Suchergebnisse

En el trabajo se examinan los límites juridicos que condicionan la configuración del sistema lingüístico escolar del País Vasco. Unos límites provienen del exterior de este país. En concreto, proceden de los tratados internacionales válidamente celebrados por España y publicados oficialmente, de la Constitución española, y de la legislación española en materia de educación aplicable al País Vasco. Los demás límites proceden de la propia legislación vasca. Destacadamente, de la Ley Básica de Normalización del uso del Euskera y de la Ley de la Escuela Pública Vasca, que articulan el sistema lingüístico escolar vigente. Éste consiste en el sistema de separatismo lingüístico electivo, matizado por la existencia de tres modelos simultáneos (A, B y D). En cuanto a la reforma del sistema actual, su alcance podrá ser muy diferente, según se aborde mediante una disposición reglamentaria del Gobierno Vasco o a través de una reforma legislativa aprobada por el Parlamento Vasco. En el primer caso, la revisión del sistema debe limitarse a introducir innovaciones, más o menos relevantes, en los tres Modelos, sin poder desfigurarlos ni suprimirlos. En el segundo, el Parlamento puede modificar las leyes vigentes, que son las que imponen aquellos tres Modelos. Por tanto, las modificaciones pueden ser mucho más intensas, hasta el extremo de poder sustituir el sistema actual por uno radicalmente distinto. Ello es factible, porque los límites de procedencia externa permiten una gran flexibilidad a la hora de establecer el sistema lingüístico escolar.
Euskadiko hizkuntza-sistemaren konfigurazioa baldintzatzen duten muga juridikoak aztertuko ditugu lan honetan. Muga horietako batzuk herrialdetik kanpokoak dira. Hain justu, Espainiak baliozkotasun osoz sinatu eta ofizialki argitaratu diren nazioarteko itunek eta Espainiako Konstituzioak nahiz Euskadin aplikagarri diren hezkuntza-gaietako lege espainiarrak jarriak dira batzuk. Gainerako mugak Euskadiko legeetatik bertatik datoz; batez ere, Euskararen Erabilera Normalizatzeko Oinarrizko Legetik eta Euskal Eskola Publikoaren Legetik, horiek baitira indarrean dagoen eskolako hizkuntza-sistema artikulatzen dutenak. Hain zuzen, Euskadiko hizkuntza-sistema hizkuntzen aukerako bereizketan oinarritzen da, hiru eredu eskainiz (A,
B eta D). Gaur egungo sistemaren erreformari dagokionez, oso esparru ezberdinari eragingo dio Eusko Jaurlaritzak emandako xedapen arauemaile baten bidez gauzatu edo Eusko Legebiltzarrak onetsitako legeerreforma batez bideratu. Lehenengo kasuan, sistemaren errebisioak hiru ereduetan berritasunak, esanguratsuak edo apalak, sartzeko aukera emango luke soil-soilik, baina inondik ere ereduok desegituratu edo ezabatu gabe. Bigarrengo kasuan, Legebiltzarrak indarrean dauden legeak alda ditzake, hau da, ereduok ezarri zituzten legeak. Horrenbestez, aldaketak askoz sakonagoak izan daitezke, eta gaur egungo sistemaren ordez beste bat, erabat ezberdina, ezarri. Eta gerta liteke halakorik, kanpotik datozen muga horiek malgutasun handia ematen dutelako eskolako hizkuntza-sistema finkatzeko orduan.
This work examines the legal limits that determine the configuration of the educational-linguistic system in the Basque Country. Limits that come outside this country. Specifically, they come from international treaties officialy signed and published by Spain, from the Spanish Constitution, and from the Spanish legislation in the field of education applied within the Basque Country. The rest of limits come from the Basque legislation itself. Notably, the Ley Básica de Normalización del Uso del Euskera and the Ley de la Escuela Pública Vasca which implement the current educational linguistic system. This lies in a system of elective linguistic separatism, modulated by the existence of three simultaneous models (A, B y D). As for the amendment of
the current system, its scope may be very different depending on whether it is done by means of a regulation by the Basque Government or by means of legislative amendment by the Basque Parliament. In the first case, the review of the system should merely introduce more or less relevant innovations to the three models but not distorting or abolishing them. In the second case, the Parliament might amend the statutes in force, which
set up those three models. Therefore, the amendments can be much more intense to the extent of replacing the current system for a new one. That is feasible because the limits of external origin allow a greater flexibility when it comes down the moment of setting up the educational linguistic system.

The development of rural areas concerning food security, sustainability and social-economic stability is key issue to the globalized community. Regarding the current state of climatic change, especially semi-arid regions in uenced by monsoon or El Niño are prone to extreme weather events. Droughts, ooding, erosion, degradation of soils and water quality and deserti cation are some of the common impacts. State of the art in hydrologic environmental modeling is generally operating under a reductionist paradigm (Sivapalan 2005). Even an enormous quantity of process-oriented models exists, we fail in due reproduction of complexly interacting processes in their effective scale in the space-time-continuum, as they are described through deterministic small-scale process theories (e.g. Beven 2002). Yet large amounts of parameters - with partly doubtful physical expression - and input data are needed. In contradiction to that most soft information about patterns and organizing principles cannot be employed (Seibert and McDonnell 2002). For an analysis of possible strategies on the one hand towards integrated hydrologic modeling as decision support and on the other hand for sustainable land use development the 512 km2 large catchment of the Mod river in Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh, India has been chosen. It is characterized by a setting of common problems of peripheral rural semi-arid human-eco-systems with intensive agriculture, deforestation, droughts and general hardship for the people. Scarce data and missing gauges are adding to the requirements of data acquisition and process description. The study at hand presents a methodical framework to combine eld scale data analysis and remote sensing for the setup of a database focusing plausibility over strict data accuracy. The catena-based hydrologic model WASA (Güntner 2002) employes this database. It is expanded by a routine for crop development simulation after the de Wit approach (e.g. in Bouman et al. 1996). For its application as decision support system an agentbased land use algorithm is developed which decides on base of site speci cations and certain constraints (like maximum pro t or best local adaptation) about the cropping. The new model is employed to analyze (some) land use strategies. Not anticipated and a priori de ned scenarios will account for the realization of the model but the interactions within the system. This study points out possible approaches to enhance the situation in the catchment. It also approaches central questions of ways towards due integrated hydrological modeling on catchment scale for ungauged conditions and to overcome current paradigms. ; Die Entwicklung ländlicher Regionen hinsichtlich von Ernährungssicherheit, Nachhaltigkeit und sozio-ökonomischer Stabilität ist eine der wichtigsten Aufgaben unserer globalisierten Gemeinschaft. In Hinblick auf den Klimawandel sind insbesondere semi-aride Gebiete im Einfluss von Monsun oder El Niño von extremen Wetterereignissen betroffen. Tockenheiten, Überschwemmungen, Erosion, Bodendegradation, Verschlechterung der Wasserqualität und Versteppung sind nur einige, oft beobachtete Folgen. Der Stand der Forschung in Sachen hydrologischer Umweltmodellierung ist insbesondere einem reduktionistischen Paradigma verhaftet (Sivapalan 2005). Obwohl eine enorme Menge verschiedenster Prozessmodelle existiert können auf Grundlage kleinskaliger Prozessapproximationen die komplex interagierenden Prozesse in ihren wirkenden Skalen im Raum-Zeit-Kontinuum nur begrenzt beschreiben werden (z.B. Beven 2002). Während die verwendeten Modelle große Mengen an Parametern und Daten benötigen, können wichtige Informationen über Muster und Organisationsprinzipien nicht in die Simulationen einfließen. Für eine Analyse möglicher Wege und Restriktionen der integrierten hydrologischen Modellierung als Mittel in der Entscheidungsunterstützung wurde das 512 km² große Einzugsgebiet des Mod Flusses in Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh, Indien ausgewählt. Es ist gekennzeichnet von charakteristischen Problemen der Neuen Peripherie (z.B. Scholz 2004) (im human-geographischen Kontext) und intensiv anthropogen beeinflusster Agrar-Öko-Systeme der semi-ariden Tropen. Die dünne Datengrundlage des nicht-bepegelten Einzugsgebiets stellt dabei eine besondere Anforderung an die Datenakquise. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein methodischer Ansatz vorgestellt, der Feld- und Fernerkundungstechniken zur Landschaftsanalyse verbindet. Mit dem Fokus auf Plausibilität statt strenger "Datengenauigkeit" wird eine Datenbank zur hydrologischen Modellierung des Gebiets entwickelt. Das Catena-basierte hydrologische Prozessmodell WASA (Güntner 2002) wird um eine Routine zur Simulation der Entwicklung von Nutzpflanzen nach de Wit (z.B. in Bouman et al. 1996) erweitert. Zur Anwendung des Modells als Entscheidungsunterstützungssystem ist ein agentenbasierter Landnutzungsalgorithmus entwickelt worden, welcher auf Grundlage von Standorteigenschaften und politischen Vorgaben wie Profitmaximierung oder Standortanpassung über die Landnutzung entscheidet. Das neue Modellsystem wird zur Untersuchung von einigen Landnutzungstrategien so verwendet, dass nicht antizipierte Szenarien sondern die Wechselwirkung des Systems selbst die Realisation des Modells bestimmen. Die Umsetzung zeigt einerseits mögliche Ansätze zur Verbesserung der Situation im Untersuchungsgebiet auf. Anderseits gibt sie konkrete Vorschläge zu zentralen Fragen hydrologischer Umweltmodellierung und zur Überwindung bestehender Paradigmen.

