Suchergebnisse

The word "asbestos", that means unquenchable, is used for a group of silicate minerals occurring with a fibrous habit, belonging to the serpentine and amphibole families. According to the Italian Legislation (D.L. 15/08/91) the six fibrous silicates defined as asbestos are: chrysotile, amosite and crocidolite (fibrous varieties of grunerite and riebeckite, respectively), anthophyllite, tremolite and actinolite. These minerals are made up of incombustible, chemically stable, inert, phono-absorbing, flexible and tensile fibers. The chemical and physical properties of asbestos made it, in past decades, one of the most important inorganic materials for industrial uses and technological applications. At the end of the 1950s the correlation between exposure to asbestos and development of pleural mesothelioma and bronchogenic carcinoma was established. Since the last decades, asbestos health hazard is considered not only an occupational problem, but also a potential environmental hazard. As a consequence, in most western countries, the current legislation imposed severe laws to regulate the use of potentially asbestos-bearing rocks and soils. The pathogenicity of the asbestos fibers has been considered to be due to one or more of the following factors: i) the fibrous habit (a mineral is defined as fibrous when its length/diameter ratio is greater than 3:1); ii) chemical-mineralogical factors (fiber type, chemical composition, surface reactivity); iii) the biopersistence. These factors are interconnected: in fact, the fiber dimensions influence its surface reactivity, fiber composition controls its biopersistence and biopersistence is associated to the fiber habit. Though the six asbestos minerals are considered as equally dangerous for the human health, recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that crocidolite, amosite and tremolite are clearly more dangerous than chrysotile. In the Western Alps fibrous minerals mainly occur in the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites. This work is part of a multidisciplinary project entitled "Asbestos hazard in Western Alps", goaled at studing occurrence, environmental hazard and possible inactivation of fibrous minerals in the Western Alps. This project, financially supported by the Assessorato all'Ambiente of Regione Piemonte, was coordinated by the Interdepartmental Centre "G. Scansetti" (Università di Torino). The open questions from which this work was born are: i) Which fibrous minerals occur in the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys? ii) Where these minerals occur? Which are the genetic conditions that influence their growth? iii) In which percentage the fibrous minerals are present in the serpentinite rocks? On the basis of these open questions, the Thesis has been organized in 6 chapter. •Chapter 1 – The six minerals defined as asbestos are presented; their potential patogenicity and the deseases correlated to the asbestos exposure are briefly discussed. •Chapter 2 – The geological setting of the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites is briefly discussed, with special attention to the metamorphic evolution of the Ultramafic Lanzo Massif and of the Internal/External Piemonte Zone. •Chapter 3 – The topic of this chapter is the mineralogical and chemical characterization of the fibrous minerals occurring in the analysed serpentinites, i.e. serpentine minerals (chrysotile and antigorite), balangeroite, diopside, tremolite and carlosturanite. For each fibrous mineral, the crystallographic structure and optical properties are reported, and the chemical composition and vibrational properties (FTIR and Μ-Raman spectroscopy) are discussed in detail. From these data it is evident that a rapid and unambiguous identification of fibrous minerals requires the combined use of several analytical techniques, particularly the optical and electron microscopy and the micro-Raman spectroscopy. •Chapter 4 – This chapter is dedicated to the petrological study of the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys, which has been carried out mainly by means of optical and electron microscopy, and Μ-Raman spectroscopy. In the first part of the chapter, the serpentinization processes are briefly discussed and the serpentinite microstructures and the metamorphic paragenesis are described in detail. The second part of the chapter is dealing with the metamorphic veins occurring in the serpentinites. The mechanisms by which a fibrous vein may form are firstly considered; the five generations of metamorphic veins recognised in the serpentinites are, then, described in detail and some hypotheses for their genetic conditions are suggested. The metamorphic P-T path estimated for the serpentinites on the ground of microstructural observations and thermobarometric data, is discussed in the light of Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) and P-T diagrams, calculated with the pseudosection approach. •Chapter 5 - This chapter concerns the problem of the quantitative determination of the fibrous minerals in the rocks. In the first part, the traditional techniques used for the quantitative estimate of asbestos in solid materials are presented, i.e. fiber count at SEM or TEM, X-ray powder diffraction and IR spectroscopy. In the second