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The subject of this research is the judicial procedures embodied in Islam whether in the imperative religious texts or in paractical implemented measures so as to secure care for individuals with special needs in the Islamic society. It has been shown that Islam's care for individuals with special needs encompasses all the aspects of their life, commensurate with their capabilities organized under the umbrella of the Islamic state and the Islamic society. All these are regulated by Islamic judical texts in the holy Qur'an and Sunna and other sources of legislation. This demonstrates the great attention that Islam gives to individuals with special needs and proves how Islam has preceded other legislatures in providing and implementing legislations and measures that protect the individuals' rights and meet their everyday needs to enable them to do their duties in the best possible way without leaving any negative impact on their social status and on their active role in life.

The legacy of the Prophet is known as the Sunna, and, although it can be argued that in terms of reverence, it is accepted second after the Qur'an. Sunna is the glass though which the holly book is understood and interpreted. In this regard, in Islamic progress the Sunna has ruled over the Qur'an, stating, shaping and adding to the Qur'an. It can be said that for much of Islamic history, the unit through which the Sunna was transmitted, saved and understood has been hadith (Brown, 2009, p.3). Hadith is an anecdote reporting that the Prophet Muhammed (s.a.w) did or said something, or without comment, allowed something to occur, therefore permitting it. It can be said that a hadith has two parts: the matn (the report) and the isnad (headnote), checking the account by listing the report line of transmission (Reinhart, 2010, p. 414).  Arş. Gör., Erzincan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi, hayaz@erzincan.edu.tr Hacer AYAZ 42 It can be fairly argued that hadith has a crucial role in Muslim society and Islamic science. Furthermore, it can be argued that reliability of the hadiths is one of the most significant issue for both Muslim and Western hadith studies. It can be said that Western scholarship provided different answers on the questioning of the historical worth of hadith late nineteenth century. Views range from an extensive acceptance of these traditions as historical sources to conclude rejection. Hadiths are refused due to the fact that they are accepted to have been affected by later religious, political and legal developments. It can be said that Muslim hadith evaluation judged the reliability of a given tradition firstly from the viewpoint of its isnad. By contrast, Western scholarship, with its goal of assessing the historical worth of a tradition, has restricted its consideration essentially to the text. The second approach was prompted by the belief that the isnad is usually clearly fictional. This view was shared by Ignaz Goldziher who is one of the founding fathers of Western hadith studies. However, it can be argued that one of the few scholars, in Western hadith studies, Joseph Schacht tried to find methods which include the isnad as a principle to value the sources (Motzki, 2010, pp.47-8). It can be argued that Western hadith scholars G. H. A Juynboll and Harald Motzki also focus on the isnads in order to analyse the reliability of the hadiths. This essay will analyse works of both Juynboll and Motzki in order to understand the differences in historical methodology between them. Firstly, the works of Schacht will be briefly examined. Secondly, the methodology of Juynboll and Motzki will be critically analysed. The final part of this essay will be conclusion. ; The Muslim hadith tradition and the Western academic study of Islamic origins show diametrically opposed approaches to evaluating the authenticity of reports about the past. Both are critical, in that they concern themselves with questions of the reliability of historical sources. However, this paper focuses on approaches of the Western hadith scholars in assessment of the reliability of the hadiths. In this paper, differences between in historical methodology between G.H.A. Juynboll and Harald Motzki in relation to hadith are analysed. In the first part of this study, the works of Schacht is analysed in order to understand Juynboll's methodology because the approaches of Schacht has been elaborated by Juynboll. In the second section, the methodology of Juynboll is analyzed. In the third part of this paper, the historical methodology of Motzki is examined. The final part of this study is conclusion. The aim of this paper is to illustrate that there are significant differences between in historical methodology between Juynboll and Motzki in relation to hadith. Moreover, it can be fairly argued that Harald Motzki is the first Western hadith scholars to examine hadiths with the same 'respect' like Muslim hadith scholars. Müslüman hadis geleneği ve İslam kökenli Batı akademik çalışmaları, geçmiş hakkındaki raporların sahihliğini ölçme ve değerlendirme yaklaşımları açısından birbirleriyle taban tabana zıtlık göstermektedirler. Tarihsel kaynakların güvenirliliği soruları kendilerini ilgilendirir ve onlar bu anlamda kritik öneme sahiptirler. Bununla beraber, bu çalışma özellikle Batı Hadis bilginlerinin hadislerin güvenilirliğinin değerlendirilmesi konusundaki yaklaşımları üzerinde durmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, G.H.A. Juynboll ve Harald Motzki'nin hadis ile alakalı olarak, tarihsel methodolojileri arasındaki farklılıklar analiz edilmişitr. Bu çalışmanın ilk bölümünde, Juynboll'un methodolojisini anlayabilmek için Schacht'ın çalışmaları incelenmişitir, çünkü Schacht'ın tarihsel yaklaşımı Juynboll tarafından geliştirilmiştir. İkinci kısımda, Juynboll'un common link methodu analiz edilmiştir, üçüncü kısımda ise, Motzki'nin isnad-cummatn methodu incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın son bölümü sonuç kısmından oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı hadis ile alakalı olarak, Juynboll ve Motzki'nin tarihsel methodolojileri arasında büyük ve önemli farklılıklar olduğunu göstermektir. Ayrıca, Harald Motzki'nin Batı hadis bilginleri arasında, Müslüman hadis alimleri gibi aynı "saygı" yı göstererek hadisleri inceleyen ilk batılı hadis bilgini olduğu söylenebilir

