Suchergebnisse

Text in English; Abstract: English and Turkish ; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 95-98) ; xvi, 106 leaves ; Turkey, one of the most rapidly growing emerging market, is a heaven for investors with young population, dynamic private sector, and liberalised financial markets. In this respect, the question of "Why does the Turkish economy always face with either a crisis or a program for guiding her out of a crisis?", comes to minds. In the analysis period of this research, the Turkish economy has experienced with two major crisis in 1994 and 2000, which are called as "balance of payment crisis". In the period, before 1994 crisis had happened, although the tight monetary and fiscal policies were supposed to be implemented, neither of them were successfully executed. In the final crisis, Turkey launched a comprehensive and consistent disinflation program at the beginning of 2000 in order to stabilise the economy, which resulted as the abondenment of the crawling peg exchange rate regime- the anchor of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)- drawn back the economic reform program, brought instant and massive market devaluation, souring inflation, and tumbling financial markets. Today, Turkish government aim is to keep the window of Turkey open to all investors and widen it enough to ensure that the government meets its borrowing requirements, banks make profit in subsidising the government while the rest of the economy continues to function with reasonable rates on loans and attractive interest on deposits in order to proper functioning of the economy. This research makes a brief survey on the relationship between financial system, particularly in capital markets and economic crisis, in order to give a general background for the role of capital market in the case of Turkey by taking main macroeconomic indicators as the leading variables and their effects on ISE as the coincidental. In the first part of the research, the emerging history of Turkish Republic is viewed for making clear the path, which Turkey followed as a developing country. In addition, the development of financial markets in Turkey is historically reviewed. After this introductory information, the effects of the deregulation and industrialisation are discussed. The discussion reflects the impacts of liberalisation upon the Turkish economy and financial markets. In the second part of this research, 1994 crisis is explained, the most severe crisis ever lived in Turkey of all times. This part continues with the chronology of the 1994 crisis and is followed by economic indicators in terms of results of the economic crisis. In the third part of this research, Turkey's problems remained the same including the high inflation rate. Turkish economy was launched a comprehensive and consistent disinflation program again. This part is followed by January 2000 and February 2001 crisis, which became as the most severe and destructive crisis ever lived in Republic of Turkey's history, worse than 1994 crisis, and resulted as another burden on Turkish economy. In the fourth part of this research, Turkish Capital Markets' development is reviewed particularly and ISE is considered for the assessment of the role of the development of Turkish Capital Markets. Current part is followed by the condition of ISE during the period 1994 through 2000, including movements in the size and the volume of market with major events of daily market environment. In the last part of this research, both crises are examined by using the financial instruments' returns in comparison with the ISE, the most efficient capital market of Turkey. Interest rates, T-Bill, foreign exchange market, money supply, and industrial production monthly returns are considered for plotting the analysis successfully on the ISE. In addition, for determining the relation between the ISE and other variables one-by-one, each of these returns are graphed. According to the results of graphs, the relation between 1994 and 2000 crises are brought into open and the reasons for 2000 crisis' getting longer than 1994 crisis are tried to be achieved. Relevant data and information have been obtained from several books and public sources such as company document press releases' annual reports, governments' statistics, databases, especially Proquest, and finally state's official web-sites and organisations' web-sites for periodic data which has been cross checked and correlated with statistics issued by the several organisations. Finally, it should be noted that, the capital markets is the most important arm of financial sector for Turkey. The future of capital markets in Turkey are highly interrelated with the stabilisation and the development in the entire economy. A better comprehension of the economic development and stabilisation package after the crisis helped public to understand the vital importance of entire capital markets. ; Türkiye genç nüfusu, dinamik özel sektör yatırımları, ve liberalleşmiş finansal piyasalarıyla, hızla büyüyen ve gelişmekte olan pazarlardan biri olarak yatırımcılar açısından cazibesini korumaktadır. Bu bağlamda, " neden Türk ekonomisi sıklıkla finansal krizlere maruz kalarak krizle baş etme programlarıyla karşı karşıya geliyor? "sorusu akıllara geliyor. Çalışmanın analiz dönemleri, 1994 ve 2000 yıllarında Türkiye'nin maruz kaldığı "ödemeler dengesi krizleri" olarak adlandırılan 2 büyük krizi kapsamaktadır, 1994 krizi öncesinde gerçekleşen krizlerde sıkı para ve mali politikaları uygulanmaya çalışıldı ancak başarılı sonuçlar alınamadı. Son yaşanan krizde, Türkiye ekonomiyi istikrara ulaştırabilmek için dalgalı kur rejimini bırakarak 2000 yılı başında kapsamlı ve tutarlı enflasyonla mücadele programı başlattı, Türkiye bant içinde dalgalanma rejimi uygulamaya başlamıştır. Ancak yaşanan 2001 kriziyle ekonomik reform programı geri çekilmiş devalüasyon yaşanmış ve finansal piyasalar dalgalanmıştır. Kriz sonrasında Türkiye dalgalı kur rejimine geçtiğini duyurmuştur. Bugün, Türk hükümetinin amacı, Türkiye'nin penceresini tüm yatırımcılara açık tutmak ve olabildiğince genişletmek bu sayede hükümet borçlanma gereksinimlerini giderirken, bankalar devleti sübvanse ederek kazanacaklar, ekonominin geri kalanı makul kredi düzeyinden faydalanırken, mevduat faizi kazanmak cazip hale gelebilecektir. Bu çalışma, finansal sistemle sermaye piyasaları arasında yaşanan mali krizlerin incelemesi üzerinedir, Türkiye'deki sermaye piyasasının rolünün incelenmesi başlıca makroekonomik göstergeleri kullanarak değişkenlerin İMKB üzerindeki tesadüfi etkileri gösterilmeye çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın birinci bölümünde, Türkiye Cumhuriyet'inin gelişmekte olan bir ülke olarak izlediği yolu açıklamakla başlamak gerekiyor. Bu duruma ek olarak, Türkiye'deki finansal piyasaların gelişimi de tarihsel olarak gözden geçirilmiştir. Başlangıç bilgilerden sonra, fiyat serbestisi ve sanayileşme etkileri tartışılmıştır. İnceleme Türk ekonomisi ve mali piyasalar üzerindeki. küreselleşmenin etkilerini yansıtmaktadır. Araştırmanın ikinci bölümünde ise, Türkiye'de yaşanan tüm zamanların en ağır krizi olan 1994 krizi açıklanmıştır. Bu bölüm 1994 krizinin kronolojisi ile devam ederken ekonomik krizin sonuçları açısından ekonomik göstergeler takip edilmektedir. Bu araştırmanın üçüncü bölümünde, Türkiye'nin yüksek enflasyon dahil aynı kalan sorunları paylaşılmıştır. Bu dönemde Türk ekonomisine yeniden kapsamlı ve tutarlı bir enflasyon düşürme programı başlatıldı. İlgili bölümde, Türkiye tarihinin ve Cumhuriyeti'nin yaşamış olduğu en ağır ve yıkıcı krizlerden olan Ocak 2000 ve Şubat 2001 krizleri takip ediyor. Çalışmanın dördüncü bölümde ise, özellikle Türk Sermaye Piyasasındaki gelişmeler gözden geçirilmiştir ve İMKB'nin bu gelişmedeki rolü değerlendirilmiştir. İMKB'nin günlük piyasalarda gerçekleşen önemli olaylar sonucunda işlemlerinin büyüklüğü ve hacmi 1994 ten 2000 yılına kadar uzanan durumu incelenmiştir. Son bölümde, her iki krizde finansal enstrümanların getirileri IMKB ile karşılaştırılarak incelenmiştir. Faiz oranları, hazine bonoları, döviz piyasası, para arzı ve sanayi üretimi aylık getirileri dikkate alınmıştır. Hazırlanan grafiklerin sonuçlarına göre, 1994 ve 2000 krizleri arasındaki ilişkiye bakılmıştır ve değerlendirme sonucunda 2000 krizinin 1994 krizinde daha uzun sürdüğü açıklanmıştır. Son olarak, sermaye piyasaları Türkiye'de finansal sektörün en önemli kolu olarak dikkate alınmalıdır. Türkiye'de sermaye piyasalarının geleceği ekonominin tamamının gelişimi ve istikrarı ile ilişkilidir. Kriz sonrası ekonomik gelişmenin ve uygulanan istikrar paketinin daha iyi anlaşılması kamunun sermaye piyasalarının önemini anlamasına yardımcı olacaktır.

Los estudios de calidad de las cuencas hidrográficas han adquirido gran interés en las últimas décadas, dado el incremento de población en sus riberas, el creciente grado de industrialización y los aportes del sector primario. En este trabajo se ha evaluado el grado de contaminación por metales pesados de las aguas y de los sedimentos de la cuenca del Llobregat. El análisis de los metales pesados tiene un interés especial al tratarse de una cuenca altamente aprovechada para el consumo en el área metropolitana de Barcelona que conjuntamente con la procedente del río Ter abastecen a una población de más de cuatro millones de habitantes. Por otro lado, este estudio supone un aporte de información valioso sobre la distribución de Sb, As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb y Zn en aguas y sedimentos de la cuenca del Llobregat, así como de la biodisponibilidad de estos elementos en el medio acuático a partir del estudio de especiación. Para llevar a cabo este estudio se establecieron diecisiete puntos de muestreo, ocho de ellos situados en el río Llobregat, cuatro en su afluente principal el río Cardener y cinco en el río Anoia. Las muestras de las aguas y los sedimentos se recogieron durante un año con una frecuencia trimestral. Los sedimentos se han secado a 105ºC para la determinación de los elementos Sb, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb y Zn durante 24 horas y, a 60ºC para los metales volátiles (As y Hg) por un periodo de 16 horas y todos ellos tamizados a 63 mm de luz de malla. Esta fracción contiene la práctica totalidad de la materia orgánica y los metales pesados al mismo tiempo supone una homogeneización del material objeto de análisis. La extracción de los metales en sedimentos se llevo acabo mediante digestión ácida: con ácido nítrico y clorhídrico concentrado, utilizando recipientes de Pyrex cerrado durante 3 horas a 150ºC en baño de arena. Los contenidos metálicos en las aguas y los sedimentos se analizaron por Espectrometría de Masas con fuente de Plasma Acoplada Inductivamente (ICP-MS) ELAN 6000. También se han determinado los parámetros físico-químicos y componentes mayoritarios en las aguas y también los contenidos de carbonatos, materia orgánica y silicatos en los sedimentos, para tratar de establecer posibles correlaciones entres sus contenidos y los de metales pesados en sedimentos y para realizar una caracterización litogénica de estos materiales. Según los resultados obtenidos, las aguas de la cuenca del Llobregat presentan una elevada salinidad con altos valores de conductividad, cloruros y residuo seco. Estos valores destacan especialmente después de las explotaciones mineras. De los tres ríos estudiados el río que está más afectado es el Anoia, por los parámetros de salinidad. En lo que respecta a la concentración de los metales pesados en las aguas, cabe destacar en toda la cuenca del Llobregat sólo tres puntos de muestreo están sensiblemente contaminados, en el río Llobregat en Sant Joan Despí por el Ni y en el Anoia en Vilanova del Camí y en Capellades por el metal Cr. Teniendo en cuenta la legislación Holandesa, se ha constatado que los sedimentos están sensiblemente contaminados por Cu en el río Llobregat a partir de Martorell-L hasta Sant Joan Despí y en el río Anoia los puntos de muestreo de Vilanova del Camí, Sant Sadurní d'Anoia y Martorell-A. Por el metal Cr el punto de Vilanova del Camí en el río Anoia. En cambio el metal Ni supera los máximos valores estipulados en los tres ríos, en la mayoría de los puntos de muestreo. Finalmente, se ha realizado el análisis de especiación iónica de los metales pesados en los sedimentos por el método BCR. Se han determinado las concentraciones de metales ligadas a cada fracción. Este método recoge cuatro fracciones de metal: iones intercambiables y carbonatos (f-1), óxidos de Fe-Mn (f-2), materia orgánica (f-3) y fase residual (f-4). Este estudio nos ha permitido establecer que en los sedimentos fluviales estudiados la fracción más abundante de los metales Sb, As, Cu, Ni, Pb y Zn, es la fase residual. Por el contrario, los elementos Cd y Cr se hallan en las fases extraíbles. ; The study of the quality in hydrographic river basins have generated substantial interest in the last decades, because of an increase in population, the industrialization process and the contributions of the primary sector. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the contamination by heavy metals in waters and sediments from Llobregat river basin. The determination of the heavy metals in Llobregat basin has a special interest because this basin is highly made use of for the consumption in metropolitan area from Barcelona that together Ter river supplies more than four million of inhabitants. On the other hand, this study contributes an interesting information on the distribution of Sb, As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn elements in waters and sediments from Llobregat river basin, as well as the study of these elements in aquatic systems by means of speciation study. In order to carry out this study seventeen points were studied, eight of them situated in Llobregat river, four in their main affluent (Cardener river) and five in Anoia river. Waters and sediments samples took during a year with a quarterly frequency. Sediments have been dried to 105ºC for the determination of Sb, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn elements during 24 hours and, to 60ºC for the determination of volatile metals (As and Hg) by a period of 16 hours and all of them sifted to 63 µm mesh light. This fraction make up the major part of organic matter and the heavy metals, at the same time suppose a material homogenization. The extraction of heavy metals in sediments was performed by means of a mixture of acid digestion: with HCl and HNO3 concentrated, using Pyrex vessels closed for 3 hours to 150ºC in sand bath. The metallic elements contents in waters and sediments were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) ELAN 6000. Also the physico-chemical parameters have been determined as well the majority components in waters and carbonates content, organic matter and silicates in sediments, in order to establish the correlations between its contents and heavy metals content in sediments and to characterize these materials. According to the obtained results, the waters from Llobregat river basin present a high salinity with high conductivity values, chlorides and dry remainder. These values emphasize specially after the mining operations. Among three rivers studied the most affected is Anoia river, by the salinity parameters. In reference to the heavy metals concentration in waters, it is worthwhile emphasizing that only three points from Llobregat basin are sensibly contaminated: in Sant Joan Despí by Ni metal (Llobregat river) and in Vilanova of the Camí and Capellades by the Cr metal (Anoia river). According to the Dutch legislation, Martorell-A point corresponding to Llobregat river, are contaminated by Cu metal from Martorell-L to Sant Joan Despí and the points from Vilanova of the Camí, Sant Sadurní d'Anoia and Martorell-A in Anoia river. The point from Vilanova of the Camí in Anoia river is contaminated by Cr metal. However, Ni metal surpasses the maximum values stipulated in the three rivers. Finally, the analysis of ionic speciation of heavy metals has been made in sediments by BCR method by determining metal concentrations related to each fraction. This method studies four fractions of metal: interchangeable ions and carbonates (f1), Fe-Mn oxides (f2), organic matter (f-3) and residual phase (f-4). This study allow us to establish that the most abundant fraction of metals as Sb, As, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in fluvial sediments, exist in the residual phase. On the contrary, Cd and Cr elements are in the extracted phase. ; Postprint (published version)

Los estudios de calidad de las cuencas hidrográficas han adquirido gran interés en las últimas décadas, dado el incremento de población en sus riberas, el creciente grado de industrialización y los aportes del sector primario. En este trabajo se ha evaluado el grado de contaminación por metales pesados de las aguas y de los sedimentos de la cuenca del Llobregat. El análisis de los metales pesados tiene un interés especial al tratarse de una cuenca altamente aprovechada para el consumo en el área metropolitana de Barcelona que conjuntamente con la procedente del río Ter abastecen a una población de más de cuatro millones de habitantes. Por otro lado, este estudio supone un aporte de información valioso sobre la distribución de Sb, As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb y Zn en aguas y sedimentos de la cuenca del Llobregat, así como de la biodisponibilidad de estos elementos en el medio acuático a partir del estudio de especiación. Para llevar a cabo este estudio se establecieron diecisiete puntos de muestreo, ocho de ellos situados en el río Llobregat, cuatro en su afluente principal el río Cardener y cinco en el río Anoia. Las muestras de las aguas y los sedimentos se recogieron durante un año con una frecuencia trimestral. Los sedimentos se han secado a 105ºC para la determinación de los elementos Sb, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb y Zn durante 24 horas y, a 60ºC para los metales volátiles (As y Hg) por un periodo de 16 horas y todos ellos tamizados a 63 mm de luz de malla. Esta fracción contiene la práctica totalidad de la materia orgánica y los metales pesados al mismo tiempo supone una homogeneización del material objeto de análisis. La extracción de los metales en sedimentos se llevo acabo mediante digestión ácida: con ácido nítrico y clorhídrico concentrado, utilizando recipientes de Pyrex cerrado durante 3 horas a 150ºC en baño de arena. Los contenidos metálicos en las aguas y los sedimentos se analizaron por Espectrometría de Masas con fuente de Plasma Acoplada Inductivamente (ICP-MS) ELAN 6000. También se han determinado los parámetros físico-químicos y componentes mayoritarios en las aguas y también los contenidos de carbonatos, materia orgánica y silicatos en los sedimentos, para tratar de establecer posibles correlaciones entres sus contenidos y los de metales pesados en sedimentos y para realizar una caracterización litogénica de estos materiales. Según los resultados obtenidos, las aguas de la cuenca del Llobregat presentan una elevada salinidad con altos valores de conductividad, cloruros y residuo seco. Estos valores destacan especialmente después de las explotaciones mineras. De los tres ríos estudiados el río que está más afectado es el Anoia, por los parámetros de salinidad. En lo que respecta a la concentración de los metales pesados en las aguas, cabe destacar en toda la cuenca del Llobregat sólo tres puntos de muestreo están sensiblemente contaminados, en el río Llobregat en Sant Joan Despí por el Ni y en el Anoia en Vilanova del Camí y en Capellades por el metal Cr. Teniendo en cuenta la legislación Holandesa, se ha constatado que los sedimentos están sensiblemente contaminados por Cu en el río Llobregat a partir de Martorell-L hasta Sant Joan Despí y en el río Anoia los puntos de muestreo de Vilanova del Camí, Sant Sadurní d'Anoia y Martorell-A. Por el metal Cr el punto de Vilanova del Camí en el río Anoia. En cambio el metal Ni supera los máximos valores estipulados en los tres ríos, en la mayoría de los puntos de muestreo. Finalmente, se ha realizado el análisis de especiación iónica de los metales pesados en los sedimentos por el método BCR. Se han determinado las concentraciones de metales ligadas a cada fracción. Este método recoge cuatro fracciones de metal: iones intercambiables y carbonatos (f-1), óxidos de Fe-Mn (f-2), materia orgánica (f-3) y fase residual (f-4). Este estudio nos ha permitido establecer que en los sedimentos fluviales estudiados la fracción más abundante de los metales Sb, As, Cu, Ni, Pb y Zn, es la fase residual. Por el contrario, los elementos Cd y Cr se hallan en las fases extraíbles. ; The study of the quality in hydrographic river basins have generated substantial interest in the last decades, because of an increase in population, the industrialization process and the contributions of the primary sector. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the contamination by heavy metals in waters and sediments from Llobregat river basin. The determination of the heavy metals in Llobregat basin has a special interest because this basin is highly made use of for the consumption in metropolitan area from Barcelona that together Ter river supplies more than four million of inhabitants. On the other hand, this study contributes an interesting information on the distribution of Sb, As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn elements in waters and sediments from Llobregat river basin, as well as the study of these elements in aquatic systems by means of speciation study. In order to carry out this study seventeen points were studied, eight of them situated in Llobregat river, four in their main affluent (Cardener river) and five in Anoia river. Waters and sediments samples took during a year with a quarterly frequency. Sediments have been dried to 105ºC for the determination of Sb, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn elements during 24 hours and, to 60ºC for the determination of volatile metals (As and Hg) by a period of 16 hours and all of them sifted to 63 µm mesh light. This fraction make up the major part of organic matter and the heavy metals, at the same time suppose a material homogenization. The extraction of heavy metals in sediments was performed by means of a mixture of acid digestion: with HCl and HNO3 concentrated, using Pyrex vessels closed for 3 hours to 150ºC in sand bath. The metallic elements contents in waters and sediments were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) ELAN 6000. Also the physico-chemical parameters have been determined as well the majority components in waters and carbonates content, organic matter and silicates in sediments, in order to establish the correlations between its contents and heavy metals content in sediments and to characterize these materials. According to the obtained results, the waters from Llobregat river basin present a high salinity with high conductivity values, chlorides and dry remainder. These values emphasize specially after the mining operations. Among three rivers studied the most affected is Anoia river, by the salinity parameters. In reference to the heavy metals concentration in waters, it is worthwhile emphasizing that only three points from Llobregat basin are sensibly contaminated: in Sant Joan Despí by Ni metal (Llobregat river) and in Vilanova of the Camí and Capellades by the Cr metal (Anoia river). According to the Dutch legislation, Martorell-A point corresponding to Llobregat river, are contaminated by Cu metal from Martorell-L to Sant Joan Despí and the points from Vilanova of the Camí, Sant Sadurní d'Anoia and Martorell-A in Anoia river. The point from Vilanova of the Camí in Anoia river is contaminated by Cr metal. However, Ni metal surpasses the maximum values stipulated in the three rivers. Finally, the analysis of ionic speciation of heavy metals has been made in sediments by BCR method by determining metal concentrations related to each fraction. This method studies four fractions of metal: interchangeable ions and carbonates (f1), Fe-Mn oxides (f2), organic matter (f-3) and residual phase (f-4). This study allow us to establish that the most abundant fraction of metals as Sb, As, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in fluvial sediments, exist in the residual phase. On the contrary, Cd and Cr elements are in the extracted phase. ; Postprint (published version)

Methoden der Sicherung und Verbesserung psychotherapeutischer Leistungen werden seit einigen Jahren intensiv diskutiert, insbesondere in Deutschland, wo gesetzliche Regelungen Anbieter und Kostenträger zur Implementierung entsprechender Systeme verpflichten. Anders ist die Situation in Österreich und der Schweiz, wo derartige Regelungen nur die stationäre Psychotherapie betreffen. Dennoch ist es notwendig, sich auch im Rahmen ambulanter Psychotherapie dieser Aufgabe zuzuwenden. Der vorliegende Beitrag erörtert nach einer Einführung in die Begrifflichkeit und Modelle zentrale Aspekte eines aktiven internen Managements der Behandlungsqualität, wobei vor allem auf Standards der Struktur-, Prozeß- und Ergebnisqualität, sowie die Planung und das Monitoring von Qualität eingegangen wird. Als organisatorische Basis ambulanten Qualitätsmanagements werden " Qualitätszirkel " vorgestellt. Wichtige Schritte weiterführender Entwicklungen auf gesetzlicher, berufständischer und der Ebene des Einzelversorgers werden abschließend diskutiert.Schlüsselwörter:Qualität, Qualitätsmanagement, Qualitätssicherung, Psychotherapie. ; Models for the assurance of the quality of psychotherapy are intensively discussed in the german speaking countries during the last years, not only in Germany, where quality assurance in psychotherapy is prescribed by law, but also in Austria and in Switzerland. Although quality assurance is obligatory only for inpatient treatment in these countries, it is very important to take outpatient treatment into consideration as well. Therefore, this paper is dedicated to this matter. After a short introduction into the terms and models central aspects of quality assurance in outpatient psychotherapy are presented (quality standards, quality monitoring and continuous quality improvement). For practical realization internal methods for the management of treatment quality seem to be most appropriate for ambulatory psychotherapy. Specific quality-related working-groups, so called "ambulatory quality-circles", may function as an organisational basis of these efforts. Although basic concepts and methods are already developed, future developments must implement them. Some necessary steps into this direction are discussed at the end of the paper.Keywords: Quality, quality-management, quality-assurance, psychotherapy. ; L'expression "garantie de qualité" est l'une des formules magiques employées par les systèmes modernes de santé, en Allemagne surtout où depuis 1989, la législation rend obligatoire l'élaboration de modèles et systèmes correspondants. En Autriche et en Suisse, les réglementations ne concernent que la psychothérapie en milieu hospitalier. Nous ne devrions toutefois par négliger d'inclure cet aspect à la psychothérapie ambulatoire, pour des raisons liées à la politique professionnelle mais aussi aux aspects juridiques de l'offre. C'est pourquoi nous lui consacrons le présent travail.Par rapport au domaine de la santé publique, on entend par qualité le degré de santé et de soulagement de la souffrance psychique, physique et sociale qu'un système et ses institutions, cabinets privés compris, peuvent apporter aux patients et à la population. Selon Donabedian (1966), il faut effectuer une distinction entre la qualité de la structure, des processus et des résultats de la psychothérapie. Il faut donc inclure dans l'ensemble "garantie de qualité" toutes les démarches et méthodes mises en œuvre pour améliorer les prestations dans ces trois domaines.Alors qu'au début on a plutôt utilisé des modèles statiques permettant de maintenir le niveau d'une prestation donnée, et en particulier de ses résultats, et de les améliorer lorsqu'ils étaient insuffisants, depuis le début des années 80 le débat a beaucoup évolué sous l'influence de modèles du type "total quality management" (Sashkin et Kiser, 1993). On enregistre une nette tendance à abandonner la dimension centrale de "qualité des résultats" pour placer l'accent sur les aspects liés à la génération de qualité en tant que processus. Dans ce sens, les modèles en rapport avec la gestion de la qualité de la psychothérapie ont acquis plus d'importance (par ex., les normes 90009004 de l'International Standards