part of the chapter two new methods are proposed. The first one is based on the use of FTIR spectroscopy for the quantitative asbestos estimate in a chrysotile + antigorite mixtures. The second is based on the image analysis of SEM images combined with micro-Raman spectroscopy. This last technique gives both quantitative and morphological informations. •Chapter 6 – In the final chapter, the main results obtained, the still open questions, and the future perspectives are summarized and briefly discussed. ; Le mot "asbeste" (incombustible) est utilisé pour indiquer un groupe de silicate à habitus fibreux, appartenant aux familles des serpentines et des amphiboles. Selon la législation italienne (D.L. 15/08/91), les six silicates fibreux définis comme asbeste sont: le chrysotile, l'amosite et la crocidolite (variétés fibreuses de la grunérite et de la riébeckite), l'anthophyllite, la trémolite et l'actinolite. Ces minéraux sont constitués de fibres incombustibles, chimiquement stables, inertes et flexibles. A cause de leurs propriétés chimiques et physiques, les asbestes ont été considérés comme les plus importants matériaux inorganiques en vue d'applications industrielles et technologiques. À la fin des années 50, on découvrit la corrélation entre l'exposition à l'asbeste et le développement du mésotéliome pleural et du carcinome. Depuis quelques décennies, le risque asbeste n'est pas considéré comme seulement confiné au cadre professionnel, mais également en tant que risque potentiel pour l'environnement. Par conséquent, l'actuelle législation impose des lois sévères pour la réglementation de l'utilisation des roches et des sols potentiellement porteurs d'asbestes. Le caractère pathogène des fibres d'asbeste est associé aux facteurs suivants : i) faciès fibreux (un minéral est défini comme fibreux si le rapport longueur/diamètre est plus grand de 3 :1) ; ii) facteurs chimiques et minéralogiques (types de fibre, composition chimique, réactivité de surface) ; iii) la bio persistance. Ces facteurs sont interconnectés car les dimensions de la fibre influencent sa réactivité superficielle, la composition de la fibre contrôle sa bio persistance et la bio persistance est aussi associée au faciès de la fibre. Dans les Alpes Occidentales, les minéraux fibreux sont concentrés dans la Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrès à méta-ophiolites. Cette étude fait partie d'une projet multidisciplinaire intitulé « Le risque asbeste dans les Alpes Occidentales », visé à l'étude de la présence, du risque et de la possible inactivation des minéraux fibreux dans les Alpes Occidentales. Ce projet, financé par l'Assessorato all'Ambiente de la Regione Piemonte, a été coordonné par le Centro Interdipartimentale « G. Scansetti » de l'Université de Torino. Cette étude se fonde sur les questions suivantes : i) Quels sont les minéraux fibreux dans les vallées de Susa et de Lanzo ? ii) Où ces minéraux sont-ils concentrés ? Quelles conditions génétiques contrôlent leur croissance ? iii) Quel est le pourcentage les minéraux fibreux dans les serpentines? Sur la base de ces questions, cette thèse a été organisée en six chapitres : •Chapitre 1 – Les six minéraux fibreux définis comme asbeste sont présentés et leur potentiel pathogène est discuté. •Chapitre 2 – La Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrés à méta-ophiolites est décrite brièvement. •Chapitre 3 – Ce chapitre traite de la caractérisation minéralogique et chimique des minéraux fibreux reconnus dans les serpentinites étudiées, c'est-à-dire des minéraux du groupe des serpentines (chrysotile et lizardite), la balangéroïte, le diopside, la trémolite et la carlosturanite. Pour chacun de ces minéraux sont présentées la structure cristallographique, les propriétés optiques, la composition chimique et les propriétés vibrationnelles (Μ-Raman et FTIR). •Chapitre 4 – Ce chapitre traite de l'étude pétrologique des serpentinites des vallées de Susa et de Lanzo, réalisée par microscopie optique et électronique, et spectroscopie Μ-Raman. Dans la première partie, les mécanismes de la serpentinisation sont présentés et les microstructures des serpentinites sont décrits en détail. Dans la deuxième partie, les cinq générations de veines métamorphiques reconnues dans les serpentines sont décrites en détail et des modes de formation sont proposés. La trajectoire P-T estimée pour les serpentinites, sur la base des observations microstructurales et des données thermobarométriques, est discutée à la lumière des diagrammes Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) et P-T, calculés grâce à la technique des pseudosections. •Chapitre 5 – Ce chapitre traite du problème de la détermination quantitative des minéraux fibreux dans les roches. Dans la première partie, les techniques traditionnelles pour la détermination quantitative de l'asbeste dans le matériel solide sont présentées. Dans la deuxième partie, deux nouvelles techniques sont décrites en détail. La première est basée sur la spectroscopie FTIR appliquée à une mélange de antigorite + chrysotile. La deuxième sur l'analyse des images SEM (BSE) associée à la spectroscopie micro-Raman. •Chapitre 6 – Il s'agit du chapitre de conclusion, où sont brièvement discutés les résultats, les questions encore ouvertes et les perspectives futures de ce travail.

