologie, Gesellschaft) umfasst, soll das Nachhaltigkeitsprofil verschiedener Holzbereitstellungsketten in einem Fallstudien-basierten Ansatz dargestellt und analysiert werden. Dabei werden exemplarisch die folgenden Nachhaltigkeitsindikatoren herangezogen: Ausnutzungsgrad des Rundholzes, Arbeitsproduktivität, Bereitstellungskosten, Beschäftigungseffekte, Lohnhöhe, Unfallhäufigkeit, Emission von klimaschädlichen Gasen, Entstehung von gesundheitsschädlichem und nicht-gesundheitsschädlichem Abfall, sowie Schäden am Waldboden. Vier Fallstudien wurden dabei ausgewählt, um die Verhältnisse für typische Nutzungsverhältnisse in Vietnam exemplarisch darzustellen: Selektive Nutzung von natürlichen (Regen-) Wäldern in eher flachem und in steilem Gelände sowie Eukalyptusplantagen, die im Kurzumtrieb und mit Kahlschlagmethoden geerntet werden, ebenfalls in gemäßigtem und imsteilem Gelände. Die analysierten Bereitstellungsketten begannen im Wald mit der Vorbereitung der jeweiligen Nutzungsbestände und umfassten alle folgenden Schritte und Prozesse der Holzbereitstellung und des Holztransports bis hin zur Holzindustrie. In den verschiedenen Fallstudien kamen sowohl traditionelle Technologien (Handarbeit, Zugtiere) wie auch teilmechanisierte Systeme (Motorsäge, Traktoren, Forwarder, Lastwagen) zum Einsatz. Die Datenermittlung erfolgte durch ausgedehnte eigene Zeitstudien aller Prozesse vor Ort, ergänzt durch Befragungen von Führungskräften und Mitarbeitern und unter Verwendung einschlägiger Statistiken, Literaturangaben und Datenbanken. Die beiden Fallstudien zur selektiven Nutzung von Naturwäldern im steilen Gelände (FWSC1) sowie im gemäßigten Gelände (FWSC2) zeigen, dass es deutliche Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Nachhaltigkeitswirkungen zwischen den beiden Bereitstellungsketten gibt, die durch die unterschiedlichen angewendeten Holzernte- und –bereitstellungsmethoden verursacht werden. In FWSC1 werden direkt nach der Fällung die Stämme vor Ort im Wald mit der Motorsäge in Bohlen (Volumen 0,20 – 0,35 m³) zerlegt, um diese danach mit Hilfe von Büffeln aus dem Wald heraus zu transportieren. In FWSC2 wurde nach dem Fällen mit der Motorsäge mit einem Kettenfahrzeug mit Seilwinde das Rundholz zur Fahrstraße geschleift. Nach dem Transport mit Lastwagen wurden die Sägeholzblöcke dann im Sägewerk zu Brettern verarbeitet. Die Rundholzausnutzung war bei diesem zweiten Prozess dabei mit 66,6% des Volumens des geernteten Baumes um 27,2%-Punkte höher als bei der ersten Methode, wo die Bohlen bereits im Wald mit Motorsägen zugerichtet wurden. Bei beiden Holzernteverfahren blieb eine relativ große Menge an Gipfelholz, Ästen und (bei FWSC1) Sägeresten ungenutzt im Bestand liegen. In Bezug auf die Produktivität wurden in FWSC1 88,6% des Zeitverbrauchs für Motorsägen-Arbeit auf das Zuschneiden von Bohlen im Wald verwendet, so dass sich insgesamt eine sehr niedrige Produktivität für die Motorsägen-Arbeit von 0,25m³ je Stunden ergab. Auch die Produktivität beim Herausziehen des Holzes mit Büffeln war mit 0,12m³ je Stunde gering. Im Gegensatz dazu war bei dem höhermechanisierten Verfahren sowohl die Motorsägen-Produktivität mit 11m³ je Stunde wie auch die Produktivität der Traktor-Rückung mit 6,7m³ je Stunde deutlich höher. Dies wirkt sich auch auf die Bereitstellungskosten aus: Während diese im FWSC1 bei 50,40 € je m³ Sägeholz lagen, betrug der Kostensatz einschließlich der Sägeholzherstellung im Sägewerk bei FWSC2 nur 34,90 € je m³. In Bezug auf die Umweltaspekte zeigt sich, dass das geringer mechanisierte Verfahren niedrigere Mengen an klimaschädlichen Gasen (7,83 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Sägeholz) frei werden, während bei FWSC2 22,68 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ freigesetzt werden. Auch der Waldboden war bei der mechanisierten Methode mit 12,8% etwas stärker in Anspruch genommen als bei der Holzbereitstellung mit Büffeln (10,7%). Insbesondere ist aber ein starker Schädigungsgrad des Bodens mit 6,2% bei mechanisierten Verfahren fast doppelt so hoch wie bei dem Einsatz von Büffeln (3,45%). Diese Ergebnisse decken sich mit Werten aus der Literatur, die allerdings auch darauf hinweisen, dass eine sorgfältig geplante Holzerntemaßnahme (Reduced Impact Logging – RIL) ebenfalls zu niedrigeren Schadwerten zwischen 4 und 5% der Fläche führen kann. Für die Holzbereitstellungsketten in Eukalyptus-Kurzumtriebs-Plantagen (FWSC3 – Steilgelände und FWSC 4 – mäßig geneigtes Gelände) sind die Voraussetzungen für die Holzbereitstellung und den Holztransport günstiger als in den beiden untersuchten Fällen der Naturwaldnutzung. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Rundholzausnutzungsrate mit 79,8% in FWSC3 bzw. 68,9% in FWSC4 relativ hoch ist. Die meisten bei der Aufarbeitung zurückbleibenden Stammteile und Äste wurden im Nachgang von den Waldarbeitern als Feuerholz gesammelt trotz des geringen Durchmessers der gefällten Bäume. Die Geländeneigung hatte nur einen geringen Effekt auf die Produktivität der Motorsägen. Sie betrug 1,95 m³ je Stunde für Fällen und Ablängen in FWSC3 während die Produktivität im gemäßigten Gelände mit 2,11 m³ je Stunde etwas höher lag. Hier wurde das Einschneiden der Stämme nach Langholzrückung erst am Wegrand vorgenommen. Erstaunlicherweise waren die Unterschiede in der Produktivität beim Vorliefern und Rücken des Holzes an die Waldstraße in beiden Fällen nur gering: Sie betrug 0,26 m³ je Stunde in FWSC3, wo im steilen Gelände die bereits zugeschnittenen Rundholzstücke per Hand zum Wegrand gerollt wurden; und 0,33 m³ je Stunde in FWSC4, wo im flachen Gelände Büffel für das Holzrücken eingesetzt wurden. Entsprechend zeigen die Bereitstellungskosten in beiden Holzbereitstellungsketten relativ geringe Unterschiede: Bis zum Verbraucher (Papierfabrik) betrugen die Kosten in FWSC3 10,36 € je m³, während sie in FWSC4 mit 11,7 € je m³ nur wenig höher lagen. Deutliche Unterschiede gab es indessen bei den frei werdenden klimaschädlichen Gasen: In FWSC3 betrug dieser Wert 7,35 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Rundholz, während er in FWSC4 beim Einsatz von Tieren bei nur 2,94 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ lag. Entscheidend war hierbei, dass bei FWSC3 das Laden und Entladen des Holzes mit Kran bzw. Lader mechanisiert erfolgte, während das Be- und Entladen in FWSC4 von Hand bewältigt wurde. Die Bodenschäden lagen bei der Plantagennutzung im Kahlschlagbetrieb deutlich höher als zuvor bei der selektiven Nutzung im Naturwald: Beim Fällen und Vorliefern von Hand (FWSC3) war die beschädigte Bodenfläche mit 34,7% nochmals höher als beim Einsatz von Büffeln in FWSC4 mit 22,7% der Fläche. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung zeigen, dass ein möglicherweise zukünftig höherer Grad der (Teil-) Mechanisierung mit positiven Nachhaltigkeitseffekten in Hinblick auf Rohholzausnutzung, Produktivität und Bereitstellungskosten einhergehen dürfte. In Hinblick auf die sozialen Aspekte sind die Ergebnisse weniger eindeutig: Einerseits ist eine deutlich verminderte Schwere der körperlichen Arbeit und auch eine geringere Unfallneigung zu erwarten. Zum anderen gehen jedoch auch Arbeitsplätze durch Mechanisierung verloren. Wie die Literaturangaben zeigen, könnte dieser Effekt jedoch zum Teil kompensiert werden durch die geplante Erhöhung der Nutzung einerseits und durch Arbeitsplätze, die im nachgelagerten Bereich z.B. bei der Wartung und Instandhaltung von Maschinen entstehen werden. In Bezug auf die Umweltwirkungen Emission klimaschädlicher Gase sowie Störungen des Waldbodens werden höhermechanisierte Methoden in der Tendenz ebenfalls zu höheren Belastungen führen. Diese können z.T. durch bessere Planung und Überwachung (RIL) begrenzt oder sogar kompensiert werden, wie entsprechende Literaturangaben zeigen. Die Möglichkeiten und Effekte einer höheren Mechanisierung wurden am Beispiel der Holzbereitstellungskette von Zellstoffholz aus Plantagen unter günstigen Geländebedingungen (FWSC4) im Sinne einer Variantenstudie detailliert analysiert: Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass unter den gegebenen Geländeverhältnissen das Vorliefern und Rücken von Holz mit Büffeln so wie das besonders anstrengende händische Beladen und Entladen von Holz auf die Transportfahrzeuge durch eine einfache "Traktor-Trailer-Kran" Kombination mechanisiert werden könnte. Ein landwirtschaftlicher Traktor der Stärkeklasse 60 kp mit einem Rundholzanhänger, auf dem ein hydraulischer Kran montiert ist, könnte auch unter den gegebenen für eine Nutzung ungünstigen strukturellen Bedingungen der Eukalyptusplantagen (geringe Stückmasse des Plantagenholzes