Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nagenahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 868 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soils, 10 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 6 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 4l and use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 2ndweek of July to 3rd week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area is suitable for agriculture. About 90 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm). About 34 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 50 per cent loamy and 5% sandy soils. Entire area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 90 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 84 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 6 per cent moderately eroded (e2). An area of about 23 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid, 62 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 5 per cent area slightly alkaline. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) and 15 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 13 per cent, medium (10-20 ppm) in about 52 per cent and low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area. Available manganese, copper and zinc are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 672 (77) 59 (7) Guava 366 (42) 365 (42) Fodder Sorghum 672 (77) 106 (12) Pomogranate 672 (77) 106 (12) Maize 283 (33) 448 (52) Banana 672 (77) 106 (12) Upland paddy 672 (77) 106 (12) Jackfruit 672 (77) 59 (7) Finger millet 672 (77) 59 (7) Jamun 672 (77) 106 (12) Redgram 672 (77) 106 (12) Musambi 672 (77) 106 (12) Horse gram 672 (77) 106 (12) Lime 672 (77) 106 (12) Field bean 672 (77) 106 (12) Cashew 366 (42) 306 (35) Cowpea 672 (77) 106 (12) Custard apple 672 (77) 106 (12) Groundnut 42 (5) 324 (37) Amla 672 (77) 106 (12) Sunflower 672 (77) 106 (12) Tamarind 672 (77) 106 (12) Onion 589 (68) 189 (22) Marigold 672 (77) 106 (12) Chilli 672 (77) 106 (12) Chrysanthemum 672 (77) 106 (12) Brinjal 672 (77) 106 (12) Jasmine 672 (77) 106 (12) Tomato 672 (77) 106 (12) Coconut 366 (42) 365 (42) Mango 672 (77) 59 (7) Arecanut 366 (42) 365 (42) Sapota 672 (77) 59 (7) Mulberry 42 (5) (5473) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Nagenahalli micro-watershed (Kibbanahalli sub-watershed, Chikkanayaka- halli Taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13020' – 13021' North latitudes and 76036' – 76039' East longitudes, covering an area of about 867.82 ha, bounded by Bedarahalli, Baraganahalli, Aralikere, Godekere, Pankajanahalli and Halugona villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Nagenahalli Microwatershed (Kibbanahalli sub-watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli Taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 50 to 50 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 57 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 99 per cent. Social groups belong to general caste among all the sample households. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among the all sample households. About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Around 20 per cent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 60 per cent. Swatch bharath program providing closed toilet facilities for among all sample households. Institutional participation is only 15.0 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all the sample farms households. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 0.90 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 68.7 % and irrigated land 18.6 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 78.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 3.3 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 9532 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 119861 per household, about 40 per cent of sample farmers having tractor and sprayer. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 19833 per household; about 41.6 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 566.9 grams (1336.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among the all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.48989 per household. About 50 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.924. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 423 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 328783 per year for the total area of 867.8 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 43095/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in areca nut (Rs. 80030) followed by coconut (Rs. 44830) and ragi (Rs. 4427). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3397/ ha/year is ragi. The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 331961) followed by ragi (Rs. 16258) and areca nut (Rs. 11031). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is coconut (65.5 %) followed by ragi (29.6 %) and areca nut (4.8 %). In Nagenahalli micro-watershed, major soil series are Hallikere (HLK) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 27.7 % area. On this soil farmers are presently growing ragi. Jedigere (JDG) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 4.86 % area; the crops are coconut (90.4 %) ragi (9.5 %). Ranatur (RTR) soils are having very deep soil depth covered around 35.2 % areas; crops are areca nut (7.4 %), coconut (69.8 %) and ragi (22.7 %). Thondigere (TDG) soils are also having very deep soil depth covered around 5.36 % of area, crops are coconut. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for coconut ranges between Rs.246381/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 106004/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.29). In ragi the cost of cultivation ranges between 73391/ha in JDG soil (with BCR of 1.04) and Rs.33907/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 1.14). In areca nut the cost of cultivation Rs.147210/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.54). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthens institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthens agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in coconut (32.5 to 49.8 %), ragi (37.7 to 68.2 %) and areca nut (77.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalagatahundi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 417 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 17 per cent is covered by soils, 83 per cent by forest and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 4 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 17 per cent area is suitable for agriculture. About 8 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 10 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 7 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 10 per cent area has loamy soils. About 17 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 17 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 17 per cent of the soils are low (<23 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 17 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in about 17 per cent area. Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in about 17 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient in 17 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 17 per cent area. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1 ) Moderately suitable(S2 ) Highly suitable(S1 ) Moderately suitable(S2 ) Sorghum 27 (7) 45 (40) Sapota 5(1) 9(2) Maize 14 (3) 40 (10) Guava 5(1) 9(2) Redgram 14(3) 18(4) Banana 5(1) 52(12) Horsegra m 14(3) 58(14) Jackfruit 5(1) - Field bean 5(1) 67(16) Jamun 23(6) - Groundnut - 54(13) Musambi 23(6) - Sunflower - 32(8) Lime 23(6) - Cotton 18(4) 49(12) Cashew 5(1) 9(2) Onion 5(1) 67(16) Custard apple 23(6) 49(12) Potato 5(1) 49(12) Amla 23(6) 49(12) French Beans 5(1) 67(16) Tamarind 23(6) - Beetroot 5(1) 49(12) Marigold 14(3) 58(14) Turmeric 5(1) 49(12) Chrysanthemu m 5(1) 67(16) Mango 5(1) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kalagatahundi 2 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11046' – 11048' North latitudes and 76031' – 76033' East longitudes, covering an area of about 417 ha, bounded by Channamallipur, Hongahalli, Maddur villages and Berimbadi State Forest with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kalagatahundi 2 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 39.6 to 60.4 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.1 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 88.0 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) among the all sample households. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample farmers. About 90.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (50.