Organization, à Genève). A la base de cette gestion de qualité se situe le processus d'amélioration constante de la qualité décrit par Deming; il inclut les étapes suivantes: "planification", "régulation', "observation/monitoring" et "amélioration" de la qualité lorsque cela s'avère nécessaire. Selon ce modèle, l'aspect planification implique que l'on définisse des standards, celui de la régulation que l'on mette en œuvre à titre préventif des mesures et directives permettant d'améliorer la qualité. Le "monitoring" se fait à l'aide de méthodes et stratégies d'évaluation (enquêtes auprès des clients, évaluation du thérapeute par lui-même et par d'autres, "peer-review", à savoir l'analyse des structures et fonctions existantes par les collaborateurs et les personnes concernées). En appliquant des mesures permettant de résoudre les problèmes de manière adéquate (ex.: formation continue, renforcement de la supervision, enquêtes menées à intervalles réguliers auprès des patients, etc.), on tente d'améliorer la qualité.Comment les différents éléments inclus dans cette gestion de qualité se présentent-ils par rapport à la psychothérapie ambulatoire ? Les principaux standards au niveau de la structure se trouvent au niveau d'un équipement adéquat des locaux, d'une qualification minimale du psychothérapeute, de sa formation continue et permanente, de son intégration à un réseau d'offre régional et du fait qu'il dispose de méthodes qui ont été évaluées et qui lui permettent de traiter des troubles divers. Par rapport à la qualité des processus, les standards exigent que les processus de traitement soient définis et explicités, que les partenaires se mettent d'accord sur un contrat de traitement, qu'une analyse détaillée des problèmes et un diagnostic soient élaborés, qu'une indication soit posée et un plan de traitement préparé, que le traitement soit mené selon les règles de l'art et qu'il soit consigné dans un dossier continuellement mis à four. Quant à la qualité des résultats, il n'est pas possible de définir des standards au sens strict. Une psychothérapie ne peut avoir des objectifs positifs que si le traitement est adéquat et si des méthodes visant à constamment améliorer la démarche sont mises en œuvre (supervision, diagnostic tout au long du traitement, questions au patient concernant l'évolution, etc.). Pour qu'une thérapie obtienne de bons résultats, il faut donc continuellement évaluer son déroulement et ses objectifs; ces aspects sont aussi centraux que ceux de la prise en compte de l'évolution de la relation thérapeutique et de la motivation du patient.Pour réguler la qualité, le psychothérapeute peut et doit mettre en œuvre de lui-même des mesures adéquates (développement de son cabinet, introduction de standards au niveau des structures et/ou des processus, etc.). Pour la vérifier, on peut utiliser des enquêtes menées auprès des patients, des instruments servant à mesurer le déroulement des traitements et les processus impliqués, une démarche d'auto-observation du thérapeute, et la comparaison avec certains standards ou avec d'autres psychothérapeutes. Lorsque la qualité s'avère déficiente, il faut prendre des mesures pour l'améliorer, qui seront choisies sur la base de méthodes servant à solutionner des problèmes et que le psychothérapeute lui-même va appliquer et évaluer du point de vue de leur efficacité. On appelle ce type de gestion de qualité "gestion interne de qualité', car elle est appliquée par le responsable du traitement lui-même, contrairement aux aspects qui sont contrôlés et prescrits de l'extérieur.Concernant la base sur laquelle l'organisation de cette gestion interne peut se fonder, il s'est avéré qu'une coopération entre plusieurs psychothérapeutes au sein de "cercles de qualité en ambulatoire" peut se révéler très fructueuse. Il s'agit de groupes associant plusieurs thérapeutes exerçant dans une région donnée, qui se rencontrent sur une base volontaire et à intervalles réguliers pour travailler à l'analyse et à l'amélioration constante de la qualité de leurs traitements en utilisant la méthode de la "peer-review". Contrairement à la supervision/intervision qui s'applique aux traitements en cours, le travail de ces cercles vise à améliorer la qualité à long terme. En résumé, on peut dire que les psychothérapeutes ont déjà élaboré des systèmes de gestion de qualité qui fonctionnent. L'étape suivante devrait permettre de les implémenter d'une manière adéquate du point de vue de la pratique. A cette fin, il faudrait mener un projet devant servir de modèle et permettant de choisir la meilleure démarche. Ceci mis à part, chaque psychothérapeute peut déjà entreprendre sa propre démarche pour améliorer la qualité de ses traitements. Pour ce faire, il faudrait qu'il fixe ses propres standards, qu'il évalue sous cet angle le travail qu'il a accompli jusqu'à maintenant et qu'il prenne des mesures permettant de corriger d'éventuelles lacunes ou erreurs. Il devrait en outre tenter de trouver dans sa région d'autres thérapeutes qui seraient d'accord pour former un "cercle de qualité". ; unknown ; publishedVersion

Methoden der Sicherung und Verbesserung psychotherapeutischer Leistungen werden seit einigen Jahren intensiv diskutiert, insbesondere in Deutschland, wo gesetzliche Regelungen Anbieter und Kostenträger zur Implementierung entsprechender Systeme verpflichten. Anders ist die Situation in Österreich und der Schweiz, wo derartige Regelungen nur die stationäre Psychotherapie betreffen. Dennoch ist es notwendig, sich auch im Rahmen ambulanter Psychotherapie dieser Aufgabe zuzuwenden. Der vorliegende Beitrag erörtert nach einer Einführung in die Begrifflichkeit und Modelle zentrale Aspekte eines aktiven internen Managements der Behandlungsqualität, wobei vor allem auf Standards der Struktur-, Prozeß- und Ergebnisqualität, sowie die Planung und das Monitoring von Qualität eingegangen wird. Als organisatorische Basis ambulanten Qualitätsmanagements werden " Qualitätszirkel " vorgestellt. Wichtige Schritte weiterführender Entwicklungen auf gesetzlicher, berufständischer und der Ebene des Einzelversorgers werden abschließend diskutiert.Schlüsselwörter:Qualität, Qualitätsmanagement, Qualitätssicherung, Psychotherapie. ; Models for the assurance of the quality of psychotherapy are intensively discussed in the german speaking countries during the last years, not only in Germany, where quality assurance in psychotherapy is prescribed by law, but also in Austria and in Switzerland. Although quality assurance is obligatory only for inpatient treatment in these countries, it is very important to take outpatient treatment into consideration as well. Therefore, this paper is dedicated to this matter. After a short introduction into the terms and models central aspects of quality assurance in outpatient psychotherapy are presented (quality standards, quality monitoring and continuous quality improvement). For practical realization internal methods for the management of treatment quality seem to be most appropriate for ambulatory psychotherapy. Specific quality-related working-groups, so called "ambulatory quality-circles", may function as an organisational basis of these efforts. Although basic concepts and methods are already developed, future developments must implement them. Some necessary steps into this direction are discussed at the end of the paper.Keywords: Quality, quality-management, quality-assurance, psychotherapy. ; L'expression "garantie de qualité" est l'une des formules magiques employées par les systèmes modernes de santé, en Allemagne surtout où depuis 1989, la législation rend obligatoire l'élaboration de modèles et systèmes correspondants. En Autriche et en Suisse, les réglementations ne concernent que la psychothérapie en milieu hospitalier. Nous ne devrions toutefois par négliger d'inclure cet aspect à la psychothérapie ambulatoire, pour des raisons liées à la politique professionnelle mais aussi aux aspects juridiques de l'offre. C'est pourquoi nous lui consacrons le présent travail.Par rapport au domaine de la santé publique, on entend par qualité le degré de santé et de soulagement de la souffrance psychique, physique et sociale qu'un système et ses institutions, cabinets privés compris, peuvent apporter aux patients et à la population. Selon Donabedian (1966), il faut effectuer une distinction entre la qualité de la structure, des processus et des résultats de la psychothérapie. Il faut donc inclure dans l'ensemble "garantie de qualité" toutes les démarches et méthodes mises en œuvre pour améliorer les prestations dans ces trois domaines.Alors qu'au début on a plutôt utilisé des modèles statiques permettant de maintenir le niveau d'une prestation donnée, et en particulier de ses résultats, et de les améliorer lorsqu'ils étaient insuffisants, depuis le début des années 80 le débat a beaucoup évolué sous l'influence de modèles du type "total quality management" (Sashkin et Kiser, 1993). On enregistre une nette tendance à abandonner la dimension centrale de "qualité des résultats" pour placer l'accent sur les aspects liés à la génération de qualité en tant que processus. Dans ce sens, les modèles en rapport avec la gestion de la qualité de la psychothérapie ont acquis plus d'importance (par ex., les normes 90009004 de l'International Standards Organization, à Genève). A la base de cette gestion de qualité se situe le processus d'amélioration constante de la qualité décrit par Deming; il inclut les étapes suivantes: "planification", "régulation', "observation/monitoring" et "amélioration" de la qualité lorsque cela s'avère nécessaire. Selon ce modèle, l'aspect planification implique que l'on définisse des standards, celui de la régulation que l'on mette en œuvre à titre préventif des mesures et directives permettant d'améliorer la qualité. Le "monitoring" se fait à l'aide de méthodes et stratégies d'évaluation (enquêtes auprès des clients, évaluation du thérapeute par lui-même et par d'autres, "peer-review", à savoir l'analyse des structures et fonctions existantes par les collaborateurs et les personnes concernées). En appliquant des mesures permettant de résoudre les problèmes de manière adéquate (ex.: formation continue, renforcement de la supervision, enquêtes menées à intervalles réguliers auprès des patients, etc.), on tente d'améliorer la qualité.Comment les différents éléments inclus dans cette gestion de qualité se présentent-ils par rapport à la psychothérapie ambulatoire ? Les principaux standards au niveau de la structure se trouvent au niveau d'un équipement adéquat des locaux, d'une qualification minimale du psychothérapeute, de sa formation continue et permanente, de son intégration à un réseau d'offre régional et du fait qu'il dispose de méthodes qui ont été évaluées et qui lui permettent de traiter des troubles divers. Par rapport à la qualité des processus, les standards exigent que les processus de traitement soient définis et explicités, que les partenaires se mettent d'accord sur un contrat de traitement, qu'une analyse détaillée des problèmes et un diagnostic soient élaborés, qu'une indication soit posée et un plan de traitement préparé, que le traitement soit mené selon les règles de l'art et qu'il soit consigné dans un dossier continuellement mis à four. Quant à la qualité des résultats, il n'est pas possible de définir des standards au sens strict. Une psychothérapie ne peut avoir des objectifs positifs que si le traitement est adéquat et si des méthodes visant à constamment améliorer la démarche sont mises en œuvre (supervision, diagnostic tout au long du traitement, questions au patient concernant l'évolution, etc.). Pour qu'une thérapie obtienne de bons résultats, il faut donc continuellement évaluer son déroulement et ses objectifs; ces aspects sont aussi centraux que ceux de la prise en compte de l'évolution de la relation thérapeutique et de la motivation du patient.Pour réguler la qualité, le psychothérapeute peut et doit mettre en œuvre de lui-même des mesures adéquates (développement de son cabinet, introduction de standards au niveau des structures et/ou des processus, etc.). Pour la vérifier, on peut utiliser des enquêtes menées auprès des patients, des instruments servant à mesurer le déroulement des traitements et les processus impliqués, une démarche d'auto-observation du thérapeute, et la comparaison avec certains standards ou avec d'autres psychothérapeutes. Lorsque la qualité s'avère déficiente, il faut prendre des mesures pour l'améliorer, qui seront choisies sur la base de méthodes servant à solutionner des problèmes et que le psychothérapeute lui-même va appliquer et évaluer du point de vue de leur efficacité. On appelle ce type de gestion de qualité "gestion interne de qualité', car elle est appliquée par le responsable du traitement lui-même, contrairement aux aspects qui sont contrôlés et prescrits de l'extérieur.Concernant la base sur laquelle l'organisation de cette gestion interne peut se fonder, il s'est avéré qu'une coopération entre plusieurs psychothérapeutes au sein de "cercles de qualité en ambulatoire" peut se révéler très fructueuse. Il s'agit de groupes associant plusieurs thérapeutes exerçant dans une région donnée, qui se rencontrent sur une base volontaire et à intervalles réguliers pour travailler à l'analyse et à l'amélioration constante de la qualité de leurs traitements en utilisant la méthode de la "peer-review". Contrairement à la supervision/intervision qui s'applique aux traitements en cours, le travail de ces cercles vise à améliorer la qualité à long terme. En résumé, on peut dire que les psychothérapeutes ont déjà élaboré des systèmes de gestion de qualité qui fonctionnent. L'étape suivante devrait permettre de les implémenter d'une manière adéquate du point de vue de la pratique. A cette fin, il faudrait mener un projet devant servir de modèle et permettant de choisir la meilleure démarche. Ceci mis à part, chaque psychothérapeute peut déjà entreprendre sa propre démarche pour améliorer la qualité de ses traitements. Pour ce faire, il faudrait qu'il fixe ses propres standards, qu'il évalue sous cet angle le travail qu'il a accompli jusqu'à maintenant et qu'il prenne des mesures permettant de corriger d'éventuelles lacunes ou erreurs. Il devrait en outre tenter de trouver dans sa région d'autres thérapeutes qui seraient d'accord pour former un "cercle de qualité".