The legacy of the Prophet is known as the Sunna, and, although it can be argued that in terms of reverence, it is accepted second after the Qur'an. Sunna is the glass though which the holly book is understood and interpreted. In this regard, in Islamic progress the Sunna has ruled over the Qur'an, stating, shaping and adding to the Qur'an. It can be said that for much of Islamic history, the unit through which the Sunna was transmitted, saved and understood has been hadith (Brown, 2009, p.3). Hadith is an anecdote reporting that the Prophet Muhammed (s.a.w) did or said something, or without comment, allowed something to occur, therefore permitting it. It can be said that a hadith has two parts: the matn (the report) and the isnad (headnote), checking the account by listing the report line of transmission (Reinhart, 2010, p. 414).  Arş. Gör., Erzincan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi, hayaz@erzincan.edu.tr Hacer AYAZ 42 It can be fairly argued that hadith has a crucial role in Muslim society and Islamic science. Furthermore, it can be argued that reliability of the hadiths is one of the most significant issue for both Muslim and Western hadith studies. It can be said that Western scholarship provided different answers on the questioning of the historical worth of hadith late nineteenth century. Views range from an extensive acceptance of these traditions as historical sources to conclude rejection. Hadiths are refused due to the fact that they are accepted to have been affected by later religious, political and legal developments. It can be said that Muslim hadith evaluation judged the reliability of a given tradition firstly from the viewpoint of its isnad. By contrast, Western scholarship, with its goal of assessing the historical worth of a tradition, has restricted its consideration essentially to the text. The second approach was prompted by the belief that the isnad is usually clearly fictional. This view was shared by Ignaz Goldziher who is one of the founding fathers of Western hadith studies. However, it can be argued that one of the few scholars, in Western hadith studies, Joseph Schacht tried to find methods which include the isnad as a principle to value the sources (Motzki, 2010, pp.47-8). It can be argued that Western hadith scholars G. H. A Juynboll and Harald Motzki also focus on the isnads in order to analyse the reliability of the hadiths. This essay will analyse works of both Juynboll and Motzki in order to understand the differences in historical methodology between them. Firstly, the works of Schacht will be briefly examined. Secondly, the methodology of Juynboll and Motzki will be critically analysed. The final part of this essay will be conclusion. ; The Muslim hadith tradition and the Western academic study of Islamic origins show diametrically opposed approaches to evaluating the authenticity of reports about the past. Both are critical, in that they concern themselves with questions of the reliability of historical sources. However, this paper focuses on approaches of the Western hadith scholars in assessment of the reliability of the hadiths. In this paper, differences between in historical methodology between G.H.A. Juynboll and Harald Motzki in relation to hadith are analysed. In the first part of this study, the works of Schacht is analysed in order to understand Juynboll's methodology because the approaches of Schacht has been elaborated by Juynboll. In the second section, the methodology of Juynboll is analyzed. In the third part of this paper, the historical methodology of Motzki is examined. The final part of this study is conclusion. The aim of this paper is to illustrate that there are significant differences between in historical methodology between Juynboll and Motzki in relation to hadith. Moreover, it can be fairly argued that Harald Motzki is the first Western hadith scholars to examine hadiths with the same 'respect' like Muslim hadith scholars. Müslüman hadis geleneği ve İslam kökenli Batı akademik çalışmaları, geçmiş hakkındaki raporların sahihliğini ölçme ve değerlendirme yaklaşımları açısından birbirleriyle taban tabana zıtlık göstermektedirler. Tarihsel kaynakların güvenirliliği soruları kendilerini ilgilendirir ve onlar bu anlamda kritik öneme sahiptirler. Bununla beraber, bu çalışma özellikle Batı Hadis bilginlerinin hadislerin güvenilirliğinin değerlendirilmesi konusundaki yaklaşımları üzerinde durmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, G.H.A. Juynboll ve Harald Motzki'nin hadis ile alakalı olarak, tarihsel methodolojileri arasındaki farklılıklar analiz edilmişitr. Bu çalışmanın ilk bölümünde, Juynboll'un methodolojisini anlayabilmek için Schacht'ın çalışmaları incelenmişitir, çünkü Schacht'ın tarihsel yaklaşımı Juynboll tarafından geliştirilmiştir. İkinci kısımda, Juynboll'un common link methodu analiz edilmiştir, üçüncü kısımda ise, Motzki'nin isnad-cummatn methodu incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın son bölümü sonuç kısmından oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı hadis ile alakalı olarak, Juynboll ve Motzki'nin tarihsel methodolojileri arasında büyük ve önemli farklılıklar olduğunu göstermektir. Ayrıca, Harald Motzki'nin Batı hadis bilginleri arasında, Müslüman hadis alimleri gibi aynı "saygı" yı göstererek hadisleri inceleyen ilk batılı hadis bilgini olduğu söylenebilir.

