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Belize has a rich history that dates back thousands of years. The country was first inhabited by the Mayans with records of their presence dating from 1500 BC. The first recorded European settlement was established circa 1638 by the British who called the country the Colony of British Honduras. The official name of the territory was changed from British Honduras to Belize in June 1973, and full independence was granted on September 21, 1981. There were several obstacles in the path toward independence, as illustrated by Guatemala's long-standing claim to the entire territory. It was only in November 1980, after several frustrated negotiations with Guatemala that Belizean diplomacy managed to obtain international support that led to the United Nations passing of a resolution that demanded the independence of Belize, but it was only in 1992 that Guatemala formally recognized Belize's independence. After independence, Belize successfully implemented a development strategy which emphasized economic diversification and private sector development at a time where the terms of trade were favorable to the country. As a small, open economy, that is also extremely vulnerable to climate change and natural disasters, Belize's ability to promote faster poverty reduction and greater shared prosperity will depend on how well the country deals with its main sources of vulnerability. In addition to weaknesses in infrastructure and in the skills of the labor force, several studies have pinpointed crime and violence and problems in the financial sector as important deterrents to growth. The analysis in this report confirms the centrality of these two factors. The predicament in the financial sector is largely driven by the small economic size of the country and the lack of competition in the banking sector, a common feature in small state economies that limits the availability of credit to small and medium enterprises. Stability issues in the sector complicate matters as these impose non-negligible risks to the health of the financial sector. On the other hand, the rise in the inflow of migrants from neighboring Central American countries with a history of crime and violence has been raised as a potential cause for high crime rates in Belize, but there is not enough evidence to substantiate that claim at this point. Policy interventions that could help halt the rise in criminality rates include ramping up the quality of education, keeping children at school, promoting education equivalency programs and job training, besides more direct approaches such as investing in safe neighborhood programs.

Aizstāvēšanai piedāvāts maģistra darbs "Dzimumu algu atšķirība Latvijas darba tirgū Eiropas Savienības kontekstā". Darbā tiek izpētīts dzimumu līdztiesības un diskriminācija jautājums Latvijas un ES darba tirgū. Galvenā uzmanība darbā tiek pievērsta atalgojuma līdzvērtības analīzei, aplūkojot jautājumu gan no tiesiskā, gan praktiskā viedokļa. Par pētījuma pamatu tika ņemti vairāku pētījumu rezultāti, kas veikti Eiropas Savienības dalībvalstīs, kā arī autores veiktā aptauja. Darbā atspoguļoti rezultāti un izteikti priekšlikumi nevienlīdzības samazināšanai. Darba saturs izklāstīts trīs daļās. Pirmajā daļā tiek analizēts diskriminācijas jautājumu tiesiskais viedoklis, kas nosaka pasākumu virkni, kas ierobežo nevienlīdzību darba tirgū. Tāpat šajā sadaļā tiek aplūkots stāvoklis Latvijas darba tirgū un to kontrolējošās institūcijas, kas uzrauga, lai to izskaustu. Otrajā daļā tiek analizēti aplūkoti galvenie pētījumi, kas veikti minētajā jautājumā un dzimumu darba algu atšķirību izpēte dažādās nozarēs, to iemesli un skaidrojuma interpretācija. Trešajā daļā tiek veikta aptaujas rezultātu analīze par dzimumu atalgojumu vienlīdzību darba tirgū Latvijā un izteikti risinājumi dzimumu algu atšķirību novēršanai Latvijā Saturs izklāstīts 104.lpp, satur 13 tabulas, 27 attēlus, secinājumus, literatūras sarakstu, kas sastāv no 61 vienībām. Atslēgvārdi: dzimuma algu atšķirība, dzimuma līdztiesības, diskriminācija, darba tirgus, darba samaksa, datu grupēšanas metode, statistikas apstrādes metodika, darba samaksa. ; For defence is offered Master's thesis "Gender Pay Gap in the Latvian Labour market in the European Union Context". The paper examines the gender-equality and discrimination issues of Latvian and EU labor market. In the work focus is put on the salary equivalency analysis. This question is discussed in both legal and practical terms. The study was based on several studies carried out in European Union Member States and the author's survey. In the paper are reported results and suggestions are made for reducing inequality. The contents are described in three parts. The first part analyzes the issue of discrimination from legal perspective, which determines a series of measures that limits inequality in the labor market. Also in this section is examined the situation and controlling authorities of the Latvian labor market. The second part of the analysis highlights the main studies conducted on the subject and the gender wage gap studies in various sectors, including reasons and explanation interpretation. In the third part carries out the survey results of analysis of the gender pay equality in the labor market and suggests solutions how to prevent gender wage gap in Latvia. Index set 104 p., contains 13 tables, 27 pictures, conclusions, list of references, which consists of 61 units. Keywords: gender wage gap, gender equality, discrimination, labor market, wages and salaries, statistical methodology of processing, data grouping method.

Shellfish Quality Assurance programs rely on the use of bacteriological fecal pollution indicators as a routine monitoring tool for risk assessment and management in shellfish growing areas. Internationally, shellfish programs vary in detail but are typically based on either the United States model, as in Australia, which relies on the enumeration of indicator bacteria in water as a measure of fecal pollution, or the European Union model, which assesses the exposure of production sites to fecal pollution by determining indicator bacteria present in shellfish flesh. The equivalency of these approaches for delivering the same level of public health protection is not immediately apparent Both indicator tests are used in combination in a very conservative approach adopted in the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW) by the Shellfish Program for the oyster (predominately Sydney rock oyster) fishery, the country's oldest and the state's most productive fishery. This study reports on the analysis of a large data set of these two indicators taken at multiple sites within three NSW estuaries between 2000 and 2005. We report on performance measures used routinely in epidemiological studies to compare the two tests. These measures demonstrate poor agreement between the two tests. When the harvest area is deemed closed by the water test the odds of a negative test based on shellfish flesh is approximately one in four. Conversely, the odds of a positive test based on shellfish flesh occurring during extended periods of dry weather when the water test is clear exceed one in five and are seemingly random in occurrence. We are able to demonstrate a highly significant statistical relationship between the water test and environmental covariates of rainfall, salinity, and water temperature. We use k-fold cross validation methods to develop predictive models using these environmental covariates that can account for over 90% of the variation in water test readings. In contrast we are unable to demonstrate a valid predictive model for the oyster flesh test using these covariate. We discuss the results of these analyses and suggest that there are significant issues with the efficacy of the shellfish flesh test and, in particular, the unexplained systematic error that occurs at a high rate in the current program. The dual use of these tests in harvest management results in routine uncertainty that must create significant unpredictability and costs in trade. In turn, this uncertainty and the costs of testing result in levels of commercial risk that could prove unsustainable. The study highlights the need for the performance of tests to be rigorously appraised in shellfish quality assurance programs. In so doing it may be possible to maintain public health standards while minimizing unnecessary disruptions and costs in the trade of fresh oysters.

Shellfish Quality Assurance programs rely on the use of bacteriological fecal pollution indicators as a routine monitoring tool for risk assessment and management in shellfish growing areas. Internationally, shellfish programs vary in detail but are typically based on either the United States model, as in Australia, which relies on the enumeration of indicator bacteria in water as a measure of fecal pollution, or the European Union model, which assesses the exposure of production sites to fecal pollution by determining indicator bacteria present in shellfish flesh. The equivalency of these approaches for delivering the same level of public health protection is not immediately apparent Both indicator tests are used in combination in a very conservative approach adopted in the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW) by the Shellfish Program for the oyster (predominately Sydney rock oyster) fishery, the country's oldest and the state's most productive fishery. This study reports on the analysis of a large data set of these two indicators taken at multiple sites within three NSW estuaries between 2000 and 2005. We report on performance measures used routinely in epidemiological studies to compare the two tests. These measures demonstrate poor agreement between the two tests. When the harvest area is deemed closed by the water test the odds of a negative test based on shellfish flesh is approximately one in four. Conversely, the odds of a positive test based on shellfish flesh occurring during extended periods of dry weather when the water test is clear exceed one in five and are seemingly random in occurrence. We are able to demonstrate a highly significant statistical relationship between the water test and environmental covariates of rainfall, salinity, and water temperature. We use k-fold cross validation methods to develop predictive models using these environmental covariates that can account for over 90% of the variation in water test readings. In contrast we are unable to demonstrate a valid predictive model for the oyster flesh test using these covariate. We discuss the results of these analyses and suggest that there are significant issues with the efficacy of the shellfish flesh test and, in particular, the unexplained systematic error that occurs at a high rate in the current program. The dual use of these tests in harvest management results in routine uncertainty that must create significant unpredictability and costs in trade. In turn, this uncertainty and the costs of testing result in levels of commercial risk that could prove unsustainable. The study highlights the need for the performance of tests to be rigorously appraised in shellfish quality assurance programs. In so doing it may be possible to maintain public health standards while minimizing unnecessary disruptions and costs in the trade of fresh oysters.