The word "asbestos", that means unquenchable, is used for a group of silicate minerals occurring with a fibrous habit, belonging to the serpentine and amphibole families. According to the Italian Legislation (D.L. 15/08/91) the six fibrous silicates defined as asbestos are: chrysotile, amosite and crocidolite (fibrous varieties of grunerite and riebeckite, respectively), anthophyllite, tremolite and actinolite. These minerals are made up of incombustible, chemically stable, inert, phono-absorbing, flexible and tensile fibers. The chemical and physical properties of asbestos made it, in past decades, one of the most important inorganic materials for industrial uses and technological applications. At the end of the 1950s the correlation between exposure to asbestos and development of pleural mesothelioma and bronchogenic carcinoma was established. Since the last decades, asbestos health hazard is considered not only an occupational problem, but also a potential environmental hazard. As a consequence, in most western countries, the current legislation imposed severe laws to regulate the use of potentially asbestos-bearing rocks and soils. The pathogenicity of the asbestos fibers has been considered to be due to one or more of the following factors: i) the fibrous habit (a mineral is defined as fibrous when its length/diameter ratio is greater than 3:1); ii) chemical-mineralogical factors (fiber type, chemical composition, surface reactivity); iii) the biopersistence. These factors are interconnected: in fact, the fiber dimensions influence its surface reactivity, fiber composition controls its biopersistence and biopersistence is associated to the fiber habit. Though the six asbestos minerals are considered as equally dangerous for the human health, recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that crocidolite, amosite and tremolite are clearly more dangerous than chrysotile. In the Western Alps fibrous minerals mainly occur in the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites. This work is part of a multidisciplinary project entitled "Asbestos hazard in Western Alps", goaled at studing occurrence, environmental hazard and possible inactivation of fibrous minerals in the Western Alps. This project, financially supported by the Assessorato all'Ambiente of Regione Piemonte, was coordinated by the Interdepartmental Centre "G. Scansetti" (Università di Torino). The open questions from which this work was born are: i) Which fibrous minerals occur in the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys? ii) Where these minerals occur? Which are the genetic conditions that influence their growth? iii) In which percentage the fibrous minerals are present in the serpentinite rocks? On the basis of these open questions, the Thesis has been organized in 6 chapter. •Chapter 1 – The six minerals defined as asbestos are presented; their potential patogenicity and the deseases correlated to the asbestos exposure are briefly discussed. •Chapter 2 – The geological setting of the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites is briefly discussed, with special attention to the metamorphic evolution of the Ultramafic Lanzo Massif and of the Internal/External Piemonte Zone. •Chapter 3 – The topic of this chapter is the mineralogical and chemical characterization of the fibrous minerals occurring in the analysed serpentinites, i.e. serpentine minerals (chrysotile and antigorite), balangeroite, diopside, tremolite and carlosturanite. For each fibrous mineral, the crystallographic structure and optical properties are reported, and the chemical composition and vibrational properties (FTIR and Μ-Raman spectroscopy) are discussed in detail. From these data it is evident that a rapid and unambiguous identification of fibrous minerals requires the combined use of several analytical techniques, particularly the optical and electron microscopy and the micro-Raman spectroscopy. •Chapter 4 – This chapter is dedicated to the petrological study of the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys, which has been carried out mainly by means of optical and electron microscopy, and Μ-Raman spectroscopy. In the first part of the chapter, the serpentinization processes are briefly discussed and the serpentinite microstructures and the metamorphic paragenesis are described in detail. The second part of the chapter is dealing with the metamorphic veins occurring in the serpentinites. The mechanisms by which a fibrous vein may form are firstly considered; the five generations of metamorphic veins recognised in the serpentinites are, then, described in detail and some hypotheses for their genetic conditions are suggested. The metamorphic P-T path estimated for the serpentinites on the ground of microstructural observations and thermobarometric data, is discussed in the light of Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) and P-T diagrams, calculated with the pseudosection approach. •Chapter 5 - This chapter concerns the problem of the quantitative determination of the fibrous minerals in the rocks. In the first part, the traditional techniques used for the quantitative