The Qur'an contains only a small number of detailed laws, while the sunna is limited to the cases that occurred in its time, so to solve new problems, ijtihad is required. In such a connection for a Muslim, new problems arising from the progress of science and technology, should not be confronted with confrontational passages, but must be solved by ijtihadi.Karena reality often occurs, that the development of society and public opinion faster the pace of the road from on the development of the law itself. The dynamics of people's lives are characteristic of change. Through the power of intention, power, and creativity, humans create cultural objects as a result of their creations. Changes that occur in society when observed can occur in various There are slow changes (evolution) and there are rapid changes (revolution). The social changes that occur in a society, directly or indirectly, affect institutions in various fields, such as government, economics, education, religion and so on. The continuation of an impact on the social system changes. When the law is faced with social change, it occupies one of its functions, which can function as a means of social control, and the law can serve as a means of social change. the characteristics of the law above is due to the inconsistency of social dynamics and the dynamics of law in the life of society. Unequaled dynamics of society and law, usually will bring social lag. From here, then comes a question whether Islamic law as a norm of God's determination can experience changes in accordance with the needs of the community? Ijtihad is an important factor for the development and development of Islamic law.Ijtihad done to answer the problems that arise in society that is not yet known legal status.ijtihad has a wide scope, the issues are not regulated explicitly dala m al-Qur'an and sunna can be done ijtihad. In order for humans to have breadth in determining its activities according to its ability, needs and environment. Therefore ijtihad in the field of Islamic law in anticipating the dynamics of society and social changes concerning the values, behavior patterns, and social system of a society is a concern in establishing Islamic law. Thus ijtihad is the third source in the development of Islamic law. Keywords: Social Change, Ijtihad, Law, Islamic.

Cover -- Titel -- Zum Buch -- Über den Autor -- Impressum -- Widmung -- Inhaltsübersicht -- Inhaltsverzeichnis -- Vorwort -- Vorwort zur vierten Auflage und Dank -- Einführung. Islam, «Scharia» und Recht -- I. Zu diesem Buch -- II. «Scharia» und Recht -- Erster Teil. Die Geschichte des islamischen Rechts -- I. Die Entstehung des islamischen Staates und seiner Rechtsordnung -- 1. Anfänge -- 2. Die Trennung zwischen Sunniten und Schiiten -- 3. Die Herausbildung von Rechtsschulen und Rechtsinstitutionen -- 4. Gerichte und Rechtsgelehrte im Staatsgefüge -- 5. Die Beweisführung vor Gericht -- 6. Weitere Verwaltungsinstanzen -- II. Die Entwicklung einer islamrechtlichen Dogmatik - Die Lehre von den Rechtsquellen und den Methoden der Rechtsfindung (uṣūl al-fiqh) -- 1. Einführung -- 2. Der Koran -- 3. Die Sunna des Propheten -- 4. Der Konsens der Rechtsgelehrten (Idschma) -- 5. Der Analogieschluss und weitere Schlussverfahren (qίyās) -- 6. Das «Für-besser-Halten» (istiḥsān) -- 7. Die Berücksichtigung allgemeinen Nutzens (istiḥsāḥ, al-maṣāliḥ al-mursala) -- 8. Die Auffassungen der (einzelnen) Prophetengenossen (maḏhab al-ṣaḥābῑ) -- 9. Gewohnheitsrecht ( urf) und Brauch ( āda) -- 10. Das «Versperren der Mittel» (sadd al-ḏarāˀἱ ) -- 11. «Fortbestand» ( istiṣḥāb) und «Normen derer vor uns» ( šar man qablanā) -- III. Urteile und Gutachten -- IV. Die Regelungsbereiche des klassischen islamischen Rechts im Überblick -- 1. Einführung -- Theorie und Praxis -- 2. Personenstands-, Ehe- und Familienrecht -- a) Einführung -- Grundlagen -- b) Eherecht -- aa) Einführung -- bb) Die Voraussetzungen der Eheschließung -- cc) Die Form der Eheschließung -- Beteiligte -- dd) Die Brautgabe (mahr, ṣadāq) -- Eheverträge -- ee) Die Folgen des Fehlens einzelner Wirksamkeitsvoraussetzungen -- ff) Rechte und Pflichten der Ehegatten -- gg) Die Beendigung der Ehe.