Сравнительные социальные межстрановые исследования позволяют решать важнейшиенаучные и практические задачи от проверки социологический теорий на универсальность, эмпирической основы для создания новых объяснительных моделей и теорий до измерения эффективности макросоциальных государственных и международных программ, изучения общественного мнения в разных странах по актуальным вопросам мировой политики и глобальных проблем. Подобные исследования имеют и большое общественное значение, так как позволяют каждому обществу взглянуть на себя со стороны, понять свою схожесть и отличия с другими странами и культурами, более глубоко проанализировать и спрогнозировать вектор и скорость своего развития в разных направлениях общественной жизни.За семьдесят лет развития сравнительных межстрановых исследований в социальных науках, методология подобных опросов выделилась в отдельную научную дисциплину. Тематическое и методологическое разнообразие сравнительных исследований позволяет предложить их классификацию, исходя из трех критериев количества объектов наблюдения (двусторонние, региональные и всемирные); количества временных точек измерения (одноразовые исследования, повторные или трендовые сравнительные исследования и лонгитюдные); содержание и целей исследования (академические, по вопросам международной и социальной политики, изучение общественного мнения по другим вопросам, измерение эффективности социальной политики, сравнительное изучение потребительского поведения маркетинговые исследования). Крупнейшие сравнительные социальные проекты последнего десятилетия Европейское социальное исследование (ESS), Международной программы социальных исследований (ISSP) и Всемирного исследований ценностей (WVS) стали стимулом и привели к созданию организационной и информационной инфраструктуры для разработки и решения методологи че ских проблем в сравнительных межстрановых опросах эквивалентности измерения (концептуальной, лингвистической), построения выборок, анализа сравнительных данных. Вместе с тем количество нерешенных методологических задач в межстрановых сравнительных опросах еще очень велико, что создает большой простор для дальнейшего научного поиска и экспериментов ; Cross-national comparative social surveys help to address key academic and practical purposes test the universality of social theories, the empirical basis for new explanatory models and theories, measure the effectiveness of macro-social government and international social programs, and study public opinion on global politics and global issues. Comparative surveys are also of high public importance because they allow each society to look at itself from the outside, understand the similarity and difference of certain nations compared to other countries and cultures, analyze and forecast the direction and speed of development of particular society in different aspects of its social life. We suggest a definition of cross-national comparative social survey as an empirical project based on mass survey data (general population or large sub-group of population) and designed with primary explicit purpose of comparing two or more social units (countries, nations, cultures) by particular criteria at some given moment in time. Cross-national comparative surveys have sprouted in the post-war years of the last century, when organizational infrastructure and necessary level of methodological knowledge became available and when public need for such surveys grew rapidly in order to solve the tasks of constructing new relations between nations in peace time, recovering and broadening of international cooperation, formation of international organizations. First comparative social surveys were initiated by American scholars (Cantril, Almond, S. Verba, N. Nai, etc.), however, the centre later shifted to European countries. Since the mid 1960s the Soviet Union took part in several cross-national comparative surveys, among them International comparative survey of time budgets, Automatization and industrial workers and later, in the 1970s, initiated some comparative projects in Eastern Europe (among them such surveys as Impact of high education on supporting and developing social structures of socialists societies, Convergence of working class and engineering-technical intelligentsia of socialist countries, Life course of youth in socialists societies). Since the end of the 1980s the Department of Methodological research (headed by V. Andreenkov) at the Institute of Sociology (USSR Academy of Sciences) became the centre of methodological development and gradual introduction of this new research method in Russia mass surveys with face-to-face or personal interviews on randomly selected samples. It has also initiated and participated in different comparative surveys including the surveys of public opinion on foreign policy issues, relations between countries and global issues, but also large cross-national trend comparative academic surveys (World Value Survey in particular). Currently Russia is a member of all large-scale trend comparative social surveys such as European Social Survey (ESS), ISSP and World Value Survey and many other regional and global comparative projects. One of the basic features of cross-national comparative surveys and their main function is the multicontextual content and design. In addition to three main methodological challenges for mass surveys sample design and construction, measurement issues and the coverage issue comparative surveys hold one more methodological challenge the need for the equivalency of the data, i.e. a comparability problem. High level of comparability could be obtained only if surveys are equivalent at least to some degree on few basic parameters conceptual, linguistic (translation), sampling, data collection mode and performance, data processing and documentation. In the recent two decades comparative surveys tend to grow in number of included units (countries), employ more complicated survey design not only cross-national, but also cross-sectional or even longitudinal. Another trend is the increase of understanding and the implementation of equivalency principles on different stages of the survey not only on conceptual and instrument design, but also in sampling, data processing and data presentation, the inclusion of international and interdisciplinary efforts and expertise on all stages of the project. Comparative surveys are moving toward the introduction of more democratic methods in the organization of the project (from financing to conceptual design), higher standards of data quality; new approaches to the questionnaire design for different national and cultural contexts, inclusion of translation in questionnaire design stage; broader usages and more requirements for probability random samples; more complicated approach to data collect mode (from single mode to mix-modes); more attention and the improvement of the quality of documentation; more attention to transparency of survey on all stages from generation of ideas and theoretical background to all details of data collection and more democratic data access; establishing cross-national survey infrastructure

Chapter 1: Introduction / Institutional Ethnography: Sociology for Today, Paul C. Luken -- Part 1: Exploring Historical and Ontological Foundations -- Chapter 2: Elements of an Expansive Institutional Ethnography: A Conceptual History of its North American Origins, Marjorie L. Devault -- Chapter 3: Materialist Matters: A Case for Revisiting the Social Ontology of Institutional Ethnography, Liza McCoy -- Chapter 4: Teaching Institutional Ethnography as an Alternative Sociology, Eric Mykhalovsky, Colin Hastings, Leigha Comer, Julia Gruson-Wood, and Mathew Strang -- Chapter 5: Exploring Institutional Words as People's Practices, Dorothy E. Smith -- Part 2: Developing Strategies and Exploring Challenges -- Chapter 6: Mapping Ruling Relations: Advancing the Use of Visual Methods in Institutional Ethnography, Nikole K. Dalmer -- Chapter 7: Discovering the Social Organization of Perinatal Care for Women Living with HIV: Reflections from a Novice Institutional Ethnographer, Allyson Ion -- Chapter 8: IE and Visual Research Methods: An Open-ended Discussion, Morena Tartari -- Chapter 9: And Then There Was Copyright, Suzanne Vaughan -- Chapter 10: Invoking Work Knowledge: Exploring the Social Organization of Producing Gender Studies, Rebecca W.B. Lund -- Chapter 11: Teaching Institutional Ethnography to Undergraduate Students, Kathryn Church -- Part 3: Explicating Global/Transnational Ruling Relations -- Chapter 12: Using Institutional Ethnography to Investigate Intergovernmental Environmental Policy Making, Lauren E. Eastwood -- Chapter 13: Regulating the Duty to Consult: Exploring the Textually-Mediated Nature of Indigenous Dispossession in Chile, Magdalena Ugarte -- Chapter 14: Transnational Power Relations in Education: How it Works Down South, Nerida Spina and Barbara Comber -- Chapter 15: The Struggle for 'Survival' in Contemporary Higher Education: The Lived Experiences of Junior Academics, Li-Fang and Yu-Hsuan Lin -- Part 4: Making Change within Communities -- Chapter 16: Building Change On and Off Reserve: Six Nations of the Grand River Territory, Susan Marie Turner and Julia Bomberry -- Chapter 17: Mapping Institutional Relations for Local Policy Change: The Case of Lead Poisoning in Syracuse, New York, Frank Ridzi -- Chapter 18: The Institutional Analysis: Matching What Institutions Do with What Works for People, Ellen Pence -- Part 5: Critiquing Public Sector Management Regimes -- Chapter 19: Professional Talk: Unpacking Professional Language, Ann Christin E. Nilsen -- Chapter 20: The Frontline Interpretive Work of Activating the Americans with Disabilities Act, Eric Rodtiguez -- Chapter 21: Contested Forms of Knowledge in the Criminal-Legal System: Evidence-Based Practice and Other Ways of Knowing among Frontline Workers, Nicole Kaufman and Megan Welsh -- Chapter 22: Public Protection as a Ruling Concept in the Management of Nurses' Substance Use, Charlotte A. Ross -- Chapter 23: Producing Functional Equivalency in Video Relay Service, Jeremy L. Brunson -- Part 6: Bringing Together Different Approaches and Perspectives -- Chapter 24: Using Composites to Craft Institutional Ethnographic Accounts, Michael Corman -- Chapter 25: Attending to Messy Troubles of the Anthropocene with Institutional Ethnography and Material Semiotics: The Case for Vital Institutional Ethnography, Karly Burch -- Chapter 26: Institutional Ethnography for Social Work, Gerald de Montigny -- Chapter 27: Institutional Ethnography and Youth Participatory Action Research: A Praxis Approach, Naomi Nichols and Jessica Ruglis.

Die Handreichung dient als Leitfaden zur Durchführung von Bildungsmaßnahmen nach dem Konzept "Zertifizierte Teilqualifikationen der Bundesagentur für Arbeit" (TQ-Konzept) zum Beruf Berufskraftfahrer. Sechs Teilqualifikationen (TQ) bilden die Anforderungen an berufstypische Arbeitsplätze ab: TQ 1 - Güter befördern TQ 2 - Fahrzeuge vorbereiten, warten, kontrollieren und pflegen TQ 3 - Personen befördern TQ 4 - Spezielle Güter transportieren TQ 5 - Kraftomnibusse im Linienverkehr führen TQ 6 - Transportdienstleistungen planen und organisieren Geringqualifizierte Arbeitslose oder gering qualifizierte Beschäftigte haben mit den so erlangten Kompetenzen erhöhte Chancen auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt und können auf diesem Weg ihren Berufsabschluss erwerben. Der Leitfaden entstand im Rahmen des Projektes "Optimierung der Qualifizierungsnagebote für gering qualifizierte Arbeitslose", das vom Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (f-bb) in Kooperation mit dem Institut für Wirtschaftspädagogik (IWP) der Universität St. Gallen durchgeführt wurde. Die Bundesagentur für Arbeit hat das Projekt in Auftrag gegeben und finanziert. Step by step towards a professional qualification New qualification approach for measures of the funded professional development Handouts for educational institutions, employment agencies and job centres The labour market situation for the low-qualified is uncertain: on the one hand, the offer of employments below the levels of skilled workers decreases continuously; on the other hand, the equivalency qualifications on offer on the professional development market are often organised in a way that they are specific to the stakeholders and relevant only on local labour markets. This is where the new concept of certified partial qualifications (TQ concept) set in. The modular education offer consists of nationally standardised and certified partial qualifications (TQ). Each TQ contains all competences required for identified fields of applications within companies. With these certified partial qualifications the low-qualified unemployed or low-qualified employed may increase their chances on the first labour market. The handouts of the series 'Step by step' include the partial qualifications for the following five professions and an area of activity that is not ordered by profession: machine and system operators (specialism: metal and plastics engineering), professional driver, specialist/skilled worker for protection and safety, service specialist for dialogue marketing, process mechanic for plastics and rubber technology as well as the area of activity around system gastronomy/catering. The handbooks provide employees of employment agencies and basic security offices as well as company personnel managers with an overview over the aims and contents of partial qualifications, as well as over the graduates' subsequent areas of application. Educational institutions, employment agencies and companies obtain detailed information about measure contents and the individual competence assessments. With the help of the handbooks admission offices will be able to assess documents, which educational institutions submit for AZWV certifications. The handbooks were developed within the scope of the project 'Optimierung der Qualifizierungsangebote für gering qualifizierte Arbeitslose (optimisation of qualification provisions for the low-qualified unemployed)', which the research institute Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (f-bb) carried out in cooperation with the Institut für Wirtschaftspädagogik (IWP, Institute of Economic Education) of the University St. Gallen on behalf of the Bundesagentur für Arbeit (Federal Employment Agency). Beate Zeller ist Mitglied der wissenschaftlichen Leitung im Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (f-bb). Florian Neumann, Matthias Kohl, Sylvia Krenn und Christine Küfner sind wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter beim f-bb.