estimate of asbestos in solid materials are presented, i.e. fiber count at SEM or TEM, X-ray powder diffraction and IR spectroscopy. In the second part of the chapter two new methods are proposed. The first one is based on the use of FTIR spectroscopy for the quantitative asbestos estimate in a chrysotile + antigorite mixtures. The second is based on the image analysis of SEM images combined with micro-Raman spectroscopy. This last technique gives both quantitative and morphological informations. •Chapter 6 – In the final chapter, the main results obtained, the still open questions, and the future perspectives are summarized and briefly discussed. ; Le mot "asbeste" (incombustible) est utilisé pour indiquer un groupe de silicate à habitus fibreux, appartenant aux familles des serpentines et des amphiboles. Selon la législation italienne (D.L. 15/08/91), les six silicates fibreux définis comme asbeste sont: le chrysotile, l'amosite et la crocidolite (variétés fibreuses de la grunérite et de la riébeckite), l'anthophyllite, la trémolite et l'actinolite. Ces minéraux sont constitués de fibres incombustibles, chimiquement stables, inertes et flexibles. A cause de leurs propriétés chimiques et physiques, les asbestes ont été considérés comme les plus importants matériaux inorganiques en vue d'applications industrielles et technologiques. À la fin des années 50, on découvrit la corrélation entre l'exposition à l'asbeste et le développement du mésotéliome pleural et du carcinome. Depuis quelques décennies, le risque asbeste n'est pas considéré comme seulement confiné au cadre professionnel, mais également en tant que risque potentiel pour l'environnement. Par conséquent, l'actuelle législation impose des lois sévères pour la réglementation de l'utilisation des roches et des sols potentiellement porteurs d'asbestes. Le caractère pathogène des fibres d'asbeste est associé aux facteurs suivants : i) faciès fibreux (un minéral est défini comme fibreux si le rapport longueur/diamètre est plus grand de 3 :1) ; ii) facteurs chimiques et minéralogiques (types de fibre, composition chimique, réactivité de surface) ; iii) la bio persistance. Ces facteurs sont interconnectés car les dimensions de la fibre influencent sa réactivité superficielle, la composition de la fibre contrôle sa bio persistance et la bio persistance est aussi associée au faciès de la fibre. Dans les Alpes Occidentales, les minéraux fibreux sont concentrés dans la Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrès à méta-ophiolites. Cette étude fait partie d'une projet multidisciplinaire intitulé « Le risque asbeste dans les Alpes Occidentales », visé à l'étude de la présence, du risque et de la possible inactivation des minéraux fibreux dans les Alpes Occidentales. Ce projet, financé par l'Assessorato all'Ambiente de la Regione Piemonte, a été coordonné par le Centro Interdipartimentale « G. Scansetti » de l'Université de Torino. Cette étude se fonde sur les questions suivantes : i) Quels sont les minéraux fibreux dans les vallées de Susa et de Lanzo ? ii) Où ces minéraux sont-ils concentrés ? Quelles conditions génétiques contrôlent leur croissance ? iii) Quel est le pourcentage les minéraux fibreux dans les serpentines? Sur la base de ces questions, cette thèse a été organisée en six chapitres : •Chapitre 1 – Les six minéraux fibreux définis comme asbeste sont présentés et leur potentiel pathogène est discuté. •Chapitre 2 – La Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrés à méta-ophiolites est décrite brièvement. •Chapitre 3 – Ce chapitre traite de la caractérisation minéralogique et chimique des minéraux fibreux reconnus dans les serpentinites étudiées, c'est-à-dire des minéraux du groupe des serpentines (chrysotile et lizardite), la balangéroïte, le diopside, la trémolite et la carlosturanite. Pour chacun de ces minéraux sont présentées la structure cristallographique, les propriétés optiques, la composition chimique et les propriétés vibrationnelles (Μ-Raman et FTIR). •Chapitre 4 – Ce chapitre traite de l'étude pétrologique des serpentinites des vallées de Susa et de Lanzo, réalisée par microscopie optique et électronique, et spectroscopie Μ-Raman. Dans la première partie, les mécanismes de la serpentinisation sont présentés et les microstructures des serpentinites sont décrits en détail. Dans la deuxième partie, les cinq générations de veines métamorphiques reconnues dans les serpentines sont décrites en détail et des modes de formation sont proposés. La trajectoire P-T estimée pour les serpentinites, sur la base des observations microstructurales et des données thermobarométriques, est discutée à la lumière des diagrammes Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) et P-T, calculés grâce à la technique des pseudosections. •Chapitre 5 – Ce chapitre traite du problème de la détermination quantitative des minéraux fibreux dans les roches. Dans la première partie, les techniques traditionnelles pour la détermination quantitative de l'asbeste dans le matériel solide sont présentées. Dans la deuxième partie, deux nouvelles techniques sont décrites en détail. La première est basée sur la spectroscopie FTIR appliquée à une mélange de antigorite + chrysotile. La deuxième sur l'analyse des images SEM (BSE) associée à la spectroscopie micro-Raman. •Chapitre 6 – Il s'agit du chapitre de conclusion, où sont brièvement discutés les résultats, les questions encore ouvertes et les perspectives futures de ce travail.