Su yasantımızda alternatifi olmayan ender kaynaklardan birisidir. Bunun anlamı su bittiğinde hayat bitecektir. Son zamanlarda etkisini daha çok hissettiren su sıkıntısı çoğu ülke gibi Türkiye'yi de yakından ilgilendirmektedir. Son yıllarda ekonomik ve sosyal gelismesini belirli bir düzeye getirmek için sınır asan sularından faydalanma yönünde yoğun bir çaba içine giren Türkiye bir çok projeyi uygulama alanına koymustur. Bu projeler, komsu devletler ile bir takım uyusmazlıkların doğmasına neden olmus, bunların bir kısmı anlasmalarla çözüme kavusturulurken, önemli bir kısmına çözüm getirilememistir. Öte yandan Türkiye'nin de yer aldığı Orta Doğu coğrafyasında su kaynaklarını elinde bulunduran ülkelerle su kaynakları kıt olan ülkeler arasında sürekli sürtüsmeler meydana gelmekte, konu ile ilgili uluslar arası hukuk kurallarının olmayısı da sorunların çözümünü daha da zorlastırmaktadır. Su sorununun uluslar arası bir mahiyet alması, ülkeleri bu sorunun çözümü için ortak kavram ve hukuk anlayısı arama çabalarına itmistir. Özellikle sınır asan sularla ilgili olarak ortaya çıkan sorunların çözümüne katkı sağlayacak ve tüm ülkeler tarafından da kabul görecek bir hukuk sisteminin olusturulması için değisik platformlarda çalısmalar baslatılmıstır. Ancak, yaklasık 40 yıl önce baslatılmıs olan bu çalısmalardan günümüze kadar belirgin bir sonuca ulasılamamıstır. Türkiye, 1986 yılında, iyi niyetle, Orta Doğu'daki su sorununa çözüm bulmak ve susuzluk çeken ülkelerin ihtiyacını karsılamaya yönelik olarak Barıs Suyu Projesi'ni ortaya atmıstır. Türkiye bu proje ile ekonomik getirinin yanında bölge ülkeleri arasında isbirliği ve güven ortamı yaratarak, bölgenin istikrar ve güvenliğine katkı sağlamayı amaçlamıstır. Özetle; günümüzde suya olan talep küresel iklim değisikliklerinin de etkisiyle birlikte tüm Dünya'da ve Orta Doğu'da artmaktadır. Dünya nüfusunun artması ve kaynakların bilinçsizce kullanılması da suyu daha önemli hale getirmektedir. Türkiye bulunduğu topraklar itibari ile çok önemli bir bölgededir. Türkiye'nin su konusunda izleyeceği politika ve atacağı adımlar, yakın gelecekte Türkiye'nin Orta Doğu'daki konumunu daha belirgin hale getirecektir. ; Water is one of the unique sources which have no other alternatives in our lives. That is to say, life will end when the water ends. Poverty of water which makes its effect felt much more recently concerns Turkey closely, as well as most of the countries. Turkey, who gets into an intensive struggle in the direction of taking advantage of her transboundary waters in order to bring her social and economic developments to a specific level, in recent years, puts lots of projects into practice. These projects cause some disagreements to arise with the neighbouring states, an important part of disagreements is not solved while some of them reach solutions with treaties. On the other hand, there appear continuous disputes between the countries having the rich water resources and the countries deprived of these resources, in Middle East geography in which Turkey has also a place; in addition, non-existence of international laws about the matter makes it difficult to solve the problems. Water problem?s getting an international quality leads the countries to struggle for search of a common concept and understanding of law in order to solve this problem. Studies has been started in different fields of the world so that a law system, which is to contribute to the solution of the problems especially appeared related to transboundary waters and to be admitted by all the countries could be formed. However, these studies having been started 40 years ago has unfortunately no certain outcome till today. Turkey puts forward Water of Peace Project with good intention to find a solution for water problem in Middle East and meet the need of the countries suffering aridity.In 1986 Turkey aims at providing contribution to security and stability of the region by creating an atmosphere of cooperation and trust between the countries in this region, along with economic benefits with this project. To sum up; today, demand for water increases with the global warming all around the world and Middle East. In addition, increase in world population and unconscious use of the resources make the water important. Turkey is a very significant region regarding the soil she stands. Turkey?s policy to follow and steps to take about the matter of water will make Turkey?s position in Middle East more evident

This research develops and tests a model of the service unit ownership and control patterns used by international service companies. The main purpose of this study is to investigate trivariate causal relationships among environmental factors, organizational structure, and perceived performance in the internationalization process of service firms. A service firm operating in foreign soil has a choice of three general entry mode strategies offering different degrees of ownership and control of its remote operating units located in foreign countries -- full ownership arrangement, joint venture arrangement, and franchising arrangement. The entry mode strategies chosen depend on the factors relating to internal environment of a specific firm, industry related factors in which the firm operates, and external environment of the operating units at national context. This study identifies these factors, investigates how they affect the firm's choice of entry modes, and finally examines the impact of entry mode on firm's performance. The overall model has been explained by contingency theory that conceptualizes optimal level of ownership and control mode as a response by the firm to the interplay of environmental factors and as a determinant of firm's performance. To this core can be added complementary theories which are borrowed from agency theory, transaction cost theory, and resource dependence theory. These theories explain the linkages between market entry mode and each type of environmental factors. In order to empirically test the hypotheses, data were collected from hospitality firms regarding the ownership structure of subsidiaries located in foreign countries. As a whole, the conceptual model developed in the study received strong support from the empirical study. This study found a positive impact of contingency fit on performance and so support contingency theory in which some combinations of the environmental dimensions and organizational structure will lead to better organizational performance. Another finding of this study indicates that the increased level of ownership and control will result in enhancing the level of perceived performance. It should be noted that contingency model-based mode choice would provide managers with the optimal performance because there is not one best performing mode choice in volatile international market. Next, the relationship of market environment with organizational structure was examined through three different perspectives. Market environment was investigated at firm, industry, and national context, which includes five factors -- monitoring uncertainty, asset specificity, cultural distance, political uncertainty, and economic uncertainty. The model is suggestive of a picture in which five environmental factors vie for affecting the choice of market entry modes. All five environmental factors were found to be significantly related to firms' organizational structure. Among five environmental factors, cultural uncertainty has the largest effect on the choice of entry mode followed by monitoring uncertainty, political uncertainty, asset specificity, and economic uncertainty. One of the important implications of this research is the inclusion of franchising as an actual management strategy and competitive business practice that is related to international ownership and control strategy. Higher degrees of uncertainty associated with the foreign market encourage external dependence of the venture, in which the operation depends more heavily on local relationships. Franchising substitutes the loss of ownership by an increase of external relationships and it takes without losing control on retail operation. Resource exploitation depends on the local market for either inputs or outputs for better performance. Understanding the fit between the each set of contingent variables and the elements of ownership and control strategy will allow marketers to determine when franchising is the suitable mode of operation in global markets. Collectively, these results suggest that the choice of an organizational form for international service firms involves a complex balance of firm, industry, and country level factors. Managers can maximize performance by aligning entry mode strategy with external contextual circumstances as well as internal resources. Managers may also be able to make better mode choice decisions using the theory-driven criteria examined in this study, increasing their chances for financial and non-financial success. ; Ph. D.

In Malaysia, the processing of sago starch predates that of cassava, having been established before 1416. With its introduction, cassava, which is a much shorter term crop, quickly replaced sago palm as the preferred raw material among starch processors. Hence, except for a small amount serving the fresh food market, cassava is planted in Malaysia mainly for starch processing. The cassava area in Peninsular Malaysia has declined steadily to 1,631 ha in 1997 after peaking in 1976 at 20,913 ha. This decline is due to the curbing of illegal cultivation; land alienation policy with a bias against cassava; switching from cassava to more lucrative crops; rising costs of production; low prevailing price for cassava roots; and competition for land for agricultural and non-agricultural activities during the economic boom prior to July 1997. Of the eight starch factories reported in Perak in 1984, only two are still in operation. Recently, in Sabah, a starch factory opened to process roots supplied through contract farming from an area of more than 3,000 ha. In trade, cassava starch takes the form of flour, flakes, pearls and starch powder. There is a growing demand for starch with imports amounting to 88,210 tonnes in 1997. Most of this starch is used in food industries, particularly for making monosodium glutamate (using about 3,000 tonnes of starch per month). Other significant users are manufacturers of glucose, bakery and biscuit products, textiles and paper. There is also increasing interest in growing edible varieties of cassava for processing into snacks. The future potential in terms of domestic demand for cassava starch is very good. Since the onset of the economic downturn faced by Southeast Asia, the Malaysian government has actively encouraged agriculture (to offset the country's huge food import bill amounting to almost US$ 2.9 billion a year) by providing easier access to farmland. There is recent renewed enthusiasm for planting cassava for production of starch, dried chips for livestock feed and sweeteners (high fructose glucose syrup or HFGS). For large-scale mechanized cassava production, certain prerequisites of soil type, terrain, climate and farm size matching the factory's capacity, must be satisfied. While land is hard to come by in Peninsular Malaysia, more than 80,000 ha of land are still available in Sabah. Starch is the most likely product to be feasible and profitable in the immediate future compared to dried chips and HFGS production, because of a high demand in the local market, and a well-established technology for starch processing. Stable, high-yielding varieties with intermediate to high starch content to ensure higher starch recovery are required; better still if they can be harvested early. The potential of using cassava as a carbohydrate-rich animal feedstuff is promising, but being low in protein compared to maize, additional protein is required from another source, entailing extra costs. Also, it is costly to dry cassava by artificial means. Although it is technically possible to produce HFGS from cassava, it involves converting starch by enzymatic processes – a complicated and expensive procedure. This does not seem economically feasible in the immediate future, given the current low world price for sugar. Instead, modified starches and their products have very good future potential as profitable agro-based industries. Modification of starches not only expands their scope of utilization by altering their physico-chemical characteristics, but also increases their value as compared to native starch. An alternative use of cassava, which has some prospects, is the production of snack foods. Although oil-fried crisps and crackers are traditional snacks produced by cottage industries, only recently have attempts been made by larger food processors to improve their quality and packaging, and to target the more up-market urban consumer and overseas market. Preliminary work at MARDI has shown that cassava makes a very good raw material for extruded snacks.

There are extensive revegetation programs in the wheatbelt of Western Australia. Revegetation has many objectives including lowering water tables to combat water logging and soil salinisation, improving agricultural productivity, and producing a commercial crop of trees for harvesting.Trees are planted by farmers, conservation groups and Government authorities to rehabilitate, beautify and manage degraded agricultural land, parks and road verges.In addition to improving plant diversity and restoring ecosystem functions, revegetation is an opportunity to provide food and habitat for wildlife and to conserve regional biodiversity. The objective of the study reported here was to investigate whether the tree species planted in the wheatbelt are colonized by invertebrates (e.g.insects and spiders) and whether the abundance and variety of invertebrates on planted trees differs between tree species and between revegetation and remnant native vegetation. The study also investigated the use of revegetation by birds and compared this to bird communities in remnant vegetation. Invertebrates were sampled on trees planted along the Great Eastern Highway as part of the Main Roads Department 'Ribbons of Green' program, as well as trees planted by community groups and Greening Western Australia. We asked whether the best species of trees were being planted to restore and enhance regional biodiversity. The canopy invertebrate fauna of 10 trees of each of eight species of Eucalyptus and jam wattle (Acacia acuminata) was sampled by chemical knockdown. Jam wattle and three of the eucalypts, including wandoo (E. wandoo), are indigenous to the Northam District. Three of the eucalypts are indigenous to the south coast of Western Australia, one to northwestern Western Australia, and the eighth is indigenous to coastal South Australia. Wandoo was sampled in both revegetation and remnant natural vegetation. In addition to sampling invertebrates, leaf toughness and levels of foliar nutrients (NPK) were sampled for all tree species. Leaf toughness and foliar nutrients were measured as other studies had found relationships between toughness and nutrients, with the abundance and variety of canopy invertebrates. Moderate to high invertebrate densities were found on all tree species. Indigenous trees tended to support the most diverse and abundant invertebrate faunas: species originating from southern coastal regions and northwestern Western Australia supported the least. Wandoo trees in revegetation tended to have higher populations of some insects than wandoo growing in remnant vegetation. Leaf toughness appeared to affect the size of invertebrate populations on some eucalypt species, but the effects of foliar nutrients were inconsistent, possibly because nutrient levels were elevated as a result of fertiliser applications. During winter (June),three patches of remnant vegetation and seven replanted areas were surveyed for birds. Twenty-five species of birds were recorded of which three were found only in remnant vegetation and six were found only on the replanted areas. However, all species recorded are widely distributed throughout the Western Australian wheatbelt and, with the possible exception of the White-browed Babbler (Pomatostomus supercilosus), no significance can be attributed to the differences in bird species composition between remnant and replanted areas: at least in winter, birds are as likely to use revegetated areas as remnant vegetation. The absence of the babbler from revegetated areas is possibly due to the lack of logs and woody debris on the planted sites. Sixteen of the 25 bird species are predominantly insectivorous, four are nectarivores, four are seed-eaters, and one is a frugivore. This suggests that a similar range of foraging resources are available in both remnant vegetation and revegetation. To restore and enhance regional biodiversity, we recommend that revegetation programs, including commercial plantings, should use a variety of tree species and emphasise regional species. Where this is not possible, species from nearby regions should be used. Planted areas should also be diversified by using a variety of indigenous shrubs and herbs, as well as trees, and by adding logs and coarse woody debris to the area planted. Provision of nest boxes would accelerate the colonization of revegetated areas by hole-nesting birds.