Retrospective on the Salt Marsh Paradigm -- Tidal Marshes as Outwelling/Pulsing Systems -- Salt Marsh Values: Retrospection from the end of the Century -- Sources and Patterns of Production -- Role of Salt Marshes as Part of Coastal Landscapes -- Spatial Variation in Process and Pattern in Salt Marsh Plant Communities in Eastern North America -- Eco-Physiological Controls on the Productivity of Spartina Alterniflora Loisel -- Community Structure and Functional Dynamics of Benthic Microalgae in Salt Marshes -- Structure and Productivity of Microtidal Mediterranean Coastal Marshes -- Development and Structure of Salt Marshes: Community Patterns in Time and Space -- Fate of Production within Marsh Food Webs -- Microbial Secondary Production from Salt Marsh-Grass Shoots, and Its Known and Potential Fates -- Trophic Complexity Between Producers and Invertebrate Consumers in Salt Marshes -- Trophic Linkages in Marshes: Ontogenetic Changes in Diet for Young-of-the-Year Mummichog, Fundulus Heteroclitus -- Habitat Value: Food and/or Refuge -- Factors Influencing Habitat Selection in Fishes with a Review of Marsh Ecosystems -- Salt Marsh Ecoscapes and Production Transfers by Estuarine Nekton in the Southeastern United States -- Salt Marsh Linkages to Productivity of Penaeid Shrimps and Blue Crabs in the Northern Gulf of Mexico -- Ecophysiological Determinants of Secondary Production in Salt Marshes: A Simulation Study -- Salt Marsh Ecosystem Support of Marine Transient Species -- Biogeochemical Processes -- Benthic-Pelagic Coupling in Marsh-Estuarine Ecosystems -- Twenty More Years of Marsh and Estuarine Flux Studies: Revisiting Nixon (1980) -- The Role of Oligohaline Marshes in Estuarine Nutrient Cycling -- Molecular Tools for Studying Biogeochemical Cycling in Salt Marshes -- Nitrogen and Vegetation Dynamics in European Salt Marshes -- Modelling Nutrient and Energy Flux -- A Stable Isotope Model Approach to Estimating the Contribution of Organic Matter from Marshes to Estuaries -- Types of Salt Marsh Edge and Export of Trophic Energy from Marshes to Deeper Habitats -- Silicon is the Link between Tidal Marshes and Estuarine Fisheries: A New Paradigm -- Tidal Marsh Restoration: Fact or Fiction? -- Self-Design Applied to Coastal Restoration -- Functional Equivalency of Restored and Natural Salt Marshes -- Organic and Inorganic Contributions to Vertical Accretion in Salt Marsh Sediments -- Landscape Structure and Scale Constraints on Restoring Estuarine Wetlands for Pacific Coast Juvenile Fishes -- Ecological Engineering of Restored Marshes -- The Role of Pulsing Events in the Functioning of Coastal Barriers and Wetlands: Implications for Human Impact, Management and the Response to Sea Level Rise -- Influences of Vegetation and Abiotic Environmental Factors on Salt Marsh Invertebrates -- Measuring Function of Restored Tidal Marshes -- The Health and Long Term Stability of Natural and Restored Marshes in Chesapeake Bay -- Soil Organic Matter (SOM) Effects on Infaunal Community Structure in Restored and Created Tidal Marshes -- Initial Response of Fishes to Marsh Restoration at a Former Salt Hay Farm Bordering Delaware Bay -- Success Criteria for Tidal Marsh Restoration -- Catastrophes, Near-Catastrophes and the Bounds of Expectation: Success Criteria for Macroscale Marsh Restoration -- References is a Moving Target in Sea-Level Controlled Wetlands -- Linking the Success of Phragmites to the Alteration of Ecosystem Nutrient Cycles -- Restoration of Salt and Brackish Tidelands in Southern New England.

Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to comment on Peter Ping Li's understanding of Zhong-Yong balancing, presented in his article titled "Global implications of the indigenous epistemological system from the East: How to apply Yin-Yang balancing to paradox management." Seeing his understanding of Zhong-Yong balancing being incorrect and incomplete, the author proposes an alternative perspective on Zhong-Yong as dynamic balancing between Yin-Yang opposites.


Design/methodology/approach
The author first explain why Peter P. Li's "asymmetry" and "superiority" arguments are flawed by referring to the original text of the classical book of Zhong-Yong (中庸) and a comparison between Zhong-Yong and Aristotle's doctrine of the mean. The author then propose an alternative approach to Zhong-Yong balancing that is embedded in the original text Zhong-Yong but somehow has been neglected by many Chinese scholars. The author concludes the commentary by unifying the two alternative approaches to Zhong-Yong balancing under the inclusion-selection-promotion-transition (ISPT) framework of Zhong-Yong balancing.


Findings
There are three main findings. First, as the original text of Zhong-Yong does not prescribe asymmetry, Peter P. Li's notion of "Yin-Yang balancing" is ironically unbalanced or anti-Zhong-Yong due to his emphasis on asymmetry to the exclusion of symmetry. Second, due to the equivalency between Zhong-Yong and Aristotle's doctrine of the mean, Peter P. Li's assertion that "Yin-Yang balancing" is superior as a solution to paradox management is flawed. Third, his "Yin-Yang balancing" solution is only (the less sophisticated) one of two alternative approaches to Zhong-Yong balancing, i.e., ratio-based combination of Yin-Yang opposites. What Peter P. Li and many other Chinese have neglected is another approach to Zhong-Yong that is embedded in the original text of Zhong-Yong, which I call "analysis plus synthesis."


Research limitations/implications
As it is a commentary there are no specific limitations except for what can be covered in the space available.


Practical implications
The "analysis plus synthesis" approach to Zhong-Yong can be adopted by practitioners who are demanded to balance between opposite forces in daily life and work.


Social implications
The rejection of the "Yin-Yang balancing being superior" assertion facilitates reduction of friction and non-cooperation between intellectual traditions.


Originality/value
This commentary contributes to the "West meets East" discourse by debunking Peter P. Li's assertion that Yin-Yang balancing is superior as a solution to paradox management and his prescription that balancing between Yin-Yang opposites must be asymmetric. It also contributes to the Chinese indigenous management research by identifying a largely neglected approach to Zhong-Yong balancing (i.e. "analysis plus synthesis") that is alternative to the commonly understood ratio-based combination approach (e.g. "Yin-Yang balancing"). In addition, it contributes to the management literature by proposing the ISPT framework of Zhong-Yong balancing.

Some Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure cover purely technical matters. Some Rules, however, cover procedures with constitutional dimensions. When a federal court is interpreting a Rule that has a companion constitutional doctrine, an issue arises as to whether the Rule's requirements are co-extensive with the constitutional protections defined by federal case law, or whether the Rule provides federal defendants a higher level of pretrial procedural protection than a post-conviction due process standard. Federal courts have been inconsistent in identifying and resolving this question of constitutional equivalency. In interpreting some pretrial Criminal Rules, federal courts make a clear distinction between the showing required to obtain relief under the Criminal Rules, on one hand, and the showing required to obtain relief under constitutional post-conviction standards, on the other. By interpreting them through other pretrial Criminal Rules, federal courts have interpreted the showing required to obtain relief under them to be co-extensive with constitutional post-conviction due process standards. Where the interpretation of a Rule is driven by a post-conviction constitutional jurisprudence, this article argues that pretrial relief for federal defendants may be unnecessarily and unjustifiably defined and constrained by constitutional due process minimums. On the contrary, at the pretrial stage, an accused is presumed innocent, the trial court is in a unique position to prevent error, and systemic interests in preserving convictions after the government has obtained a conviction are not present. In this context, these factors, this article argues, should dictate a far less demanding standard for obtaining relief pretrial under the Criminal Rules than the showing required of an offender seeking postconviction relief. This article considers two frequently litigated federal pretrial procedures that co-exist with a constitutional doctrine developed in the post-conviction review context – pretrial discovery and change of venue based on local prejudice – to illustrate federal courts' inconsistent approaches to the question of whether pretrial relief under the Rules should be analyzed independently from constitutional standards developed in the post-conviction review context. Part I provides a background discussion of the history of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Part II analyzes the text and federal case law governing Rules 16 and 21, the two specific federal provisions examined by this article, and their companion federal constitutional doctrines. Part III explains how federal courts' application of constitutional post-conviction standards to federal pretrial motions is both analytically unsound and unnecessary. The article argues that there is no jurisprudential or statutory basis for assuming that federal courts should interpret the Rules to codify only a minimum due process standard, and concludes that unless the plain language of a particular Rule indicates that Congress intended federal defendants to be afforded no more than the minimal constitutional protections developed in the post-conviction review context, federal courts are precluded from applying post-conviction standards of review to resolve pretrial requests for procedural relief under the Rules.