OL αυτόχθονες πολιτισμοί, όπως ο αρχαιοελληνικός, συνδέονται άμεσα με το γεωλογικό δυναμικό και το φυσικογεωγραφικό περιβάλλον του ευρύτερου χώρου στον οποίο έχουν αναπτυχθεί, και κυρίως με την εξέλιξη του μετά την τελευταία παγετώδη περίοδο (18.000 ΒΡ) (Before Present, πριν από σήμερα = π.α.σ.). Στο γεωλογικό δυναμικό υπάγονται τα ηφαίστεια, οι σεισμοί, ο ορυκτός πλούτος και το υπόγειο νερό. Στο φυσικογεωγραφικό δυναμικό ενός τόπου εντάσσονται κυρίως το έδαφος, το κλίμα, το ανάγλυφο και η κατανομή ξηράς και θάλασσας. Ο τρίτος παράγοντας είναι το ανθρώπινο δυναμικό και κυρίως η θρησκεία, οι γνώσεις και το πολιτικό σύστημα. Ο ευρύτερος ελλαδικός χώρος, εκεί δηλαδή που αναπτύχθηκε ο προϊστορικός και ιστορικός αρχαιοελληνικός πολιτισμός (Ελλαδικός χώρος, Αιγαίο και παράλια Μικράς Ασίας), από γεωτεκτονική άποψη αποτελείτο Ελληνικό Τόξο και χαρακτηρίζεται από έντονη τεκτονική, σεισμική και ηφαιστειακή δραστηριότητα. Ένας από τους βασικότερους παράγοντες που συνέβαλαν στην ανάπτυξη του Ελληνικού πολιτισμού, είναι το κλίμα και οι μεταβολές του, ιδιαίτερα τα τελευταία 18.000 χρόνια και κυρίως οι επιπτώσεις των μεταβολών αυτών στη διαμόρφωση των ακτογραμμών και γενικά των παράκτιων περιοχών. Το κλίμα είναι γνωστό ότι μεταβάλλεται περιοδικά και ότι τα κυριότερα αίτια αυτής της περιοδικότητας είναι αστρονομικά (θεωρία Milankowitch). Έτσι, κατά το Τεταρτογενές, έχουν παρατηρηθεί διαδοχικές παγετώδεις και μεσοπαγετώδεις περίοδοι, λόγω αυξομείωσης της ηλιακής ακτινοβολίας που δέχεται η Γη. Η τελευταία παγετώδης περίοδος τελειώνει πριν από 18.000 έτη περίπου, επειδή, για τους ίδιους αστρονομικούς λόγους, η μέση θερμοκρασία της Γης άρχισε σχεδόν απότομα να αυξάνεται. Εξαιτίας αυτής της αύξησης, τεράστιες μάζες παγετώνων που είχαν συσσωρευτεί στις ηπείρους άρχισαν να τήκονται, με αποτέλεσμα την απελευθέρωση τεράστιων ποσοτήτων υδάτων, που μέχρι τότε ήταν δεσμευμένο στους παγετώνες, με επακόλουθο την βαθμιαία άνοδο της στάθμης της παγκόσμιας θάλασσας, που γύρω στο 18.000 ΒΡ βρισκόταν περί τα 125 μέτρα χαμηλότερα από σήμερα. Η άνοδος αυτή προκάλεσε βαθμιαία την κατάκλυση πολλών περιοχών που σήμερα αποτελούν τον πυθμένα του Αιγαίου μέχρι ένα βάθος γύρω στα 125 μέτρα, και αυτό συνέβη μέσα σε λίγες χιλιάδες χρόνια, ήτοι μεταξύ του 18.000 και του 6.000 χρόνια πριν από σήμερα περίπου. Ο προϊστορικός άνθρωπος λοιπόν, που κατοικούσε στην ευρύτερη περιοχή του Αιγαίου, ενώ μέχρι πριν 18.000 χρόνιαζούσε για δεκάδες χιλιάδες χρόνια σ' ένα γεωπεριβάλλον δυσμενές μεν, αλλά σχετικά σταθερό, μετά το 18.000 ΒΡ, εξαιτίας της αύξησης της μέσης θερμοκρασίας της ατμόσφαιρας της Γης, γίνεται μάρτυρας κοσμογονικών μεταβολών, ιδιαίτερα όσον αφορά την μεταβολή του παράκτιου τοπίου, αφού χρόνο με το χρόνο κατακλύζονταν, αργά μεν, αλλά σταθερά οι παράκτιες περιοχές, με μεγάλες σχετικά μέσες ταχύτητες, αφού κάτω από ορισμένες συνθήκες πρέπει να ξεπερνούσαν τα 5 εκατοστόμετρα το χρόνο. Εάν μαζί μ' αυτές τις μεταβολές των ακτογραμμών λάβουμε υπόψη και τη σεισμικότητα, την ηφαιστειότητα και τα σύνδρομα φαινόμενα (παλιρροιακά κύματα, απότομες καταβυθίσεις ή ανυψώσεις παράκτιων περιοχών λόγω σεισμών, κατολισθήσεις, καταπτώσεις βράχων κ.α.) το φυσικογεωγραφικό σκηνικό, ιδιαίτερα κατά τη διάρκεια ορισμένων περιόδων, πρέπει να ήταν εφιαλτικό. Την περίοδο αυτή, πρέπει να δημιουργήθηκε η Τρίτη γενιά των θεών που προέρχεται από το ζευγάρωμα της Γαίας, της Μεγάλης Μάνας των πάντων, και του Ουρανού: οι Τιτάνες, οι Εκατόγχειρες, οι Κύκλωπες και οι Γίγαντες, πρέπει να αντιπροσωπεύουν της καταστροφικές δυνάμεις της φύσης, αυτές που τον τρομοκρατούν και του παίρνουν τη Γη κάτω από τα πόδια του. Τι άλλο μπορεί να αντιπροσωπεύουν οι Γίγαντες παρά ηφαίστεια όταν, σύμφωνα με την Ελληνική Μυθολογία, ". έπνεαν πυρ από το στόμα τους.", ".έκραζαν αγριότατα.", ". ακόντιζαν δε στους ουρανούς πέτρες και δέντρα αναμμένα."; Ο παλαιολιθικός άνθρωπος όμως, έχει ανάγκη να δημιουργήσει κι άλλους θεούς που θα τον προστατεύσουν από τις φυσικές καταστροφές. Έτσι, δημιουργεί την τέταρτη γενιά θεών από το ζευγάρωμα ενός Τιτάνα, του Κρόνου, και μιας Τιτανίδας, της Ρέας. Σ' αυτήν τη γενιά ανήκουν ορισμένοι από τους μεγάλους θεούς και συγκεκριμένα οι 6 πρώτοι, όπως η Δήμητρα, η Εστία, η Ήρα, ο Άδης, ο Ποσειδών και ο Ζευς. Εξάλλου, το ευνοϊκό του κλίματος, εξασφαλίζει στον προϊστορικό άνθρωπο τα βασικά είδη διατροφής του, είτε είναι τροφοσυλλέκτης είτε τροφοπαραγωγός, και μάλιστα χωρίς ιδιαίτερη προσπάθεια, κάτι που σημαίνει ότι του αφήνει ελεύθερο χρόνο που του επιτρέπει να κινείται συνεχώς έξω στον ελεύθερο χώρο και του επιτρέπει να συναναστρέφεται άλλους ανθρώπους, που κι αυτοί έχουν ελεύθερο χρόνο. Για να μπορέσει να σταθεί στη μικρή του κοινωνία όμως πρέπει να μάθει να συζητάει, να επιχειρηματολογεί, να αντικρούει, να συμφωνεί ή να διαφωνεί με τον συνομιλητή του. Όλα αυτά τα στοιχεία όμως αποτελούν ουσιαστικά τα βασικά στοιχεία της Δημοκρατίας, του πολιτεύματος του