Bahrain was among the first Arab Spring countries in which mass protests arose in February 2011. The authoritarian monarchy, which excludes vast segments of society from fair political and economic participation, opted for the use of force to suppress the mainly peaceful demonstrations, but it could not expunge the protests by a popular movement that continues to exist to this day. The power struggle is occurring along a Sunna-Shia divide that interconnects with regional sectarian tensions. This article investigates powersharing arrangements as an option to deal with such deep divisions. It outlines the historical background of the sectarian tensions in Bahrain and the rudimentary forms of powersharing that have existed there in the past. It then analyses the current debate between the regime and the opposition regarding the distribution of political power. While the reality still seems to be far removed from a power‐sharing solution, we nevertheless recommend power‐sharing as a feasible way out of the current stalemate.

Cover -- 1. Einleitung -- What's in a name? Bezeichnungen und Formen der vorliegenden Praktik -- Die weibliche Beschneidung als Gegenstand wissenschaftlicher Forschung -- Islam, Medizin und die diskursive Konstruktion von Wissen -- Das islamische Recht als diskursive Tradition -- Die Hüter der islamischen Tradition und die Herausforderungen der Moderne -- Medizin, Ärzte und der Anspruch auf Modernität -- Noch einmal: Islam und Medizin -- Quellen und Vorgehen -- Teil I -- 2. Die Entwicklung eines medizinischen Diskurses: Genitalchirurgie in gynäkologischen Publikationen vor 1940 -- 2.1. Ärzte, ḥakīmāt und dāyāt: Moderne medizinische Praxis und Genitaloperationen im 19. Jahrhundert -- 2.2. Kolonialismus und Gynäkologie: Die weibliche Beschneidung in der Medizin des frühen 20. Jahrhunderts -- 2.3. Fazit: Weibliche Genitalbeschneidung zwischen Ägypten und Europa -- 3. Vom wissenschaftlichen Diskurs zur gesellschaftlichen Kontroverse: Ärzte, dāyāt und ʿulamāʾ, ca. 1940-1960 -- 3.1. Chronologischer Abriss der Entstehung einer Kontroverse -- Hinweise auf eine Kritik an der Beschneidung von Mädchen bis 1940 -- Schauplätze und Konfliktlinien der Kontroverse, 1940 bis 1957 -- Eine Kampagne gegen weibliche Genitalverstümmelung unter Nasser? 1957 bis 1960 -- 3.2. Medizin: Die Debatte um die Beschneidung von Mädchen als Aushandlung eines neuen ärztlichen Selbstverständnisses -- Bauern und Frauen: Reformdebatten zwischen 1930 und 1960 -- Ärzte und dāyāt: Die weibliche Beschneidung als barbarische Volkspraktik -- Ärzte und Religion: Die weibliche Beschneidung als unislamische Angelegenheit -- Arzt und Gelehrter: Ḥāmid al‑Ġawābī als Verteidiger der weiblichen Beschneidung -- Fazit -- 3.3. Islam: Reaktionen religiöser Gelehrter auf die medizinische Kritik -- Beschneidung und Sunna: Konzeptualisierungen der Praktik in Anlehnung an überlieferte Texte.