L'activité économique européenne s'est sensiblement redressée depuis un an. Le meilleur environnement monétaire, dont elle bénéficie, en raison de la hausse du dollar et de la détente des politiques monétaires, a d'ores et déjà un effet réel marqué. Les parts de marché à l'exportation des pays européens auparavant affectés par la force de leur monnaie, l'Allemagne en tout premier lieu, remontent enfin, si bien qu'au premier semestre 1997 la reprise de leur activité bénéficie pleinement d'un commerce mondial dynamique, qui a retrouvé un rythme de l'ordre de 8 % l'an. La solidité du redressement européen n'est cependant pas complètement acquise. Les projets d'investissement des entreprises européennes sont positivement orientés et révisés en hausse au cours de 1997, mais de grands pays, comme l'Allemagne, la France et l'Italie, sont à la traîne dans ce mouvement. La progression de la consommation privée est irrégulière et vulnérable aux résurgences de comportements de précaution. Afin de lever ces hésitations, il revient aux banques centrales d'user de leur pouvoir d'influence pour stabiliser les taux de change au voisinage de cours désormais jugés collectivement satisfaisants. La croissance américaine est toujours entraînée par l'ensemble des composantes de la demande. Une correction transitoire du fort stockage devrait intervenir dans la seconde partie de l'année, sans qu'il annonce un retournement de la demande finale. Les entreprises américaines participent à l'auto-entretien de la croissance par des investissements qui améliorent leur efficacité productive et permettent de concilier la hausse des profits et les créations d'emplois. L'accélération de la croissance en 1997 est facilitée par le caractère assez accommodant de l'émission de liquidités. La Réserve fédérale devrait cependant réaffirmer une attitude préventive, se traduisant par un resserrement monétaire limité d'ici la fin 1997. Le ralentissement de la croissance en 1998 (2,6 % après 3,8 % en 1997) recouvre une certaine harmonie entre l'adaptation des agents privés au réglage monétaire et la crédibilité de ce dernier. Ces perspectives sont compatibles avec une stabilisation du dollar à un cours permissif pour la consolidation de la croissance européenne (1,9 DM en 1998). Une fois passés les achats d'anticipation suscités par la hausse de la TVA en avril, l'activité japonaise a lourdement rechuté au printemps. Elle s'avère très vulnérable au sevrage budgétaire que lui impose la cure d'austérité décrétée par le gouvernement. La détente monétaire n'est pas suffisamment incitative pour dissuader les agents privés de leur préférence pour l'épargne et compenser l'impact dépressif de la politique budgétaire. Le comportement de précaution des ménages fait d'autant plus sentir ses effets en 1997 qu'ils subissent une hausse de prélèvements fiscaux et sociaux équivalente à 2,5 % de leur consommation sur l'ensemble de l'année fiscale. Le principal soutien de l'activité reste la dépréciation du yen. Les exportateurs ont cessé de perdre des parts de marché depuis l'an dernier. L'impact de la crise monétaire asiatique resterait localisé et ne serait pas suffisant pour remettre en cause la contribution positive du commerce extérieur à la croissance japonaise pour 1998. La croissance britannique s'est accélérée depuis la fin 1996 pour évoluer à un rythme de l'ordre de 4 % l'an. La demande interne en est le principal soutien. La consommation des ménages bénéficie des gains de pouvoir d'achat et de l'optimisme des salariés. Après une phase d'attentisme en 1996, l'orientation positive de l'investissement se confirme. Mais les effets restrictifs de la forte appréciation de la livre vont à l'encontre de cette accélération. La perte de compétitivité, jointe à un policy-mix soucieux de contenir toute résurgence inflationniste, remettra la croissance dans la moyenne européenne. La progression du PIB, après 3,5 % en 1997, reviendra à 3 % en 1998. L'activité est bien orientée en Allemagne au premier semestre 1997, sous l'influence expansive des débouchés extérieurs et grâce à une compétitivité améliorée. En contrepartie, la consommation des ménages continue à pâtir du recul de l'emploi tandis que l'investissement des entreprises est encore freiné par la modération de la demande interne. La situation de l'emploi devrait cependant s'améliorer au second semestre 1997 et la consommation en bénéficierait progressivement. La politique monétaire ne devrait pas freiner ce redressement de la demande intérieure, si les facteurs ponctuels qui expliquent une accélération transitoire de l'inflation ne sont pas indûment extrapolés. Grâce au relais pris par la demande intérieure et sous l'hypothèse d'une politique budgétaire modérant son caractère restrictif, la croissance allemande pourrait atteindre 2,5 %, puis 3,3 % en 1998. En France, l'activité redémarre lentement, principalement grâce à la contribution du commerce extérieur. La demande intérieure reste bridée par la poursuite du déstockage, l'atonie de la consommation et le repli de l'investissement. Le point bas de l'activité est cependant derrière nous. La croissance du PIB marchand serait de 2,1 en 1997 et de 3,3% en 1998. Les échanges extérieurs constituent cette année encore l'élément le plus dynamique de croissance du PIB. Les exportations profitent à la fois d'une demande extérieure dynamique et de l'évolution favorable des taux de change. L'excédent de la balance commerciale continuerait donc de s' am- plifier et la capacité de financement de la Nation serait excédentaire de plus de 2 points de PIB cette année et de près de 3 points l'an prochain. Le ralentissement de l'activité a freiné l'investissement d'extension des capacités de production et les entreprises ont différé le renouvellement de leurs équipements. Les entreprises ne connaissent pas de blocage d'ordre financier, mais affectent leurs ressources à un autre usage que les dépenses en capital. La permanence de taux d'intérêt réels longs élevés constitue un frein à la reprise de l'endettement. Elle entame également la profitabilité du capital physique mis en œuvre et, par là, s'oppose à l'engagement de dépenses nouvelles. Mais, en 1998 l'investissement des entreprises pourrait redémarrer. La baisse des prix de production dans l'industrie manufacturière s'interromprait, ce qui permettrait une nette décrue des taux réels et le redressement des dépenses d'investissement, à un niveau modeste toutefois au regard du repli passé. Après une année 1996 médiocre, le pouvoir d'achat du revenu des ménages accélérerait en 1997 puis en 1998. Le poids des prélèvements obligatoires dans le revenu se stabiliserait à 23 % en 1997 et s'élèverait de 0,4 point en 1998. Les revenus d'activité s'accéléreraient, portés surtout par la reprise de l'emploi en 1998 pour la masse salariale et le regain d'activité des entrepreneurs individuels. En revanche, la croissance des prestations sociales resterait faible. La consommation se redresserait, grâce au revenu et au regain de confiance des ménages. Le taux d'endettement des ménages resterait relativement modéré. Aussi ne seraient-ils pas amenés à épargner davantage pour réduire leur endettement. Le ralentissement des prix cesserait à l'horizon de la prévision. La remontée des cours des matières premières et celle du dollar met un terme à la baisse des prix de production dans l'industrie. Mais les coûts salariaux restant faibles, la hausse des prix à la consommation des produits manufacturés serait encore très modérée. L'amélioration déjà constatée de l'emploi salarié devrait se confirmer à la faveur de la consolidation de la reprise, notamment dans l'industrie. En ce qui concerne le chômage, les perspectives semblent meilleures. La croissance du chômage devrait ralentir d'ici à la fin de l'année, pour s'interrompre au premier semestre de Vannée prochaine. Sur l'ensemble de 1998, une baisse du nombre de chômeurs est possible. Mais, au regard du volume des créations d'emplois, elle serait modeste, la population active augmentant toujours vivement durant les phases de réanimation du marché du travail. Avec le changement de gouvernement, la politique budgétaire a connu deux infléchissements. Le premier, relatif à l'équilibre global du budget, a consisté à ralentir le rythme de réduction du déficit, celui-ci n'atteignant que 3,1% du PIB en 1997. Le projet de budget pour 1998 s'appuie, quant à lui, pour l'essentiel, sur l'augmentation spontanée des recettes et sur la croissance, pour assurer la stabilisation du déficit autour de 3 % du PIB. Les dépenses sont stabilisées en volume. Le second concerne les baisses d'impôts programmées par le gouvernement Juppé qui sont annulées.

The Biodiversity Coalition Newsletter No. 13 May 1996 An International NGO Network for Biodiversity Conservation (C/- P. 0., Cygnet 7112, Tasmania, Australia, ph/fax: +61-02- 9 5174 5 ) Code Number: NL96008 Size of Files: Text: 64K Graphics: Line Drawings (gif) - 19K GEF ABANDONS BIODIVERSITY In petulant refusal to be guided by the CBD's COP, let alone operate under its authority and control, the GEF Council has effectively stopped funding biodiversity projects. At its latest meeting in Washington (2-4 April 1996), GEF Council approved less than $5 million for expenditure on only two biodiversity related projects - one involves Kazakhstan which has not ratified and the other involves the ten southern African countries including Namibia and Angola which have not ratified - out of total approved expenditure of more than $260 million. --- FAO STILL UP TO ITS OLD TRICKS AT LEIPZIG FAO(UN)'s supposedly 'technical' international conference at Leipzig next month looks like being a political 'talk-fest'. This regrettable prospect is a direct and inevitable consequence of the FAO(UN)'s self-serving political aggression. On the one hand, their CPGR networks stubbornly refuse to recognise the new international legal regime with respect to ownership and control of genetic resources established by entry into force of the Biodiversity Convention. --- HELP! The Biodiversity Coalition is in desperate need of funds. Local sources of financial and in-kind support are not likely to be forthcoming next financial year (from June 1996) for a variety of reasons. While we appreciate that most recipients of the Newsletter are in no position to contribute financially to its continued publication - which is one of the objectives of the Newsletter, after all - this is a plea to those organisations and individuals who may have some capacity to pay to consider making a substantial contribution. --- EX-SITU/IN-SITU CONSERVATION - DEFINITIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES The Biodiversity Convention defines 'ex-situ conservation' as "the conservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats" while 'in-situ conservation' is defined as "the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties". --- SUSTAINABILITY - FOR WHAT AND FOR WHOM? A Job for SBSTTA "Sustainability" has become one of those words which everyone chooses to interpret in their own way to reflect their own interests. While the problem is not limited to biodiversity conservation, if the Biodiversity Convention is to be properly implemented, the CBD's COP must come up with its interpretation of sustainability - based on advice from its scientific advisory body, the SBSTTA. --- CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF TRADE IN WILD FAUNA AND FLORA (Abridged Draft Prepared by the Wildlife Use Working Group of the Species Survival Network, a network of NGOs working within CITES for the protection and conservation of species in international commercial trade, 5 Jan 1996) --- COMMERCIALISING TRADITIONAL USES - MAKING THE TRANSITION FROM HUNTER-GATHERING TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION A common theme in the history of human civilisation is the domestication of wild species of animals and plants as the key to producing agricultural surpluses capable of supporting urban communities. Such domestication is necessary to allow intensive production to meet high demand - especially in these modern days of global trade and massive markets. --- ITTO DOES BETTER Donors now contribute substantially more money to the ITTO [International Tropical Timber Organisation] than they do to the GEF biodiversity window. The graph, reproduced from the latest issue of 'Tropical Forest Update [6(1 ) March 1996/1 ], the ITTO's own in-house magazine, shows they have donated about US$130M over the last eight years. --- COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN AND COUNTRIES PROVIDING GENETIC RESOURCES - THE POLITICS OF DEFINITIONS The final text of the Biodiversity Convention refers to 'countries of origin' of and 'countries providing' genetic resources. This distinction was lobbied for by seed and gene bank interests (the IARC networks, national agencies of both 'north' and 'south' and corporations) to ensure that the Convention's benefit sharing obligations did not apply to holders or users of genetic material already held in ex-situ collections at the time of entry into force of the Convention [See Article 2. Definitions and Article 15(3) Access to Genetic Resources]. Countries of origin (of specified genetic resources) are those conserving those resources in-situ and/or providing resources directly from in-situ sources i.e., not from ex-situ collections. --- NICARAGUAN ARMY TO DEFEND NATURE: IUCN [Bulleting 4/95] reports that "Environmental conservation will now be one of the Nicaraguan army's priority objectives." "The Nicaraguan army is a green army, not because of the colour of its uniforms, but thanks to its commitment to natural resource conservation in our country", said General Joaquin Lacayo, Commander-in-Chief of the Nicaraguan armed forces. --- PAYING THE RENT With donor governments having left the field for a while in stopping GEF funding for CBD implementation, now is the time to push for establishing a COP-controlled fund based on contributions from corporate users of genetic resources - principally seed and gene companies, pharmaceutical companies and biotech companies. Exploratory discussions need to be pursued vigorously by the Secretariat to the mandate given to it by COP 2 to "further explore possibilities to identify additional financial resources" with a view to convening a meeting of interested corporations later this year. --- RATIFICATION PROGRESS 142 countries have now ratified the Convention, as of 21 February 1996. It is particularly pleasing to see that Poland and Yemen despite the latter's recent troubles, have now ratified. The following 35 countries, however, despite being original signatories to the CBD, have still not ratified. Other Governments and NGOs with access to these tardy Governments are urged to persuade them to ratify as soon as possible: As ever, the absence of the USA remains a great disappointment. --- COOPERATION GOING WELL While the GEF may have gone off in a sulk, other international agencies have been showing enthusiastic support for the CBD. Following signature of an MoU with the Ramsat Secretariat last year, the CBD Secretariat has just signed a similar MoU with the CITES Secretariat. Also, in March this year, the IOC [Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission] has committed itself to full cooperation through SBSTTA. Interestingly, it looks like UNESCO-serviced international organisations and networks, like the IOC, the Man and the Biosphere Programme and the World Heritage Committee, are all responding very positively to the CBD - in marked contrast to FAO and the World Bank. --- WHODUNNIT The Biodiversity Coalition is a project of WWF(Australia) funded by the Biodiversity Unit of the Australian Federal Government's Department of Environment. It is coordinated by Alistair Graham and its principal output is this Newsletter plus the giving of advice, encouragement and support to numerous groups and individuals, many of whom have contributed to the ideas and information in the Newsletter. For further information, please contact: Alistair Graham, C/- P.O., Cygnet 7112, Tasmania, Australia; ph/fax:+61-02-951745 --- Invitacion FORO LATINOAMERICANO DE BIODIVERSIDAD Mayo 26-29 de 1996, Centro de Convenciones Hotel Irotama, Santa Marta, Colombia, en contribucion al proceso del: Foro Global de Biodiversidad Antecedentes El Foro Latinoamericano de Biodiversidad es la contribucion regional al Foro Global de Biodiversidad auspiciado por la UICN, el WRI yel PNUMA, como un aporte al debate asociado a la Convencion sobre Diversidad Biologica firmada por los Jefes de Estados en Rio de Janiero en 1992, puesta en vigor a partir de diciembre de 1993, y hoy en dia ratificada por alrededor de 130 gobiernos. Desde entonces se hart realizado tres Foros Globales de Biodiversidad cuyos resultados han contribuido a la definicion de la agenda para la toma de decisiones durante las reuniones de la Conferencia de las Partes.