und kleine Schlagflächen) eingesetzt werden. Die Investitionssumme würde für Vietnam 34.100,-- € betragen. Dies würde zu Bereitstellungskosten von 14,81 € je m³ Rundholz frei Werk führen (wobei die LKW nicht wie derzeit überladen sind). Dieser Kostensatz wäre 15,3 niedriger als die hier untersuchte Methode unter Einsatz von Handarbeit und Zugtieren. In Bezug auf die sozialen Aspekte würde die Einführung eines entsprechend mechanisierten Traktor-Trailer-Kran-Systems den Beschäftigungseffekt von 13,9 Stunden je m³ auf 4,26 Stunden je m³ mehr als halbieren, während andererseits die Löhne von derzeit 3,37 bis 4,29 € je Schicht auf 7,14 bis 17,85 € je Schicht erhöht wurden. Die höhere Mechanisierung würde ein besseres Training der Mitarbeiter erfordern, aber gleichzeitig geringere Risiken für Unfälle und eine verbesserte Ergonomie bedeuten. In Bezug auf die Umweltwirkung würde der Übergang auf das höher mechanisierte System zu einem etwas höheren Ausstoß von klimaschädlichen Gasen (10,18 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Rundholz gegenüber 7,2 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Rundholz in der derzeitigen Arbeitsweise führen. Der durch den Traktoreinsatz beeinträchtigte Anteil des Waldbodens würde sich je nach Arbeitsorganisation ggf. noch erhöhen. Er könnte aber auch abgesenkt werden, auch wenn eine klare Arbeitsorganisation und Überwachung der Maschinenbewegungen auf der Fläche als Standard eingeführt würde. Um den für Vietnam zu erwartenden Übergang auf eine höhere Mechanisierungsstufe auf breiter Fläche zu begleiten, sollte ein nationales Projekt angestoßen werden, zu dem auch systematische Aus- und Fortbildung der im Wald tätigen Arbeiter sowohl im Hinblick auf Arbeitsverfahren wie auch auf Sicherheit und Ergonomie gehören sollte. Auch wäre es günstig, größere Nutzungseinheiten festzulegen, um die Vorteile einer höheren Mechanisierung voll nutzen zu können. Schließlich wäre die Vergabe von Investitionshilfen und Steuer- sowie Importzollsenkungen zu erwägen, um den Akteuren die Anschaffung leistungsfähiger und zugleich schonender Forsttechnik zu erleichtern. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse Wege und Möglichkeiten auf, wie in Vietnam dem laufenden Trend zu mehr Nachhaltigkeit im Forstsektor entsprochen werden kann. Dies ist auch eine notwendige Vorbereitung zu der angestrebten Ausweitung der Nachhaltikeitszertifizierung nach den verschiedenen Konzepten (FSC, PEFC usw.). Auch zur Erfüllung der Erwartung von Importländern, dass die eingeführten Holzprodukte hohen sozialen und Umweltstandards genügen, ist es notwendig, dass die Wälder in Vietnam nachhaltiger als bisher bewirtschaftet und entsprechend zertifiziert werden. Hierbei ist insbesondere die Art und Weise der Holzbereitstellung und der Gestaltung der Holzernteketten zwischen Forst- und Holzindustrie entscheidend. Die Durchführung von systematischen Sustainability Impact Assessments (SIA) ist wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, ein geeigneter und strukturierter quantitativerAnsatz, um das Nachhaltigkeitsprofil und insbesondere die Schwachstellen der derzeitigen Praktiken aufzuzeigen und Hinweise in Richtung auf eine verbesserte Nachhaltigkeit zu geben. ; Timber related export revenues are an important component in GDP of Vietnam with 3.8% in 2010 (Nguyen, 2011). In 2010, a total of 13.1 million m3 roundwood equivalent was needed for Vietnam's wood processing industry of which only 6.48 million m3 (49.5%) was supplied by domestic forests, the remaining 6.62 million m3 (50.5%) was imported from other countries (Nguyen, 2009; To and Canby, 2011). The target of Vietnamese government by 2020 is that 80% of raw wood material that is processed domestically will be harvested from the country's plantations and natural forests and 30% of production forests (more than 2.4 million ha) will be certified from less than 1% at present. In order to reach these goals, the sector of the domestic forest wood supply chain in Vietnam will play an increasingly important role and will be paid more attention. The envisaged growth of the national wood supply will lead to substantial and significant changes in the forest-wood supply chain (FWSC) in terms of the utilization of natural forests and of plantation forest management. To monitor and shape these