European Tropical Forest Research Newsletter No.15 November 1995 Code Number:NL95035 Size of Files: Text: 105K No associated graphics files European Tropical Forest Research Network (ETFRN) Coordination Unitc/o ATSAF e.V.Ellerstr. 50D-53119 Bonn, Germany Tel: +49-228-98 46-16 Fax: +49-228-98 46-99 Editor: Horst Freiberg Editorial Coordination and Design: Monika ReuleEditorial Assistant: Wilma Kahmer (from Sushil Saigal and Navin Kapor, India) JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT: The role of research networks Joint Forest Management (JFM) is a new approach to forest management that is being tried in India and several other countries. In JFM, forest department of the Government and local communities jointly manage the state forest lands. In turn, both share the responsibilities and benefits. TREE CITY - Urban Forestry & Arboricultural Program TREE CITY is an initiative of the GWB (Society for Forest Conservation and Manage ment)in Ebersbach/Germany, the Institute for Arboriculture in Hamburg/Germany and the International Institute for the Urban Environment in Delft/The Netherlands. A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE NEWLY ESTABLISHED ASIA PACIFIC ASSOCIATION OF FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS (APAFRI) The Asia-Pacific Region is one of the fastest growing regions in the world and the role of forestry sector in conributing to the economic, social and environmental well being of the Region is being redefined. APFT - A Comprehensive Social Scientific Designed Programme Aligned with the Future of Tropical Rainforest Peoples The Myth of the Virgin Forest 1. Research How APFT is different Capacity Building Africa-Caribbean-Pacific Beneficiaries Actors 2. Improving CEC project viability 3. Awareness 4. Database RESEARCH COOPERATIONS IVITA seeks Cooperation for TRopical Integrated systems Research in Peru Research Cooperations in the field of Ecology and Biological Resources in Vietnam The Tanzanian Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI) is looking for Research Partners in Various Fields of Forestry Research ECTF is looking for Industrial Companies interested in Community Forestry Development and Carbon Sequestration in Southern Mexico Fire Ecology Research and Possibilities to Collaborate with the fire Ecology Unit in Ghana NEWS Vavilov-Frankel Fellowships 1996 Intergovernmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management The 6th Meeting of the General Assembly (GA) of ETFRN took place in Vienna/Austria on 29th and 30th September 1995. The discussion of the next ETFRN 3-year-phase; the definition of objectives and expected outputs; ETFRN`s role as regional sectoral network inrespect to other regional re search networks and international / inter- governmental researchorganizations as well as the further development of ETFRN`s information managementconcept on INTERNET were the main items of the agenda. ETFRN's INTERNET-Homepage Open-Question-Service (OQS) + Bill-Board "European Tropical Forest Research Projects" DECALRATION OF THE IUFRO XX WORLD CONGRESS From 6-12 August 1995 the XXth IUFRO World Congress was held in Tampere, Finland under the topic: Caring for the Forest: Research in a Changing World. Over 2000 participants from about 100 different countries attended this "biggest event in IUFRO shistory". It is a long IUFRO tradition to prepare a Declaration at the end of each Congress with the aim to present IUFRO's position, to serve as a tool for research and policy and to be guidance for the further work of IUFRO. ADDRESSING NATURAL RESOURCES THROUGH COMMUNITY FORESTRY - A Global E-mail Conference from January - March 1996 INFER: A new Computer-based Method of Estimating the Environmental Relationships of Forest Trees and Other Plants PUBLICATIONS Parks, People and Professionals: Putting 'Participation' into Protected Area Management Salvaging Nature: Indigenous Peoples, Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation Designing a System of Nomenclature for European Forst Mapping Macroeconomic Aspects of Forestry Sector Planning Tropical Forests: Management and Ecology A Land-Ecological Study of Soils, Vegetation and Plant Diversity in Colombian Amazonia The Role of the Private Sector in Forestry Research VACANCY ANNOUNCEMENTS Research Possibilities at the Forest Research Insititute of Malaysia IPGRI: Scientist, In Situ Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is looking for a Scientist specialized in In Situ Conservation of Agri cultural Biodiversity. ETFRN NATIONAL NODES

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En la región del Comahue (Patagonia argentina), los sectores hidrocarburífero y agropecuario presentan procesos de intensificación del uso de los recursos naturales y tecnológicos. Mientras uno explota el subsuelo y otro cultiva la tierra, ambos desarrollan infraestructuras y participan en la conformación de la identidad de la región (socioeconómica, política, ambiental, paisajística, etc.). Empresas nacionales y extranjeras ponen en valor los recursos locales con criterios globalizados de producción. Los actores privados, la sociedad civil y el Estado procuran hacer converger sus intereses. Participan en la construcción de poder y de las relaciones y condiciones locales (empleo, manejo de los conflictos, etc.). Basado en la recopilación de datos empíricos y en las entrevistas realizadas en 2016, este artículo interroga el modelo de desarrollo que resulta del posicionamiento de actores globalizados en la región (grandes establecimientos agrícolas, transnacionales del sector hidrocarburífero y servicios), para la explotación a gran escala de las materias primas del suelo y del subsuelo. Las negociaciones que se entablan ante conflictos sociales y ambientales, en las que el diálogo llega a estructurarse y consensuar posiciones, pueden conllevar procesos de hibridación de lógicas públicas y privadas. Luego se puede establecer una co-construcción socioeconómica y política del territorio. ; In the Comahue region (Argentine Patagonia), the oil and gas sector as well as the agricultural one are relevant, in terms of intensifying the use of natural and technological resources. While one exploits the subsoil and another cultivates the land, both develop infrastructures and participate in the conformation the region´s identity (socio-economic, political, environmental, landscape, etc.). National and foreign companies value local resources with globalized production criteria. Shared agreements make converge the interests of private actors, local governments and the State. They participate in the construction of power and their relations with local populations (employment, conflict management, etc.). Based on the compilation of empirical data and interviews conducted in 2016, the article questions the development model resulting from the positioning of globalized actors (large agricultural establishments, hydrocarbon concessions) in the region, for the large-scale exploitation of soil and subsoil materials. The negotiations that take place before social and environmental conflicts, in which the dialogue comes to be structured and leads to agreements, can entail processes of hybridization of public and private logics. Then a socio-economic and political co-construction of the territory can be established. ; Na região de Comahue (Patagônia argentina), os setores de hidrocarbonetos e agropecuário apresentam processos de intensificação do uso de recursos naturais e tecnológicos. Enquanto um explora o subsolo e o outro cultiva a terra, ambos desenvolvem infraestruturas e participam da conformação da identidade da região (socioeconômica, política, ambiental, paisagística, etc.). Empresas nacionais ou estrangeiras valorizam os recursos locais com critérios globalizados de produção. Esses atores privados, outros da sociedade civil e os Estados procuram fazer convergir seus interesses. Participam da construção do poder e das relações e condições locais (emprego, gestão de conflitos, etc.). Baseada na recompilação de dados empíricos e em entrevistas realizadas em 2016, a reflexão questiona o modelo de desenvolvimento resultante do posicionamento de atores globalizados na região (grandes estabelecimentos agrícolas transnacionais do setor de hidrocarboneto e de serviços) em relação à exploração em grande escala de matérias primas do solo e do subsolo. As negociações que se estabelecem perante os conflitos sociais e ambientais e, quando o diálogo é estruturado e leva a consensos, podem carregar processos de hibridação de lógicas públicas e privadas. Logo se pode estabelecer uma co-construção socioeconômica e política do território ; Fil: Guibert, Martine. Universite de Toulose - Le Mirail; Francia ; Fil: Forget, Marie. Universite Savoie Mont Blanc; Francia ; Fil: Carrizo, Silvina Cecilia. Universidad Nacional del Noroeste de la Provincia de Buenos Aires; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata; Argentina

SummaryAGRICULTURAL POLICY AND SOCIAL POLICY THE FUTURE OF THE FAMILY FARMIn this paper an outline is given of a number of characteristic economic and technological developments in agriculture, which can be lumped together under the common heading of scale enlargement. These were confronted with some fundamental principles and objectives of agricultural policy. The confrontation was concluded with the following propositions:a) Present agricultural policy in most developed countries is characterized by the fact that it seeks simultaneously to serve a number of conflicting aims, as a result of which it assumes a vague character.b) Therefore, agricultural policy gives no attention to the question which is so vitally important for the future of agriculture, i.e. whether agriculture should be organized on the basis of relatively small and independent family, or one‐man farms, or on the basis of large‐scale agricultural enterprises. Arising from this, a substantial part of the farm population lives in a state of structural uncertainty, or sociologically speaking in a state of anomie.c) A quick, clear prouncement on what has been posed under (b) is the first and most important condition for pursuing a just social policy.d) Although every society has the right to choose its own agricultural organization pattern, economic, technological and social developments are clearly and almost compellinlgy taking place in the direction of large‐scale agricultural enterprises.e) Whatever organizational pattern a society wishes to choose for its agricultural production ‐ e.g. large‐scale enterprises or family farms ‐ in both cases comprehensive government planning is necessary for the transformation of the present farming structure, which is very unfavourable, into a more appropriate one.RésuméPOLITIQUE ATRICOLE ET POLITIQUE SOCIALE L'AVENIR DE L'EXPLOITATION FAMILLIALECet article donne un aperçu d'un certain nombre de développements économiques et technologiques, caractéristiques de l'agriculture qui peuvent être appréhendés sous le thème général du changement d'échelle. Ces développements sont, eux‐mêmes, confrontés avec quelques principes et objectifs fondamentaux de la politique agricole.a) De cette confrontation, il ressort que la politique agricole actuelle se caractérise, dans la plupart des pays développés, par une tentative de conciliation d'objectifs antagonistes, tentative qui a pour résultat de conférer une très grande imprécision à ces politiques.b) En conséquence, la politique agricole, n'accorde pas suffisamment d'attention à la question dont l'importance est vitale pour l'agriculture, à savoir, si celle çi doit être organisée sur la base d'exploitations familiales, de dimension relativement modeste, d'exploitations à une unité de travail, ou bien, sur la base d'entreprises de grande dimension. Cette option n'ayant pas été réalisée, la majeure partie de la population agricole vit dans l'incertitude de ce que seront les structures de demain, et sociologiquement parlant, dans un état d'anomie.c) Une réponse claire et rapide, au problème posé ci‐dessus est la première et la plus importante des conditions de mise en oeuvre d'une juste politique sociale.d) Bien que chaque société ait le droit de choisir son propre schema d'organisation, en matière agricole, les développements techniques, economiques, et sociaux vont clairement, irrésistiblement vers l'etablissement d'entreprises agricoles de grande dimension.e. Quel que soit le schéma d'organisation qu'une société souhaite choisir pour sa production agricole ‐ entreprises de grande dimension ou exploitations familiales ‐ une planification gouvernementale globale s'avère dans tous les cas nécessaire à la transformation de la structure agricole actuelle, défectueuse, en un autre type d'organisation plus approprié.ZusammenfassungAGRAPOLITIK UND SOZIALOLITIK DIE ZUKUNFT DES FAMILIENBETRIEBSDer Beitrag stellt einige charakteristische wirtschaftliche und technologische Entwicklungen in der Landwirtschaft dar, die als Erweiterung des Produktionsumfanges, zusammengefasst werden können. Diesen wurden einige fundamentale Prinzipien und Ziele der Agrarpolitik gegenübergestellt. Die Gegenüberstellung wurde mit folgenden Feststellungen beschlossen:a) Die gegenwärtige Agrarpolitik der meisten entwickelten Länder ist dadurch charakterisiert, daß sie gleichzeitig mehreren einander widersprechenden Zielen zu dienen sucht und daher sehr vage wird.b) Aus diesen Gründen vernachlässigt die Agrarpolitik die für die Zukunft der Landwirtschaft lebenswichtige Frage, ob die Landwirtschaft in relativ kleinen unabhängigen Familien ‐ oder Ein‐Mannbetrieben organisiert werden soil, oder in Großbetrieben. In dieser Hinsicht lebt ein wesentlicher Teil der landwirtschaftlichen Bevölkerung in einem Zustand struktureller Ungewißheit, oder ‐ soziologisch ausgedrückt ‐ in einem Zustand der Anomie.c) Eine schnelle und deutliche Erklärung zu Punkt b ist die erste und wichtigste Bedingung für eine gerechte Sozialpolitik.d) Zwar hat jede Gesellschaft das Recht, ihre eigenen Organisations‐formen für die Landwirtschaft zu wählen. Technologische und soziale Entwicklungen finden jedoch statt, die klar und fast zwingend in der Richtung landwirtschaftlicher Großbetriebe wirken.e) Welche Organisationsform eine Gesellschaft für ihre Agrarproduktion wählt ‐ z.B. Großbetriebe oder Familienbetriebe, in jedem Fall ist umfassende staatliche Planung für die Transformation der gegenwärtig recht ungünstigen Agrarstruktur in eine angepaßtere Struktur notwendig.