Includes bibliographical references. ; Sponsored by the ASAIHL ; published_or_final_version ; Keynote address Wang, Gungwu Wang, Gungwu 2 ; Country reports ; A Health hazards of environmental pollution ; B Monitoring and instrumentation of environmental pollution ; C Legal controls of environmental pollution ; D Treatment and prevention of environmental pollution ; Australian approaches to finger printing sources of environmental lead with isotopes Gulson, B.L. Gulson, B.L. 13 ; The contribution of health care departments in tertiary institutions in Hong Kong to combating the hazards of pollution King, A.R. King, A.R. 19 ; The role of institutions of higher learning in combating health hazards of environmental pollution Rampal, K.G. Rampal, K.G. Ismail, N. Ismail, N. 26 ; Education programmes for training of agrichemical users in New Zealand Penman, D.R. Penman, D.R. 31 ; The role of Philippine ASAIHL institutions in combating the hazards of environmental pollution in Manila Quirino, T.U. Quirino, T.U. 35 ; Characteristics of acid rain in mainland China Hong, Y.T. Hong, Y.T. 42 ; Improving the total environmental of Singapore Tan, T.C. Tan, T.C. 46 ; The role of Thai universities in combating health hazards of environmental pollution Wangsuphachart, V.L. Wangsuphachart, V.L. 54 ; Introductino 63 ; Impact of industry on the health of surrounding communities: an analysis of epidemiological and public health challenges Bhopal, R.S. Bhopal, R.S. 65 ; Epidemiology and environmental health: reliable risk measurement in well-populations Lam, T.H. Lam, T.H. Hedley, A.J. Hedley, A.J. Peters, J. Peters, J. 74 ; An investigation into the presence of anaerobic bacteria in coastal waters of Hong Kong Boost, M.V. Boost, M.V. Wong, L.P. Wong, L.P. Wong, P.S. Wong, P.S. Ma, K.C. Ma, K.C. 82 ; Pollutions within the built environment Burnett, J. Burnett, J. Chan, D.W.T. Chan, D.W.T. 87 ; The effects of pesticides use on the health of on farmers in East Java, Indonesia Mukono, J. Mukono, J. 94 ; Noise and human activities in Hong Kong: a review Tan, T.C. Tan, T.C. Wong, L.T.L. Wong, L.T.L. 98 ; Analysis of organophosphorus insecticides in vegetables Tanner, P.A. Tanner, P.A. Leung, K.H. Leung, K.H. 105 ; Health risk and environmental pollution: the hidden factors Peters, J. Peters, J. Lui, J. Lui, J. Wong, C.M. Wong, C.M. Hedley, A.J. Hedley, A.J. Lam, T.H. Lam, T.H. Ong, S.G. Ong, S.G. Tam, A.Y.C. Tam, A.Y.C. 109 ; Risk assessment and management in the prevention of adverse effects on human health and the environment Spickett, J.T. Spickett, J.T. 117 ; Indoor and outdoor pollution in shops and offices in Hong Kong and health effects Bacon-Shone, J. Bacon-Shone, J. Liao, S. Liao, S. 122 ; Climatological assessment of potential heat stress in Hong Kong Kyle, W.J. Kyle, W.J. 126 ; Asbestos dust: a silent enemy Lam, K.Y. Lam, K.Y. 131 ; Integrating environmental health problems into urban planning: problems in the Asian-Pacific region and the challenges for universities Simpson, R.W. Simpson, R.W. 134 ; Organic solvent exposure in some manufacturing industries in Malaysia Tan, G.L.E. Tan, G.L.E. 138 ; Introduction 145 ; Monitoring and instrumentation of environmental pollution Tebbutt, T.H.Y. Tebbutt, T.H.Y. 145 ; The air quality monitoring programme of the Hong Kong environmental protection department Leung, R.T.M. Leung, R.T.M. 152 ; Low technology sampling can show spatial and temporal patterns of airborne metal pollution Lloyd, O.L. Lloyd, O.L. Fay, Gailey Fay, Gailey 159 ; Heavy metal contamination in coastal waters - a case study of the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia Supriharyono Supriharyono 165 ; Determination of phosphorus in natural water at parts per trillion level by laser thermal lens effect Wu, L. Wu, L. Siu, G.G. Siu, G.G. Chiu, D.D.S. Chiu, D.D.S. Stokes, M.J. Stokes, M.J. 171 ; A geographical approach to evaluating the human impact upon water quality Peart, M.R. Peart, M.R. 178 ; Modular auto-enrichment subsystem for use in environmental high pressure liquid chromatography analysis Chen, S.C. Chen, S.C. Chang, J.Y. Chang, J.Y. Wang, R.K. Wang, R.K. 183 ; Exposure to environmental pollutants in the work environment: a case study of a traffic toll booth in Malaysia Yaziz, M.I. Yaziz, M.I. 187 ; A proposed air quality index in Hong Kong Ng, C.N. Ng, C.N. Tanner, P.A. Tanner, P.A. 191 ; Background level of trace elements in soils of mainland China Chen, J.S. Chen, J.S. Tao, S. Tao, S. Deng, B.S. Deng, B.S. Wang, X.J. Wang, X.J. 196 ; Indoor monitoring of nitrogen oxides Cheung, M.T. Cheung, M.T. 200 ; Development of a piezoelectric crystal sorption detector for continuous monitoring of organic vapours at the workplace Fung, Y.S. Fung, Y.S. 205 ; Effects of some standard fixatives on fish gill morphology Shepherd, M. Shepherd, M. Ivanstoff, W. Ivanstoff, W. 210 ; Simulation of urban traffic noise on the environment Pamanikabud, P. Pamanikabud, P. 215 ; Investigation into the haze episodes in the Kelang Valley, Malaysia Samah, A.A. Samah, A.A. 221 ; Photoacoustic determination of organic pollutant gases in Hong Kong air Shi, B. Shi, B. Siu, G.G. Siu, G.G. Chiu, D.D.S. Chiu, D.D.S. 228 ; Application of the proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE) technique for the study of respirable suspended particulated (RSP) in Hong Kong Cai, Z.X. Cai, Z.X. Sze, P.Y.K. Sze, P.Y.K. Stokes, M.J. Stokes, M.J. Young, E.C.M. Young, E.C.M. 234 ; Follow-up stream sediment geochemical reconnaissance surveys in the vicinity of Tai Mo Shan, New Territories, Hong Kong Yim, W.W.S. Yim, W.W.S. Ng, C.Y. Ng, C.Y. Thornton, I. Thornton, I. 240 ; Introduction 249 ; Environmental pollution, higher education, and the rule of law Axline, M. Axline, M. 251 ; Legal controls of environmental pollution in Asia: how effective are they? Allen, J. Allen, J. 256 ; Hong Kong's water pollution controls: are we serious? Baillie, B.G. Baillie, B.G. 265 ; Environmental law in Hong Kong - a legal practitioner's point of view Skrine, R. Skrine, R. 277 ; Has the use of unleaded petrol provided a lead-free environment in Hong Kong? Au, C.T. Au, C.T. Chou, K.M. Chou, K.M. Wong, K.Y. Wong, K.Y. 282 ; The influence of the health act on present environmental problems Prabawa Utama, S.H. Prabawa Utama, S.H. 288 ; Environmental impact assessment and the role of legislation in environmental control - the case of Malaysia Idris, A.B. Idris, A.B. Fuad, A. Fuad, A. 294 ; Social responsbility awareness assessment of selected university respondents in combating environmental pollution Barcelona, A.C. Barcelona, A.C. 301 ; Alternatives to legal controls on environmental pollution Kaine, G. Kaine, G. Reeve, I. Reeve, I. Musgrave, W. Musgrave, W. 306 ; Introduction 315 ; Towards low-waste technology Diaper, J. Diaper, J. 317 ; Changing environmental values and institution building: the role of ASAIHL Hills, P. Hills, P. 325 ; Prevention and treatment of environmental pollution Mena, M.M. Mena, M.M. 332 ; The nature and control of motor vehicle emissions - methanol as an alternative fuel Cheung, C.S. Cheung, C.S. Lui, Y.B. Lui, Y.B. Leung, T.P. Leung, T.P. 335 ; Treatment and disposal of heavy metal wastes using cementitious solidification Peralta, G.L. Peralta, G.L. Ballesteros, F.C. Ballesteros, F.C. Cepeda, M.L. Cepeda, M.L. 340 ; A membrane anaerobic system for wastewater treatment Fakrul-Razi, A. Fakrul-Razi, A. 346 ; Prevention and treatment of air pollution in Hong Kong Lam, J.C. Lam, J.C. 351 ; Environmental education - a strategy for the treatment and prevention of environmental pollution Manalo, J.A. Manalo, J.A. Sergovia, V. Sergovia, V. Hocson, T.R. Hocson, T.R. 357 ; Bacterial reduction during sewage treatment - the Hong Kong experience Hodgkiss, I.J. Hodgkiss, I.J. Chiu, S.H.C. Chiu, S.H.C. 360 ; Treatment and prevention of environmental pollution in the Philippines De Jesus, E.M. De Jesus, E.M. 366 ; Microbiological study of shellfish and water quality in Deep Bay, Hong Kong Kueh, C.S.W. Kueh, C.S.W. 369 ; Environmental deterioration in greater Bangkok, Thailand Paraken, Y. Paraken, Y. 376 ; The 'polluter pays' principle: the distribution of economic impacts Rahim, K.A. Rahim, K.A. 378

Cette étude aborde la question de la loi applicable au contrat international de construction, jusqu'à présent négligée en droit international privé québécois, en premier lieu, essentiellement du point de vue de la responsabilité du constructeur pour vice du sol ou de construction vis-à-vis du maître d'ouvrage et, accessoirement, du point de vue des rapports entre ces deux parties, les sous-traitants et les assureurs. En second lieu, il y est fait état de la condition des sociétés étrangères de construction au Québec. Si les questions de la loi applicable au fond des contrats de construction internationale et à la responsabilité contractuelle et extracontractuelle de droit commun qui en découlent ne posent pas de problème particulier, la difficulté centrale touche la qualification de la responsabilité particulière découlant en droit québécois de l'article 1688. En effet, cette qualification, contractuelle, légale, ou extracontractuelle, n'est pas certaine en droit interne. Or, elle a pour conséquence directe le choix de la règle de conflit en droit international privé et donc celui de la loi applicable. La qualification de la question permettrait aux parties d'écarter l'application de l'article 1688 C.C., même si la construction avait lieu au Québec, ce qui irait à l'encontre de la politique préventive de protection de la population québécoise que cette disposition veut promouvoir. Cependant, comme on la considère généralement d'ordre public en droit interne, on pourrait quand même écarter une solution fondée sur une loi étrangère en invoquant sa contrariété à la conception fondamentale que l'article 1688 C.C. exprime, en faisant appel, au cas par cas, à l'exception d'ordre public, telle qu'on l'entend dans l'ordre international. Plus radicalement, on pourrait aussi considérer cette disposition comme une loi de police de façon à l'appliquer à tous les contrats donnant lieu à des constructions au Québec, sans jamais tenir compte de la loi choisie par les parties pour régir leurs rapports. Lu qualification légale ou extracontractuelle de cette question permettrait d'éviter ces procédés exceptionnels, tout en faisant respecter la politique interne, puisque les parties n'auraient plus la possibilité de choisir la loi gouvernant cette responsabilité. Pour ces motifs, l'auteur opte pour cette solution, en constatant que la jurisprudence de droit interne se prononce en ce sens, que la Cour d'appel, dans un litige de droit international privé, a adopté une solution qui pourrait s'expliquer de cette façon et, enfin, que l'article 35 de la Loi sur la qualification des entrepreneurs de construction exprime une approche législative territorialiste de la question. Mais le problème consiste alors à déterminer le facteur de rattachement approprié. L'auteur propose une règle de conflit à caractère substantiel comportant un facteur de rattachement alternatif; se traduisant par un choix entre la loi du lieu de la construction et celle de l'établissement principal du constructeur, selon celle qui serait la plus favorable au maître d'ouvrage, ce qui aurait aussi l 'avantage de protéger le public. Dans les deux hypothèses de qualification, il faut déterminer le domaine d'application de la loi régissant la responsabilité du constructeur vis-à-vis du maître d'ouvrage et l 'auteur examine notamment la question de la loi relative au délai ou à la prescription de l'action en regard des règles matérielles complexes contenues aux articles 2190 et 2191 C.C. Par ailleurs, il s'efforce de préciser la loi applicable aux rapports de sous-traitance, notamment entre le sous-traitant et le maître d'ouvrage. Il examine aussi les nombreuses règles de police régissant le contrat d'assurance dans la même optique du contrat de construction internationale. Enfin, l'étude s'attache à présenter une vue d'ensemble des règles régissant l'activité des sociétés étrangères de construction au Québec, notamment au plan des procédures de soumission et d'adjudication, pour les contrats de construction privés comme pour ceux donnés par les organismes publics. ; Abstract: This study discusses issues pertaining to the law that applies to international construction contracts, an area that up to now has received little attention in Quebec private international law. The first part deals with the builder's responsibility towards the client for defects of construction or of the land. It also examines, the relationship between the client and the builder, the subcontractors and the insurers. The second part describes the conditions that apply to foreign construction companies in Quebec. Even though the legal questions that pertain to international construction contracts and to the contractual and extracontractual responsibilities under common law pose no unusual problems, the primary difficulty concerns the liability which results from article 1688 of the Civil Code. In fact, the determination whether this responsibility is contractual, legal or extracontractual remains uncertain in internal law. As a result, one must choose the rule in private international law that would govern this conflict and then determine which law in fact applies. To hold that this responsibility is contractual would exclude the application of article 1688 C.C. even if the construction tookplace in Quebec. This would be contrary to the preventive aim of this article, which is intended to protect the public. However, since the article in question is generally considered to be of public order in internal law, one could eliminate the application of a foreign law by invoking that the latter contradicts the basic concepts expressed in article 1688 C.C. and by using the public order exception clause. As a more radical approach it could be argued that this article constitutes a law of police and should apply to al1 contracts that pertain to construction in Quebec, thereby excluding any other law chosen by the parties to govern their relationships The qualification that liability is legal or extracontractual in such matters permits one to avoid recourse to these exceptional measures, while at the same time ensuring respect for internal policies, because the parties would no longer have the possibility of choosing the law that would govern liability. For these reasons, the writer, noting that this is the point of view held by jurisprudence, recommends this solution. The Court of Appeal, in a case involving private international law, decided the issue in a manner consonant with this approach and section 35 of an Act respecting the qualifications of construction contractors expresses a similar territorialist legislative approach to the question. Thus the problem then becomes one of merely finding the appropriate connecting factor. The writer proposes a substantive conflict rule that includes alternative criteria for eligibility, based on either the location of the construction project or else on the situation of the principal place of business of the builder, according to whichever one would be the most favorable for the client. This would also have the advantage of offering the greatest protection to the public. In effecting a characterization according to these alternative connecting factors, one must determine the pertinent law governing the responsibility of the contractor toward the owner. For instance, the writer examines the prescriptive delays applicable to law-suits in light of the material rules set out in articles 21 90 and 21 91 C.C. In addition, he seeh to determine the law pertaining to subcontracts and in particular, to the relationship between subcontractors and the client. He also examines the numerous laws of police that govern insurance contracts in the same field of international construction contracts. Finally, this study aims at presenting an overview of the rules that regulate the activities of foreign construction companies operating in Quebec, with emphasis on procedures for the submission of tenders and the awarding of contracts by private parties as well as by public bodies.