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 90.0 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 6.3 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 20.0 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.0 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 59.9 % and irrigated land 40.1 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 78.2 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 9.4 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 10164 per household. Television and mobile are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 159343 per household, among the all sample farmers owned plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 25083 per household; about 85.7 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 544.6 grams (1236.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among the all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.73121 per household. About 60.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1257. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.721 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 51906 per year for the total area of 416.7 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 82372/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in banana (Rs. 212373) followed by turmeric (Rs. 135615), cotton (Rs. 18419), horse gram (Rs. 3089), marigold (Rs.1476) and sorghum (Rs. 2556). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2363/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services in horse gram (Rs. 2284) and sorghum (Rs. 2420). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in banana (Rs. 144748) followed by cotton (Rs. 53496), turmeric (Rs. 57299), sorghum (Rs. 40244) and horse gram (Rs. 18312). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is cotton (42.6 %) followed by banana (16.4 %), sorghum (14.7 %), marigold (6.6 %), turmeric (3.1 %) and horse gram (0.4 %). In Kalagatahundi-2 micro-watershed, major soil of Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 1.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing banana (14.8 %), cotton (12.2 %), horse gram (36.5%), marigold (12.2%), sorghum (12.2%) and turmeric (12.2 %). Soil of Beemanabeedu (BMB) series are having shallow soil depth cover 4.4 % of area, the crops are cotton (27.6 %), horse gram (63.8 %) and sorghum (8.6 %), Beemanabeedu (BMD) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 7.8 % of areas, crops are banana (93.0 %) and cotton (7.0 %), Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 9.6 % of area, crops are marigold (50.0%) and sorghum (50.0 %) and Kannigala (KNG) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 8.2 % of area. The major crops grown are cotton (81.8 %) and sorghum (18.2 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sorghum ranges between Rs. 46315/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.0) and Rs. 17152/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.12). In banana the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 141590/ha in HGH soil (with of 3.43) and Rs. 74953/ha in BMD soil (with BCR of 2.47). In cotton the cost of cultivation range between of Rs.78441/ha in BMD soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 30305/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.82). In marigold the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 63562/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs. 48846 in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.03). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 18834/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.72) and Rs. 5418 in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.69). In turmeric the cost of cultivation in HGH soil is Rs. 141025/ha (with BCR of 1.96). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4 The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in banana (37.8 to 68.4 %), cotton (0 to 27.7 %), horse gram (21.2 to74.7 %) and sorghum (44 to 64.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalagatahundi-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 306 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm of which about 254 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 84 per cent is covered by soils, sixteen per cent by forests and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 49 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 35 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm). About 40 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 38 per cent loamy soils and 6 per cent area has sandy soils. About 59 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 25 per cent gravelly (15-35 % gravel) soils. About 47 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 67 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 17 per cent is under gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 56 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 23 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 5 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3). An area of about 17 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5); 12 % are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 43 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 12 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75 %) in organic carbon. About 42 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (0.6 ppm) in 2 per cent area. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 86 (28) 124 (40) Guava 26(8) 36(12) Maize 26 (8) 98 (32) Banana 26(8) 86(28) Red gram 26 (8) 139(46) Jackfruit 26(8) - Horse gram 26(8) 220(72) Jamun 112(37) - Field bean 26(8) 184(60) Musambi 112(37) - Groundnut - 160(52) Lime 112(37) - Sunflower - 112(73) Cashew 26(8) 36(12) Cotton 86(28) 98(32) Custard apple 112(37) 134(44) Onion 26(8) 184(60) Amla 112(37) 134(44) Potato 26(8) 98(32) Tamarind 112(37) - Beans 26(8) 184(60) Marigold 26(8) 230(72) Beetroot 26(8) 98(32) Chrysanthemum 26(8) 184(60) Mango 26(8) - Turmeric 26(8) 98(32) Sapota 26(8) 36(12) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kalagatahundi 1 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11046' – 11048' North latitudes and 76032' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 306 ha, bounded by Channamallipur, Hongahalli, Maddur and Berambadi villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kalagatahundi 1 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 54.1 to 45.9 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 54 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 99.9 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 66.7 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 44.5 per cent. About 66.7 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. All farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among the all sample households. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 88.9 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 0.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 92.4 % and irrigated land 7.6 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 2.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 48.6 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 15347 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 104700 per household, about 66.7 per cent of sample farmers owned plough. The average livestock value is around Rs. 27500 per household; about 54.5 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 905.7 grams (1773.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 66.7 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.32952 per household. About 77.8 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1389. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 938 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 240966 per year for the total area of 305.5 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 35915/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 165481) followed by cotton (Rs. 40435), ragi (Rs. 9897), sorghum (Rs. 20602), bengal gram (Rs.7404), groundnut (Rs. 3871) and sunflower is negative return. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 698/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in ragi (Rs. 3116) followed by groundnut (Rs. 1475) and sorghum (Rs. 984). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs. 64982) followed by cotton (Rs. 56330), sorghum (Rs. 49968), sunflower (Rs. 37413), ragi (Rs. 10462), onion (Rs. 20359) and groundnut (Rs. 18461). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is ragi (24.5 %) followed by groundnut (19.2 %) sorghum (13.0 %), cotton (12.2 %), bengalgram (12.1 %), sunflower (11.5 %) and onion (7.6 %). 3 In Kalagatahundi 1 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 8.4 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengal gram (51.2 %), Soil of Beemanabeedu (BMB) are also having shallow soil depth cover 28.3 % of area, the crops are cotton (26.8 %), onion (16.7 %), ragi (2.5 %), sorghum (28.6 %) and sunflower (25.3 %). Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 7.8 % of areas, crops are groundnut, Kannigala (KNG) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 11.9 % of area, main cultivated crop are ragi. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for ragi range between Rs. 23258/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs.18902/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.95). In groundnut the cost cultivation in HPR soil is Rs.29309/ha (with BCR of 1.18). In sunflower the cost cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.29415/ha (with BCR of 0.98). In onion the cost cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.59065/ha (with BCR of 3.80). In bengal gram the cost cultivation in HGH soil is Rs.39644/ha (with BCR of 1.19) and sorghum the cost cultivation in BMB soil is Rs. 16284/ha (with BCR of 2.33). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (70 to 75.7 %), onion (69.3 %), cotton (18.2 %), sunflower (31.7 %), sorghum (41.6 %), groundnut (61.2 %) and bengal gram (35.7%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bachanahalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 39 ha out of total area of 639 ha in Gundlupet Taluk, Chamarajanagar District Karnataka. The remaining area of about 600 ha is under Berambadi State Forest. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during the south –west monsoon, 26 8mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 6 per cent is covered by soils, 94 per cent by forests and 150 cm) soils. About 4 per cent area has loamy soils and 2 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface. About 5 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 1 per cent gravelly soils (15- 35 % gravel) soils. About 4 per cent area has low (51-100 mm/m) and 2 per cent very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area of about 6 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. About 6 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands. About 1 per cent area is slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5), about 5 per cent neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%). About 6 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. Major area of about 5 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about 1 per cent has medium (145-337 kg/ha) Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in about 6 per cent area. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 1 per cent and sufficient in 5 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26 (4) 11 (2) Guava 12(2) 5(1) Maize 12 (2) 11 (2) Banana - 32(5) Red gram 12(2) 19(3) Jackfruit - 17(3) Horsegram 12(2) 25 (4) Jamun 14(2) 17(3) Fieldbean - 38(6) Musambi 14(2) 17(3) Groundnut - 23(4) Lime 14(2) 17(3) Sunflower - 26(4) Cashew - 17(3) Cotton 14(2) 23(4) Custard apple 32(5) 6(1) Onion - 38(6) Amla 32(5) 6(1) Potato - 24(4) Tamarind 14(2) 17(3) Beans - 38(6) Marigold 12(2) 25(4) Beetroot - 24(4) Chrysanthemum - 38(6) Mango - 17(3) Turmeric - 24(4) Sapota 12(2) 5(1) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change E SUMMARY Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Bachanahalli-2 Microwatershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11044' – 11046' North latitudes and 76031' – 76034' East longitudes, covering an area of about 639 ha, bounded by Maddur, Berambadi villages and Berambadi State Forest with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Bachanahalli-2 Microwatershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.4 to 43.5 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 56.4 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 71.8 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) were around 22.2 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 88.9 per cent. About 88.9 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 44.5 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 66.7 per cent. Institutional participation is only 20.5 per cent. Women participation in decisions making are around 22.2 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land account for 32.9 % and irrigated land is 67.1% of total cultivated land of the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 20.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 53.8 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 12095 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 35270 per household, about 88.9 per cent of sample farmers are owing drip/sprinkler. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 22050 per household; about 61.1 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 736.4 grams (1778.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 66.7 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 77492 per household. About 66.7 per cent of farm households are above poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs 1184. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 1856 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 68674 per year for the total area of 638.8 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 26259/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in garlic (Rs. 101369) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 61120), banana (Rs. 44520), onion (Rs. 42386), beans (Rs. 25263), turmeric (Rs. 18906), beetroot (Rs. 1405), groundnut, ragi and maize are negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 7464/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 98198) followed by groundnut (Rs. 7348) and ragi (Rs. 4018). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 300723) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 129675), banana (Rs. 115311), turmeric (Rs. 63438), maize (Rs. 62834), groundnut, (Rs 41229), garlic (Rs 29097), ragi (Rs. 18915) and onion (Rs. 14509). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is banana (21.3 %) followed by maize (16.0 %), turmeric (14.0 %), ragi (13.4 %), groundnut (10.7 %), sorghum, sugarcane and beetroot of 5.7 per cent to each and beans is 2.6 per cent. In Bachanahalli-2 micro watershed, major soils are Hullipura (HPR) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 0.9 % of area, the crops are banana (52.3 %), sugarcane and turmeric was 23.9 % each. Kallipura (KLP) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 1.9 % of areas, crops are banana (18.7 %) garlic (5.2 %), groundnut (7.8 %), maize (27.7 %), onion (11.1 %), ragi (26.8 %) and turmeric (2.6 %). Maddinahundi (MDH) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 0.8 per cent of area. The major crops grown are beans (16.7 %), cotton (37.5 %), beetroot (33.3 %), ragi (16.7%) and turmeric (33.3%). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for banana ranges between Rs. 94462/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 1.28) and Rs. 79233/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.78). In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 36905/ha in KLP soil (with of 1.19) and Rs. 34622/ha in MDH soil (with BCR of 1.11). In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 599885/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 84176/ha in MDH soil (with BCR of 1.58). In sugarcane the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs.93255/ha (with BCR of 1.66). In beans the cost of cultivation in MDH soil is Rs 98237/ha (with BCR of 1.26). In groundnut the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs.60015/ha (with BCR of 1.06). In onion the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs 69634/ha (with BCR of 1.61). In garlic the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs.219731/ha (with BCR of 1.46). In maize the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs 71926/ha (with BCR of 1.6) and beetroot the cost cultivation in MDH soil is Rs.41388/ha (with BCR of 1.03). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4 The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in banana (63.9 to 78.1 %), ragi (59.5 to 61.0 %), turmeric (8.9 to 38.8%), garlic (59.2%), onion (93.0 %), beans (61.3 %), sugarcane (54%) and beetroot (36.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Das Image der Biogasanlagen als umweltfreundliche Energieerzeuger hat in der jüngsten Vergangenheit gelitten. Neben dem Biomasseanbau (Maismonokulturen), stehen der Transport und die Ausbringung der Gärreste unter öffentlicher Kritik. Gleichzeitig gilt Biogas gilt als umweltfreundlich, da fossile Ressourcen geschont und Kohlendioxidemissionen gemindert werden. Die ökologischen Aspekte der Biogaserzeugung wurden in einer Ökobilanz untersucht, deren Ergebnisse jetzt für die Öffentlichkeit als Informations- und Diskussionsgrundlage zur Verfügung stehen.Durch die Novellierung des Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetzes im Jahr 2004 wurde ein Investitionsboom bei Biogasanlagen, speziell im Bereich 500 kW und größer, ausgelöst. In Verbindung mit diesem Boom wurde der Anbau von Energiepflanzen für die Biogasproduktion stark erweitert. Im Rahmen der Untersuchung wurden alle Lebenswegabschnitte der Biogasproduktion untersucht und die bedeutendsten Einflussfaktoren ermittelt. Die Untersuchung wurde in Form einer Ökobilanz gemäß EN ISO 14040 ff. als internationaler Standard durchgeführt. Für die Datensammlung wurden Informationen bestehender Anlagen und Ergebnisse eigener Versuche verwendet, so dass in den wichtigsten Bereichen aktuelle Daten zur Verfügung standen. Die Ergebnisse der Datensammlung wurden auf ein Terrajoule elektrische Energie bezogen und nach der Eco indicator `99 Methode gewichtet und bewertet, so dass die Gesamtergebnisse der untersuchten Prozesse miteinander verglichen werden können. Bei Verwendung anderer Bewertungsschlüssel, können die Ergebnisse abweichen. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse können sowohl für die Öffentlichkeitsarbeit einzelner Anlagen, als auch für die Weiterentwicklung der Biogastechnik verwendet werden.Untersucht wurden mehrere Varianten der Biogasproduktion. Bei den Inputstoffen wurden eine Mais-/Güllemischung und eine Bioabfall-/Güllemischung betrachtet. Bei der BHKW Technik wurde ein Gas-Otto-Motor mit einer Brennstoffzelle verglichen. Zusätzlich wurde die Nutzung der Abwärme betrachtet. Insgesamt wird der Flächenverbrauch für den Energiepflanzenanbau als bedeutendster Einfluss auf das Gesamtergebnis erkannt. Hierbei sind allerdings methodische Fragen zu berücksichtigen, die dieses Ergebnis einschränken (vgl. Hartmann2006). Insgesamt besitzen Energiepflanzen mit hohen Flächenerträgen (z.B. Mais) ökologische Vorteile vor Pflanzen, die weniger Biomasse bilden. Die aktuellen Züchtungsbemühungen gehen in diese Richtung. Da Abfälle als Input der Biogasproduktion ohne ökologischen Rucksack bilanziert werden, werden hierdurch die ökologischen Belastungen der Vorkette der Biogasproduktion vermieden und die Biogasbilanz deutlich verbessert. Durch die Nutzung der Brennstoffzellentechnik können höhere Wirkungsgrade und sehr niedrige Emissionen erreicht werden, so dass das Gesamtergebnis nachhaltig positiv beeinflusst wird. Entwicklungen in diesem Bereich sollten daher gefördert werden. Die Abwärmenutzung kann bedeutende ökologische Gutschriften erzielen, wenn hierdurch der Verbrauch fossiler Ressourcen eingeschränkt wird. Die Schaffung neuer Wärmeabnehmer, z.B. die Hackschnitzeltrocknung, führt zu keinem Einsparpotential und bedingt daher keine ökologischen Vorteile. Als Fazit kann festgehalten werden, dass die Stromerzeugung aus Biogas umweltfreundlich ist und in der Größenordnung den Effekten des gegenwärtigen Strommixes in Deutschland entspricht. Ökologisch wichtigster Punkt ist der Flächen- und Energiebedarf der Biomasseproduktion. Die BHKW- und der Gärrestemissionen haben einen spürbar negativen Einfluss auf das Gesamtergebnis. Das ökologische Ergebnis kann verbessert werden, wenn höhere Flächenerträge erzielt oder biogene Abfälle anstatt Energiepflanzen als Input genutzt werden. Die Nutzung der Abwärme des BHKW zur Einsparung fossiler Energieträger ermöglicht bedeutende Gutschriften auf das Gesamtergebnis. Werden alle Optimierungsmöglichkeiten genutzt, verursacht Strom aus Biogas weniger als ein Fünftel der ökologischen Auswirkungen des üblichen Strommixes. ; Sustainable energy supply is considered to be one of the most important worldwide chal-lenges of the future. When concerning energy supply, three aspects have to be taken into account regarding sustainability. The first aspect is the limitation of fossil and nuclear re-sources. It is generally accepted that these resources will run out within the next decades and centuries. As a secondary aspect, due to this limitation, there is a rise in energy prices. This is contrary to the concept that energy should be affordable to every human being. The third aspect involves the emissions of the state of the art energy conversion technology harming the environment. These must therefore be reduced in the future, especially green-house gas emissions.Renewable energy sources are considered an answer to these problems. They are in end-less supply and thought to be environmental friendly. Biomass, e.g. crops and biodegradable waste, is one kind of renewable energy sources. Biogas production is one possibility to pro-duce electricity and heat from this biomass. Within the biogas process bacteria in an anaer-obe atmosphere degrade carbon-hydrogen compounds. Methane, carbon dioxide, some trace gases, and a nutrient rich slurry result from this biogas process. The originated meth-ane can finally be used for heating, electricity generation or fuel production. Within the last years, the government has assisted the energy production from renewable energy sources, especially biogas. This has led to a particular increase in industrial-scale biogas plants using energy crops as input.The utilisation of renewable energies aims at the protection of human health, nature, and resources. However, like any other kind of energy conversion, the biogas process causes effects on the environment. Energy conversion plants using renewable energy sources such as biomass are considered to be environmentally friendly by a wide public. Considerations of the environmental friendliness of renewable resources consuming processes are based on the one hand, on the conservation of fossil resources on the input side of the system and on the other hand on the emission of carbon dioxide, which is not enhancing the green house effect due to its renewable sources offspring on the output side of the process. In this case environmental friendliness is solely seen as a question of sustainability in the fields of fossil resources and climate. Here, it is not considered that the production and transport of energy crops consumes mass and energy flows, uses land and produces emissions.All of these effects have to be taken into account, when assessing the environmental effects of electricity generation from biogas produced by an industrial scale biogas plant. Further-more, manure and organic waste must be transported, leading to fuel consumption and emissions. The production and consumption of biogas lead to gaseous emissions, which threatens human health and the environment. Mass and energy flows are caused for the construction and demolishing of the biogas plant itself. Ultimately, waste is generated by the biogas plant, which has to be disposed of. This is why, for the further development of energy technologies, it is important to know the kind and amount of ecological effects caused.The object under investigation is a hypothetical biogas plant with a capacity of 1.0 MW elec-tric power, fed by biomass from energy crops and manure. The ecological effects shall be determined from start to finish and are determined by mass and energy balances resulting in a life-cycle-assessment (LCA). This assessment is done according to the rules of ISO 14040-14043, which gives a universally valid plan for this method. Data for the mass and energy balances are taken from measured data of existing biogas plants, calculations from similar objects, and estimations where no adoptable data are available. The object under investiga-tion is the biogas plant itself as well as up- and downstream processes related to the power plant. The scope of the data collection will be determined and adjusted within the LCA; also all single unit processes will be defined in the life-cycle-assessment.The only purpose of this study is to give information on the composition of the ecological ef-fects from biogas production in industrial scaled biogas plants. Thereby ecological hot spots are determined and suggestions for ecological improvements are made. The results of this study should not be used for comparisons with results from LCA studies of different energy production systems e.g. electricity from lean coal, as the scope of this study is not designed for such a comparison.As the results of a LCA study are very complex and hard to interpret, due to the variety of impact categories, an additional interpretation step is included. At this stage, the Eco Indica-tor `99 approach of [GOEDKOPP&SPRIENSMA2001] will be used. This step is not part of the rules of ISO14040-43 and must be acknowledged as an additional interpretation tool. The use of such interpretation methods is hardly discussed among experts, due to its social sci-ence based background. The results gained from the LCA done according to the ISO rules are therefore clearly separated from the results of the further interpretation, so that the influ-ence of the interpretation method can be regarded separately. The results of the ecological assessment are given for each unit process, per module, and for the overall process. All re-sults are related to the generation of one Terra Joule of electric energy from the biogas plant.Beginning with the production of energy crops, it can be seen that energy plants with a high productivity per area unit e.g. maize and forage beets have a