Pour répondre à la demande des aliments aussi bien en quantité qu'en qualité de la population croissante en Afrique, il faudra appliquer les technologies agricoles appropriées aux sols fragiles de ce continent pour augmenter la productivité et aboutir à la sécurité alimentaire. Dans le contexte du Rwanda, l'usage des fertilisants et des pesticides relève une contestation entre le Ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage et l'Office Rwandais chargé de la Protection de l'Environnement. Tandis que le premier prône l'utilisation intensive des fertilisants et pesticides, l'exploitation des marais pour accroître la production agricole, le second souligne que cela conduira à la pollution de l'environnement. Le gouvernement rwandais a adopté, depuis plus d'une décennie, une séquence de politiques et de stratégies visant le développement économique et l'amélioration du niveau de vie de sa population essentiellement agricole. Dans le secteur agricole, l'adoption de nouvelles technologiques et l'augmentation de la production se sont accompagnées de la mise en œuvre de ces stratégies. On remarque cependant que l'économie du pays reste dominée par l'agriculture de subsistance, avec un écart net entre la production potentielle et la production actuelle. Cette recherche s'efforce d'analyser le rôle des petites exploitations agricoles (1,0 ha au maximum) dans le développement agricole au Rwanda en considérant deux points d'importance stratégique, notamment la paysannerie et la production végétale (pomme de terre, maïs, haricot, blé, légumes), plus spécifiquement dans la région des sols de laves, dans les districts de Burera et Musanze de la Province du Nord, ainsi que Nyabihu et Rubavu de la Province de l'Ouest. Pour cette étude, les données collectées pour la saison 2019 B portaient sur différents points tels que les caractéristiques socioéconomiques des exploitants agricoles et de leurs ménages, les caractéristiques des exploitations (taille et culture), la perception des exploitants agricoles sur les utilités des techniques agricoles, les méthodes agricoles effectivement pratiquées par les exploitants, les informations en rapport avec la main-d'œuvre, les intrants, les pesticides, l'équipement et outillage agricole, la rente (ou coût d'accès à la terre), le coût de transport, la production et le prix de vente, ainsi que les conditions de vie (habitat, alimentation, accès à l'eau et énergie d'éclairage et de cuisine). Différentes méthodes, notamment celles d'analyse documentaire, d'enquête par questionnaire, d'observation directe et d'entretien ont été utilisées pour collecter les données quantitatives et qualitatives sur les 401 petits exploitants agricoles (dont 132 producteurs de pomme de terre, 39 producteurs de haricot, 24 producteurs de maïs, 14 producteurs de sorgho, 51 producteurs d'oignon rouge, 43 producteurs d'oignon blanc, 50 producteurs de choux, 46 de carottes, 1 pour le blé et 1 pour le pyrèthre) dans la région agricole des sols de laves au Rwanda. L'analyse des données a été faite à l'aide des méthodes statistique, économétrique et budgétaire. Les statistiques descriptives (fréquences, pourcentages, moyennes) ont été calculées et ont permis d'ordonner les perceptions des producteurs agricoles sur les techniques agricoles sélectionnées, ainsi que les techniques agricoles effectivement pratiquées sur les exploitations. Elles ont aussi été calculées pour, identifier les composantes des coûts de production, dévoiler l'importance des sources des produits alimentaires consommés dans les ménages des exploitants agricoles, et repérer la répartition des dépenses de consommation parmi les différents articles. L'analyse corrélationnelle et la courbe "lowess" nous ont permis d'identifier les déterminants du rendement agricole et ceux de la rentabilité des exploitations agricoles, alors que la méthode budgétaire et l'analyse coût-avantage ont facilité l'estimation de la rentabilité des exploitations agricoles. Le Test de Student a été utilisé pour situer la différence de la moyenne des terres exploitées, la moyenne des rendements, la moyenne des prix de vente et celle des revenus agricoles nets entre les petits producteurs d'oignon et les petits producteurs de pomme de terre. Après avoir formé des groupes hiérarchiques de petites exploitations agricoles, mutuellement exclusifs en termes de profitabilité, l'analyse de la variance a été aussi utilisée pour tester la variabilité des indicateurs de performance entre trois catégories de petits producteurs agricoles : les petits producteurs moins performants, les petits producteurs moyennement performants, et les petits producteurs plus performants. L'approche économétrique a été utilisée pour identifier les déterminants de l'efficacité économique, alors que l'approche CARI a été utilisée pour analyser la situation alimentaire des ménages des petits exploitants agricoles dans la région des sols de laves au Rwanda. Nous avons tout d'abord présenté les techniques agricoles effectivement pratiquées par les petits producteurs agricoles pour l'amélioration de la fertilité et de la productivité des sols. Nous avons utilisé l'échelle de Likert et, par ordre d'importance décroissante, les résultats montrent que les techniques les plus utilisées sont : le semis au moment opportun, l'usage approprié des engrais organiques, l'utilisation de semences sélectionnées, la récolte à la maturation, la combinaison de l'agriculture et de l'élevage, l'usage approprié des pesticides, la rotation des cultures, la combinaison raisonnée des engrais chimiques et organiques, et l'association des cultures. En procédant de la même façon, nous avons ensuite examiné les effets présupposés de certaines techniques sur lesquelles les petits producteurs agricoles se prononcent et à quel niveau ils perçoivent le rôle de ces techniques dans la fertilité et la productivité des sols. Les résultats montrent que les techniques perçues comme les plus susceptibles de promouvoir la fertilité et la productivité des sols sont, toujours par ordre d'importance décroissante : l'usage des engrais organiques, la protection des sols contre l'érosion, la combinaison de l'agriculture et de l'élevage, la rotation des cultures, la combinaison raisonnée des engrais chimiques et organiques, l'usage des engrais chimiques, l'agroforesterie, et l'association des cultures. En utilisant toujours les données de notre enquête pour la saison 2019 B, les résultats de l'analyse comparative montrent qu'il n'y a pas de différence significative entre la taille des terres exploitées pour la production de pomme de terre et celle exploitée pour l'oignon, que le prix de vente de l'oignon est significativement supérieur à celui de la pomme de terre, et que le revenu moyen d'un producteur d'oignon est significativement supérieur au revenu moyen d'un producteur de pomme de terre dans la région des sols de laves au Rwanda. Quant à l'analyse de la rentabilité, les résultats indiquent que, pour toutes les cultures, le revenu net (RN) est supérieur à zéro et le ratio avantage-coût (RAC) est supérieur à 1. De plus, ces résultats montrent que l'oignon est plus rentable que la pomme de terre. En plus de cela, par rapport à l'année 2009, les résultats de notre étude montrent que les exploitations de la pomme de terre, du haricot, du maïs et du sorgho étaient toujours rentables en 2019, bien que, contrairement à ces trois dernières cultures, le rendement de la pomme de terre avait significativement diminué. L'analyse corrélationnelle et la courbe "lowess" montre que le rendement agricole est corrélé à la quantité des fertilisants (DAP, urée, fumier) et des pesticides utilisés, ainsi qu'à la surface des terres exploitées, mais que cette relation n'est pas toujours linéaire. Pour l'analyse économétrique, les résultats de la régression linéaire ont permis d'identifier le niveau de performance, l'adhésion à la coopérative, l'accès au crédit, l'accès au marché, l'accès aux services de vulgarisation, l'adoption des variétés à haut rendement, la rotation des cultures, la localisation de la ferme, et la culture choisie comme facteurs influençant significativement l'efficacité économique. Le niveau de l'efficience (PTF=3,48) montre que les petits exploitants agricoles sous-exploitent les ressources à leur disposition. De l'analyse de la variance, il ressort la variabilité très hautement significative du rendement, de l'efficacité économique, de l'efficience de l'allocation des ressources, du coût de production, et du revenu agricole net aussi bien entre les trois catégories des petits producteurs agricoles qu'entre les cultures. De plus, les résultats d'études assez récentes de l'analyse des coûts en ressources internes montrent que, sauf pour le maïs, le CRI de toutes les cultures est inférieur à 1, ce qui implique que les chaines de valeur de ces cultures sont viables (compétitives) dans l'économie mondiale, étant donné que ces produits agricoles ont un avantage comparatif dans le commerce international. Avec l'approche CARI, nous avons pu classifier les ménages des petits exploitants agricoles en situation alimentaire pauvre (3,5%), en situation alimentaire limitée (21,5%), et en situation alimentaire acceptable (75,1%). Sur base des résultats de cette recherche, il faudrait considérer le bon usage des intrants (NPK, urée, fumier, dithane), la taille des terres exploitées et le rôle de la vache dans l'exploitation agricole pour viser l'augmentation du rendement ; il faudrait considérer le fonctionnement des institutions (coopératives, crédit, vulgarisation, marché) ainsi que la bonne pratique des techniques agricoles (sélection des semences, usage des engrais, choix de la culture). Les estimations économétriques montrent que les producteurs de pomme de terre ont 3 fois plus de chance d'être en sécurité alimentaire que les non-producteurs de pomme de terre, et que la pomme de terre est plus importante pour la sécurité alimentaire chez les producteurs agricoles moins performants que chez les deux autres catégories de producteurs. Tout en reconnaissant le rôle de la pomme de terre dans la sécurité alimentaire, les petits producteurs devraient alterner l'exploitation des différentes cultures afin de bénéficier les avantages de chacune d'elles dans l'augmentation et la stabilisation des revenus agricoles, ainsi que dans l'amélioration des conditions de vie. ; In intention to respond to the demand for food in both quantity and quality of the growing population in Africa, it will be necessary to apply appropriate agricultural technologies to the fragile soils of this continent to increase productivity and achieve food security. In the context of Rwanda, the use of fertilizers and pesticides raises a dispute between the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock and the Rwandan Office responsible for the protection of the environment. While the former advocates the intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides, the exploitation of swamps to increase agricultural production, the latter stresses that this will lead to pollution of the environment. The Government of Rwanda has adopted, for more than a decade, a sequence of policies and strategies aiming at economic development and improving the living standards of its primarily agrarian population. In the agricultural sector, the adoption of technology packages and increased production has been accompanied by the implementation of these strategies. We should emphasize, however, that the country's economy is still dominated by subsistence agriculture, with a gap between potential and current production for the priority crops selected under the agricultural intensification and regional specialization program. This research endeavors to highlight the role of small farms (1.0 hectare at most) in agricultural development in Rwanda by considering two points of high sensitivity, in particular the peasantry and plant production (potato, corn, beans, wheat, vegetables), more specifically in the Volcanic Agro-ecological Zone, in the Burera and Musanze districts of the Northern Province, as well as Nyabihu and Rubavu in the Western Province. Data collected for this study focused on different points such as the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers and their households, characteristics of farms (size and crop), perception of farmers on the usefulness of agricultural techniques, the agricultural methods actually practiced by farmers, information related to labor, inputs, pesticides, agricultural equipment and tools, rent (or cost of access to land), transport cost, production and selling price, as well as living conditions (habitat, food, access to water as well as cooking and lighting energy). The different methods, namely those of documentary analysis, questionnaire survey, direct observation and interview were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data on the 401 small farmers (including 132 potato producers, 39 bean producers, 24 maize producers, 14 sorghum producers, 51 red onion producers, 43 white onion producers, 50 cabbage producers, 46 carrot producers, 1 producer for wheat and 1 for pyrethrum) in the Volcanic Highlands in Rwanda. Data analysis was done using statistical, econometric and budgetary methods. The descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentage, and means) were calculated and made it possible to order the perceptions of agricultural producers on the selected agricultural methods, as well as the agricultural techniques practiced on the holdings. They were also calculated to identify the components of production costs, reveal the importance of the sources of food products consumed in the households of farmers, and to identify the distribution of consumption expenditure among the various items. Correlational analysis and the "lowess" curve allowed us to identify the determinants of agricultural yield and those of farm profitability, while the budgetary method and cost-benefit analysis facilitated the estimation of the profitability of small-scale farms. The Student Test was used to locate the difference between the average cultivated land, the average yields, the average selling prices and the average net farm income between onion producers and potato producers. After forming hierarchical groups of mutually exclusive smallholder farms in terms of their profitability, the analysis of variance was used to test the variability of performance indicators among the three categories of smallholder farmers: lower-performing smallholders, medium-performing smallholders, and higher-performing smallholders. The econometric approach was used to identify the determinants of effectiveness, while the CARI approach was used to statute the food security status of the small-scale farmers in the study area. The results from the analysis using the Likert scale show that, in order of importance, the most commonly used farming techniques, the results show that, in order of importance, these are: timely sowing, appropriate use of organic fertilisers, use of high-yielding seeds, harvesting at the point of ripening, combination of crop and livestock farming, appropriate use of pesticides, crop rotation, reasoned combination of chemical and organic fertilisers, and crop combination. As for the examination of the presupposed effects of certain techniques on which small-scale farmers express their perceptions of their role, by importance, the techniques perceived as most likely to promote soil fertility and productivity are: use of organic fertilisers, soil protection against erosion, combination of crop and livestock farming, crop rotation, reasoned combination of chemical and organic fertilisers, use of chemical fertilisers, agroforestry, and crop combination. Making further use of our survey data for the 2019 B season, comparative analysis shows that there is no significant difference between the size of land used for potato production and that used for onion production, that onion yields are significantly higher than potato yields, that the selling price of onion is significantly higher than that of potato, and that the average income of an onion producer is significantly higher than the average income of a potato producer in the lava soil region of Rwanda. In terms of profitability analysis, the results indicate that for all crops, the net farm income (NFI) is greater than zero and the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is greater than 1. Furthermore, these results show that onion is more profitable than potato. Compared to 2009, the results of our study show that the potato, bean, maize and sorghum farms were still profitable in 2019, although, unlike the 3 crops, the potato yield had significantly decreased. The correlational analysis and the "lowess" curve show that crop yield is correlated with the amount of fertilizers (DAP, urea, manure) and pesticides used, as well as the area of land farmed, even though this relationship is not always linear. For the econometric analysis, the results of the linear regression identified the level of performance, cooperative membership, access to credit, market access, access to extension services, adoption of high-yielding varieties, crop rotation, farm location, and the crop grown as factors significantly influencing small-scale farmers' effectiveness. The level of efficiency (TFP=3.48) shows that small-scale farmers underuse their resources. In addition, the analysis of variance shows the highly significant variability in yield, level of effectiveness, efficiency of resource allocation, cost of production, and net farm income both between the three categories of smallholder farmers as well as among crops. In addition, the results from most recent studies on the domestic resource cost show that, except for maize, the domestic resource cost (DRC) ratio of all crops is less than 1, which implies that the value chains of these crops are viable in the world economy, given that these agricultural products have a comparative advantage in international trade. With the CARI approach, we were able to classify smallholder farm households into poor food situations (3.5%), limited food situations (21.5%), and acceptable food situations (75.1%). On the basis of the results of this research, the proper use of inputs (NPK, urea, manure, dithane), the size of the land farmed and the role of the cow in the farm should be considered in order to increase the crop yield; the functioning of institutions (cooperatives, credit, extension, market) as well as the good practice of farming techniques (seed selection, use of fertilisers, choice of crop) should be considered. Econometric estimates show that potato producers are three times more likely to be food secure than non-potato producers, and that potato is more important for food security among lower-performing smallholders than among the other two categories of smallholders. While recognising the role of potatoes in food security, small-scale producers should alternate the production of different crops in order to benefit from the advantages of each crop in increasing and stabilising farm incomes as well as in improving living conditions.