λόγου και του αντίλογου. Εμείς λοιπόν πιστεύουμε ότι οι φυσικογεωγραφικές και γεωλογικές μεταβολές κατά την μυθολογική και γενικά την προϊστορική εποχή έχουν καθορίσει άμεσα ή έμμεσα όλα τα επιμέρους στοιχεία, αλλά κι αυτή την ίδια την εξέλιξη του αρχαιοελληνικού πολιτισμού ; Native civilizations, as that of the ancient Greeks, are directly connected to the geological and the physicogeographical regime of the regional area in which they have been developed, and mainly to its geoenvironmental evolution since the last glacial period (18,000 BP). Volcanoes, earthquakes and mineral resources, as building materials, the underground water and the various minerals, consist the so called geological regime. Soil, climate, relief, shorelines and coastal areas belong to the physicogeographical regime of an area. The regional territory, where the prehistorical and historical ancient Hellenic civilization has been developed is the Hellenic Peninsula, Aegean Sea and the coasts of Minor Asia, from the geotectonic point of view, composing the Hellenic Arc which is characterized by intense tectonic, seismic and volcanic activity. The main factor contributing to the evolution of the Hellenic civilization is the climate and its fluctuations, mainly during the last 18,000 years, and most essentially the impact of these changes in the displacement of the shorelines and the coastal areas in general. It is widely known that climate changes periodically and that the main reasons for this periodicity are astronomical (Milankowitch theory). Thus, during Quaternary, several successive glacial and interglacial periods have been observed due to the increasing and decreasing of the solar radiation that earth receives. The last glacial period ends approximately 18,000 years BP, since, for the same astronomical reasons, earth's mean temperature abruptly increased. Due to this increase, huge volume of glaciers started to melt resulting to the release of large water quantities, which until that time were trapped within the glaciers, resulting in the gradual rise of the global sea level that, around 18,000 years BP, was about 125 m. lower than today. This rise caused successively transgression of all areas that nowadays constitutes the seafloor of Aegean Sea until a depth around 125 m. This transgression happened within a few thousands of years, namely between 18,000 and 6,000 years BP approximately. Therefore, prehistoric man who inhabited the area of the Aegean Sea, though until 18,000 years BP was living for tens of thousands of years in a geoenvironment unfavourable but more or less stable, following 18,000 BP and due to the increase of the mean temperature of the earth's atmosphere, he witnessed cosmogony changes. These especially concern the change of the coastal scene, since year after year, slowly but steadily, coastal areas are being submerged, featuring high mean velocities that under certain conditions should exceed 5 m per year. Together with these shoreline displacements if one takes also into account seismicity, volcanic activity and the related phenomena (tsunamis, abrupt uplift or subsidence of the coastal areas caused by earthquakes, landslides, rockfalls, etc.), the physicogeological scenery should have been a nightmare. The third generation of the Gods must have been originated during this period. This generation is the result of the union of Gaia (Earth), the Big Mother of all, and Ouranos (Heaven), namely Titans, Ekatoncheires, Cyclops and Giants, who might represent the destructive natural powers that terrify man and move the earth under his feet. What else than volcanoes might Giants represent, when, according to the Hellenic Mythology ". they (the giants) breathed fire from their mouth ." ".they were crying out wildly.", "they were shooting rocks and blazing trees in the sky "! ? Yet, Paleolithic and Mesolithic man needs to create more gods who will protect him from all these natural disasters. So, he originates the fourth generation that comes out of the union of the Titan Kronos and the Titanide Rhea. In this generation belong some of the great gods, such as Hera, Demeter, Estia, Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. The favorable climate ensures the basic nutrition species that man needs, either he is a food collector or he is a food producer, and especially without any particular effort. This means that it allows prehistoric man to have enough free time. Especially after his inhabitance in towns, he may be continuously mobile in the open space and he may communicate with other men having free time as well. In order to attitude within his small society, he has to learn to discuss, to argue, to oppose, to agree or to disagree with his co-speakers. Yet, all these constitute the basic substantial features of Democracy. All these physicogeographical and geological changes of the mythological and the prehistorical, in general, era, that have determined directly or indirectly all partial settings and the evolution of the civilization itself, should be promoted in such a way that the relationship between physicogeographical environment and civilization should be primarily introduced.