changes in a way that supports the sustainability of wood supply is crucial both from the national perspective and for the international competitiveness of the forest wood sector of Vietnam. At present, due to reasons such as low labour costs, employees availability, low available investment capital as well as small areas and the scattered distribution of single harvesting units, the current wood supply in Vietnam is mainly carried out by labour-intensive methods, but parallel to the planned increase in the utilization rate, more mechanized supply chain systems are likely to be introduced. To monitor and assess the options and consequences of this change is the underlying objective of this study. Using the concept of a sustainability impact assessment, taking into account the three aspects of sustainability (economy, ecology and society) the sustainability profile of different forest wood supply chains was analyzed on a case study basis. The following sustainability indicators were addressed: wood utilization rate, labor productivity, production cost, employment, wage level, rate of accidents, green house gas emissions, hazardous and non-hazardous waste and disturbed forest floor area disturbed. Four case studies were selected to represent and assess typical forest wood supply chains in Vietnam: Selective harvesting of natural (rain) forests on moderate and on steep terrain, Eucalyptus plantation forests harvested in a clear-cut method after short rotation, also on moderate and on steep terrain. The analyzed production chains started in the forest with preparing the stand and included all subsequent steps of wood procurement and transport, ending at the mill gate the of wood industries. Traditional technologies (manual labor, buffaloes) as well as partly mechanized systems (chainsaws, tractors, forwarders, trucks) were employed. Data collection was carried out in the field by extensive time studies of all processes, inquiries to managers and workers, and the use of statistics, literature and data banks. The two cases of selective harvesting of natural forests FWSC1 (steep terrain) and FWSC2 (moderate terrain) show that there was a significant difference of sustainability impacts between the two chains mainly due to the various operation methods applied in the logging and transport processes for each chain. In FWSC1 after felling, the logs were sawn into sawnwood by chainsaws directly in the forest at stump side with only 35.6% of the standing tree volume utilized. The boards 0.20-0.35 m3sw per board were extracted by buffaloes from the forest. In FWSC2, a tractor was used for roundwood skidding and following truck transport, the logs were sawn into boards at a local sawmill. The sawlog utilization rate was 66.6% of the standing tree volume of which 45.3% was utilized as sawnwood (27.2% higher than FWSC1) and 21.3% were sawing residues produced at the sawmill. A large amount of the whole tops and branches from logging were left in forests in the both chains. In FWSC1, up to 88.6% of the time consumption of the chainsaws was spent on board sawing, which resulted in a relatively low productivity of chainsaws with only 0.25 m3sw/PMacH for the activities from felling to the board sawing while a productivity of 0.12 m3sw/PAniH was measured for buffalo skidding. On the contrary, in FWSC2 the productivity of felling and delimbing at stump areas by chainsaw was rather high with 11.0 m3sw/PMacH, and a productivity of 6.7 m3rw/PMacH for the roundwood skidding by tractor TDT55 was measured. The resulting, production costs calculated for all the processes in FWSC1 were 50.40 €/m3sw, which was 44.4% higher than in FWSC2 with only 34.90 €/m3sw calculated for the processes until sawing board at the sawmill. However, regarding environmental aspects, FWSC1 with lower mechanization emitted lower GHG with 7.83 kgCO2eq/m3sw calculated to the sawmill, while in FWSC2, GHG emissions were much higher with 22.68 kgCO2eq/m3sw calculated including the board sawing operation at the sawmill. Also, the total disturbed area caused by the logging operations was almost the same in the two chains with 10.7% in FWSC1 and 12.8%. FWSC2 with a higher logging intensity and a higher level of mechanization caused 6.21% of heavy disturbed area while this was only 3.45% in FWSC1. The disturbed area of forest