This report describes trends in the beef industry in the Monsoonal North. It aims to provide the region's natural resource management (NRM) groups with an understanding of how best to support the industry, undertake the changes required to improve its environmental sustainability and economic viability, and to provide it with resilience in the face of increasing development pressures and climate change. This report charts the industry's history and development; describes its current condition and the pressures and drivers it is experiencing; and explores how these are likely to change in the near future. The region: The Monsoonal North covers 20% of Australia's land surface across the tropical savannas. It shares a monsoonal climate, extensive intact ecological systems, generally poor soils and limited development. Its river systems carry nearly half of the runoff. The region has a large Indigenous population; most land is either under Indigenous ownership or subject to Native Title; and the highest proportion of Indigenous people live in the region's north and north-west. The region also faces a number of shared issues, particularly the challenges of intensifying climatic extremes and pressure to exploit Asia's growing demand for agricultural produce, which is placing pressure on land and water resources. The industry: Cattle production is northern Australia's most important agricultural industry. Two-thirds of the Monsoonal North is currently used for extensive cattle grazing. Through most of the region, cattle are grazed at low stocking rates on native pastures, with introduced pasture species being restricted in extent. Most enterprises breed animals for the low-value live export trade or for fattening and finishing on better pastures or in feedlots. Cattle numbers in Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia have doubled since 1965, and fluctuated with changes in demand and climatic conditions. In 2009, the Monsoonal North held around 5.7 million head of cattle. High export demand from Asia and drought destocking has seen the region's cattle numbers fall and prices rise through 2014-15. In the longer-term, continued growth in global demand, a reduced Australian dollar and high global prices, and improved incomes are forecast for Australian beef producers. Since 2009, each of the three northern governments have released policy documents that included targets to increase the herd size by between 1 and 5%, with the greatest planned increases on Aboriginal land in the Kimberley. Between 2009 and 2014, the Northern Territory herd grew by more than the projected 5% increase. Herd size in Queensland has recently diminished because of drought, and the current government's stance on herd-building is unclear. Nevertheless, long-term growth is expected to increase the northern Australian herd by a further 80% by 2050. Recent growth in the northern cattle herd has been achieved through intensification (spreading grazing pressure using water points and fencing) and development of underutilised properties, notably on Indigenous lands. Indigenous pastoralism is growing rapidly, with developments in all parts of the sector from cattle breeding to slaughter. Markets: Most beef grown in northern Australia is sent to Asia, with Indonesia being the largest buyer of live cattle. Despite a long-established framework for assuring animal health and welfare within Australia, widely-publicised animal mistreatment in Indonesia resulted in the temporary closure of the live-export market in 2011 until animal welfare could be assured throughout the supply chain. This closure demonstrated how dependence on a single market exposed the northern beef industry to market volatility. Bilateral and multilateral trade negotiations by the federal government are now progressively broadening market access, with agreements favouring Australian beef now in place or close to finalisation with most significant beef markets. Enterprises: Cattle enterprises in the Monsoonal North have been struggling because, in real terms, cattle prices have declined, while input costs have remained stable. In addition, escalating land prices through the 1990s and 2000s encouraged many land owners to increase their mortgages to levels that became unsustainable once land prices fell. This has implications for environmental management. In comparison to pastoralists in a good financial position, those in debt have less resilience to cope with drought; are less likely to adopt practice improvements needed for improving enterprise viability and environmental conditions; and are more likely to suffer adverse health effects. Many enterprises, especially those with small herds, derive more income from off-farm work than they earn from cattle operations. While large cattle enterprises allow economies of scale, increasing cattle herd size seems less important to profitability than does improving herd performance. Performance: Except on Mitchell Grass pastures and small areas of intensively managed pastures, cattle performance in the Monsoonal North is substandard when compared to the rest of the country, and is affected by poor quality pasture quality. Breeding performance is typically poor; with low pregnancy rates; high foetal and calf death rates; and many cows are lost. However, the achievements of the top 25% of the industry indicate there is great potential to improve performance on the remaining properties. Health and well-being: Pastoral production is a stressful occupation, involving financial insecurity and isolation; and pastoralists have high rates of injury, disease, accident and suicide. Recent years have brought additional challenges associated with falling land prices, market instability and drought. In the Burdekin Dry Tropics, proposed coal mining is increasing stress levels for many pastoralists. Supply and demand: Domestic demand for beef in Australia stagnated because per capita beef consumption has fallen, but global demand is escalating with population growth and economic development. Demand for beef is expected to keep increasing until at least 2050, with greatest growth occurring in China. Australia was the world's top beef exporter until 2003. Only Brazil and India currently export more beef than Australia does. Australia's disease-free status gives it access to markets that are closed to these exporters. Australia's dominance of the live-export trade to Indonesia also helps provide a disease free buffer to its north. Australian beef producers are disadvantaged by protectionist measures employed by both beef importing countries and exporting countries. The Australian Government has been engaging in international trade agreements that will overcome some of these barriers and increase market access. Market requirements and consumer preference: A high percentage of Brahman genes in the herd makes northern cattle attractive for slaughter and feedlots in tropical countries. However, slow growth rates and long transport distances mean most beef is sold in the low end of the market. Ethical, health and environmental concerns have contributed to the decline in domestic meat consumption, and are influencing consumer preferences in global markets. These concerns are driving practice improvement throughout the Australian beef supply chain. Challenges: Industry viability is constrained by lack of infrastructure, including feedlots, intensive fattening pastures, saleyards and meatworks, inactive ports and poor quality roads, all of which combine to make freight expensive, pushing up input costs. Considerable advances have been made in alleviating these constraints by building meatworks in Darwin, Arnhem Land and the Kimberley. However, lack of competition through the supply chain may be depressing returns at the farm gate. The ports of Darwin and Townsville are operating at record capacity, but some northern ports with export facilities (Port Hedland, Weipa, Mourilyan and Mackay) have not operated for several years. Water for cattle operations and irrigated crops may be at risk if extraction for these and other activities is not sustainably allocated. While broadscale irrigated cropping is likely to be restricted to a small proportion of the region, its requirements for water resources and fertile soil may deprive the pastoral industry of some of its most productive pasture land. Extraction for mining and irrigated agriculture is of particular concern. This has become a contentious issue with several coal projects in Queensland's Galilee Basin. Mining also has the potential to disrupt pastoral operations by removing land from production for both mineral extraction and infrastructure. Again, this is a significant issue in Queensland, where several landholders will be affected by the rail corridor servicing mines in the Galilee Basin. The disruption caused by mining poses a risk, not only to the financial viability of pastoral enterprises, but also to the health and welfare of pastoralists and their families. If well managed, however, mining and agricultural development can also have co-benefits, improving regional economies and providing employment and infrastructure. Weeds, fire, pest animals, disease and cattle theft all impose financial burdens on northern pastoral operations. Production losses caused by weeds have been estimated at costing the industry around $1,000 million/year; pest animals: ca $36 million/year; disease and parasites: ca $390 million; and cattle theft between $1.5 and $2 million a year in Queensland alone. No industry-wide estimates are available for impacts of fire, cyclones or other natural disasters. Conversely, pastoral managers perform important roles in control of weeds, fire, pest animals and diseases that would not be undertaken if no one was living on the lands they manage. Climatic and seasonal conditions are also serious constraints, particularly in inland Queensland, where periods of drought of two or more years are not uncommon. Conversely, extended periods of above average rainfall may encourage pastoralists to stock land beyond its long-term carrying capacity, and develop unrealistic impressions of what average conditions are. This could be an issue in the Kimberley if the elevated rainfall of the last few decades is not sustained. Climate change is already being felt in the region. Temperature have risen by up to 1.0°C since 1910, with further increases of up to 5°C expected by the end of the century. Droughts, cyclones, wildfires and flooding rains are likely to intensify over the next few decades, and continue to intensify until at least the end of the century. Carbon dioxide enrichment may increase forage production, but reduce its quality and stimulate woody thickening, as woody plants are favoured over tropical grasses. In most climate change scenarios, whether rainfall remains roughly the same or decreases, pasture growth and safe stocking rates in the Monsoonal North are expected to decrease, with the worst scenarios predicting decreases in pasture growth and safe stocking rates of between 50% and 60%. Climate change will also have adverse impacts on each stage of the supply chain, with effects ranging from increasingly uncomfortable work conditions to increased frequency of flood and cyclone damage to infrastructure. Policy environment: Many organisations have an influence on the direction of the pastoral industry. Individually, or as part of cross jurisdictional alliances, national, state and territory governments promote industry sustainability and herd-building. The preferred approach is to improve trade relations; simplify regulation; invest in roads; and provide a conducive business environment to attract infrastructure investment. The Developing Northern Australian White Paper and the Agricultural Competitiveness White Paper further these objectives. Under Australian national legislation, the Red Meat Advisory Council was established to represent the interests of beef and other meat producers, and is reported to by various state farming organisations that work closely with the industry as advocates and information and extension providers. Research and marketing is largely driven by Meat and Livestock Australia (informed on northern issues by the North Australia Beef Research Council) and extension is delivered by state agencies, state farming organisations and NRM groups. The emphasis of both research and extension is on practice improvement, rather than herd building. The Australian Government funded Indigenous Land Corporation is also playing a pivotal role in the northern grazing industry by assisting Indigenous people acquire, develop and manage pastoral properties. Finally, the policies and assessments made by financial institutions can both determine the level of debt that a pastoral enterprise can acquire and the cost of repayment, and influence whether developments seeking external funding are seen as viable. The Australian Government is committed to climate change action by virtue of signing international agreements. Its commitments to reduce emissions will help moderate the long-term impacts of climate change. Both the Western Australian and Northern Territory Governments have also made climate change commitments and the Queensland Government is currently revitalising its climate change agenda. Regulatory environment: Legislation and regulation govern much activity on pastoral properties, most of which are pastoral leases coexisting with Native Title. This type of land tenure allows pastoralists to undertake most activities that can be justified as core business to a pastoral operation, including pastoral-related activities that reduce carbon footprints. Diversification into other activities requires the consent of Native Title holders, which is usually negotiated through Indigenous Land Use and Access Agreements. Pastoralists have the right to water stock and clear vegetation for pastoral uses, but conditions vary between jurisdictions and water use for agricultural development requires a permit. There is a lack of clarity about whether permits can be granted for non-pastoral uses (including diversification into broadacre cropping) in Western Australia and Queensland. Pastoral leases also come with a range of legislated responsibilities. Leaseholders in each jurisdiction are to manage weeds, pest animals and diseases and to report notifiable cattle diseases to the relevant authority. They must use National Livestock Identification Scheme tags to ensure their cattle can be traced through the supply chain, and adhere to animal health and welfare standards. In addition, as employers, pastoral operators must follow conditions laid down by Fairwork Australia. Graziers in the Burdekin catchment are required to manage their properties to minimise reef pollution. The rights of miners to access land and water override those of pastoral leaseholders. While legislation facilitating exploitation of mineral and gas and fuel resources purports to safeguard other interests (notably environmental matters and water access), few mining proposals have been rejected because of environmental or pastoral concerns. Practice improvement: Much effort has been invested in identifying the best practices to improve the profitability and environmental sustainability of the northern beef industry. Key areas of knowledge advancement include: • Improving land condition • Improving diet through exotic pastures and supplementary feeding, especially at finishing • Improving reproductive performance by culling non-productive animals, vaccinating against reproductive diseases and improving diet quality • Increasing liveweight gain through early weaning and improving diet quality • Spreading grazing pressure by increasing fencing and water points. Improvements to herd management are largely compatible with practice change required for reducing adverse impacts on biodiversity, carbon footprints and Great Barrier Reef water quality. Improved animal performance increases animal growth rates (meaning fewer animals are required to produce the same volume of meat), and therefore also reduces the methane emissions generated. Good herd performance in rangelands is also dependent on moderate stocking rates to maximise forage quality, especially by improving the cover of productive perennial grasses. Improved ground cover also reduces soil loss (when cover is at least 50%) and gully formation (when at least 75%). Resilience to climate change will be built by undertaking the practice improvements identified to improve pastoral productivity and land condition. Of particular importance is the ability to adjust stocking rates in relation to seasonal conditions. At the industry level, decision support, including improved access to climatic information, is required to assist pastoralists make the best decisions for their circumstances. Diversification: Another approach to increasing enterprise resilience is diversification. Options being canvased include small-scale irrigation of pasture crops for finishing cattle on the property, grain and oil seed crops, biodiversity