"We all recognize that climate change is a supremely important issue of our time, which requires both trans-national and trans-generational collaboration and shared responsibility. What we haven't yet fully appreciated, argues political philosopher Henry Shue, are the ethical considerations surrounding the fact that the next one or two decades will determine whether climate change, which already has led us to dangerous effects, will surge into inescapably disastrous effects. The people alive today thus represent a pivotal generation in human history. For the past two centuries humans have undermined our climate at an increasing rate, in ways that the present generations are the first to fully understand, and the last to be able to reverse. But our responsibility for decisive and immediate action rests on three special features of the relation of our present to the future, that many have failed to realize (1) future generations face dangers greater than ours even if we act robustly, (2) the worsening dangers for future generations are currently without limit, and (3) a less robust effort by us is likely to allow climate change to pass critical tipping points for severely worse and potentially unavoidable future dangers. Shue, a renowned scholar of ethics, politics and international relations who has been studying the ethics of climate change for the last two decades, guides us through what our ethical responsibilities to others are, both across the world but especially over time, and what those commitments require us to do in addressing the climate change crisis, now and forcefully"--

Cameroon is a lower-middle income country with social indicators and levels of poverty which are below those for comparator countries. Large and rising inequalities between north and south, inefficiencies in public resource allocation and an adverse business environment explain this. While insecurity due to Boko Haram activities and rapidly rising public debt constrain efforts at poverty reduction, there exists a huge potential for economic growth and poverty reduction. This potential remains mostly untapped. Realizing it will require far reaching reforms, particularly with respect to the business environment and public financial management, and require politically courage to accomplish. The remainder of this document explores how to achieve the twin goals of ending poverty and improving shared prosperity by 2030 in a sustainable manner. The document identifies a limited number of binding constraints which would need to be lifted to achieve the poverty objective. The next four chapters present background material to chapter six, which presents binding constraints to poverty reduction. The micro-foundations to poverty reduction are discussed in chapters two and three. Chapter two discusses poverty, equity and vulnerability. Chapter three discusses human capital and its role in poverty reduction. Chapter four considers poverty reduction from a macro-economic perspective. It discusses opportunities for growth and economic transformation as well as the status of various cross-cutting economic services. Chapter five, considers governance, fragility and the institutional environment. Binding constraints to sustainable poverty reduction are identified in chapter six.

Sri Lanka is in many respects a development success story. With economic growth averaging more than 7 percent a year over the past five years on top of an average growth of 6 percent the preceding five years, Sri Lanka has made notable strides towards the goals of ending extreme poverty and promoting shared prosperity (the 'twin goals'). The national poverty headcount rate declined from 22.7 to 6.7 percent between 2002 and 2012/13, while consumption per capita of the bottom 40 percent grew at 3.3 percent a year, compared to 2.8 percent for the total population. Other human development indicators are also impressive by regional and lower middle-income country standards. Sri Lanka has also succeeded in ending decades of internal conflict in 2009 and steps have been taken towards reconciliation. Sri Lanka's has had impressive development gains but there are strong indications that drivers of past progress are not sustainable. Solid economic growth, strong poverty reduction, overcoming internal conflict, effecting a remarkable democratic transition in recent months, and overall strong human development outcomes are a track record that would make any country proud. However, the country's inward looking growth model based on non-tradable sectors and domestic demand amplified by public investment cannot be expected to lead to sustained inclusive growth going forward. A systematic diagnostic points to fiscal, competitiveness, and inclusion challenges as well as cross-cutting governance and sustainability challenges as priority areas of focus for sustaining progress in ending poverty and promoting shared prosperity.

There is no doubt that the poorest people are already and will continue to be most severely impacted by climatic changes, including shifting trends as well as more frequent and severe extreme events. Yet, new insights on the dynamics and distribution of poverty point to the need to comprehend where the poor and poorest are, how they are poor, and why their poverty constrains their abilities to cope with and adapt to occurring and predicted changes. This paper draws on a diverse and growing literature on climate change and poverty to argue that uneven power relations more so than exposure and sensitivity to climatic hazards make the poor and disadvantaged distinctly more vulnerable than more affluent, privileged, and powerful groups and individuals. Further, climatic stressors and climate change as well as climate policies, often entangled with social exclusion and institutional neglect, compound the issue of poverty and exacerbate human precariousness, hence acting as a threat multiplier. The paper compares different approaches to assessing poverty, and explores structural processes and power dynamics that drive or perpetuate inequalities. The paper also investigates how the currently nonpoor may become transient or chronic poor, how climate change may exacerbate poverty traps, and how interventions to curb emissions and multidimensional poverty may be tackled to pursue climate-resilient development pathways.