better ecological performance than crops like rye or grass. The ecological effects of the crop production are mainly caused by energy inputs e.g. fuels and artificial nitrogen fertiliser production. Relevant effects are also caused from heavy metals inserted into the system by phosphate fertilisers. A specific effect from crop production is the impact category land use. More than 80% of the ecological effects of the crop production and more than 60% of the overall effects are related to this category. As this category is a qualitative and not a quantitative indicator like the other mass and energy flows, its implementation into the overall assessment is quite complicated.For the production of energy crops, mainly crops with a high yield of organic dry matter mass per unit area should be used in order to reduce the ecological effects from this module. Whenever possible, biodegradable waste should be used instead of specially produced crops to reduce the ecological effects on the input side of the system, as this waste is taken into account without any ecological burden. Within the agricultural production system the influence of the impact category land use is very strong, in comparison to all other ecological effects in their influences on the overall re-sult. On the one hand, large areas are needed for the production of energy crops. This has a multiplying effect on the results per unit area. The intensive arable production leads to a de-crease in biodiversity, which is close to the decrease caused by a sealed surface. Therefore this form of production is calculated with heavy ecological burdens. On the other hand it must be recognised that there would also be arable production, even if no energy crops would be produced. Hence, stopping the production of energy crops would not lead to an overall re-duction of ecological effects from arable farming. Therefore this impact category should be taken into account, showing that improvements of the ecological effect from biogas produc-tion are mainly improvements of the biodiversity in the energy crop production. But they should not be accounted for, if the ecological effects of the biogas production are compared to other kinds of electricity generation.The transport caused by the input and output flows of the biogas plant have only a small in-fluence on the overall ecological effects. Most ecological effects are herein derived from the consumption of fossil fuels. From a theoretical analysis the result gained can show that larger biogas plants do not cause an equivalent increase of transport efforts as two smaller biogas plants would cause. When biogas plants and related areas for energy crop production in-crease, the transport efforts increase subproportionally due to the circular area/radius nature of the area around the biogas plant. Therefore, the crops in areas around a biogas plant al-ways grow faster, however transport distances have yet to be covered.The construction and demolition of installations in a biogas plant produce hardly any dam-ages to the environment. Only two ecological hot spots occur at the biogas plant: the emis-sions of the CHP plant and the consumption of electricity from the grid. Gas engines with oxidising converters are calculated as CHP plants, which emit the lowest emission rates out of all conventional CHP plants. Lower emissions rates can only be realised with a change of technology e.g. use of fuel cells. The share of ecological effects from electricity consumption is related to the fact that biogas plants, which use energy crops, need up to 10% of the en-ergy that they generate to run the process. Facilities using less energy can be helpful to re-duce this influence on the overall ecological effect from this hot spot. The biogas slurry is applied to fields, where it is used as an organic fertiliser. The application of biogas slurry has two different ecological effects. The nutrient content of the slurry leads to a reduced consumption of artificial fertiliser. The emissions from the biogas slurry the influ-ence of the change in input material can be seen contribute mainly to the impact categories acidification/eutrophication and greenhouse effect. These negative effects, especially the acidification from gaseous NH3 emissions, contribute to around 25% of the total ecological effects. This threat to the environment can be reduced through application and incorporation methods in keeping with good agricultural practice. Thereby, very low emission levels of the applied biogas slurry can be achieved. These emissions levels are below the emissions from manure, which is used as input to the plant, and would alternatively spread to the fields, where it would cause emissions.In brief, electricity generation from biogas produced in industrial scale biogas plants can be regarded as a durable way of generating electricity. On considering the biogas production from start to finish, it is shown that most ecological effects are related to the agricultural pro-duction system. Just some parts of these effects can be manipulated. Qualitative aspects, e.g. land use, cannot be influenced and will always occur, even if no energy crops were to be produced.
This brief summarizes some of the significant constraints women in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) face: limited labor market mobility, a mismatch between skills acquired in school and what is in demand in the labor market, and legal or institutional factors related to cultural norms, all of which inhibit the transition from school to work. The brief identifies various policy options and outlines the World Bank's strategy for supporting governments in achieving gender parity in the region. Rigorous analytical work, experimental policy pilots and lending operations with a strong gender focus all form part of the Bank's strategy towards reducing gender gaps in economic opportunities.
The world faces unprecedented opportunities to reduce global poverty and improve human welfare. Strong global growth and better economic policies in recent years have substantially reduced poverty in many developing countries. However, with the recent financial turmoil in the United States and rising prices for food, oil, and other commodities, the world economy faces heightened risks and volatility. Policymakers around the world face the challenge of maintaining momentum in growth, as well as of improving the quality of growth. This concern over quality is reflected in the highly uneven reduction in poverty, rising inequality in numerous countries, and widening environmental degradation during the past decade, a period of unprecedented high economic growth in developing countries. Unless these issues are confronted, gains from growth are likely to be undermined and the pace of growth, itself, will not be sustained. Growth is clearly linked to reductions in poverty. But the strength of this relationship depends on the quality or nature of growth. Various studies show that some growth patterns systematically reduce poverty and inequality, but others do not. And some growth patterns lead to underinvestment in human capital, overexploitation of natural resources, and degradation of the environment, patterns inimical to the sustainability of growth.
Tese de Doutoramento em Engenharia Química (Processos Químicos) apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; Agricultural processing inevitably goes along with the production of large amounts of agro-residues, which may represent a major waste disposal problem. Legislation regulating the management of waste materials has appeared throughout the European Union and has significantly contributed to the introduction of sustainable waste management procedures. The reuse and recycling of agro-residues has been highly encouraged and new technologies applying environmentally clean processes have been playing a central role within this context. These strategies may boost both the environmental and economic profiles of the implied industries, since they may create value in the entire chain-production pipeline. Typically, a substantial part of the agro-residues produced during the handling and processing of fruits, vegetables and forest resources still comprises important amounts of the original plant materials, such as fruit skins, fruit seeds, flowers, leaves, stems, barks, and roots. High-value natural compounds can be found in most of these vegetable residues, many of them having health-promoting characteristics. It is the case of, for example, phenolic compounds (which have been associated to the alleged health-promoting effects related to the consumption of fruits and vegetables), since they are preferentially biosynthesised in the external vegetable tissues. Usually, and despite their significant potential value, these residues are often underexploited and thus their potential value as natural products is frequently lost. Efficient techniques can thus be