conservation and carbon abatement. Conservation efforts on some properties attracted subsidies in return for entering into conservation agreements. Biodiversity offsets may widen opportunities for on-property conservation, particularly in Queensland, where a formalised offset scheme is being developed. A small number of pastoral properties in the region are also receiving funding for fire management to reduce carbon emissions. A range of other emission reduction opportunities are at various stages of development, including reducing emissions from pastoral operations through improved herd management and adjusting cattle diets and storing carbon in soil or vegetation. Natural resource management implications: As practices to improve performance are adopted and/or diversification options are pursued, careful management will be required to avoid potential adverse environmental impacts. Best-bet options for improving environmental outcomes along with pastoral productivity include: • Avoiding the use of "transformer" grasses (with high biomass and fuel loads), or at least ensuring they do not escape from improved pasture plantings • Protecting areas of high biodiversity values when increasing extent and/or intensity of grazing, in particular protecting biodiversity values on riparian corridors when planning irrigated cropping projects • Ensuring wet season supplementary feeding does not weaken native perennial grasses • Ensuring early dry season burning does not lead to vegetation thickening and biodiversity decline. The NRM implications of the current trajectory of the pastoral industry are mixed. Herd building will put more pressure on the natural environment. However, performance improvement has many benefits by reducing the number of hooves and mouths required to produce a kilogram of meat. If well managed, mosaic agriculture can contribute to herd performance while taking pressure off pastures and the natural environment during the wet season, but managed poorly could result in further degradation of alluvial environments and over stocking of adjacent areas. The environmental footprint of diversification into agriculture would similarly need to be managed carefully. However, increasing income from various forms of ecosystem service delivery, particularly on lands that are marginal for grazing, would be a boon to both pastoral enterprises and the environment. Central to all this change are the pastoralists themselves. And with all that is required from them and all the stresses and strains they already have to bear, many will be in no position to take up improved practices, let alone participate in conservation activities. Pathways out of debt must be found before resilience in the face of change can be achieved, and pastoralists must be supported in the adoption of new practices, rather than have it mandated.

The objective of the evaluation was to assess the results and impacts of the activities of all ILWAC Trust Fundfinanced projects in West Africa using a selected subset, to identify key lessons learned, and to document best climatesmart practices for scaling up. The study entailed participatory evaluation of the results and impacts of various interventions geared towards integrated water resources management for climate change and variability preparedness in West Africa. In this respect, the study identified key lessons learned and documented best climate-resilient practices for scaling up and dissemination to multiple stakeholders in the West African region. 1. Agriculture remains the backbone for sustaining livelihoods in West Africa but faces numerous challenges. Agriculture is an important source of income, food and raw materials in West Africa, employing more than half of the region's population, which culminated in the adoption of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) in 2003. Few countries, however, have managed to mobilize their agriculture sector to deliver on development outcomes such as food and nutrition security, poverty reduction, economic growth, job creation, youth employment and industrialization. Agriculture is vulnerable to climate change, resulting from sensitivity and exposure to climate shocks and lack of capacity to cope with and adapt to such changes. ILWAC evaluation study results from household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews indicate that agricultural productivity in the region remains low, lagging far behind other regions of the world. Contributors to such low productivity include incidence of climate risks (drought, floods and high temperatures), pests and diseases, low technology adoption, limited access to financial services, limited access to markets and market information and limited access to good road networks (Plate 1). All the aforementioned contributors are valid denominators for all the seven ILWAC project areas that were evaluated. 2. Farmers in West Africa are particularly vulnerable to climatic shocks because of their high dependence on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods. There is an evident lack of access to formal safety nets as indicated by farmers in Senegal (ENRACCA-WA) and Burkina Faso (AmREACCAF and APESS) projects. Climate change has already exerted significant impacts in the region. Since the 1970s, the region has experienced the occurrence of many droughts. Temperatures have increased in the second half of the 20th Century, especially in the latter 20 years of the same period. Farmers reported drought (about 40% of treatment and control groups), as the most prevalent climatic shock experienced over the last five years, followed by erratic rainfall, floods and invasion of crop pests and locusts. We identified eleven coping strategies, out of which three strategies were categorized based on a gradient of severity of food insecurity into low, moderate, and high food insecurity. During low food insecurity, households employ food-maximizing strategies such as purchasing food and eating less food and involving a low commitment of domestic resources that all enable quick recovery of households once the crisis eases. In times of moderate food insecurity, a greater commitment of household resources is increasingly required to meet subsistence needs. Coping strategies developed by households include sale of food reserves, use of savings, sale of livestock, borrowing food, and borrowing money (from friends, relatives, private lenders and banks). During high food insecurity, strategies are a sign of failure to cope with the food crisis and may involve drastic options that may undermine their future ability to prevent, mitigate, cope, and recover from shocks. Households adopt sale of assets such as land and homes, keeping children home from school, food aid and migration. The use of irrigation and rainfall water harvesting for agriculture remain low, despite prevalent droughts and widespread rainfed agricultural practices. One of the reasons is that most farming communities are far from rivers: hence considerable investment is required to develop irrigation in many project areas. 3. Although farmers use various strategies highlighted above, they will need support to double their efforts with innovative climate- smart agricultural practices and technologies to remain food secure. Areas where ILWAC interventions were targeted showed positive results, but broader efforts to scale out the successes are needed to achieve a greater impact. Overall, the ILWAC project beneficiaries reported higher adoption rates of climate-smart practices, demonstrating a favourable impact of the project. However, low awareness of the most appropriate technologies to cope with climate shocks was reported across all study areas yet, the region is expected to experience increasing climatic shocks with total precipitation predicted to increase for the most part more notably between July and October by 2050. Increases in precipitation are predicted to cause crop damages and floods. Overall, temperatures will rise by about 2°C to 3°C over the same time period. Higher temperatures of 3°C to 6°C are projected for the end of the 21st century (Niang et al., 2014). Despite these impending changes, few farmers have adjusted their farming strategies in response to climate risks, owing to limited knowledge on appropriate adaptation options and low endowment with production resources. As a result, ILWAC interventions were targeted to reverse these challenges. Their successful implementation showed positive results, which are largely limited to specific areas of implementation. Therefore, broader scaling out ILWAC interventions provided success stories tailored to specific contexts (biophysical and socio- economic); hence offered lessons and opportunities for replicating the bright spots with a regional approach. Across the seven projects, evaluation results indicated a couple of selected successes in the region (Plate 1). Selected successes make up potential candidates for scaling up climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices, and innovative approaches notably, including: i. Innovation platforms as a pillar for change: The successful establishment of innovation platforms across all project countries was evident but have remained largely underdeveloped and not utilized to their full potential. Platforms provided a framework for sharing knowledge on adaptation innovations to climate change, providing a good entry point for technology dissemination in target areas across all project countries. The study showed that the innovation platform model can offer the potential to organize stakeholders to address the objective of improving the livelihood of their members. IPs, however, need a strong voice to demand the needed services from service providers, negotiate and advocate for collective interests with the private sector and government. The use of a participatory development communication (PDC) within IPs would greatly increase their sustainability; ii. Increased human and institutional capacity for stakeholders: The enhancement of capacity for diverse stakeholder groups, including farmers, players in all segments of priority value chains, extension agents, policymakers and researchers (All project countries) resulted in significant positive results such as increased capacity towards awareness of CSA technologies and application of appropriate adaptation measures in their communities. This highlights the need to prioritize linkages amongst farmer organizations, extension and agricultural research; iii. Integrated landscape approaches for natural resources management provided exponential benefits: The pioneering of integrated land and water management for adaptation to climate variability and change improved management of natural resources in specific target countries, for example, in Burkina Faso, the relative reduction in sedimentation by up to 70%; and that in reduced runoff by up to 30% which helped improve the farmers' agricultural practices and livelihoods (AmREACCAF-Burkina Faso). This also increased storage of water in the Boura reservoir through avoided sedimentation. Beyond water provision for household use, these reservoirs serve as key food baskets for fisheries and irrigation for households; iv. Integrated and diversified options offered opportunities to increase resilience and unlock the potential for rural smallholder livelihoods: The ILWAC project improved implementation of innovative agronomic interventions that substantially reduced the yield gap for millet for example the use of improved crop varieties (drought tolerant and early maturing) resulted in a 10 fold yield increase in grain biomass (ENRACCASenegal). Additional strategies include soil amendments in the form of organic and inorganic fertilizer sources, weed control practices as well as improved storage techniques (ISFM-Benin); Household enterprise diversification with agroforestry tree species enhanced the resilience of smallholder communities with climatesmart benefits such as windbreaks, these modified the micro-climate of the area that enhanced food security and revenue generation within target communities, increased farmer adaptive capacity and overall soil health attributes (ENRACCA- Senegal). 5. Women empowerment resulted in improved rural livelihoods: Improved gender dynamics regarding the roles, activities and representativeness within the selected projects had a positive impact on women empowerment for all project countries. There are numerous ways by which women were empowered e.g. conducting off-season vegetable cultivation allowed women to fetch increased returns (3 times than the normal price) in the off-season months. There were efforts to promote increased participation of women in the projects, offering opportunities to freely express themselves, highlight their needs and specific experiences. However, participation of women in leadership positions was generally low (less than 10%). In addition, women were able to benefit from the capacity building provided by the project, and access technologies and inputs resulting in higher production and subsequent incomes than before. Male-headed households were more likely to practice more CSA technologies by a factor of about 1 compared to female headed households. There was evidence of better access to financial services and training through village savings and loan associations, and gender empowerment. A key attribute of the assessed projects was that for the most part, women farmers were not well organized into interest groups with the capacity to promote their interests and engage in advocacy activities geared at influencing policy for their ultimate benefit. This was a missed opportunity especially in the context of existing innovation platforms that needs concerted efforts and strengthening. 6. More economic and social safety nets for smallholder livelihoods beyond ILWAC beneficiaries are needed: ILWAC enhanced farmers' access to climate-resilient and low-emission practices and technologies, including crop, livestock, soil and water management options and energy saving technologies. ILWAC increased the number of CSA practices implemented by three practices more compared to non-participation. Results further showed that education level is associated with higher income. Higher value assets such as livestock did also significantly influenced income. ILWAC increased significantly the value of assets to almost 90%; a factor attributable to additional assets that were distributed to farmer groups such as the case of Gambia, Senegal and Sierra Leone. This study therefore confirms that more assets in ILWAC supported households offered better livelihood options than those in the control group. Results further show that male-headed households have a higher value of assets than female-headed households. On the overall, although participation in ILWAC increased income by 19%, there remains room for further improvement amongst the ILWAC beneficiaries given the lower differences in the economic domain for sustainable intensification exemplified before and after the ILWAC project on Plate 2. Likewise, Plate 2 highlights that better options are needed in the social domain to ensure that ILWAC beneficiaries can significantly gain from social dividends (e.g. strengthened farmer groups, collective action, and shared labor). Given the highlighted successes among the ILWAC beneficiaries, efforts will be needed to scale these bright spots beyond the ILWAC beneficiaries to wider geographical coverages. 7. There is need for concerted efforts towards supporting technical, financial, institutional and governance needs within the target countries in order to make community livelihoods more resilient to climate change. Despite the recorded successes there remains room for improvement in several institutional and governance realms. Farmers in the project sites are faced by poor extension, with the ratio of government paid extension officers to that of farmers being low, only 33% of the households have access to extension service. This has a negative impact on the quality of extension services being offered and building adaptive capacity to deal with climate change. A significant challenge remains in all project countries to get the technologies widely used due to the lack of a suitable enabling environment among others — extension services, financial resources, infrastructure, risk management and cross-sectoral linkages. Farmers are further constrained by having limited access to climatic information. Effective research and innovation are also needed to continuously improve practices and technologies. This calls for a policy recommendation where concerted efforts are needed to mobilize financial resources and build the capacity of West African researchers, policy-makers and institutions to understand, carry out and use good quality data towards informed decision making and scenario analyses (Also see evidence revealed by Plate 2).Enabling policy and institutional environment can provide the conditions and incentives for scaling out.