Abstract. Public sector fraud reduces government resources for healthcare, education and welfare. The recent case of the Panama Papers revealed that 12 national leaders are among 143 politicians, their families and close associates from around the world known to have been using offshore tax havens. It is obvious that activities concerning tax have rapidly gained an international dimension both globally and in Europe. A crucial role in communication on tax-related issues between states is played by precision in using terminology, with the choice of the correct equivalents in different languages. It has been pointed out by professionals in the tax field that some major concepts are elusive for the public and specialists alike, such as tax avoidance and tax evasion, or tax minimisation and tax avoidance. The aim of this paper is to offer a trilingual – English, Lithuanian and Norwegian – comparative analysis of the most commonly used terms that denote activities reducing tax liability. It establishes the counterparts of terminology that refer to different categories of activities reducing tax liability in those three languages, discusses synonymy of the terms and their usage in legal acts and media discourse, and offers insights into semantic differences between the terms analysed and their degree of equivalency. The terminology was verified using the multilingual database Interactive Terminology for Europe (IATE) and supplemented using numerous additional sources, such as legal acts, various official documents and media materials. The research focuses on terms ascribed to the three most common types of tax activities (tax planning, tax avoidance and tax evasion/fraud) and the two phenomena of tax shelters and tax havens. The insights offered into usage of the terms, their counterparts in the three languages, their synonyms and semantics are believed to be valuable for efficient professional communication internationally. ; Mokestinis sukčiavimas viešajame sektoriuje mažina nacionalines mokestines pajamas, kurios galėtų būti skiriamos visuomenės sveikatai, švietimui ir kitoms socialinės gerovės sistemoms. 2016 metų pavasarį "Panamos popieriais" praminto skandalo tyrimas atskleidė, kad kai kurie įtakingiausi pasaulio veikėjai slėpė savo pinigus ofšorinėse struktūrose. Tai ne tik atskleidė platų tarptautinį veiklos, susijusios su mokestiniu sukčiavimu ir mokesčių slėpimu, mastą, bet ir tą faktą, kad daugeliu atvejų mokestinio sukčiavimo veikos viešajame diskurse yra įvardijamos tikrąją esmę maskuojančiais terminais, pvz., "mokesčių optimizavimas" arba "agresyvus mokesčių planavimas". Lemiamas vaidmuo, kovojant su mokestiniu sukčiavimu tarptautinėje erdvėje, yra ir tikslus terminijos, teisingų ekvivalentų įvairiomis kalbomis pasirinkimas. Mokesčių srities specialistai pastaruoju metu nurodo, kad kai kurie pagrindiniai terminai, vartojami viešojoje erdvėje, yra neskiriami net profesionalų, pvz., tax avoidance ir tax evasion anglų kalboje arba mokesčių planavimas bei mokesčių vengimas ir slėpimas lietuvių kalboje. Šio straipsnio tikslas yra išanalizuoti trijų – anglų, lietuvių ir norvegų – kalbų dažniausiai vartojamus mokestinio sukčiavimo ir mokesčių vengimo terminus. Pateikiami anglų kalbos terminai ir jų ekvivalentai lietuvių ir norvegų kalbomis, analizuojami šių terminų sinonimai tiek teisės aktuose, tiek žiniasklaidoje, aptariami semantiniai sinonimiškai vartojamų terminų skirtumai bei diskurso nulemti variantų pasirinkimai. Straipsnyje siūlomos terminų ir jų sinonimų vartojimo įžvalgos, tikimasi, pasitarnaus efektyviai tarptautinei komunikacijai šiuo viešajai politikai svarbiu klausimu.

Tesis doctoral con la Mención de "Doctor Europeo" ; Vivimos en una sociedad caracterizada por la competitividad y la búsqueda de actualización profesional, lo que hace que el aprendizaje se afronte como forma de desarrollar conocimientos y competencias a lo largo de la vida. Con el desarrollo y difusión de las TICs y del aprendizaje a distancia, la formación no se encuentra limitada, sino que posibilita que los usuarios puedan adquirir las competencias necesarias a su propio ritmo y con flexibilidad. Además, las políticas de movilidad y homologación defendidas por Unión Europea resaltan la necesidad de promover formación que pueda certificar la adquisición y desempeño de competencias en cualquiera de los países que la componen. En este contexto, y partiendo de directrices nacionales y europeas, esta tesis, auspiciada por un Proyecto de Desarrollo Tecnológico, Innovación y Transferencia financiado por la Junta de Extremadura, tiene como objetivo general el diseño y desarrollo de cursos de inglés para fines ocupacionales en los sectores de Comercio y Turístico/Hotelero, en soporte web/multimedia para acreditación lingüística siguiendo el marco europeo de referencia. Para alcanzarlo, canalizamos nuestra investigación a través de estos objetivos: analizar el contexto y necesidades de formación en inglés para fines ocupacionales en la Comunidad Extremeña; verificar y validar el componente léxico incluido en los cursos mediante el uso de corpora; diseñar cursos en lengua inglesa para fines ocupacionales en entorno Web/Multimedia para certificación de nivel en los sectores señalados (A1 y A2), y; analizar la diseminación y valoración de los cursos por parte de instituciones encargadas de su explotación. ; We live in a society characterised by a competitive edge and the search for professional expertise, thus converting learning into a way of developing knowledge and competences throughout one's lifetime. With the advent and expansion of ICTs and distance learning, methods are no longer restricted to formal limited perspectives, but rather learners are able to acquire knowledge and competencies at their own pace, with flexibility, assuming more responsibility for the acquisition process. Furthermore, mobility and equivalency policies upheld by the European Union make the need for promoting education to reach optimum performance and obtaining competency certification, so that recognition throughout the EU can become a reality. Bearing this in mind, and based on national and European policy guidelines, this dissertation, supported by a project of Technological Development, Transfer and Innovation financed by Junta de Extremadura, has the general objective of designing and implementing English for occupational purposes courses in Commerce and Tourism, in both web and multimedia formats to recognize linguistic competence according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. To achieve it, we've directed our research through the following objectives: analyzing the context and linguistic needs in English for occupational purposes in the Extremaduran province; verifying and validating the lexis included in the courses by using corpora; designing English for occupational purposes courses in two formats (web/multimedia) to achieve linguistic level competence recognition and certification in the before mentioned sectors (A1 and A2), and; analyzing course dissemination and assessment by institutions in charge of their exploitation.

Maybe not genocide, almostcertainly a war crime. I have been reluctant to call what Israel is doing in Gaza genocide.  I am not an international lawyer so my hesitance is less about the fine points of international law and more about how fraught the word is--that it is a very inflammatory accusation, that it turns people's minds off, that it ends conversations.  It is pretty much the worst thing you can accuse someone of doing, especially an Israeli given the history of the Jews.  It also raises in some people's minds a false equivalency between this event or that event and the Holocaust.  For the legal beagles, the question is of intent--is the aim to kill in part (the in part thing is important) or entirely a group of people because of their race, religion, language, or some other ethnic marker.*  For an excellent discussion of much of this, see Page Fortna's op-ed.And then I got into a conversation with a family member about ethnic cleansing versus genocide.  I am far more confident that what is happening in Gaza is ethnic cleansing.  We have had a variety of statements from Israeli officials referring to this as a/the nabka--a repeat of something that had long been denied--that the new Israelis expelled the Palestinians from contested territories in 1948.  Reports that Netanyahu has been looking for other places to settle the Palestinians are very disturbing. The level of violence and its targeting, as this WP analysis illustrates only too clearly, is suggestive.  Israel has more done more damage to civilians and civilian infrastructure in a couple of months than other contemporary campaigns and it is not close. Remember, the 21k civilian casualties in Gaza is almost certainly an undercount that will get worse as the destruction of the health care system and the shortages of food and water kick in.Israel and its fans will claim that they need to eradicate Hamas because it has genocidal intent.  I sympathize with that, but genocide is partly about power.  One cannot engage in mass killing unless one has the powers of a state or something close to it.  So, in the genocide conversation, one can argue that one side might have intent, but it is the other side that has the ability to engage in large scale destruction and is doing so.  Hamas may present a threat to engage in genocide, but it is Israel that is actually killing large numbers of people, mostly civilians including many, many children.I need to mention one dynamic here: conflating all Palestinians with Hamas and arguing Hamas needs to be eradicated leads to the conclusion, intentionally or not, implicit or explicit, that to destroy Hamas, one needs to eliminate the Palestinians.  Which leads to the biq question:Is the intent of Israeli leaders to eliminate all Palestinians?  Just those living in Gaza? Not so clear, so one could argue it is not genocide.  But that is really a quibble.  Israel is forcing Gazans to move south, and so-called safe zones are not so safe (which reminds me of Bosnia).  Israels and its supporters can argue about genocide/not genocide, and maybe that is a conversation that could be more comfortable than addressing the contemporary situation--Israel is killing large numbers of innocents out of revenge, rage, and/or a misconception that hitting much, much harder will ultimately lead to deterrence.  I included the bluesky post because it illustrates something very, very powerful--that Israel is engaged in a variety of horrific tactics and no strategy (if Israel had one) could justify it.  Attacking hospitals and refugee camps is simply wrong--it is immoral and it is also bad strategy.  Netanyahu recently said he was seeking to destroy Hamas,** demilitarize
Gaza, and deradicalize the Palestinians.  This campaign may be
temporarily successful at the second, but it will not destroy Hamas, and
it will do the opposite of deradicalizing the Palestinians.  I remarked that when Israel had hit the 20,000 casualty figure, was that
disproportionate enough, given that something less than 2,000 Israelis
died on or after October 7th? It is quite clear that Israel has violated
international humanitarian law repeatedly and intentionally.  I get that Israelis think international relations is gamed against them--all the UN votes by countries that have deplorable human rights records, etc.  That international law is less important than survival, but some of this is a self-fulfilling prophecy--that Israel burned whatever goodwill it received in the aftermath of October 7th by engaging in a campaign of revenge and collective punishment. One of thing that has been so disturbing is the realization that there are two meanings to Never Again--never again will Jews be victims or never again will we let mass killings take place.  It is clear now that Israeli leaders and their supporters believe that Never Again means that Jews will never be victims again, even if it means victimizing others.  The lesson I thought I had learned growing up was that Never Again meant fighting against oppression, persecution, victimization, regardless of the targeted group.  I can't help but think that all of this is a betrayal of what we were supposed to learn from the Holocaust.All of this is awful.  Hamas is awful, Netanyahu is awful, terrorism is awful, collective punishment is awful.  Whether one wants to call it genocide or not, what Israel is doing is awful--it is counterproductive and it is immoral.  So, from a strategic perspective, Israel's campaign is bad.  From a moral perspective, it is wrong.  Hamas's gross violations of human rights do not justify violating international humanitarian law, even if it were producing a successful outcome, and it is certainly not doing that.Thus, I avoid using genocide as a label for all of this because it is largely superfluous--one can condemn what Israel has been doing without it.  * The term politicide was invented to cover the attempt to kill many/all people of the same party or movement that is ethnically heterogeneous.** None of this justifies Hamas or legitimates what Hamas has done.  The recent story about the systemic gender violence committed by Hamas makes abundantly clear that Hamas is an awful, awful organization.  That they deliberately use their own people as shield not to protect the organization but to raise the hypocrisy costs for Israel--that is, they are deliberately getting Palestinians killed--makes them utterly deplorable.  They should be defeated and destroyed.  But Israel is actually empowering Hamas by walking into the traps it has set.