soil in FWSC2 is in the range of 10-25%, which is also reported for other conventional selective logging cases (FAO, 1989; Hendrison, 1989; Verissimo et al., 1992) but much larger than the disturbed area of only 3.8% and 4.5% caused by cases where the Reduced Impact Logging method (RIL) applied (FAO, 1997; Marsh et al., 1996). For the plantation chains FWSC3 (steep terrain) and FWSC4 (moderate terrain), which both applied th clear-cut method, the conditions for log skidding and transport were more favorable than in the two natural forest cases. The study results show that the roundwood utilization rate in plantations was relatively high with 79.8% in FWSC3 and 68.9% in FWSC4. Most of the tops and branches from logging were collected for firewood use although the DBH of the felled trees was much smaller than in the natural forest cases. The terrain slope had only a small effect on chainsaw productivity. The productivity in felling and bucking in FWSC3 with the steep terrain was 1.95 m3rw/PMacH while it was somewhat higher with 2.11 m3rw/PMacH in FWSC4 with the moderate terrain. Similarly, there were also small difference in skidding productivity between the two study cases with 0.26 m3rw/PManH in FWSC3 using manpower to roll logs on the steep terrain and 0.33 m3rw/PAniH in FWSC4, where buffaloes were used for skidding. The production costs of the two plantation chains varied with 10.36 €/m3rw calculated to the paper mill in FWSC3, where loading and unloading were mechanized by forwarder, while it was higher in FWSC4 with 11.70 €/m3rw at the paper mill. Due to the partly mechanized loading method applied, the total GHG emissions in FWSC3 calculated to the paper mill were 7.25 kgCO2eq/m3rw, while by using a manual loading method, FWSC4 emitted only 2.94 kgCO2eq/m3rw calculated to the paper mill from the chainsaws and trucks. On forest soil, where the clear felling method was used, the plantation chains caused a larger disturbed area with 34.7% of the total logging area in FWSC3 and 22.7% in FWSC4 compared to the selective felling in the natural FWSC1 and FWSC2. The results of the study show that in order to improve FWSCs towards more sustainability, a higher level of mechanization with more suitable machines is the first and key proposal, while training in occupational safety, closer supervision and inspection of logging activities, as well as the improvement of operational harvesting planning are needed for all four case studies. In addition, the utilization of branches, tops and other residues is also strongly recommended in natural forest cases. An example of the potentials of higher mechanization was further analyzed in more detail for the pulpwood supply in FWSC4. The results of the analysis show that under the current conditions in Vietnam, buffalo skidding and manual loading and unloading in FWSC4 could be replaced by a tractor-trailer crane system. A tractor of 60 hp plus a trailer equipped with a grapple is recommended for unfavourable forest conditions, such as the small DBH of trees and the small area of the harvesting unit in FWSC4. The total investment for the tractor and trailer crane would be less than 34,100 €, which would result in a total cost of the FWSC to the paper mill of about 14.81 €/m3rw without overloading in transport, which is 15.3% lower than with the current method. Considering social aspects, the introduction of a tractor-trailer system would reduce the employment rate from 13.90 hours/m3rw to 4.26 hours/m3rw, while increasing the wage of employees in extraction, loading and unloading from 3.37-4.29 €/shift to 7.14-17.85 €/shift in current FWSC4. There are a number of studies such as Ahmedabad (1975) and Sindhu and Grewal (1991) that have reported mechanization did not lead to a reduction in human employment rate due to an expansion in production and demand for manufacturing, servicing, distribution, repair and maintenance as well as other complementary jobs which substantially increased due to mechanization. The actual policy of the Vietnamese government aims at increasing the plantation area substantially, and by this, new jobs could compensate the negative employment effects of mechanization. Higher mechanization would require better training in occupational accidents and ergonomics, and better protection for workers by the use