explored for separation and isolation of oils, antioxidants, fragrances, colorants, biocides and other bioactive substances of natural origin. Therefore, with some additional and adequate processing steps, these materials can be easily transformed, from a residual low-value status into a very interesting high-value status, in terms of well-known and consumer high-value and accepted uses in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, among others. This Thesis is focused on the extraction of potentially valuable compounds from agroresidues of elder and maritime pine (Portuguese native plants) and also from tara (a Peruvian native plant). Solvents and techniques generally regarded as "environmental friendly" were applied. Despite conventional methods such as hydrodistillation and Soxhlet extraction had been employed, special attention was given to high pressure extraction procedures, namely supercritical and pressurized solvent extractions using, respectively, carbon dioxide and mixtures of carbon dioxide, ethanol and water as solvents. In general terms and besides other particular aspects, the effect of several process variables/conditions on the yields and on the characteristics of the obtained extracts, such as composition and antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities, was analyzed. Extract fractionation, solvent flow rate and composition, in addition to extraction time, temperature and pressure, were among these studied process variables/conditions. Characterization of extracts involved the use of diverse analytical techniques including spectrophotometric and chromatographic ones. Elderberry pomace and elderflower were evaluated as sources of potentially useful natural compounds. Elderberry pomace is a juice-processing industry residue which comprises the fruit skins and seeds, and is known to be rich in anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds. It was subjected to high pressure extractions at 313 K and ~20 MPa, applying supercritical carbon dioxide in a first step and pressurized solvent mixtures of carbon dioxide, ethanol and water in a second step. Extract fractionation was achieved by such a methodology. While the first step led to extracts rich in lipids and other apolar substances, obtained second step extracts revealed high contents of anthocyanins and presented high antioxidant activities, which were strongly influenced by the employed solvent mixture composition. The results of this study highlight the potential of elderberry pomace as a source of valuable compounds, and may assist in the development of strategies for integral exploitation of elderberries, reducing the environmental impact of elderberry juice processing industries. Elderflower was, in its turn, subjected to supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. The effect of solvent density (300-900 kg/m3) and of extraction temperature (308-328 K) on extracts characteristics was analyzed. Most of the obtained extracts revealed high contents of apolar compounds. Their phenolic compounds contents and the resulting antioxidant activities were relatively low, but they may possibly be increased if ethanol and water mixtures are added as cosolvents to carbon dioxide (which is planned to be performed in the near future). Nevertheless, obtained results revealed that elderflower extracts achieved by supercritical fluid technology may be added as natural aromatic additives to cosmetic and food systems. Maritime pine bark is an abundant residue from pine wood processing industries which is rich in condensed tannins. This residue was subjected to conventional solid-liquid aqueousbased extractions as well as to supercritical and pressurized solvent extraction procedures in order to obtain efficient vegetable tanning agents and bioactive phenolic-based extracts, respectively. Conventional aqueous extractions were optimized by adding small amounts (up to 15%, v/v) of ethanol. This methodology was selective for condensed tannins and the obtained extracts revealed adequate characteristics for leather tanning applications. Concerning supercritical fluid extraction experiments, carbon dioxide and a mixture of carbon dioxide and ethanol (10%) were used in two consecutive steps, varying extraction pressure in the range 10-30 MPa, and extraction temperature in the range 303-323 K. The employed fractionated extraction methodology showed that it was possible to obtain different extract fractions having diverse antioxidant activities from maritime pine bark. Moreover, it showed that the process could be further optimized through the usage of different solvent mixtures as well as other operational conditions. Therefore, pressurized solvent extractions were consecutively performed varying some process variables such as solvent mixture composition (carbon dioxide and ethanol, with up to 90% of ethanol) and flow rate. Extraction kinetics and extracts composition (in terms of phenolic compounds in general, and of condensed tannins in particular) were considerably affected by the solvent mixture composition. The results of these studies showed that both conventional and high pressure extraction methodologies may be feasible strategies for the valorization of maritime pine bark, therefore reducing the environmental impact and increasing the profit of the involved industries. Finally, tara seed coat, which is a residue of tara powder and of tara gum processing industries, was evaluated as a source of phenolic compounds in general, and of hydrolysable tannins, in particular. Pressurized solvent extractions using homogeneous solvent mixtures of carbon dioxide, ethanol and water were performed at 313 K and 20 MPa. An experimental mixture design was applied in order to optimize the solvent mixture composition in terms of selectivity towards the above referred compounds, as well as in terms of antioxidant activities and lipoxygenase inhibition activities (indicative of their anti-inflammatory capacities) of the whole extracts. The achieved mixture models permitted to discern the contribution of the three individual solvents used: while water revealed to be the most effective solvent to obtain high extraction yields, ethanol-rich mixtures originated the maximum extracts´ phenolic contents. Moreover, the obtained extracts presented quite relevant antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibition activities. Tara seed coat is, therefore, a rich source of bioactive compounds, which may be applied as natural additives in food, cosmetic or pharmaceutical goods, increasing their shelf-lives and/or acting as human health promoters. In conclusion, instead of being disposed as waste of environmental concern or utilized in low value applications, agro-residues of elder, maritime pine and tara are promising sources of important constituents and should be considered for valorization. Environmentally clean methodologies and solvents may be applied for the extraction of natural colorants, flavors, aromas, preservatives, among others, some of them presenting bioactive properties. The choice of the appropriate extraction methodology and extraction conditions is of extreme importance for the selectivity of the extraction towards the intended compounds and for the resulting properties of the obtained natural extracts, defining their future potential applications. The successful exploitation of the studied agro-residues still requires further research and development, besides the one presented in this Thesis. A more precise identification of the natural compounds present in the obtained extracts is still required and will be addressed in future works. Moreover, other issues like the toxicity, metabolism, bioavailability and physiological activities of the extracted compounds also need to be considered. Nevertheless, a contribution has been given to the sustainability of elder, maritime pine and tara processing industries. ; O processamento industrial de produtos agrícolas e florestais origina enormes quantidades de resíduos que podem constituir um sério problema ambiental, se forem sujeitos a procedimentos incorrectos de aproveitamento e/ou eliminação. Frequentemente, estes resíduos são apenas parcialmente valorizados, sendo utilizados para alimentação animal, como fertilizantes ou transformados em biocombustível. Contudo, nos últimos anos tem-se verificado uma tendência crescente para a sua valorização, acompanhando a evolução de uma legislação ambiental cada vez mais restritiva. Neste contexto, a reutilização e reciclagem destes resíduos naturais têm sido encorajadas, contribuindo para agregar valor económico na linha de produção das empresas do sector, podendo mesmo constituir uma excelente oportunidade de negócio. Tipicamente, uma parte substancial dos resíduos produzidos durante o processamento de frutos, vegetais e recursos florestais consiste da matéria-prima original, incluindo a pele e as sementes dos frutos, flores, folhas, caules, casca