The EDEN project is an interdisciplinary effort conceived to address key issues that have hampered sound hazard and risk assessment for endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the European Union. It has adopted an approach that fully integrates human, wildlife, exposures, mechanisms and low-dose/mixture evaluations. The project was structured into four interlocking themes focusing on EDC mixture exposures, mechanisms of action and novel endpoints, effects on male reproductive health and the evaluation of low-dose and mixture effects of EDCs. For the first time, the simultaneous occurrence of nearly 150 different EDCs in human and wildlife tissues was measured. These studies revealed that numerous EDCs occur together in humans, yet differences in the levels of individual EDCs in specimens from boys with cryptorchidism and from women suffering from breast cancer and their respective controls did not become apparent. It appears that the likelihood of developing any of the above conditions cannot be attributed to any individual chemical at relevant exposure levels. However, there are signs that simultaneous exposure to many different EDCs may play a cumulative role in these disease processes. This means that efforts to develop biomarkers of cumulative EDC exposure should be re-doubled. In contrast, symptoms of endocrine disruption in fish could be explained largely in terms of exposure to estrogenic chemicals, but the possible role of antiandrogenic chemicals in disrupting sexual development in fish requires urgent attention. Fish caught in certain Dutch rivers exceeded the EU permissible levels for polychlorinated dioxins and furans. Considerable progress has been made in establishing relevant modes of action of EDCs and in assessing new endpoints. The screening for EDCs, with its focus on steroid receptor interactions, has not kept up with the progress made in understanding rapid cellular signalling events that occur in the wake of receptor activation. In the interest of avoiding overlooking endocrine active agents it is necessary to expand screening tools to capture rapid signalling events. Substantial progress has been also achieved in characterising the role of the aromatase system in fish as a target of EDCs and the consequences of steroid synthesis disruption on sexual differentiation, reproduction as well as non-reproductive processes such as neurodifferentiation. Extensive investigations of the role of certain phthalates in disrupting male sexual development have revealed delays in germ cell differentiation and other molecular effects as key events underlying the induction of the testicular dysgenesis syndrome. The role of the InsL3 protein in promoting male sexual development proved to be more complex than thought previously. Although the development and validation of an assay for the measurement of InsL3 blood levels was successful, the differences in blood InsL3 levels in normal and cryptorchid boys were too small to exploit InsL3 as a biomarker indicative of disruption of testis descent. The hypothalamic pituitary unit proved to be exquisitely sensitive to the effects of several EDCs, and the effects may account for precocious sexual development observed after early EDC exposure. EDEN has advanced the study of endocrine disruption in fish with activities including the development of microarrays for assessing endocrine disruption in zebrafish and establishing sensitive screening tools for endocrine disruption in fish. The development of a transgenic fish model for the detection of EDC effects proved to be technically too demanding to be completed in time, but efforts continue to complete this project after conclusion of EDEN. An in vivo model in fish (the three-spined stickleback) for the detection of antiandrogenic EDC was developed as a complement to the Hershberger assay. Male reproductive health in Denmark and Finland showed a worrying declining trend. For the first time, it could be established that the same is true for young men in Germany. It is of concern that semen quality among young Germans is similar to the values found in young Danes, a group previously thought to show the lowest semen quality in Europe. Foetal exposure to smoking has been identified as one reason for these effects. Observations of a declining total natural conception rate among the young Danish cohorts imply that the current poor semen quality has an impact on the population fertility in the future – a situation which will be difficult to reverse in the short term. The current and projected widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies may be a sign of such an emerging public health problem which also adds to the load of medical costs in young population. It is of vital importance to continue surveillance of semen quality and all efforts should be made to identify the factors that may cause harm in order to prevent further deterioration. Extensive low-dose studies with EDCs have shown that the conventional estimation of no-observed-adverse-effect-levels (NOAEL), with their reliance on hypothesis testing methods is inadequate for capturing low-dose effects of EDCs. Whenever possible, regression-based approaches with benchmark dose limits should replace NOAEL as the basis for establishing acceptable human exposure levels. A framework was developed to combine the strengths of both methodologies by making considerations of statistical detection limits and statistical power the starting point of testing procedures. Implementation of this framework will require a significant change in toxicological testing practice. Determinants of additivity for EDC mixtures have been characterised and are now well understood for combinations of similarly acting EDCs. Experimental studies have produced evidence that EDCs of relatively low potency and at low exposure levels can still work together to produce significant combination effects when they are present in sufficient numbers. The perceived low potency of many EDCs alone is uninformative in anticipating possible risks stemming from these chemicals. Where EDCs act in concert with endogenous hormones, significant additional effects may result under certain circumstances. Uncertainty still exists in relation to the likelihood of synergistic mixture effects, and concerted efforts should be made to fill this gap. Another source of uncertainty that will hamper sound EDC mixture risk assessment is incomplete knowledge about the identity of EDCs, their exposure levels and number. This issue can only be resolved through the development of dedicated exposure assessment strategies that take account of cumulative exposures. Despite these uncertainties, knowledge about determinants and factors that govern the joint action of similarly acting EDCs is now sufficiently advanced to come to pragmatic risk assessment approaches that take mixture effects into consideration. A modus operandi for EDC mixtures was developed which includes the use of dose addition (including the toxic equivalency factor approach) to arrive at a "mixture no-observed-adverse-effect-level" (MNOAEL) for endpoints relevant to endocrine disruption. These are then combined with a safety factor to arrive at estimates of tolerable human exposure. "Data-poor" situations may require estimation of a crude MNOAEL by dividing individual NOAEL of certain prototype chemicals by the anticipated number of relevant similarly acting chemicals. ; European Commission, FP5 "Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources": Contract No. QLK4-CT2002-00603.