Our society is undergoing a progressive change about the life style and habits. The world population is continuously increasing with 7.6 billion of human beings in 2018, resulting in an increasingly demand of resources in terms of food, water and energy. The exploitation of the planet resources since the first Industrial Revolution, results today in an unsustainable condition, which requires fundamental changes. In particular, in the energy sector the adoption of fossil fuels as the main energy source for human beings' activities resulted in a strong impact on our planet, leading to climate changes and environmental pollution. Nowadays these aspects have induced society to a substantial challenge to find new sustainable energy sources for the future of human civilization. Low-grade thermal energy, derived from industrial or geothermal sources, represents an interesting resource for energy production. Indeed, huge amounts of low-grade thermal energy are available. Considering the industrial sector an amount ranging between 20-50% of the energetic input of industrial plants, are lost every day, in the form of hot gasses and liquid streams. However, the recovery and re-use of low-grade thermal energy or waste heat is limited due to the lack of efficient technologies for converting low-temperature heat sources into electrical power. Recently, Salinity Gradient Power Heat Engines (SGP-HEs) have been proposed as a viable process for the recovery of low-grade heat. In particular, this PhD thesis focuses on the analysis of Reverse Electrodialysis Heat Engines (RED-HEs), contributing to the activities of the European project "RED-Heat-to-Power" funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (www.red-heat-to-power.eu). The aim of the project is to study and develop the first prototypes for the conversion of low-grade heat into electricity through a reverse electrodialysis (RED) unit. A reverse electrodialysis heat engine consists of two main units: (i) a power generation unit based on the reverse electrodialysis process, where the salinity gradient between two salt solutions is exploited to produce electricity, and (ii) a regeneration unit where low-grade heat is used to restore the salinity gradient of the reverse electrodialysis solutions exiting from the power generation unit. The restoring of the two solutions can be achieved by means of different strategies, e.g. solvent extraction and salt extraction, as summarized in the following. (a) In solvent extraction, the salt exchanged within the reverse electrodialysis unit is integrated by adding a part of the exhausted dilute stream to the exhausted concentrate stream, then, the resulting solution is fed to the regenerative unit where solvent is recovered by a thermal separation process (e.g. multi-effect distillation, membrane distillation) and transferred to the dilute solution. (b) In salt extraction, the exhausted dilute solution is fed to the regenerative unit where the salt is recovered by using low-grade heat as an energy source and transferred again to the concentrate solution. Rebalancing of the solvent is eventually carried-out to restore the solvent amount in the two streams. The main objective of this thesis is to provide a proof of the ground-breaking concept of a reverse electrodialysis heat engine, demonstrating the technological readiness level of such technology at a lab-scale prototype level. To this aim, both configuration, solvent and salt extraction reverse electrodialysis heat engines were investigated. The first part of this PhD thesis was dedicated to the development of a mathematical model for the RED process, based on a multi-scale modelling approach, considering two different scales of description: (i) a lower-scale model, describing the main phenomena involved in a single repeating unit (cell pair) and (ii) a higher-scale model related to the whole system, including all cell pairs and the relevant interconnections. The mathematical model was validated against experimental results and integrated with exergy analysis tools useful to evaluate the main causes and location of irreversibility sources. Ad hoc experimental campaigns were carried out in order to characterize the behaviour of different salt-water solutions, membrane properties and the operability of lab-scale units. In particular, a purposely-developed test rig was built in order to evaluate the osmotic and activity coefficients of salt-solutions from vapour pressure measurements, then used to determine novel data for caesium and potassium acetate salt solutions. This activity was performed at the University of Edinburgh, during a period abroad of six months. Furthermore, several experimental results on lab-scale reverse electrodialysis unit were carried out in order to provide membrane properties and experimental results for the mathematical model validation. In the case of solvent extraction strategies, validated mathematical models were developed for a reverse electrodialysis heat engine implementing either membrane distillation or multi-effect distillation as regeneration unit. These activities were performed in collaboration with the "Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT)" of Almeria. Finally, an exergy analysis at component level was performed for the integrated RED-MED HE, analysing the impact of the main operating conditions and membranes properties on the exergy efficiency of the system and identifing the main irreversibility sources. In the case of salt extraction strategies, thermolytic salts were selected and studied as working solutions of the RED-HE. Solutions of thermolytic salts have the peculiarity that their ions dissolved in water undergo a degradation process into gaseous species when the temperature is increased over a certain limit. Then, the dissolved thermolytic salt can be removed nearly completely from the solution by means of a thermal desorption process. The stripped gaseous species can be dissolved again in the aqueous solutions through an absorption step, resulting in an aqueous solution consisting of the very same ions of the thermolytic salt. Experimental test-rigs were designed, built and tested to investigate the stripping process of thermolytic salts. Mathematical models were developed in ASPEN Plus® and validated by comparison with experimental results. The model was also used to perform a sensitivity analysis and investigate the performance of the whole regeneration unit, including also the absorption process. Then, a mathematical model of a RED-HE fed by thermolytic salts was developed by coupling the ASPEN Plus® process model for the regeneration unit to the RED process model and used to perform sensitivity analyses. Finally, all the knowledge gained by theoretical and experimental works have made possible the design, construction and operation of the first world prototype of the thermolytic RED HE, demonstrating for the first time the feasibility of the process. The present thesis has been organised in order to cover the main aspects of the RED process and describe the aforementioned objectives. Chapter 1 introduces the concept of salinity gradient power (SGP) and related SGP-HEs, describing the SGP-HE concept and analysing the state of the art of the technology. Section I - Reverse Electrodialysis process Chapter 2 presents an overview of the reverse electrodialysis process, describing the technological fundamentals, experimental tests and modelling. Chapter 3 reports an original exergy analysis of the RED unit and the potential applications of the process in real environments. Chapter 4 presents the analysis on the influence of salt-solution properties on the RED-HE performance, reporting novel osmotic and activity coefficients for potassium acetate and caesium acetate water solutions. Section II - Solvent Extraction: RED with evaporative regeneration unit Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 are dedicated to the solvent extraction reverse electrodialysis heat engine. In particular, Chapter 5 reports the simplified mathematical models used to evaluate preliminary performances of (i) theoretical SGP unit fed by different salt solutions, (ii) RED-MED HE and (iii) RED-MD HE fed by NaCl solutions. Chapter 6 describes the advanced RED-MED-HE model developed to perform exergy analysis on the integrated system. Section III - Salt Extraction: Thermolytic salts Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 reports the analysis on thermolytic salts. In particular, Chapter 7 is focused on the regeneration unit of thermolytic salts presenting mathematical models and experimental assessments. Chapter 8 presents the first operating thermolytic RED heat engine (t-RED HE) and a perspective analysis based a validated process model for the t-RED HE.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability worldwide. AIMS: To examine the: (a) 12-month prevalence of DSM-IV MDD; (b) proportion aware that they have a problem needing treatment and who want care; (c) proportion of the latter receiving treatment; and (d) proportion of such treatment meeting minimal standards. METHOD: Representative community household surveys from 21 countries as part of the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. RESULTS: Of 51 547 respondents, 4.6% met 12-month criteria for DSM-IV MDD and of these 56.7% reported needing treatment. Among those who recognised their need for treatment, most (71.1%) made at least one visit to a service provider. Among those who received treatment, only 41.0% received treatment that met minimal standards. This resulted in only 16.5% of all individuals with 12-month MDD receiving minimally adequate treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Only a minority of participants with MDD received minimally adequate treatment: 1 in 5 people in high-income and 1 in 27 in low-/lower-middle-income countries. Scaling up care for MDD requires fundamental transformations in community education and outreach, supply of treatment and quality of services. ; The work contained in this paper is carried out in conjunction with the World Health Organization World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative, which is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; R01 MH070884), the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Pfizer Foundation, the US Public Health Service (R13-MH066849, R01-MH069864, and R01 DA016558), the Fogarty International Center (FIRCA R03-TW006481), the Pan American Health Organization, Eli Lilly and Company, Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi Aventis and Bristol-Myers Squibb. We thank the staff of the WMH Data Collection and Data Analysis Coordination Centres for assistance with instrumentation, fieldwork and consultation on data analysis. None of the funders had any role in the design, analysis, interpretation of results or preparation of this paper. A complete list of all within-country and cross-national WMH publications can be found at http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/wmh/. The Argentina survey – Estudio Argentino de Epidemiología en Salud Mental (EASM) – was supported by a grant from the Argentinian Ministry of Health (Ministerio de Salud de la Nación). The Bulgarian Epidemiological Study of common mental disorders EPIBUL is supported by the Ministry of Health and the National Center for Public Health Protection. The Chinese World Mental Health Survey Initiative is supported by the Pfizer Foundation. The Colombian National Study of Mental Health (NSMH) is supported by the Ministry of Social Protection. The Mental Health Study Medellín – Colombia was carried out and supported jointly by the Center for Excellence on Research in Mental Health (CES University) and the Secretary of Health of Medellín. The ESEMeD project is funded by the European Commission (Contracts QLG5-1999-01042; SANCO 2004123 and EAHC 20081308), (the Piedmont Region (Italy)), Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain (FIS 00/0028), Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain (SAF 2000-158-CE), Departament de Salut, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBER CB06/02/0046, RETICS RD06/0011 REM-TAP), and other local agencies and by an unrestricted educational grant from GlaxoSmithKline. Implementation of the Iraq Mental Health Survey (IMHS) and data entry were carried out by the staff of the Iraqi MOH and MOP with direct support from the Iraqi IMHS team with funding from both the Japanese and European Funds through United Nations Development Group Iraq Trust Fund (UNDG ITF). The Israel National Health Survey is funded by the Ministry of Health with support from the Israel National Institute for Health Policy and Health Services Research and the National Insurance Institute of Israel. The World Mental Health Japan (WMHJ) Survey is supported by the Grant for Research on Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases and Mental Health (H13-SHOGAI-023, H14-TOKUBETSU-026, H16-KOKORO-013) from the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The Lebanese National Mental Health Survey (LEBANON) is supported by the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health, the WHO (Lebanon), National Institute of Health/Fogarty International Center (R03 TW006481-01), Sheikh Hamdan Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Award for Medical Sciences, anonymous private donations to IDRAAC, Lebanon, and unrestricted grants from AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, Hikma Pharmaceuticals, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck, Novartis and Servier. The Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (MNCS) is supported by The National Institute of Psychiatry Ramon de la Fuente (INPRFMDIES 4280) and by the National Council on Science and Technology (CONACyT-G30544-H), with supplemental support from the PanAmerican Health Organization (PAHO). The Psychiatric Enquiry to General Population in Southeast Spain – Murcia (PEGASUS-Murcia) Project has been financed by the Regional Health Authorities of Murcia (Servicio Murciano de Salud and Consejería de Sanidad y Política Social) and Fundación para la Formación e Investigación Sanitarias (FFIS) of Murcia. The Nigerian Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (NSMHW) is supported by the WHO (Geneva), the WHO (Nigeria), and the Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria. The Peruvian World Mental Health Study was funded by the National Institute of Health of the Ministry of Health of Peru. The Portuguese Mental Health Study was carried out by the Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medical Sciences, NOVA University of Lisbon, with collaboration of the Portuguese Catholic University, and was funded by Champalimaud Foundation, Gulbenkian Foundation, Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and Ministry of Health. The Romania WMH study projects 'Policies in Mental Health Area' and 'National Study regarding Mental Health and Services Use' were carried out by National School of Public Health & Health Services Management (former National Institute for Research & Development in Health, present National School of Public Health Management & Professional Development, Bucharest), with technical support of Metro Media Transilvania, the National Institute of Statistics – National Centre for Training in Statistics, SC. Cheyenne Services SRL, Statistics Netherlands and were funded by Ministry of Public Health (former Ministry of Health) with supplemental support of Eli Lilly Romania SRL. The São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey is supported by the State of São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) Thematic Project Grant03/00204-3. The Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development supports L.A. (CNPq Grant #307623/2013-0). The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; U01-MH60220) with supplemental support from the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF; Grant 044708) and the John W. Alden Trust. G.T. is supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College London Foundation Trust. G.T. is supported by the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) Emerald project. This paper is an output of the PRogramme for Improving Mental health carE (PRIME). The material has been funded by UK aid from the UK Government, however, the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government's official policies. The research supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College London Foundation Trust. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. The authors acknowledge financial support from the Department of Health via the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre and Dementia Unit awarded to South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London and King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the World Health Organization