of necessary safety protection equipment and improved working conditions. This would improve the current situation of occupational accidents and other health risks for the employees. With regard to environmental issues, the use of the tractor-trailer system would emit 10.18 kgCO2eq/m3rw of GHG instead of 7.25 kgCO2eq/m3rw in the current chain. On the other hand, there are a number of studies such as FAO (1998); Malmer and Grip (1989); Wang (2000) concluding that using tractors for log extraction causes a more heavily disturbed area compared to manual and animal skidding. However, a number of studies reported that the negative impacts of mechanization in logging and transport on the environment could be minimized to an acceptable level if the operational harvesting is fully and carefully planned and supervised Becker (1987) and Lewark (1990). In order to achieve a higher level of mechanization, a project of mechanization in timber harvesting and transport as well as training programs in occupational safety and ergonomics should be considered. Harvesting units with a large area should be created to be suitable for mechanization. In addition, suitable policies supporting financial investments in the mechanization of the logging and transport sector should be promulgated, including reduced import taxes for appropriate forest and agricultural machines. The results of the study show ways and means to address the current international trend in the forest-wood sector towards sustainable management through the grant of forest certificates (such as FSC, PEFC, etc). To fulfill the environmental and social responsibility requirements of exported wood products, domestic forests must be managed and utilized in a sustainable way and thus be certified with special attention to the wood supply chains from forest to wood industry (To and Canby, 2011). The comprehensive assessment and understanding of the sustainability impacts of forest-wood supply chains is necessary and can be considered as the first and basic step towards providing solutions to improve current forest-wood supply practices in Vietnam towards more sustainability.
This strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is a technical piece intended to assist in the current and future identification of priority industrial pollutants and economic instruments to minimize industrial waste. This industrial sector SEA is one of six pieces of technical support envisioned by the Himachal Pradesh (HP) inclusive green growth (IGG) development policy loan (DPL) to fill knowledge gaps and strengthen operational success of the DPL. The DPL acknowledges that industrial development is an important economic driver within HP, and that such development must be consistent with maintaining the integrity of other natural resource assets on which human health depend. The general objectives of the SEA study are: (i) to assist in identification of priority pollutants and industries; (ii) to review existing institutional structures that address these pollutants; (iii) to identify and recommend potential reform options through the introduction of new policy approaches; and (iv) to identify complementary institutional support necessary to implement such a program. The SEA was undertaken from April to December 2013 based on secondary data collection, existing literature, various consultative meetings with key stakeholders, and diagnostic analyses of this information. The purpose of the consultations was to discuss the findings, issues, and preliminary directions suggested by the desk reviews, and to initiate a work plan for amassing additional information. The SEA has included participatory approaches to ensure that presented policy changes are designed and implemented in a way that is responsive to the different segments of HP society. This report is presented in three parts. Part one forms a foundation for focusing subsequent diagnostic work by providing more extensive detail on the institutional context, pollution situation, health and environmental linkages, and opportunities for using economic instruments. Part two performs additional diagnostic analyses to inform the core recommendations relating to options for new economic instruments, institutional reforms, and capacity building; these recommendations are presented in part three.