de árvores e raízes. Na maior parte destes resíduos existem quantidades substanciais de compostos com elevado valor acrescentado, muitos deles possuindo propriedades benéficas para a saúde humana. De entre eles, destacamse os compostos fenólicos (que têm sido associados aos benefícios relacionados com o consumo de frutos e vegetais), uma vez que são preferencialmente sintetizados nos tecidos vegetais exteriores. Usualmente, e apesar do seu valor significativo, estes resíduos são comummente sub-explorados, e o seu potencial valor como produto natural é frequentemente perdido. Sendo assim, uma das áreas com maior potencial de exploração é o aproveitamento de substâncias com elevado valor acrescentado. De facto, após o tratamento adequado das matérias-primas, seguido de técnicas de separação adequadas, a maior parte dos resíduos agro-industriais pode constituir uma fonte rica de antioxidantes, corantes, fragrâncias e biocidas naturais, entre outros, com enorme interesse para as indústrias farmacêutica, cosmética ou alimentar. Neste trabalho foi estudada a extracção de compostos com potencial valor acrescentado a partir de resíduos de três plantas: o sabugueiro e o pinheiro-bravo (nativas de Portugal), e a tara (nativa do Peru). Foram usadas técnicas e solventes de extracção considerados "amigos do ambiente". Apesar de terem sido usadas técnicas convencionais de extracção, como a hidrodestilação e a extracção por Soxhlet, foi dado especial destaque à extracção supercrítica e à extracção com solvente pressurizado, usando como solventes, respectivamente, o dióxido de carbono supercrítico e misturas pressurizadas de dióxido de carbono, etanol e água. Em termos gerais, e para além de outros aspectos particulares, foi estudado o efeito de diversas variáveis/condições de processo (fraccionamento de extracção, composição do solvente, temperatura e pressão de operação, caudal de solvente, entre outros) nos rendimentos e nas características dos extractos obtidos, nomeadamente em termos de composição e actividades antioxidante e anti-inflamatória. Para a caracterização analítica dos extractos foram usadas diversas técnicas analíticas, incluindo espectrofotométricas e cromatográficas. O bagaço e a flor de sabugueiro foram avaliados como possíveis fontes de compostos naturais de interesse. O bagaço de sabugueiro, um resíduo proveniente da indústria de processamento de sumo, é constituído essencialmente pelas peles e grainhas das bagas e é uma fonte rica de antocianinas e outros compostos fenólicos. Este resíduo foi sujeito a extracção a alta pressão a 313 K e a ~20 MPa, usando dióxido de carbono supercrítico numa primeira etapa, e misturas pressurizadas de dióxido de carbono, etanol e água numa segunda etapa. Esta metodologia de extracção permitiu obter o fraccionamento do extracto. A primeira etapa de extracção originou extractos contendo elevados teores de lípidos e outras substâncias apolares. Os extractos obtidos na segunda etapa revelaram ter elevados teores de antocianinas e apresentaram uma elevada actividade antioxidante, com uma acentuada influência da composição do solvente. Os resultados deste estudo evidenciaram o potencial do bagaço do sabugueiro como fonte de compostos com elevado valor acrescentado, podendo contribuir para o desenvolvimento de estratégias de utilização integral das bagas, reduzindo o impacto ambiental das indústrias do sector. Por outro lado, a flor foi sujeita a extracção supercrítica usando dióxido de carbono como solvente. Foi avaliado o efeito da massa específica do solvente (300-900 kg/m3) e da temperatura de extracção (308-328 K) nos rendimentos e nas características dos extractos obtidos. A maior parte dos extractos obtidos revelaram ter um elevado teor de compostos apolares. No entanto, os seus teores de compostos fenólicos e as suas actividades antioxidantes foram relativamente baixos, podendo eventualmente ser melhorados se misturas de etanol e água forem usadas como co-solventes (o que se prevê que venha a ser feito em trabalhos futuros). Os resultados obtidos revelaram que os extractos de flor de sabugueiro obtidos recorrendo à tecnologia de extracção supercrítica podem, eventualmente, ser usados como aditivos aromáticos naturais em produtos alimentares e cosméticos. A casca do pinheiro-bravo, um resíduo abundante da indústria madeireira e rico em taninos condensados, foi sujeita a extracções convencionais (com o objectivo de obter extractos eficazes na curtimenta de peles de animais) e a extracções supercríticas e com solvente pressurizado (com o objectivo de obter extractos bioactivos). Nas extracções convencionais, foi utilizada água como solvente e foi optimizado o aditivo usado. Verificouse que uma pequena percentagem de etanol (até 15%, v/v) foi selectiva para os taninos condensados e que os extractos obtidos tinham condições adequadas para serem usados na curtimenta de pele de animais. Nas extracções supercríticas foram estudadas as condições de pressão (10-30 MPa) e temperatura (303-323 K), usando o dióxido de carbono e uma mistura de dióxido de carbono e etanol (10%) como solventes, em dois passos consecutivos. A metodologia de extracção aplicada mostrou que é possível obter fracções de extracto com actividades diversas a partir da casca de pinheiro-bravo. Para além disso, mostrou que o processo podia, ainda, ser optimizado utilizando diferentes condições experimentais, entre as quais a composição do solvente. Sendo assim, foram efectuadas extracções com solvente pressurizado variando algumas condições de processo, tais como a composição do solvente (misturas de dióxido de carbono e etanol, contendo até 90% de etanol) e o caudal de solvente. Tanto as cinéticas de extracção como a composição dos extractos (em termos de compostos fenólicos, em geral, e de taninos condensados, em particular) foram consideravelmente afectados pela composição da mistura do solvente. Este estudo mostrou que, tanto a metodologia de extracção convencional como a de alta pressão, podem ser estratégias viáveis de valorização da casca do pinheiro-bravo, contribuindo para a redução do impacto ambiental e para o aumento do lucro das indústrias do sector. Finalmente, foi avaliada a possibilidade de aproveitamento da casca da semente de tara (um resíduo proveniente do processamento do fruto para a obtenção de pó e goma de tara) para a recuperação de compostos fenólicos, em geral, e de taninos hidrolisáveis, em particular. Foram efectuadas extracções pressurizadas usando misturas homogéneas de dióxido de carbono, etanol e água, a 313 K e a 20 MPa. Foi utilizado um desenho experimental para optimizar a composição do solvente de extracção, em termos de selectividade para com os compostos referidos, assim como em termos de actividade antioxidante e de inibição da lipoxigenase (indicativa da actividade anti-inflamatória). Os modelos de mistura obtidos permitiram avaliar a contribuição de cada um dos solventes individuais usados: enquanto que a água foi eficaz na promoção de elevados rendimentos de extracção, o etanol foi selectivo para os compostos fenólicos. Os extractos obtidos mostraram ter um elevado teor de compostos fenólicos e apresentaram relevantes actividades antioxidante e anti-inflamatória. Sendo assim, a casca da semente de tara é uma fonte rica de compostos bioactivos que podem ser usados como aditivos naturais em produtos alimentares, cosméticos e farmacêuticos, aumentando a sua vida útil e/ou actuando como substâncias promotoras da saúde humana. Em conclusão, os resíduos obtidos a partir de sabugueiro, pinheiro-bravo e tara são fontes promissoras de substâncias importantes devendo, por isso, ser considerados para valorização, em vez de serem encarados como causadores de problemas ambientais, ou serem usados em aplicações de baixo valor acrescentado. Neste estudo foram aplicadas metodologias e solventes "amigos do ambiente" para a extracção de corantes, aromas e antioxidantes, entre outros, de origem natural, alguns deles apresentando potenciais propriedades biológicas. A escolha da metodologia adequada e das condições particulares de extracção é de extrema importância para a selectividade da extracção para com os compostos de interesse, assim como para as propriedades evidenciadas pelos extractos naturais obtidos, definindo as suas potenciais aplicações futuras. O sucesso da exploração dos resíduos agro-industriais considerados requer mais investigação e desenvolvimento, para além dos apresentados neste estudo. Nomeadamente, requer uma identificação mais precisa dos compostos naturais presentes nos extractos obtidos, que irá ser abordada em trabalhos futuros. Outras questões tais como o metabolismo, a bio-disponibilidade e a actividade fisiológica dos compostos presentes nos extractos também necessitam, eventualmente, de ser considerados. No entanto, neste estudo foi dada uma contribuição para a sustentabilidade das indústrias de processamento de sabugueiro, pinheiro-bravo e tara.