Human activities now represent the most important force shaping the degradation of ecosystems in all of the world´s major biomes (well established). Long-established drivers of land degradation continue to increase across much of the world, including agricultural activities {3.3.1, 3.3.2}, driven by increasing demands for food and bioenergy. More recent global change drivers, such as climate change and atmospheric nitrogen deposition, further exacerbate impacts {3.4}. We are now in a qualitatively different and novel world, compared to only a few decades ago, and the combination of drivers creates significant challenges to restore degraded land and mitigate further degradation (established but incomplete). Few, if any, areas of the world are now free of some form of human influence (well established) and some systems are experiencing unprecedented challenges. Changes in the extent and severity of both land degradation and restoration commonly result from multiple underlying social and economic factors – indirect drivers, many of which occur in places distant from where the impacts are felt (well established) {3.6.4}. Demand for food imports is increasing across much of the world. This high dependency on imported commodities means that a large share of the environmental impacts of consumption is felt in other parts of the world. The physical quantity of goods traded internationally only represents one third of the actual natural resources that were used to produce these traded goods. The sustainability of the commodity production systems that support global supply chains is thus substantially shaped by the sourcing and investment decisions of market actors who may have little direct connection to the production landscapes (established but incomplete). Moreover, the globalized nature of many commodity supply chains potentially elevates the relative importance of global-scale factors such as trade agreements, market prices and exchange rates, as well as distant linkages related to buyer and investment preferences, over national and regional governance arrangements and the agency of individual producers (inconclusive). Addressing this complexity to avoid and reverse land degradation therefore requires the building of effective multi-sector and multi-stakeholder partnerships that span national boundaries (established but incomplete) {3.6.6}. Economic growth and per capita consumption, more than poverty, is one of the biggest threats to sustainable land management globally (established but incomplete) {3.6.3, 3.6.4}. Extreme poverty, combined with resource scarcity, can contribute to land degradation and unsustainable levels of natural resource use, but is rarely the major underlying cause (well established). Many of the most marked changes in how land is used and managed come from individual and societal responses to economic opportunities, such as a shift in demand for a particular commodity or improved market access, moderated by institutional and political factors (established but incomplete). For example, clearance of native vegetation and land degradation across much of Latin America and Asia is linked to agricultural expansion and intensification at a commercial scale for export markets (well established). Reducing poverty, although a priority for sustainable development, is insufficient to mitigate land degradation if not accompanied by additional measures. Concurrently, rising per capita consumption levels can exacerbate degradation. Efforts to reverse degradation therefore require a combination of local and regional poverty-alleviation strategies, including the adoption of pro-poor food production systems, together with efforts to improve the enforcement of public regulations for sustainable land uses, and strengthening the accountability of global market actors in effectively supporting such strategies. The highly interconnected and globalized nature of indirect drivers of land degradation and restoration means that the outcome of any global, regional or local intervention can be highly unpredictable, yet contextual generalizations are possible (established but incomplete) {3.6.2.3, 3.6.3}. The ways in which land is used in one part of the world can be highly sensitive to sudden, unexpected changes in economic and institutional factors elsewhere (unresolved). For example, changes in currency exchange rates, and cascading effects on the profitability of a given commodity, can markedly accelerate or decelerate the clearance of native vegetation for agriculture within a single year {3.6.2.3}. The sudden imposition of trade restrictions (e.g., due to disease controls), can have a similarly marked impact. However, with an improved understanding of the interactive effects amongst different drivers, it is possible to make predictions that are valid under a certain range of conditions. For example, agricultural intensification and agroforestry practices can help reduce the pressure on remaining areas of native vegetation under certain conditions (such as inelastic demand for staple crops), but unless such measures are coupled with increased enforcement of land-use policies they can result in a rebound effect that increases pressure on natural resources (established but incomplete) {3.6.3}. Land degradation in any given place is rarely the consequence of a single anthropogenic driver, but is instead the result of a diverse and frequently mutually-reinforcing set of human activities and underlying drivers (well established) {3.4.5, 3.5, 3.6.2.1}. Typically, at least three types of indirect driver, such as economic, technological and institutional, underpin any direct driver of land degradation or restoration (established but incomplete). The complexity of drivers that commonly underpin land degradation highlights the fact that single factors, such as high rural population density, rarely provide an adequate underlying explanation on their own for observed impacts (established but incomplete) {3.6.3}. Land degradation is typically the result of multiple direct drivers, especially in instances of severe degradation (e.g., where land-use intensification drives increased species invasions and increases in fire frequency). This combination of drivers has resulted in large expanses of economically important grazing lands, including in North America, being transformed to fire-prone annual grass monocultures (well established) {3.3.7}. The multi-causality of land degradation requires commensurately holistic policy responses that operate across multiple scales and combine both regulatory and incentive based measures (established but incomplete). Rapid expansion and inappropriate management of agricultural lands (including both grazing lands and croplands), especially in dryland ecosystems, is the most extensive land degradation driver globally (well established) {3.3.1, 3.3.2}. The expansion of grazing lands has largely stagnated globally with evidence for an approximate 1% decline in grazing land area over the past decade. Grazing pressure has been stable or only moderately increasing across the major land areas globally, although there are regional exceptions such as Southern Asia. Over half of grazing lands occur in dryland environments that are highly susceptible to land degradation (established but incomplete) {3.3.1.3}. More recently intensification and increasing industrialization of livestock production systems, especially in developed countries, has resulted in an increasing reliance on mixed crop-livestock production systems and industrialized "landless" systems. As a result, 35% of global crop production is now allocated to livestock feed. Globally, fertilizer and pesticide use is expected to double by 2050 {3.3.2.2}. Marked drops in nitrogen-use efficiency (change in yield per unit of fertilizer input) in many parts of the world, particularly the Asia Pacific region, often accompanied by continued excessive fertilizer application, underscore the critical importance of sustainable agricultural practices, including conservation agricultural techniques, to maintain yield improvements (established but incomplete) {3.3.2.3}. Increases in consumption levels of many natural resources underpin increasing levels of degradation in many parts of the world (well established), with slow rates of adoption of sustainable production systems (established but incomplete) {3.6.2.2, 3.6.3.2, 3.6.4.2}. Projections to 2050 suggest that one billion ha of natural ecosystems could be converted to agriculture by that time. More than half of agricultural expansion in the last three decades has occurred in relatively intact tropical forests. Economic growth in the developing world is projected to double global consumption of forest and wood products by 2030, with demand likely to exceed production in many developing and emerging economies in Asia and Africa within the next decade. Traditional fuelwood and charcoal continue to represent a dominant share of total wood consumption in low income countries, up to 70%, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (well established). Under current projections efforts to intensify wood production in plantation forests, together with increases in fuel-use efficiency and electrification are only likely to partly offset the pressure on native forests (unresolved). Adoption of more sustainable production systems continues to be slow, as seen, for example, by a slowdown in the expansion of the area of certified forests. More than half of the terrestrial surface of the Earth has fire regimes outside the range of natural variability, with changes in fire frequency and intensity posing major challenges for land restoration (established but incomplete) {3.3.7}. The frequency of fires has increased in many areas – exacerbated by decreases in precipitation – including in many regions of humid and temperate forests that rarely experience large-scale fires naturally. Some changes in fire regimes, particularly in tropical forests, are sufficiently severe that recovery to pre-disturbance conditions may no longer be possible. Increases in international trade, intensification of land use and urbanization have meant that few areas of the planet are free of invasive species (established but incomplete) {3.3.8}. Nearly one fifth of the Earth´s surface is at high risk of plant and animal invasion, including many biodiversity hotspots. Climate change, including increased nitrogen deposition and changes in CO2, as well as increases in fire frequency with rising temperatures in many areas, are all likely to increase invasions {3.4}. Once established, the eradication of many invasive species is often very expensive, if not impossible, underscoring the need to develop proactive strategies to pre-empt invasions, including through inspections, research and education. Activities related to industrialization, infrastructure development, urbanization, and many extractive industries result in complete transformation of ecosystems, accompanied by near or complete loss of biodiversity and ecosystem function and the services those ecosystems provide (well established) {3.3.6}. Infrastructure, industrial development and urbanization activities, often replace natural ecosystems with impervious or contaminated surfaces such as asphalt, concrete and rooftops, leading to the one of the most severe forms of land degradation in the form of soil sealing. Built-up areas, which are dominated by sealed soils, currently occupy nearly 0.6% of the global land surface. If population densities in cities remain stable, the extent of built-up areas in developed countries is expected to increase by 30% and triple in developing countries between 2000 and 2050. Under more extreme scenarios of increasing population density and economic development, the extent of built-up areas globally may increase to over 2% of the global land area over this same time period. New urban design and green technologies that incorporate features that promote sustainability and delivery of ecosystem services can play an important role in restoring some of the ecosystem functions and services of built environments. The importance of climate change for land degradation is most prominent through its role in exacerbating the impacts of other human activities (established but incomplete) {3.4}. The exacerbating effect of climate change on the impact of degradation drivers, including land clearance and intensive farming techniques, can be felt both through chronic impacts and directional changes – like temperature changes, leading to shifts in species range sizes, as well as changes in average precipitation levels, atmospheric CO2 and nitrogen deposition – and acute impacts through extreme weather events of flooding, drought, and other natural disasters (well established). Heavy rainfall events and storms as well as heat waves and droughts are predicted to increase in frequency over several parts of the globe, with cascading effects on the frequency, intensity, extent and timing of other drivers such as fires, pest and pathogen outbreaks, species invasions, soil erosion and landslides (established but incomplete). The last decade has witnessed a rise in consumer-driven demand for sustainable land use and land management, as well as commitments to restore degraded land that is unprecedented in human history (well established) {3.6}. In the last decade hundreds of companies have made pledges to reduce their impacts on forests and on the rights of local communities, with many committing to eliminate deforestation from their supply chains entirely by 2020. In the same period, many governments and civil society groups have made ambitious commitments to restore hundreds of millions of hectares of degraded land. New players, such as the finance sector, who until recently have been completely detached from the mainstream sustainability agenda are also starting to make explicit commitments to avoiding environmental harm. The overall impact of these voluntary measures remains to be assessed but they offer a vital window of opportunity for reversing degradation trends and placing economies on a more sustainable footing – especially as large areas of marginal agricultural become increasingly abandoned with ongoing development (unresolved).