The parallel epidemics of childhood asthma and obesity over the past few decades have spurred research into obesity as a risk factor for asthma. However, little is known regarding the role of asthma in obesity incidence. We examined whether early-onset asthma and related phenotypes are associated with the risk of developing obesity in childhood.This study includes 21 130 children born from 1990 to 2008 in Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the UK. We followed non-obese children at 3-4 years of age for incident obesity up to 8 years of age. Physician-diagnosed asthma, wheezing and allergic rhinitis were assessed up to 3-4 years of age.Children with physician-diagnosed asthma had a higher risk for incident obesity than those without asthma (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.66, 95% CI 1.18-2.33). Children with active asthma (wheeze in the last 12 months and physician-diagnosed asthma) exhibited a higher risk for obesity (aHR 1.98, 95% CI 1.31-3.00) than those without wheeze and asthma. Persistent wheezing was associated with increased risk for incident obesity compared to never wheezers (aHR 1.51, 95% CI 1.08-2.09).Early-onset asthma and wheezing may contribute to an increased risk of developing obesity in later childhood. ; This work was partially supported by the Southern California Environmental Health Sciences Center (grant # P30ES007048) funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [PI Gilliland]. Dr. Contreras was supported by a grant from the NIH T32ES013678. MEDALL and CHICOS Projects: The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Program(Health–F2-grantagreements No. 261357 and 241604). Per cohort ABCD: Data of the Amsterdam Born Children and their Development cohort study used in this research was in part supported by funds from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw 40–00812-98–11010). The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. BAMSE: We acknowledge all funding sources: The Swedish Research Council, The Swedish Heart and Lung Foundation, The Swedish Research Council for Working Life and Social Welfare, the Swedish Asthma and Allergy Association Research Foundation, The Swedish Research Council Formas, Stockholm County Council, and the European Commission's Seventh Framework 29 Program Me DALL under grant agreement No.261357. We thank all the children and their parents for participating in the BAMSE cohort and the nurses and other staff members working in the BAMSE project. EDEN: We acknowledge all the funding sources for the EDEN study: Foundation for medical research (FRM), National Agency for Research (ANR), National Institute for Research in Public health (IRESP: TGIR cohorte santé 2008 program), French Ministry of Health (DGS), French Ministry of Research, INSERM Bone and Joint Diseases National Research (PRO-A) and Human Nutrition National Research Programs, Paris–Sud University, Nestlé, French National Institute for Population Health Surveillance (InVS),French National Institute for Health Education (INPES), the European Union FP7programmes (FP7/2007-2013, HELIX, ESCAPE, ENRIECO, Medall projects), Diabetes National Research Program (through a collaboration with the French Association of Diabetic Patients (AFD)), French Agency for Environmental Health Safety (now ANSES), Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale a complementary health insurance (MGEN),French national agency for food security, French speaking association for the study ofdiabetes and metabolism (ALFEDIAM).We acknowledge the commitment of the EDEN mother-child cohort study group: I.Annesi-Maesano, JY. Bernard, J. Botton, M.A. Charles, P. Dargent-Molina, B. de Lauzon-Guillain, P. Ducimetière, M. de Agostini, B. Foliguet, , A. Forhan, X. Fritel, A. Germa, V.Goua, R. Hankard, B. Heude, M. Kaminski, B. Larroque†, N. Lelong, J. Lepeule, G.Magnin, L. Marchand, C. Nabet, F. Pierre, R. Slama, M.J. Saurel-Cubizolles, M.Schweitzer, O. Thiebaugeorges.The Generation R Study:The Generation R study is made possible by financial support from the Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), the Ministry of Health, Welfareand Sport and the Ministry of Youth and Families. The project received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (LIFECYCLE project, grant agreement no 733206; 2016), the European Research Council (ERC-2014-CoG-648916) and from cofunded ERA-Net on Biomarkers for Nutrition and Health (ERAHDHL), Horizon 2020 (grant agreement no 696295; 2017), ZonMW The Netherlands (no529051014; 2017), Science Foundation Ireland (no SFI/16/ERA-HDHL/3360), and the European Union (ALPHABET project).The researchers are independent from the funders. The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. INMA: Data used for this research was provided by the INMA-Environment and Childhood Project (www.proyectoinma.org). This study was funded by grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Red INMA G03/176 and CB06/02/0041), Spanish Ministry of Health (FIS-PIO41436, PI06/0867, PI081151, and FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1112,04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314 and 09/02647), Generalitat de Catalunya-CIRIT 1999SGR00241, the Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana, Department of Health of the Basque Government (2005111093 and 2009111069), the ProvincialGovernment of Gipuzkoa (DFG06/004 and DFG08/001).KOALA: The collection of the data from the KOALA Birth Cohort Study used in this analysis was financially supported by Friesland Foods (now Friesland Campina),Netherlands Asthma Foundation (grant numbers 3.2.07.022 and 3.2.03.48), Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant number 2014 T037, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (Zon Mw Prevention Program number 1.210-00-090), Triodos Foundation, Phoenix Foundation, Raphaël Foundation, Iona Foundation, Foundation forthe Advancement of Heilpedagogie, all in the Netherlands. MAS:The MAS birth cohort was funded by grants from the German Federal Ministry ofEducation and Research (BMBF; reference numbers 07015633, 07 ALE 27, 01EE9405/5,01EE9406) and the German Research Foundation (DFG; reference number KE 1462/2-1).PIAMA: The PIAMA study has been funded by The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development; The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research; The Netherlands Asthma fund; The Netherlands Ministry of Spatial Planning Housing, and the Environment; and The Netherlands Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. RHEA: The Rhea project was financially supported by European projects (EU FP6-003-Food-3-NewGeneris -Contract No16320, EU FP6 STREP Hiwate -Contract No36224,EU FP7 ENV.2007.1.2.2.2. Project No 211250 Escape, EU FP7-2008-ENV-1.2.1.4 Envirogenomarkers Contract No226756, EU FP7-HEALTH-2009-single stage CHICOS Contract No241604, EU FP7 ENV.2008.1.2.1.6. Proposal No 226285 ENRIECO, EU-FP7,Proposal No 264357 MeDALL, EU- FP7-HEALTH-2012 Proposal No 308333 HELIX),and the Greek Ministry of Health (Program of Prevention of obesity and neurodevelopmental disorders in preschool children, in Heraklion district, Crete, Greece:2011-2014; "Rhea Plus": Prevention Program of Environmental Risk Factors for Reproductive Health, and Child Health: 2012-2015).ROBBIC: Data of the Rome cohort was in part supported byfunds from the Italian Ministry of Health (Programma speciale ex art. 12, comma 2, lettera b) del D. Lgs. 502/92,2001, 2003). We thank all the fields workers and the families for their contribution to thestudy. SWS: We thank the members of the Southampton Women's Survey Study group and the many participants in the SWS for their contribution to the study. The Southampton Women's Survey is supported by grants from the Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Food Standards Agency, British Lung Foundation, Arthritis Research UK, NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, and the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), project Early Nutrition under grant agreement n°289346.

El propósito de esta tesis es analizar la participación de migrantes que viven en villas de la ciudad de Buenos Aires en la movilización política por el derecho a la vivienda. La formulación teórica de este problema de investigación se ubica en la intersección de un conjunto de líneas de gran vigencia, no sólo en la Argentina sino también a nivel internacional: las migraciones internacionales, la informalidad urbana y la política popular. En la Argentina, en el transcurso de la última década se han desarrollado varias movilizaciones políticas ancladas en derechos sociales. La lucha por la vivienda que se ha venido librando en la capital del país constituye un caso destacado. Dicho proceso se compone de un conjunto de movilizaciones estructuradas alrededor de las necesidades de los sectores que sufren las consecuencias de la precariedad social y económica, entre las que sobresalen las de tipo habitacional. Los entramados de actores que se organizan en torno a las demandas de las villas, ejemplos emblemáticos de la informalidad urbana en el país, aparecen entre los protagonistas más visibles de estas disputas políticas, que interpelan principalmente al Estado local. Los colectivos migrantes han habitado históricamente las villas en porcentajes muy significativos. Ello les ha acarreado procesos de estigmatización en los que se combinan factores étnicos y de clase, con profundas consecuencias simbólicas. En los procesos que analizo, los migrantes que residen en dichos barrios precarios emergen como sus representantes políticos legítimos ante el Estado y otros actores. El caso estudiado arroja luz sobre un conjunto de situaciones en las que la movilización política, si bien persigue la efectivización de derechos reconocidos, también deja entrever un horizonte de transformación simbólica, de disputa de márgenes sociales. Mi trabajo se centra en el análisis de un caso, la participación de migrantes, mayoritariamente peruanos, en la citada lucha por la vivienda. Para ello, me focalizo en un contexto específico, la villa Playón de Chacarita, localizada en la ciudad de Buenos Aires. A través del estudio de dicho caso, mi investigación busca contribuir a la comprensión de un fenómeno social, la participación de sujetos marginalizados en procesos políticos con efectos significativos en términos de reconfiguración de márgenes sociales y simbólicos. La argumentación teórica que sustenta la tesis es la siguiente: los "problemas sociales" vinculados a las migraciones y a las villas responden a procesos históricos de construcción simbólica, en los que el Estado argentino ha jugado un rol central. Al igual que sucede con todas las construcciones simbólicas, las "cuestiones" migratoria y villera han adquirido realidad material, localizándose en los márgenes. Si bien los márgenes exhiben una dimensión territorial, en mi investigación son entendidos como espacios sociales y simbólicos. Se trata de procesos que forman parte de dinámicas que atraviesan y vinculan a la sociedad, en relación con las cuales deben ser estudiados. En dichos espacios, la reproducción social se apoya fuertemente en recursos sociales, redes y capital social, lo cual moldea sociabilidades particulares. Ello se expresa en las politicidades que allí se construyen, cuya complejidad debe ser abordada a través de enfoques que aprehendan sus dimensiones cotidiana y extraordinaria, al tiempo que atiendan a su territorialidad. Las experiencias de los migrantes villeros aparecen como elementos fundamentales para comprender los rasgos que adopta la politicidad que sustenta la movilización política, cuyas implicancias resultan especialmente significativas en términos de la reconfiguración de esos márgenes. La estrategia metodológica consiste en un diseño de investigación basado en un estudio de caso. El diseño recurre a una "triangulación" de métodos de investigación y tipos de información. Las herramientas empleadas son principalmente cualitativas e incluyen entrevistas en profundidad (a migrantes delegados y referentes barriales, militantes de diversas organizaciones, funcionarios públicos, entre otros actores clave), observación participante y no participante (en asambleas, reuniones, cortes de calle, protestas, reuniones con funcionarios, etc.), y análisis documental (leyes, proyectos de leyes y decretos; documentos de agencias gubernamentales y ONGs; notas de prensa y publicaciones en blogs). Las disputas que se libran en los márgenes encierran un doble valor analítico que las ciencias sociales no deben soslayar. Por un lado, dan cuenta de los rasgos y las dinámicas de los espacios sociales donde se concentran las vulneraciones más dramáticas; y por otro, permiten reflexionar acerca de las relaciones de poder que, en definitiva, moldean a nuestras sociedades contemporáneas. En suma, la tesis se propone aportar a una comprensión más acabada de este fenómeno, cuya relevancia social y sociológica resulta indiscutible. ; The aim of this PhD thesis is to analyze the participation of migrants that live in Buenos Aires city's slums in the political mobilization for their right to housing. This research problem stands at the intersection of three important lines of research: international migrations, urban informality and popular politics. Several political mobilizations demanding social rights have been taking place during the past decade in Argentina. The ―struggle for housing‖ held in the country's capital city is a standing example of this trend. This struggle gathers diverse mobilizations undertaken by groups that suffer the worst social and economic inequalities, including housing-related problems. Slums are the most emblematic examples of urban informality in Argentina. Actors organized around slums' demands are among the most visible ones in these struggles. Their claims are often addressed at the local State. Migrant groups have historically accounted for large percentages of the slums' population. This has led to stigmatization processes that combine different factors, such as ethnicity and social class, with persistent symbolic effects on migrants living in slums. This dissertation analyzes political processes in which migrants living in slums became their leaders and legitimate representatives before the State and other actors. The analysis sheds light on situations in which the political mobilization not only seeks the enforcement of legally recognized rights; it also looks for symbolic transformations, for margins reconfiguring. Through a case study, the participation of migrants (mostly Peruvians) that live in the slum known as ―Playon de Chacarita‖ in the struggle for housing, this dissertation looks to contribute to the deeper understanding of a more complex social phenomenon: the participation of marginalized actors in political processes with meaningful impacts in terms of margins reconfiguring. ―Social problems‖ involving migrations and slums in Argentina are the result of historic processes of symbolic construction, in which the State has played a key role. Like every other symbolic construction, migration and slum-related ―social problems‖ become material and take place at the margins. Although margins have a territorial dimension, they are here understood as social and symbolic spaces. They are also processes, part of larger social dynamics that connect them with the society. Therefore, margins should be studied in their relation with these social dynamics. In these spaces, social reproduction relays on social resources: social capital and networks. The sociability that is shaped under the influence of these social resources shows special traits. These traits also reflect on the politicity that is produced at the margins, which should be analyzed in its day-to-day and extraordinary expressions, as well as in its territorial dimension. The experiences of migrants that live in slums become key sources to achieve a full understanding of the political mobilization; one that has meaningful effects in terms of margins reconfiguring. The methodological strategy consists on a case study. It proposes a ―triangulation‖ of qualitative methods, including in-depth interviews (to migrant local leaders, activists, State officials, among other key actors), observation (at assemblies, meetings, protests, etc.) and document analysis (laws, bills, decrees; documents issued by State agencies and NGOs; and media and blog articles). Struggles held at the margins are interesting in two different ways. On one hand, they reveal the logics of the social spaces that concentrate the most serious contemporary social problems. On the other hand, they foster reflections on the power relations that ultimately shape our societies. This dissertation seeks to achieve a deeper understanding of a phenomenon, which social and sociological relevance cannot be argued. ; Fil: Vaccotti Martins, Luciana Sofia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales; Argentina