In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough. Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Senior Arts/Humanities category. ; In the Margins of Literary and Architectural Discourse: A Comparison of Arabic Commentary in Cervantes's Don Quixote and Moorish Architectural Inscription Pablo Picasso: Don Quixote, August 10, 1955. Internet: Public Domain Alexandra Parent SP 415: Seminar on Don Quixote Professor Stallings-Ward 28 February 2020 1 Introduction The history of the Iberian Peninsula is a rich one, filled with influences from the entire European and Asian continents over time. When we think about Spain, there is one defining factor that distinguishes her from the rest of Europe: the presence of racial, ethnic and religious influence from Africa, and, resulting therefrom, a unique moment in world history: the confluence of three major world religions in one geographical place. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam once flourished side by side in mutual tolerance and economic interdependence in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, known as 'Al-Andalus,' in the High Middle Ages. Tolerance of others who are different, as Maria Rosa Menocal points out, is the underpinning of this unique historical coincidence and the essential component for the development of science, philosophy, medicine, urbanization, and hence trade and commercial prosperity.1 The Jews and Christians of Muslim Andalusia flourished economically and culturally under the Umayyad, whose dynasty (661-750) was transplanted from Damascus to Cordoba by Abd al-Rahman (756- 1031) after a civil war between two rival Caliphates. These three religions borrowed language and architecture from one another leaving traces of their coexistence, not surprisingly, within the architecture and literature of Spain. In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's 1 Menocal, The Ornament of the World. 2 novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best- known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough.2 Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. My essay is divided in three sections. In the first section, I will present a historical overview of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula. In the second section, I present a survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia based on the results of a photographic study of architecture I did while visiting Spain during study abroad. I survey the presence of Muslim architecture found throughout Andalusia, placing particular emphasis on the function of the margin in the design of the walls of the mosque reserved for the calligraphy that features citations of scripture from the Holy Koran. The margin, although small in size compared to the rest of the entire structure of the mosque, is as I will show, actually the most important part of the mosque. In the third section of my essay, I analyze the literary margin treated in the episode of the lost manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote. I will look at 2 Judith Stallings-Ward, Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020, 175. 3 the coexistence of the Christian and Arab writers in Cervantes's Don Quixote. The collaboration between Cervantes and Cide Hamete Benengeli allows Cervantes to establish a metaphor between the architectural margin of the mosque and the literary margin of the manuscript as the place for covertly expressing his esteem for multiculturalism and his condemnation of the expulsion of the Moors by national decree; a ploy he uses to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The play with spatial perspective (margin vs center) and the severance of the manuscript (with the lost section recovered in the market of Toledo) establishes the architectural and narrative metaphor that recalls the physical and cultural coexistence between Muslims and Christians valued by Cervantes. In addition, I examine how Cervantes extends this metaphor to also evoke the rupture of that coexistence through expulsion of the Moors, which Cervantes believed broke the backbone of the country. Part I: Historical Overview of Muslim Presence in the Iberian Peninsula The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula began with one young man named Abd Al- Rahman, the son of the Arab family ruling Damascus in the east—the Umayyads. However, during a civil war, his family was massacred, and his escape left him the sole survivor. He fled through North Africa into Cordoba where he began to establish himself as the Caliph, or ruler.3 After the Visigoth monarchy fell, Muslim control dominated the Iberian Peninsula. From 711 through 1492, Islamic society had a long and profound presence on shaping Spanish culture until the Christian kings unified the country. By 716, almost all of Iberia, with the exception of the far northwest and mountainous regions, was under Muslim control and the province was name 'Al- Andalus'. By naming the country in this manner, it directly opposes the 'Hispania' title that the 3 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. 4 Romans gave the peninsula, foreshadowing the enmity between the religions of Islam and Christianity.4 Abd Al-Rahman sought to recreate his cultural roots here in Iberia. The peninsula was dominated by the Umayyad dynasty, who had no affiliation to the eastern Muslim dynasties at the time, and were met with little to no resistance from the small groups of Christians still living in the peninsula. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the conquering forces came through Northern Africa and thus were also comprised of Berber forces from that region. By 741, there were approximately 12,000 Berber forces, 18,000 Arabs, and 7,000 Syrians entering through the Southern tip of the peninsula. This totaled anywhere from 4,000,000 to 8,000,000 living in the Iberian Peninsula at the time.5 6 Islam and Christianity under Islamic Rule By the mid eighth century, the population of Iberia had grown exponentially and became more diverse both racially and religiously. Although Muslim forces had conquered what remained of the Visigoth territories and established themselves as the dominant, ruling power, a 4 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 91. 5 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 6 Alchetron.com. "Umayyad Conquest of Hispania - Alchetron, the Free Social Encyclopedia," August 18, 2017. https://alchetron.com/Umayyad-conquest-of-Hispania. Figure 1: Depiction of the route of Abd-Al Rahman and the subsequent conquests of the Muslim Empire. From Internet: public domain.6 5 majority of the population living in Iberia was still Christian. This undoubtedly posed issues for the Moorish rulers who practiced Islam. As a result, conversion became a necessity for Christians. It is important to distinguish between the upper and lower class when discussing the notion of conversion. Many Visigoth royalty, nobles, and influential families saw it in their best interest to convert and to do what they could to join the new rulers in an effort to pursue political advantages.7 Yet, the majority of Iberia was home to lower class Hispano-Roman Christians who converted out of survival. Despite this, many of the people in this situation retained their Christian faith while adopting Muslim customs like learning Arabic so as to appease the rulers. The name given to these people are mozárabes, or 'Mozarabs', meaning 'Muslim-like'.8 A Christian writer noted the following about Christians living under Islamic rule in 854: Our Christian young men, with their elegant airs and fluent speech, are showy in their dress and carriage, and are famed for the learning of the gentiles; intoxicated with Arab eloquence they greedily handle, eagerly devour, and zealously discuss the books of the Chaldeans (i.e. Muhammadans), and make them known by praising them with every flourish of rhetoric, knowing nothing of the beauty of the Church's literature, and looking down with contempt on the streams of the Church that flow forth from Paradise ; alas ! The Christians are so ignorant of their own law, the Latins pay so little attention to their own language, that in the whole Christian flock there is hardly one man in a thousand who can write a letter to inquire after a friend's health intelligibly, while you may find a countless rabble of kinds of them who can learnedly roll out the grandiloquent periods of the Chaldean tongue. They can even make poems, every line ending with the same letter, which displays high flights of beauty and more skill in handling metre than the gentiles themselves possess.9 It is evident from this passage that the Christians admired the Arabs for the type of civilization they created. The Mozarabs recognized that the Arabs had something to offer them in terms of literature, character, and even language. This demonstrates that on some level, there was an 7 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 8 Phillips and Phillips. 9 Alvar, Indiculus luminosus; quoted from Arnold, The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith, 137-138. 6 acceptance of Muslim culture and practices which set the foundation for the incorporation of Islamic architectural styles and writing styles to be continued after the Christians' reconquering of Iberia. Christian Kingdoms and "La Reconquista" When the Muslim forces conquered Iberia, they were not able to infiltrate the regions in the north. These regions were not seen as an apparent threat because they were isolated, poor, and not heavily populated, so the Moors did not make a vigilant effort to convert or control these Christians.10 However, the Christian states organized themselves into kingdoms and solidified their control in northern Spain by the mid-twelfth century before moving into Southern Spain during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The progression of the Christian kingdoms' conquests can be seen in Figure 2. 11 At the height of the reconquest, there were seven individual Christian kingdoms within the peninsula: Asturias, Galicia, Aragon, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Valencia. Each of these kingdoms had their own struggles trying to gain territory, power, and recognition. The Kingdom 10 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain, 55. 11 "Reconquista+General.Jpg (1600×914)." Accessed February 19, 2020. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/- ofiGywz891k/TzynBPnsc7I/AAAAAAAAAok/ECNzH3rSp3E/s1600/Reconquista+General.jpg. Figure 2: Timeline of the Christian King's Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Internet: public domain.11 7 of Navarre was largely under the control of the French to the north and did not have much to do with the conquering of other Spanish Christian kingdoms, let alone taking a stance on combating the Arab south. However, not only were the Christian kings working to overthrow the Islamic caliphate and reconquer Iberia from the Muslims, they were all vying for control amongst themselves. In the tenth century, Alfonso III expanded into the regions of Galicia and Leon slowly gaining more territory and strengthening his Christian kingdom to combat the Moors. The kingdoms of Castile and Leon unified in 1085 and then under the kingship of Alfonso VI, they conquered Toledo.12 Toledo is situated where the Moorish Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Leon border each other, so the conquering of Toledo was a push in the right direction for the Christian kings' ultimate goal of expelling the Moors from Spain. In the northeast, Alfonso I of Aragon began consolidating his power and conquered Zaragoza by 1134, and joined with Barcelona in 1137 to form the Kingdom of Aragon. By this point, the Muslim empire was facing many issues in trying to run their territories and were slowly losing their sphere of power in the south. King Fernando III of Castile was able to penetrate Al-Andalus and conquer the Andalusian cities of Cordoba and Seville in the mid-thirteenth century. So, when the two kingdoms of Aragon and Castile prevailed over their Christian counterparts, they were left with only the Emirate of Granada as their last steppingstone to banish Muslim rule from the peninsula. King Fernando II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile married in 1469 and this consolidated the royal authority of Spain.13 In January of 1492, the city of Granada fell to the Spanish forces and this ended the 780 years of Muslim control in the Iberian Peninsula. This was the final act of La Reconquista and the beginning of the age of Los Reyes Católicos or 'The Catholic Kings.' King Ferdinand and Queen 12 Phillips and Phillips, 306. 13 Phillips and Phillips, 116. 8 Isabela ruled into the first few years of the sixteenth century, which is marked as the beginning of the Spanish Inquisition—a judicial institution that was used to combat heresy in Spain. Islam and Christianity under Christian Rule Islam first began to submit to Christian rule during the period when the Christian kingdoms were all building up their states and conquering each other in the eleventh century. When Toledo was captured in 1085, allowing the Muslims to stay was crucial to the economic stability and the intellectual advancement of Christian society.14 With the expulsion of the Moors came the expulsion of their religion and began the institution of Christianity, more specifically Catholicism. The immediate issue that the church saw after the reconquest of Spanish cities was the need to introduce their ecclesiastical structure, so they began to assign bishops to these major cities in addition to creating two new ecclesiastical provinces.15 This rapid organization and dispersion of the Catholic religion in previously Islamic territories was not good news for those Muslims still living in Spain after the reconquest. The Christians could not simply expel the Muslims because in some places they made up the majority of the population and were an integral part of the economy for the country.16 Muslims who continued to live under Christian ruler adopted the name mudéjares or 'mudejars' in English. This name is derived from the Arabic word mudajan meaning 'permitted to remain' with a colloquial implication of 'tamed or domesticated.'17 Ironically, the same way the minorities were treated under Islamic rule, to include Christians, was now how the Muslims were treated under Christian rule. The Mudejars would practice their religion, law, and customs in addition to being permitted to continue their 14 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 150. 15 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 488. 16 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 151. 17 Watt, 151. 9 craft so long as they paid a tax. It was not uncommon for these minority groups to distinguish themselves by dressing differently and even inhabiting different quarters of town. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a period known as the Mudejar age, it is evident that there is a culture common to both Christians and Muslims, and that coexistence, to the point of assimilation, was possible. However, it is important to note that the Christians, being the dominant power, were selective in what they chose to assimilate. The most evident piece demonstrating assimilation is the artistic productions, both architecturally and literarily. It was obvious that incorporating the Muslims into society was necessary and beneficial, but towards the end of the fifteenth century, economic disparages were becoming obvious and the Mudejars were the wealthier of the two groups. This jealousy and animosity led to a growing prejudice of Mudejars and once Ferdinand and Isabella unified the peninsula, they turned this prejudice into policy. The previous flirtation of religious tolerance was coming to an end, but due to the policy written for the surrender of Granada, many people of Islamic faith were briefly safe in 1492, so these religiously intolerant policies attacked other groups, namely the Jewish factions of the country. This period of brutal intolerance is known as the Inquisition, and it drastically influenced Spanish society for the years to follow, to include Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote of La Mancha. Part II: Survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia Moorish architecture is something that when one sees it, they know it. It is a mixture of oriental and occidental to create a recognizable and unique form of architecture. There are certain staple architectural features that help make this style so well-known and are also the features that other cultures adopt simply because of their beauty. Some of these features include 10 stone parapets with Islamic crenellations, horseshoe windows and doors, towers sometimes evoking a minaret, domes, arches, slender pillars, and many of these features were typically constructed with alternating colors of yellow and red brick and stone.18 The following figures demonstrate these architectural features. 18 Kalmar, "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture," 73. Figure 4 (above): The series of arches and horshoe shaped doors. Taken by Alexandra Parent in the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 5 (below): The classic Islamic crennelations and attention to detail that characterizes all of Islamic architecture. This is also exemplatory of the domes that were utilized in Moorish architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 3: The slender pillars and open courtyards. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 6: The Torre del Oro or Tower of Gold located in Seville, Spain. Exemplifies the use of towers and minarets in Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent in Seville, Spain. April 12, 2018. 11 19 These features are apparent throughout all the everyday buildings within the cities of Al- Andalus, but they also came together to make great, exceptional buildings. One in particular is the Great Mosque in Cordoba. This was built when the religion of Islam was only a century old, so it is renowned as one of the first mosques ever built. This mosque is truly grandeur in architectural style in addition to sheer size. In Islamic faith, it is forbidden to depict Allah, or any religious figure, so the traditional methods of using a painting to inspire religious awe was not possible, thus allowing for architecture to take its place. As seen in Figure 7, the rows of archways are seemingly never ending and absolutely uniform. 20 The architectural margin of the mosque (Fig 8 and Fig 10.D), which Cervantes metaphorizes with the annotation of Dulcinea written on the margin in Don Quixote, refers to the most important part of the mosque: the inscriptions. In the Islamic religion, as aforementioned, worshipping any idols or to depict Allah, Muhammad, or any other important religious figures 20 "The Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba (Spain)." Accessed February 19, 2020. https://www.turismodecordoba.org/the-mosque-cathedral-of-cordoba-spain. Figure 7: The Great Mosque located in Cordoba, Spain. Known for the uniformity and neverending archways and pillars. From Internet: public domain.20 12 through paintings are prohibited. So, the role of the inscriptions becomes the most important and revered part of the mosque much like the depiction of Jesus on the cross is worshipped by Christians. This is because the inscriptions are the holy words of the Koran. The phrase most 21commonly inscribed in these architectural margins are 'only Allah is victorious.' The metaphor Cervantes makes between the architectural and literary margin is developed to a second degree with the handwriting in the margin of the manuscript being Arabic calligraphy. This can be compared to the inscriptions in the architectural margin of the mosques, which are also written in Arabic calligraphy. This type of writing is very distinct from Western modes of writing because the purpose of Arabic calligraphy is "no como un medio utilitario de 21 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 10: Architecture of the Mosque21 (from left to right and top to bottom): A) ataurique B) interlacing decoration C) calligraphy in the margin of the wall with scripture "Only Allah is Victorious". Also shown in Fig 11. D) horseshoe arc E) muqarnas F) half horseshoe arcs G) arc with muqarnas H) column with crowned capital Figure 8 (above): The horsehoe shaped windows and use of alternating colors and very detailed crennelations. The Arabic calligraphy can be seen above the windows. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 9 (above): Fig 8 on a closer scale to better see the calligraphy 13 comunicación entre los hombres sino como un medio sagrado de comunicación entre Dios y los hombres," meaning, it is not like a utilitarian means of communication between humans, but rather a sacred means of communication between God and men.22 This type of calligraphy that Arabs place in the margins of their mosques obviously have religious value and is called caligrafía cúfica or 'Kufic calligraphy' as is shown in Figure 11. 23 The text written in Arabic calligraphy in the margin of the wall of the mosque is epigrafía. It is present in all mosques and throughout the royal palace known as La Alhambra in Granada. As Fernando Aznar explains, "El texto tiene gran importancia en la decoración. Frases que ensalzan a Alá, o que hace referencia a las bellezas del lugar donde se encuentra, ditando a veces a los constructores de cada zona, se reparten por todos los muros de la residencia real."24This quote says that text has great importance in the decoration of the buildings, and that the phrases that praise Allah, or that refers to the beauties of the place where Allah is located, are all throughout the royal palace. It amplifies the important role that language has in religious symbols. 22 "La Caligrafía Árabe." 23 "Arabic Inscription." Alamy. Accessed February 24, 2020. https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-arabic-inscription- carved-in-a-palace-wall-of-the-alhambra-in-granada-17181753.html. 24 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 11: An example of Kufic calligraphy. The style of the Arabic writing in this image is classically used in Islamic mosques to state the word of Allah from the Holy Koran. This is the architectural margin. From Internet: public domain.23 14 Moorish Architectural Influence Under Christian Rule As the Christians slowly began organizing themselves into kingdoms and conquering Moorish cities in Al-Andalus, two incredibly different cultures met each other. As previously stated, an assimilation of sorts was taking place by the Christians who were adopting Islamic practices and other elements of their culture. Architecture was one of these elements that Christian rulers not only preserved, but in some cases built from bottom up utilizing these inherently Moorish styles. Using the example of the Mosque of Cordoba, it is important to note that in the middle of this Islamic prayer hall, there is something unknown to Islam; a Catholic Cathedral (Fig. 12, 13, and 14). This addition was made in the sixteenth century after the Moors were abolished from Iberia. The rulers who erected this cathedral demolished the central columns in order to make room for the Christian edifices, however, Charles V recognized the gravity of this action and how it drastically changed the ambiance and historical significance of this architectural feat. This cultural vandalism by the Christians is symbolic of the enforcement and imposition of their religion onto a different group of people. This theme is also apparent in the literary works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to include Don Quixote of La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes. Figure 12: Located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Christian, gothic architecture meeting with Islamic architectural styles. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 15 An example of Mudejar work is the Cathedral of Seville, built after the demolition of a mosque, in order to increase the power of the Christian rulers. The architectural style of the building is very European and gothic with high vaulted ceilings and stained glass.25 As a statement piece for Christianity in former Islamic Spain, it is not expected for one to find traces of Moorish architectural influence, but there is. The Cathedral was built by Christian architects, so there was no lack of qualified Christian craftsmen, however there are qualities inherently Moorish that make its way into this grand architectural achievement. As depicted in Figure 15, the high altar in the Cathedral is adorned in so much detail that it mimics the Moorish tendency to not leave any blank space. The incessant ornamental decoration style that was a part of Islamic Spain bled into and permeated traditional Christian and European styles of architecture making its way into the very soul of Christian craftsmanship. Although the Christian Spanish rulers 25 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. Figure 13 (right): Christian altar located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 14 (left): Example of Christianity inserting itself into Muslim architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 16 erected this cathedral as a statement to assert their religious dominance, the Moorish aesthetic had already made its way into the minds of the architects of that era. In addition to this, the minaret attached to the Cathedral of Seville, La Giralda (Figure 16), is evidence of this as well. The construction of this minaret concluded in 1568 and is the twin tower to the city of Marrakech. Having begun construction in 1184, La Giralda is host to the visible mixing of Moorish and Christian culture. Through the stonework, inscriptions, and different styles used, La Giralda is evidence of this assimilation of cultural and architectural practices. 26 Perhaps the most notable architectural feat in regard to Moorish influence on Christianity is seen in the Real Alcázar, or Royal Alcazar. At first glance, it is a very distinct Moorish-looking building in terms of architecture; it contains the classic Moorish archways, courtyards, crenellations and pillars (Fig 17 and 18), so it would be reasonable to conclude that it was 26 "Cathedral of Seville. Aerial View." Accessed February 24, 2020. https://seebybike.com/blog/must-see-cathedral-and- alcazar-of-seville/cathedral-of-seville-aerial-view/. Figure 15 (right): The altar located inside the Cathedral of Seville. Known for it's incredulous detail and extravagant style that is suspected to be a result of lingering Moorish influences. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 16 (left): An aerial view of the Cathedral of Seville. It includes many influences of Morrish architecture to include the large tower known as La Giralda, the minarets all over the building, and the many domes that make up the cathedral. From Internet: public domain.26 17 constructed under Islamic rule. However, Christian king Peter of Castile, also known as Peter the Cruel, commissioned the Alcazar as his royal palace in the fourteenth century. He made the Alcazar identical to the architectural stylings of the Spanish Middle Ages. So, the question arises as to why a Christian ruler would deliberately choose Islamic decoration? The answer is that it comes down to power. By appropriating the Islamic art and traditional expressions, the Christian ruler projects a sort of authority over the minority subjects.27 The Moorish expressions of wealth and power are understood differently than traditional Europeans, so by creating something that the Muslim population would recognize as powerful, Peter the Cruel wielded a sort of power over the Mudejars. 27 Fernández, "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Figure 17 (left): The courtyard of the Royal Alcazar. Despite being built by a Christian king, it has many, if not completely full of, influences from Islamic architecture. Note, the pillars, the archways, the courtyard, the crennelations. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 18 (right): The Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. This wall has both Christian and Islamic influences. Note the differences between the lower floor and the second floor of the archways. The bottom is much more functional and plainer, like traditional Christian architecture whereas the top portions are much more detailed and colorful such as depicted by Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 18 Part III: The Literary Margin Treated in the Episode of the Lost Manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote When reading Don Quixote, the reader is frequently taken off the main narrative path involving the adventures of the main characters, the knight and his squire Sancho Panza, and led down secondary narratives involving encounters with characters who interrupt the main narration with tales of their own stories of love, captivity, and triumph. The complexity of the narrative shows the novel to be an amalgam of many different short novels, much like the way of the river Amazon, which is fed by many smaller rivers, at the heart of which is Cervantes's parody of books of chivalry. Nevertheless, the one unchanging constant is the way the novel opens a window onto the life and times of the man who wrote it. Cervantes's novel reflects his lived experience rooted in multicultural society whose heterogeneity was the source of Spain's economic and agricultural well-being. Cervantes saw the well-being of his country destroyed by the Hapsburg dynasty's religious intolerance and persecution of minorities who did not convert from their Jewish or Muslim faith. Cervantes himself was of Jewish ancestry. His father was a surgeon, a vocation known to be practiced by Jews. Cryptic references to his Jewish ancestry appear in the portada, or cover page of this novel. For example, the phrase from the book of Job—after darkness light is hoped for—and references to their inability to worship on the Sabbath appear in the first chapter of the novel; a day when the Jewish population must be in duelos and quebrantos, or 'pain and suffering'. While a student, Cervantes was arrested and ordered to have his right hand cut off for allegedly shooting a man who had insulted his sisters. Cervantes escaped punishment by fleeing to Italy from where he joined the Holy League (an alliance among the Vatican, France, and Spain) in the Battle of Lepanto, a major battle against the Turks in the waters of the 19 Mediterranean, during which Cervantes lost the use of his left hand. After his distinguished military service in this major victory against the Turks, Cervantes was taken captive and held prisoner for five years in Algeria. His profound understanding of the Islamic world of the Maghreb, as the northern region of Africa is known, is reflected throughout Don Quixote. Upon return to Spain, he obtained work as a tax collector tasked with gathering funds throughout Andalusia for the construction of the Spanish Armada. His detailed knowledge of the geography and customs of Southern Spain is reflected throughout the novel as well. Cervantes's experiences from his military expedition against the Turks, his years in captivity in northern Africa, his travels through Andalusia, and his Jewish ancestry can be added as another factor that forged the broad multicultural perspectivism formed in his novel. As a student, Cervantes was taught by Lope de Hoyos, a known follower of the Dutch humanist philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus criticized the empty ritual of the Catholic Church as well as its intolerance for Christians, especially followers of Martin Luther, who sought an unmediated religious relationship with God; one that did not require mediation by a Catholic priest. The teachings of Erasmus, an intellect who denounced the hypocrisy of the Catholic Church and its persecution of minorities and different versions of Christianity, are embraced by Cervantes and find expression in a covert manner in Don Quixote (II: 22-23).28 The episode of the lost manuscript (Volume I:8-9) reflects the perspective of multiculturalism and diversity Cervantes gained from the life experiences outlined above. Chapter eight is first and foremost about Don Quixotes's iconic battle with the windmills, the most well-known episode of the novel. Don Quixote's illusion leads him to believe that the windmills were originally giants that have been transformed into windmills by his enemy, the 28 Judith Stallings-Ward, "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." 