Human activities now represent the most important force shaping the degradation of ecosystems in all of the world´s major biomes (well established). Long-established drivers of land degradation continue to increase across much of the world, including agricultural activities {3.3.1, 3.3.2}, driven by increasing demands for food and bioenergy. More recent global change drivers, such as climate change and atmospheric nitrogen deposition, further exacerbate impacts {3.4}. We are now in a qualitatively different and novel world, compared to only a few decades ago, and the combination of drivers creates significant challenges to restore degraded land and mitigate further degradation (established but incomplete). Few, if any, areas of the world are now free of some form of human influence (well established) and some systems are experiencing unprecedented challenges. Changes in the extent and severity of both land degradation and restoration commonly result from multiple underlying social and economic factors – indirect drivers, many of which occur in places distant from where the impacts are felt (well established) {3.6.4}. Demand for food imports is increasing across much of the world. This high dependency on imported commodities means that a large share of the environmental impacts of consumption is felt in other parts of the world. The physical quantity of goods traded internationally only represents one third of the actual natural resources that were used to produce these traded goods. The sustainability of the commodity production systems that support global supply chains is thus substantially shaped by the sourcing and investment decisions of market actors who may have little direct connection to the production landscapes (established but incomplete). Moreover, the globalized nature of many commodity supply chains potentially elevates the relative importance of global-scale factors such as trade agreements, market prices and exchange rates, as well as distant linkages related to buyer and investment preferences, over national and regional governance arrangements and the agency of individual producers (inconclusive). Addressing this complexity to avoid and reverse land degradation therefore requires the building of effective multi-sector and multi-stakeholder partnerships that span national boundaries (established but incomplete) {3.6.6}. Economic growth and per capita consumption, more than poverty, is one of the biggest threats to sustainable land management globally (established but incomplete) {3.6.3, 3.6.4}. Extreme poverty, combined with resource scarcity, can contribute to land degradation and unsustainable levels of natural resource use, but is rarely the major underlying cause (well established). Many of the most marked changes in how land is used and managed come from individual and societal responses to economic opportunities, such as a shift in demand for a particular commodity or improved market access, moderated by institutional and political factors (established but incomplete). For example, clearance of native vegetation and land degradation across much of Latin America and Asia is linked to agricultural expansion and intensification at a commercial scale for export markets (well established). Reducing poverty, although a priority for sustainable development, is insufficient to mitigate land degradation if not accompanied by additional measures. Concurrently, rising per capita consumption levels can exacerbate degradation. Efforts to reverse degradation therefore require a combination of local and regional poverty-alleviation strategies, including the adoption of pro-poor food production systems, together with efforts to improve the enforcement of public regulations for sustainable land uses, and strengthening the accountability of global market actors in effectively supporting such strategies. The highly interconnected and globalized nature of indirect drivers of land degradation and restoration means that the outcome of any global, regional or local intervention can be highly unpredictable, yet contextual generalizations are possible (established but incomplete) {3.6.2.3, 3.6.3}. The ways in which land is used in one part of the world can be highly sensitive to sudden, unexpected changes in economic and institutional factors elsewhere (unresolved). For example, changes in currency exchange rates, and cascading effects on the profitability of a given commodity, can markedly accelerate or decelerate the clearance of native vegetation for agriculture within a single year {3.6.2.3}. The sudden imposition of trade restrictions (e.g., due to disease controls), can have a similarly marked impact. However, with an improved understanding of the interactive effects amongst different drivers, it is possible to make predictions that are valid under a certain range of conditions. For example, agricultural intensification and agroforestry practices can help reduce the pressure on remaining areas of native vegetation under certain conditions (such as inelastic demand for staple crops), but unless such measures are coupled with increased enforcement of land-use policies they can result in a rebound effect that increases pressure on natural resources (established but incomplete) {3.6.3}. Land degradation in any given place is rarely the consequence of a single anthropogenic driver, but is instead the result of a diverse and frequently mutually-reinforcing set of human activities and underlying drivers (well established) {3.4.5, 3.5, 3.6.2.1}. Typically, at least three types of indirect driver, such as economic, technological and institutional, underpin any direct driver of land degradation or restoration (established but incomplete). The complexity of drivers that commonly underpin land degradation highlights the fact that single factors, such as high rural population density, rarely provide an adequate underlying explanation on their own for observed impacts (established but incomplete) {3.6.3}. Land degradation is typically the result of multiple direct drivers, especially in instances of severe degradation (e.g., where land-use intensification drives increased species invasions and increases in fire frequency). This combination of drivers has resulted in large expanses of economically important grazing lands, including in North America, being transformed to fire-prone annual grass monocultures (well established) {3.3.7}. The multi-causality of land degradation requires commensurately holistic policy responses that operate across multiple scales and combine both regulatory and incentive based measures (established but incomplete). Rapid expansion and inappropriate management of agricultural lands (including both grazing lands and croplands), especially in dryland ecosystems, is the most extensive land degradation driver globally (well established) {3.3.1, 3.3.2}. The expansion of grazing lands has largely stagnated globally with evidence for an approximate 1% decline in grazing land area over the past decade. Grazing pressure has been stable or only moderately increasing across the major land areas globally, although there are regional exceptions such as Southern Asia. Over half of grazing lands occur in dryland environments that are highly susceptible to land degradation (established but incomplete) {3.3.1.3}. More recently intensification and increasing industrialization of livestock production systems, especially in developed countries, has resulted in an increasing reliance on mixed crop-livestock production systems and industrialized "landless" systems. As a result, 35% of global crop production is now allocated to livestock feed. Globally, fertilizer and pesticide use is expected to double by 2050 {3.3.2.2}. Marked drops in nitrogen-use efficiency (change in yield per unit of fertilizer input) in many parts of the world, particularly the Asia Pacific region, often accompanied by continued excessive fertilizer application, underscore the critical importance of sustainable agricultural practices, including conservation agricultural techniques, to maintain yield improvements (established but incomplete) {3.3.2.3}. Increases in consumption levels of many natural resources underpin increasing levels of degradation in many parts of the world (well established), with slow rates of adoption of sustainable production systems (established but incomplete) {3.6.2.2, 3.6.3.2, 3.6.4.2}. Projections to 2050 suggest that one billion ha of natural ecosystems could be converted to agriculture by that time. More than half of agricultural expansion in the last three decades has occurred in relatively intact tropical forests. Economic growth in the developing world is projected to double global consumption of forest and wood products by 2030, with demand likely to exceed production in many developing and emerging economies in Asia and Africa within the next decade. Traditional fuelwood and charcoal continue to represent a dominant share of total wood consumption in low income countries, up to 70%, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (well established). Under current projections efforts to intensify wood production in plantation forests, together with increases in fuel-use efficiency and electrification are only likely to partly offset the pressure on native forests (unresolved). Adoption of more sustainable production systems continues to be slow, as seen, for example, by a slowdown in the expansion of the area of certified forests. More than half of the terrestrial surface of the Earth has fire regimes outside the range of natural variability, with changes in fire frequency and intensity posing major challenges for land restoration (established but incomplete) {3.3.7}. The frequency of fires has increased in many areas – exacerbated by decreases in precipitation – including in many regions of humid and temperate forests that rarely experience large-scale fires naturally. Some changes in fire regimes, particularly in tropical forests, are sufficiently severe that recovery to pre-disturbance conditions may no longer be possible. Increases in international trade, intensification of land use and urbanization have meant that few areas of the planet are free of invasive species (established but incomplete) {3.3.8}. Nearly one fifth of the Earth´s surface is at high risk of plant and animal invasion, including many biodiversity hotspots. Climate change, including increased nitrogen deposition and changes in CO2, as well as increases in fire frequency with rising temperatures in many areas, are all likely to increase invasions {3.4}. Once established, the eradication of many invasive species is often very expensive, if not impossible, underscoring the need to develop proactive strategies to pre-empt invasions, including through inspections, research and education. Activities related to industrialization, infrastructure development, urbanization, and many extractive industries result in complete transformation of ecosystems, accompanied by near or complete loss of biodiversity and ecosystem function and the services those ecosystems provide (well established) {3.3.6}. Infrastructure, industrial development and urbanization activities, often replace natural ecosystems with impervious or contaminated surfaces such as asphalt, concrete and rooftops, leading to the one of the most severe forms of land degradation in the form of soil sealing. Built-up areas, which are dominated by sealed soils, currently occupy nearly 0.6% of the global land surface. If population densities in cities remain stable, the extent of built-up areas in developed countries is expected to increase by 30% and triple in developing countries between 2000 and 2050. Under more extreme scenarios of increasing population density and economic development, the extent of built-up areas globally may increase to over 2% of the global land area over this same time period. New urban design and green technologies that incorporate features that promote sustainability and delivery of ecosystem services can play an important role in restoring some of the ecosystem functions and services of built environments. The importance of climate change for land degradation is most prominent through its role in exacerbating the impacts of other human activities (established but incomplete) {3.4}. The exacerbating effect of climate change on the impact of degradation drivers, including land clearance and intensive farming techniques, can be felt both through chronic impacts and directional changes – like temperature changes, leading to shifts in species range sizes, as well as changes in average precipitation levels, atmospheric CO2 and nitrogen deposition – and acute impacts through extreme weather events of flooding, drought, and other natural disasters (well established). Heavy rainfall events and storms as well as heat waves and droughts are predicted to increase in frequency over several parts of the globe, with cascading effects on the frequency, intensity, extent and timing of other drivers such as fires, pest and pathogen outbreaks, species invasions, soil erosion and landslides (established but incomplete). The last decade has witnessed a rise in consumer-driven demand for sustainable land use and land management, as well as commitments to restore degraded land that is unprecedented in human history (well established) {3.6}. In the last decade hundreds of companies have made pledges to reduce their impacts on forests and on the rights of local communities, with many committing to eliminate deforestation from their supply chains entirely by 2020. In the same period, many governments and civil society groups have made ambitious commitments to restore hundreds of millions of hectares of degraded land. New players, such as the finance sector, who until recently have been completely detached from the mainstream sustainability agenda are also starting to make explicit commitments to avoiding environmental harm. The overall impact of these voluntary measures remains to be assessed but they offer a vital window of opportunity for reversing degradation trends and placing economies on a more sustainable footing – especially as large areas of marginal agricultural become increasingly abandoned with ongoing development (unresolved).