This report is the result of a World Bank mission that visited Paraguay in June 2013 at the request of the Government of Paraguay. The mission's objective was to identify, quantify, and prioritize agriculture risks that determine the volatility of agriculture gross domestic product (GDP), based on a methodology to assess sector risks developed by the World Bank. The methodology stipulates a two-phase process. The first phase (risk evaluation), which is in volume one of this report, was reviewed by the government and evaluates the current situation and perspective of agriculture sector risks, starting from the standpoint of supply chains. From here, and based on the identification of the most important risks, given their frequency and severity, a list of possible solutions was produced in addition to the existing public and private programs and policies. This process is completed with a second phase, where an action plan was prepared (volume two) that can be executed in the medium term to reduce sector risks and to contribute to the sustainability of agriculture investments. The significant efforts undertaken by the government to maintain support programs in critical production and trade areas of the sector are recognized, as well as the institutional development to strengthen the response capacity to agriculture risks. Chapter one gives introduction. Chapter two presents information about the agriculture sector and its recent performance is included, allowing to determine the most important supply chains for this risk assessment and to place the relative economic and social importance of the various commodities and production methods in the appropriate context. In chapter three, a comprehensive assessment of production, market, and enabling environment risks is undertaken for the main commercial and family farming supply chains, in addition to livestock. Chapter four shows the repercussions that risks have had in the past, in particular aggregated losses incurred by supply chain actors. Chapter five assesses the impacts of these losses throughout the supply chains and explores the relative vulnerability of the different actors. Chapter six presents the results and ranking of risks, a list of possible solutions jointly with different public initiatives where some identified risks are addressed.
Afghanistan faces a severe problem of poor nutrition and food insecurity. Chronic malnutrition among Afghan children is one of the highest in the world. This report investigates the status of food insecurity in Afghanistan with a focus on mapping provincial differences and an emphasis on understanding the impact of rising food prices on key measures of food security. It synthesizes findings from analysis of rising food prices and their impact on different measures of food access and utilization (such as calorie intake, protein consumption and the quality of diet) in Afghanistan. The findings are based on the analysis of data from the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) 2007/08, a sample of over 20,000 households from all 34 provinces of Afghanistan. This analytical work is an integral part of the on-going collaboration between the Government of Afghanistan and the World Bank in the domain of poverty and vulnerability assessment. It aims to further the understanding of household wellbeing and vulnerability from the standpoint of food security and complements the earlier work presented in 'poverty status in Afghanistan. Finally, given that poor nutrition and food insecurity affect a sizeable proportion of the Afghan population year-round but more so during bad times, there is genuine need for a scaled-up and well-targeted safety nets program in Afghanistan.
This publication helps guide investment planning and financing across key urban infrastructure sectors of Azerbaijan to improve the performance of cities—with a focus on economy, equity, and environment. The National Urban Assessment for Azerbaijan is among a series prepared by the Asian Development Bank for selected developing countries under its Urban Operational Plan 2012–2020.
This paper sets out to systematically assess urban citizens' tax attitudes in Myanmar. It focuses on three of the most important taxes in Myanmar: income tax, commercial tax, and property tax. Income and commercial taxes are the biggest sources of tax revenue, and property tax is widespread and salient. The study is restricted to citizens living in cities, where exposure to these taxes is greatest. The paper relies on data from the 2017 City Life Survey undertaken by The Asia Foundation in partnership with the Yangon School of Political Science as part of the Myanmar Strategic Support Program (MSSP). The City Life Survey is the first of its kind in Myanmar, tracking public perceptions and lived experiences of urban life.
At a time when migration policies are beleaguered with controversies brought to the fore by national security and economic concerns, the issue of labor migration has proven to be a polarizing subject that has fueled debates among policymakers and world leaders. Interminable discussions have run the gamut from impacts and challenges of migration to crafting policies that will guarantee equal opportunities for both migrants and the local workforce. While it remains unclear how migration policies will play out in the coming years, one of the challenges faced by states is how to move forward in an increasingly globalized and highly competitive era where states are grappling for scarce resources, including skilled people. In migration discourse, brain drain is considered a ubiquitous phenomenon. Brain drain refers to the international transfer of resources in the form of human capital, i.e., the migration of relatively highly educated individuals mostly from developing to developed countries. This phenomenon is deemed challenging as it leads to talent deficit in the countries of origin.
Cameroon is a lower-middle income country with social indicators and levels of poverty which are below those for comparator countries. Large and rising inequalities between north and south, inefficiencies in public resource allocation and an adverse business environment explain this. While insecurity due to Boko Haram activities and rapidly rising public debt constrain efforts at poverty reduction, there exists a huge potential for economic growth and poverty reduction. This potential remains mostly untapped. Realizing it will require far reaching reforms, particularly with respect to the business environment and public financial management, and require politically courage to accomplish. The remainder of this document explores how to achieve the twin goals of ending poverty and improving shared prosperity by 2030 in a sustainable manner. The document identifies a limited number of binding constraints which would need to be lifted to achieve the poverty objective. The next four chapters present background material to chapter six, which presents binding constraints to poverty reduction. The micro-foundations to poverty reduction are discussed in chapters two and three. Chapter two discusses poverty, equity and vulnerability. Chapter three discusses human capital and its role in poverty reduction. Chapter four considers poverty reduction from a macro-economic perspective. It discusses opportunities for growth and economic transformation as well as the status of various cross-cutting economic services. Chapter five, considers governance, fragility and the institutional environment. Binding constraints to sustainable poverty reduction are identified in chapter six.