Abstract
Soon after the Lajnat al-Hurriyāt al-Fardiyya wa-l-Musāwāt ("Committee on Individual Rights and Equality") submitted its report in June 2018 to the president of Tunisia, Beji Caid Essebsi, the latter ordered the legislature to amend the 1956 family law to achieve equality between men and women in inheritance and property rights. Although the authors of the report had written forcefully about how Islamic texts (the Qurʾan and sunna) are compatible with modern law, some of their recommendations suggested a broad inclination to reform the law outside religious tradition and as part of the exigencies of the civil state. These events and ideas brought to the fore questions such as whether classical Islamic law is reformable or obsolete. This paper aims to show that interpretations of Islamic texts that result in radically different inheritance laws have existed since at least the third Islamic century. Inequality has persisted always for political and institutional reasons, not substantive ones.

Human relationships with ethics become the main points of concern in everyday life. Eliminating ethics from political life can have implications for Machavellistist political practice. Islamic political ethics has a sacred basis of the revelation of God and the Sunna of the Prophet. Leaders in Islam are said to be khālifah or imâm. The Caliph is the successor of the prophet as a leader who obeys God's command and enforces the law justly. The wide-ranging moral values should be the basis and consideration of political actions and legitimacy. Principles of political ethics of Muslim leaders viewed from the thinking of classical Muslim philosophers. There are five principles of Islamic political ethics that must be owned by a leader as well as a politician as a power holder in a country: (1) Religion as the ethical basis of Muslim leaders; (2) The mandate in power; (3) Fair and wise in law; (4) Smart and competent in their field; and (5) Deliberation and tolerance.

Seul un point de vue substantialiste et culturaliste permet de parler de " justice en islam " ou de " conception islamique de la justice ". Il faut au minimum constater que les théories et les dogmes sont nuancés, voire divergents. Au-delà du discours religieux, il faut aussi prendre la mesure de ce que la justice est une pratique dont les contours auraient bien du mal à entrer dans un cadre rigide. On distinguera donc la question de la justice en tant que pratique discursive, d'une part, telle qu'elle trouve à s'énoncer, se déployer, s'interpréter et se transformer dans la prédication coranique (Qur'ân) et la tradition prophétique (Sunna), leurs exégèses, la théorie des fondements du droit islamique (usûl al-fiqh) et les différents traités de philosophie politique et morale ou de bonne gouvernance ; et, d'autre part, la justice comme pratique propre à des institutions, entre autres judiciaires, qui sont établies dans le contexte historique et géographique de sociétés majoritairement musulmanes et dont l'organisation se fait explicitement par référence à l'islam.

Seul un point de vue substantialiste et culturaliste permet de parler de " justice en islam " ou de " conception islamique de la justice ". Il faut au minimum constater que les théories et les dogmes sont nuancés, voire divergents. Au-delà du discours religieux, il faut aussi prendre la mesure de ce que la justice est une pratique dont les contours auraient bien du mal à entrer dans un cadre rigide. On distinguera donc la question de la justice en tant que pratique discursive, d'une part, telle qu'elle trouve à s'énoncer, se déployer, s'interpréter et se transformer dans la prédication coranique (Qur'ân) et la tradition prophétique (Sunna), leurs exégèses, la théorie des fondements du droit islamique (usûl al-fiqh) et les différents traités de philosophie politique et morale ou de bonne gouvernance ; et, d'autre part, la justice comme pratique propre à des institutions, entre autres judiciaires, qui sont établies dans le contexte historique et géographique de sociétés majoritairement musulmanes et dont l'organisation se fait explicitement par référence à l'islam.

Seul un point de vue substantialiste et culturaliste permet de parler de " justice en islam " ou de " conception islamique de la justice ". Il faut au minimum constater que les théories et les dogmes sont nuancés, voire divergents. Au-delà du discours religieux, il faut aussi prendre la mesure de ce que la justice est une pratique dont les contours auraient bien du mal à entrer dans un cadre rigide. On distinguera donc la question de la justice en tant que pratique discursive, d'une part, telle qu'elle trouve à s'énoncer, se déployer, s'interpréter et se transformer dans la prédication coranique (Qur'ân) et la tradition prophétique (Sunna), leurs exégèses, la théorie des fondements du droit islamique (usûl al-fiqh) et les différents traités de philosophie politique et morale ou de bonne gouvernance ; et, d'autre part, la justice comme pratique propre à des institutions, entre autres judiciaires, qui sont établies dans le contexte historique et géographique de sociétés majoritairement musulmanes et dont l'organisation se fait explicitement par référence à l'islam.