SummaryThe current debate on expanded economic cooperation in the Nordic countries has been going on for more than two years. The Prime Ministers of the four countries have met on at least ten occasions. The government officials have presented three extensive reports with concrete proposals. The Nordic Council has devoted the bulk of its last three sessions to this question. The Nordic daily press has produced thousands of editorials and a substantially larger number of news articles on the subject. The interest organizations have examined the concrete proposals and have criticized or commended them from their point of view. The political parties have list ell to and participated in the debate, made tactical moves, aggregated conflicting views and on the basis of these have formulated new standpoints. Less is known, however, about public opinion concerning the Nordek plans, but a couple of opinion polls in Denmark and Finland provide some indication.According to a Danish poll published in February 1969, 61 % of the respondents in a representative sample of the Danish population were positive toward an expanded economic cooperation among the Nordic countries, while only 5% were against it. In another poll presented in September the Same year, 43% of the respondents preferred Danish membership in the EEC along with Great Britain to a Nordic economic union. 26 % answered positively to the question of whether Denmark ought to join the EEC even if Great Britain did not. A larger proportion or 33% preferred a Nordic economic union under the condition that Britain did not join the EEC.Over half of the respondents in a Finnish opinion poll conducted at the end of January 1970 believed that Nordek would have predominantly positive effects, while 25% were of the opinion that the advantages and disadvantages were equal. Classifying the respondents according to party sympathies, the results were that 74% of the supporters of the Liberal People's party believed that the advantages were greater than the disadvantages. For the remaining parties, the figures were: 72% for the Swedish People's party, 69% for the coalition party, 55% for the Social Democrats, 49% for the Center party and 32% for the People's Democrats.The Nordic parliaments have debated the Nordek issue to a varying extent. The Danish Folketing and the Norwegian Starting have held several debates devoted especially to the market questions; the debates have opened with accounts given by government representatives concerning the negotiations. In the Finnish parliament and the Swedish Riksdag on the other hand, the Nordek plan has not been discussed to any great extent. So far in Finland, it has been discussed in parliament once (in December 1969), while in Sweden it has been dealt with on intermittent occasions but a special Nordek debate has not been arranged.The manner in which the governments have kept themselves informed of the view of the interest organizations has also varied in the four countries. In Denmark, Norway and Sweden the organizations have been urged to submit official comments. In Finland a formal procedure has been avoided and instead frequent informal contacts between the negotiating officials and representatives of the organizations have been relied upon. A system ‐ similar to that in Finland ‐ has also existed in the other three countries in addition to the official channels.The interest organizations strongly supporting Nordek have been a united Nordic trade union movement and the Federation of Swedish Industries. Criticism or outright rejections have been conveyed by the Danish Council of Industry, the Federation of Norwegian Industries, and the farmers' organizations in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Information about the attitudes of the Finnish organizations is not available.The majority of the political parties in the Nordic countries have backed Nordek. Among the clearly positive parties are the four Social Democratic parties, all the Liberal parties (except the Danish Liberals), the Conservative parties in Finland and Sweden, the Christian People's party in Norway and the Center party in Sweden. The Norwegian Center party and the Danish Conservatives have been more hesitant, although increasingly more positive with the passing of time. The Center party in Finland and rhe Liberals in Denmark have mainly expressed negative points of view. The People's Democrats/Communists and the Social Democratic League in Finland and the Conservative party in Norway have been the most vigorous critics of Nordek.The Swedish government, as far as one can tell, has been united in its support of Nordek. In the remaining three countries, however, clear differences in opinions have been discernible between the Prime Ministers, who have been mainly positive, and individual ministers who have been negative. The Danish Prime Minister Baunsgaard has not always shared the views of the Minister of Market Affairs, Nyboe Andersen, on Nordek; and on several occasions statements by Foreign Minister Karjalainen have differed from the views expressed by the Finnish Prime Minister Koivisto. In Norway differences in opinion between Prime Minister Borten and Minister of Trade Willoch have been markedly noticeable.The Nordek debate has centered around five issues: (1) the Nordic customs union and the relations to the EEC, (2) agriculture, (3) fishery policy, (4) institutional arrangements, (5) the construction and size of the funds and the investment bank. The four countries have attached varying weight to specific problems. The Danes have often emphasized the importance of extensive cooperation in agriculture, have desired strong and nationally independent organs of cooperation, have advocated suspension of tariffs on certain industrial goods for an unlimited period of time, and have demanded as an absolute prerequisite for participating in the Nordek cooperation that it be compatible with future membership in the EEC. The Finns have wanted to retain their extensive trade with Eastern Europe and have demanded that consideration be given to their special agricultural problems, and have underlined their lack of interest in both EEC membership and association. The Norwegians have also demanded tariff suspensions for an unlimited period for certain goods, have put forward special requests concerning fisheries, and have stressed the importance of compatibility between the Nordic cooperation and EEC membership. The customs union has been the major Swedish demand during the negotiations.The Nordek plans were brought up quite unexpectedly by Denmark, but even subsequently the negotiations have not been void of dramatic incidents. Most frequently the unexpected moves have come from Finland. Mr. Koivisto unexpectedly pleased the other Nordic Prime Ministers through his surprisingly positive statement in Oslo in October 1968 on the plan:; for economic cooperation between the Nordic countries. But four months later, President Keklionen during a talk with Prime Minister Erlander in Helsinki expressed the Finnish opinion as being that the tempo of the negotiations had become too fast, The real surprise did not occur, however, until the beginning of December 1969 when Mr. Koivisto announced that the planned Prime Minister meeting in Turku was called off. A month and a half later the Finnish government gave the go ahead sign to continue the substantive negotiations aiming at a settlement at the session of the Nordic Council in Reykjavik. The Finnish conditions for proceeding with the negotiations included clear reservations concerning the EEC. The Nordic Prime Ministers agreed in Reykjavik on a time table for signing the Treaty, which meant that this would occur around 7 March 1970. Subsequently the Nordic parliaments were to ratify the Treaty during the spring session the same year. On 24 March the Finnish government, however, announced that it could not sign the Treaty because of the other three countries' active interest in the EEC. Instead the matter was passed on to the new government to be formed after the election. The following day Foreign Minister Karjalainen expressed doubts as to whether Nordek could at all be carried out before the end of 1970. Once again external forces have played a decisive role in formulating the market policy of the four countries. Danish and Norwegian hopes of starting negotiations soon with the EEC combined with the Finnish reservations made in January and March 1970 make it difficult to judge the prospects of Nordek being implemented. Nordek cannot be said with certainty to be a fact until the ratification documents are safely‐ in the custody of the Foreign Ministries of the four countries. March 25, 1970

�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] Introduction In recent years, the family planning program has been one of the priority national policies adopted in the field of government health services. As contraceptive methods, such as the safe period and intrauterine devices which apply the principle of the menstrual cycle, have been popularized among women practicing family planning, attention has been increase toward the menstrual cycle. Studies on the menstrual cycle have often been conducted, but their criteria have mostly limited to groups of patients in hospitals or girl students; moreover, data have been collected according to the memory of the last few menstruations or by asking them to check their menstrual record for a limited period. As a result, such statistical reports could not be expected to be representative of all facts arising in the menstrual cycle of the general population. Therefore, it seemed to the author that this extensive study on the menstrual cycle among housewives in Korean rural communities utilizing accurate recording of data collected over an extended period would be most significant not only as an academic study but also in supporting the national family planning program. Hence, the present investigation was undertaken to find out the individual menstruation of rural married women in terms of cycle, regularity and duratinon of flow throughout the extended period of observation, and to analyze the findings in terms of age and season. Materials and Method The basic universe of the study was Koyang Gun. Since Koyang Health Center has long been a rural demonstration center and since the Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Yonsei University College of Medicine had established a unit to demonstrated the family planning program in this area, the villagers were familiar and cooperative toward the public health program and research activities. Therefore, unbiased appraisal could be anticipated in collecting accurate data with the cooperation of the residents. For the sample design, the family record of every household in the area had been prepared and this record was checked by conducting the field survey. Households were then divided into clusters of 50 based upon proximity of dwelling, and the number of eligible women(eligibility being defined as a marred housewife under 45 years of age). In each group cluster were further subdivided into two. Finally, the universe contained 277 clusters by sub-universe (Myun), and in order to minimize sampling error 53 cluster were decided on for the sample size. 1,609 eligible women were involved tin this sample. These 1,609 eligible women were interviewed; During home visits, and calendars for recording their menstruation were distributed. In order to check the records, four field workers were employed to interview the clients every one month. The clients were asked to fill in their records, but when some clients failed to do so, field workers checked and recorded uncompleted previous cycles during regular home visits. Therefore, the records were expected to be reliable. The field study was conducted during the period from June, 1965 to June, 1966, and information on 5,148 cycle from 1,609 clients was collected excluding periods of drop-out due to refusal to be interviewed, of failure to interview, hospitalization, and migration. Results and Discussion 1,474 clients out of 1,609 eligible women excluding 135 drop-outs were classified into three groups according to the menstrual status. Accordingly, 570 clients whose menstrual cycles were regarded as normal anovulatory cycle were classified as Group �뀪, 452 clients who had one or more anovulatory cycles as Group �뀫, and 452 women whose menstruation had not been observed during the period as Group �뀬. Distribution of Menstrual Cycle Among the total of 3,875 cycles in Group �뀪 and 1,273 cycles in Group �뀫, 29days interval was the most frequent followed by 30,31 and 28 dyas in turn. The mean of the total cycles was calculated to be 30.8 days Group �뀪, and 31.8 days in Group �뀫. Therefore, it was considered that the menstrual cycle of Korean rural women formed a peak at 29 days interval leaning toward the longer side. It was of interest that in spite of the preconception that 28 days might be the most prevalent, this interval ranked fourth in frequency in this study. In gorup �뀪, 80% of the total cycles were distributed in range between 26 and 37 days interval, and in Group �뀫, 80% of them were distributed in the range between 26 and 49 days interval. 3,670 cycles out of the total number of cycles in Group �뀪, excluding those with less than 20 days interval or more than 50 days, were classified according to age groups. The mean was calculated to be 32.4 days in the 20-24 age group, 31.3 in the 25-29 age group, 31.1 in the 30-34 age group, 30.4 in the 35-39 age group, 30.4 in the 40-44 age group. Accordingly, it was considered that longer intervals were found in younger age groups. Variation of Consecutive Menstrual Cycles Comparing two consecutive cycles by means of a valued run (positive or negative difference between two consecutive cycles) frequent variations in individual cycles of eligible women observed. In Group �뀪, only 10.7% of the total number of valued runs were found to be 0(i.e. consecutive cycles were the same), 33.9% had interval of 짹1 days. Therefore, it could be considered that intervals ranging within 짹6days reflected a normal variation. The greatest fluctuations in consecutive cycles were observed in the younger age groups and in the spring. Duration of Menstrual Flow Among a total of 6,518 menstruations covered by this study the most frequent duration of menstrual flow was 5 days, followed by 4,3 and 6 days in turu. The mean was calculated to be 4.6 days. It was then concluded that in Group �뀪 and �뀫 the duration of menstruation was between 4 and 7 days in 74.8% of menstruations recorded and between 1 and 3 days for 21.9% of menstruations. Only 3.3% could be classified in the long duration category with menstruation lasting more than 7 days. The category could be considered to abnormal. For individual women, it seemed to the author that the duration of flow among the women over 35 years of were shorter than that of younger age group. Conclusion A study of 1,609 married women under the age of 45 was conducted in Kouang Gun to investigate their menstruation in terms of cycle, regularity, and duration of flow. The following conclusion have been drawn; 1. The intervals of normal menstrual cycle was from 26 to 37 days. 2. The most frequent intervals of menstrual cycle was 29 days followed by 30,31, and 28 in turn, the mean being 30.8 days. 3. The older age groups-reflected a shorter interval. 4. The younger age groups reflected the shortest interval in summer and the longest interval in winer. 5. The intervals within the normal range of variation in two consecutive cycle was 23 to 35 days. 6. The variation of intervals was notable in the younger age group, particularly, in 20-24 age group. 7. The noticeable variation in fluctuation of two consecutive cycles was observed in the spring. 8. the normal duration of menstrual flow was from 3 to 7 days, the mean being 407짹1.3 days. 9. The older age group reflected a longer duration of menstrual flow. This study was significant in establishing the normal range of menstrual cycle for Korean rural women. These findings could be useful not only for diagnosis and treatment of abnormal menses, but also in family planning education in order to determine the safe period. ; restriction