20 wizard Freston, to cheat Don Quixote from a victory in battle against them. The deception of the knight conveys Cervantes's use of humorous parody to denounce the books of chivalry whose fantasy version of reality has brainwashed Don Quixote. A subsequent adventure in this chapter reveals Don Quixote has another lapse of reason. He believes that a Basque woman travelling to Seville, preceded by two Benedictine friars who are not in her party, and surrounded by her own men on horseback, is a princess being kidnapped. Upon observing once again his master's mind in the grip of delusion, Don Quixote's squire Sancho Panza replies, "This will be worse than the windmills."29 This foreshadows the battle that Don Quixote will ultimately have with the Basque. At the end of Chapter eight, we are left with both men having their swords unsheathed and raised at each other, but then the narration of the story abruptly stops. The narrator, a literary form of Cervantes inserted into the story by the real historical Cervantes, begins to speak directly to the reader as if in an informal conversation with them to convey that the end of the scene and the rest of the history are missing.30 This narrative style continues into Part II, chapter nine when the narrator begins a search for the missing manuscript. In this chapter we are brought to Toledo and the narrator brings the reader through the Alcaná market. The narrator Cervantes tells the story of his journey to find the manuscript in the market and how he comes across a young boy trying to sell him some notebooks, old torn papers, and other small commodities. Cervantes is inclined to pick up a certain book that the boy has and realizes the script on the front is in Arabic. Since he could not read Arabic, he finds a Morisco aljamiado, so called for their ability to speak both Arabic and Spanish, who can help translate the manuscript. It was not difficult to find this person and soon Cervantes flipped to the middle of the book and asked the Morisco to translate. Cervantes points out the availability of translators of 29 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 62. 30 Cervantes, 65. 21 all classic languages in the market, thus underscoring the advantage of multicultural spaces such as the markets of Spain. As the translator--the Morisco aljamiado--began to read the page, he laughed at something written in the margin: it stated, "'This Dulcinea of Toboso, referred to so often in this history, they say had the best hand for salting pork of any woman in La Mancha.'"31 The narrator immediately knew that this was the missing manuscript he was looking for, so he had the Morisco read even more. It is then that the reader learns the novel was originally written in Arabic by the Arab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli. Narrator Cervantes commissions the Morisco to translate the entire novel, paying him in "two arrobas of raisins, and two fanegas of wheat," so that the story of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza can be continued.32 This process of translation of the original manuscript from Arabic to Spanish is now the source of the narrator Cervantes's history of Don Quixote, and it is a collaboration between the literary Christian "Cervantes" and the original Arabic author Cide Hamete Benengeli, delivered through the translator. The reader is now being told the story through someone else's eyes and mind. The novel descends into a rabbit hole of authorship in which, ironically, the new lens is a Morisco translator. This metaphor demonstrates that true Spanish history is written as a compilation between Christianity and Islam, not one or the other, thus demonstrating historical Cervantes's disdain and disapproval of the expulsion of the Moors. Rather, Cervantes displays the importance and necessity of diversity and multiculturalism. The true author, historical Cervantes, also establishes a metaphor between the literary margin, in which the literary Cervantes discovered the novel was indeed Don Quixote, and the architectural margins of the mosque. Cervantes does this in a very clever and implicit manner, 31 Cervantes, 67. 32 Cervantes, 68. 22 otherwise he would be severely censored. Through this implied metaphor of architectural and literary margins, Cervantes is able to write a novel that has commentary to covertly express his condemnation of the Moors and announce his glorification of multiculturalism. The focus of attention placed on the margin of the manuscript wherein Arabic commentary is written calls to mind the architectural margin of the mezquita, or 'mosque', in which the Arabic calligraphy is written. The comparison between the textual margin of Cervantes's manuscript and architectural margin of the walls of the mosque would be easy for the readers of Cervantes's day to recognize given the prevalence of Muslim architecture throughout Spain, as my survey in the first part of this essay shows. Furthermore, the handwriting in Arabic by the Arab historian easily calls to mind the calligraphy used for citations from the Koran. The Arabic commentary—associated with the authoritative word of the Koran placed in the margin of the walls of the mosque—second guesses the religious purity of Dulcinea, the object of courtly worship by the Christian knight. When the translator points out the Arab historian's commentary in the margin of the manuscript, that 'the Lady Dulcinea has the best hand at salting pork,' he taints her purity by placing her in contact with a food source that is considered polluted for Muslims. The comment casts Dulcinea in tainted light. The Arab historian's questioning of religious purity occurs in tandem with the questioning of the authority or authorship of the history of Don Quixote. The literary Cervantes is a Christian writer, but he is not the true author of the original manuscript; the Arab historian Cide Hamete claims true authorship; and Dulcinea is not the pillar of religious purity she is perceived to be. The play with the double meaning of the margin (textual vs architectural) occurs with the play of spatial perspective between margin vs center. The reader sees through Cervantes's use of the metaphor as a multicultural perspective that questions the absolute status of Christian 23 authority and Christian purity. The play with meaning and perspective in Cervantes's treatment of the margin in chapters eight and nine may be taken to one final and third level of development. The margin, shown to be central in connection with the ruptured or severed manuscript, is a covert expression for Cervantes's esteem for the contributions to Spanish society by the Muslim population of his country and his condemnation for their expulsion by governmental degree from Spain. In the eyes of Cervantes, this broke of the backbone of Spain's culture and economy since the Arab population made up an incredibly large portion of the Iberian Peninsula. Cervantes accomplishes this by, not only changing chapters, but beginning a whole new section of the novel. Part I concludes with chapter eight and the pending battle between Don Quixote and the Basque, then Part II begins with the narrator Cervantes informing the reader of his journey to find the rest of the novel. Being wary of the censorship that plagued others during the Inquisition, Cervantes chose this metaphorical approach to convey his true sentiments about the situation of Spain at this moment in history. This rupture in Don Quixote's history is reflective of the moment in Spain's history where law has been decreed to banish something so inherent to the nation itself: the Moorish people. By placing these episodes side by side, Cervantes invites the reader to compare the delusion of the Hapsburg imperial vision and its expulsion of the Moors with the episode of the windmills. The blindness of Spain's government seems even more laughable than Don Quixote's own misguided attack on the windmills. Cervantes's play with the margin allows him to express his views on multiculturalism in an indirect manner that allowed him to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The Inquisition was not savvy enough to realize that this profound division between Part I and II is symbolic of the division of tolerant Spain into an intolerant Spain. After Cervantes 24 died, the Inquisition did censor and expurgate a passage that was considered too directly stated. In chapter thirteen, Don Quixote is once again declaring his servitude and attesting to the beauty of his beloved Dulcinea of Toboso. In his description to Vivaldo, he uses a Petrarchan metaphor, a very classical and renaissance style of poetry, to describe Dulcinea. Don Quixote states (Volume I:13): "Her tresses are gold, her forehead Elysian fields, her eyebrows the arches of heaven, her eyes suns, her cheeks roses, her lips coral, her teeth pearls, her necklace alabaster, her bosom marble, her hands ivory, her skin white as snow, and the parts that modesty hides from human eyes are such, or so I believed and understand, that the most discerning consideration can only praise them but not compare them."33 While eloquently put, Cervantes is nonetheless making references to the private areas of Dulcinea's body and thus was censored by the Catholic Church in 1624 after his death; they dared not censor him before since his novel made him so beloved by the people. Cervantes was too clever to have to follow the rules. His questioning of authority was apparent from the very opening words of the novel when he writes, "[s]omewhere in La Mancha, in a place whose name I do not care to remember…"34 Cervantes conveys how exact places and names are all arbitrary and are not relevant to the novel. This echoes Cervantes own questioning of authority and Spain's religious Inquisition going on that persecuted the Moors and other minorities alike. 33 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 91. 34 Cervantes, 19. 25 Conclusion The religious tolerance and interdependence between minorities of Al-Andalus, which are reflected through the architecture of Andalusia and also underscored in Cervantes's Don Quixote through the metaphorical treatment of the literary margin in the episode of the lost manuscript, seems evermore elusive today. In light of the divisiveness and racism rampant in our society that mars efforts toward multiculturalism and diversity, such as those undertaken at universities like Norwich, tolerance seems like the impossible dream that is the object of the quest of the chivalrous knight Don Quixote. 26 Bibliography Arnold, Thomas Walker. The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. New York: C. Scribner's sons, 1913. http://archive.org/details/preachingofisla00arno. Aznar, Fernando. La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos Declared of World Interest by Unescco. Mariarsa:1985. BBC Worldwide Learning. The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711- 1492. Documentary Film. The Art of Spain: From the Moors to Modernism, 2009. https://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=39408. Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. Translated by Edith Grossman. 5 edition. New York: Harper Collins, 2003. Fernández, Luis. La Historia de España en 100 preguntas. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Nowtilus, 2019. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/reader.action?docID=5703133&ppg=1. Fernández, María Luisa. "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Saudi Aramco World, The Legacy of Al-Andalus, 44, no. 1 (February 1993): 36–41. Harsolia, Khadija Mohiuddin. "Captivity, Confinement and Resistance in Mudejar and Morisco Literature." University of California, Riverside, 2016. WorldCat.org. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1849025713?accountid=14521. Kalmar, Ivan Davidson. "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture." Jewish Social Studies 7, no. 3 (2001): 68–100. "La Caligrafía Árabe." Accessed February 21, 2020. http://www.arabespanol.org/cultura/caligrafia.htm. Maíz Chacón, Jorge. Breve historia de los reinos ibéricos. 1a. edición. Quintaesencia ; 6. Barcelona: Ariel, 2013. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy1313/2013369841- b.html. Menocal, Maria Rosa. The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Reprint edition. Boston: Back Bay Books, 2003. O'Callaghan, Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain. 1st ed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1975. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/detail.action?docID=3138541. 27 Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://library.norwich.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true &db=e000xna&AN=490553&scope=site. Raquejo, Tonia. "The 'Arab Cathedrals': Moorish Architecture as Seen by British Travellers." The Burlington Magazine 128, no. 1001 (1986): 555–63. Sheren, Ila Nicole. "Transcultured Architecture: Mudéjar's Epic Journey Reinterpreted." Contemporaneity: Historical Presence in Visual Culture 1 (June 1, 2011): 137–51. https://doi.org/10.5195/contemp.2011.5. Stallings-Ward, Judith. "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." Comparative Literature Studies. 43.4 (2006) special issue: Don Quixote and 400 Years of World Literature. 441-65. Stallings-Ward, Judith. Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020. Urquízar-Herrera, Antonio. Admiration and Awe: Morisco Buildings and Identity Negotiations in Early Modern Spanish Historiography. 1 online resource (289 pages) vols. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2017. http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4850548. Watt, W. Montgomery. A History of Islamic Spain. Islamic Surveys; 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1977.