The inability to unlock natural resource wealth for the benefit of developing countries' local populations, a phenomenon popularly known as the 'resource curse' or the 'paradox of plenty', has spawned extensive debate among researchers and policy makers in recent years. There is now a well-established body of literature exploring the links between natural resources and conflict, with some sources estimating that over the past 60 years, 40 percent of civil wars have been associated with natural resources. Following this introduction, Section two provides an overview of interstate tensions in West Africa in order to improve understanding of the drivers of fragility that trigger conflict between countries around extractive industry investment. Here, the discussion is grounded in examples in which interstate tensions have been apparent, including the case of the Mano River Union, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, a region with a history of conflict, and where the exploitation of commercial deposits of high-value resources may continue to have a potentially destabilizing effect. Section three focuses on the decentralization of natural resource revenues, a process that proponents believe can help manage grievances and defuse intrastate tension in areas directly affected by resource extraction, but one that is also not without challenges. Drawing upon the case of Ghana's Mineral Development Fund, the section explores the potential for conflict (and conflict triggers) to arise when the redistribution of extractive industry revenues to subnational regions takes place. In doing so, it becomes apparent that the capture and misuse of revenues from the fund is as much a political issue as it is a policy or technical one. This sets the stage for section four, which focuses in greater detail on extractive industry-related conflict within catchment communities, and how contestation is most often a result of unequal power relationships. Section five, the conclusion, summarizes and reflects upon some of the challenges and struggles over resource management associated with West Africa's recent resource boom, and draws out some of the cross-cutting themes. Here, suitable entry points for future lines of inquiry and engagement are identified.

This document is hence organized not around the three types of challenges, but around five themes of governance, public finance issues, private sector-led economy, poverty and environment, and human capital, all crucial to achieving faster, more inclusive and sustainable growth. Chapter one provides the country context. Chapter two discusses the quality of governance, an overarching issue in Madagascar. It has a direct bearing on the pace, the inclusiveness and sustainability of growth. While acknowledging the importance of improving governance for Madagascar, which is a difficult, medium term undertaking, this Systematic Country Diagnostic argues that progress is also possible. Chapter three discusses how amelioration in managing public finances, and increasing revenue in particular, could be used as a lens for improved governance. Chapter four discusses the role and challenges of the private sector, the main driver of growth. Chapter five discusses the challenges for achieving higher human capital in a country with a very young population and some of the highest infant stunting and malnourishment rates in the world. Chapter six discusses the faces of poverty, which are predominantly rural, agricultural and informal. A structural transformation has not started in Madagascar and poverty and environment are closely intertwined. The chapter also discusses the challenges to enhancing the management of natural resources and protecting the poor from natural disasters and impacts of climate change. Chapter seven summarizes the challenges and prioritizes the reforms.

The systematic country diagnostic (SCD) is designed to identify the most critical binding constraints and opportunities facing Indonesia in ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity. In line with the World Bank Group's (WBG's) new country engagement model, the findings of the SCD will provide inputs for the preparation of the country partnership framework (CPF), which will outline the WBG's engagement with Indonesia to achieve the twin goals. This SCD has four main conceptual elements. First, analyze past trends in growth, poverty, and inequality to highlight the deep drivers. Second, identify the key channels for reducing poverty and boosting the prosperity of the Bottom 40 percent. Third, highlight the major challenges and opportunities along each of the key channels, and finally identify prioritized areas of intervention to accelerate progress toward ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity for each of the channels identified.

This Country Partnership Framework (CPF) presents the World Bank Group (WBG) program for Côte d'Ivoire (CIV) during the period FY16-FY19. The CPF comes at an opportune moment to accelerate and scale up the WBG engagement. The program will take advantage of CIV's current climate of renewed stability to modernize the economy and eliminate long-standing disparities aggravated by a decade of multifaceted crisis, during which the World Bank Group had to suspend its operation four times. In 2009, a transitional Government resulting from the Ouagadougou Political Agreement (OPA) provided an appropriate platform to reengage. The transitional Government prepared the country's first Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) covering 2009-2015. The WBG Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) for FY10-14, which supported the PRSP's goals, was prepared in this context. Political unrest following the 2010 Presidential Elections then rendered implementation of the 2009 PRSP difficult. During the past four years, CIV has made an impressive transition from crisis to relative stability, and from fragility and low equilibrium, through stabilization, to aspiring emerging economy status. Although some of the root causes of the conflict remain, there are high expectations that those will be tackled if the current transformation is maintained and the reconciliation agenda is intensified. The Government expects to accelerate implementation of measures designed to improve social cohesion, develop human capital, build a resilient economy, support territorial development and promote regional synergies towards integration. The CPF will also support the achievement of the WBG's twin goals of reducing extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity, which is also in line with Côte d'Ivoire's plans.

This report is the outcome of assessment and is intended as an advisory note to the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and Guyana Rice Development Board (GRDB) to enable them to identify a strategy and potential public investments to improve current risk-management practices in the rice supply chain. This report identifies the major risks facing the rice supply chain, ranks them in terms of their potential impact and frequency, and offers a framework for improving current risk-management practices. The recommendations and findings will provide a basis for follow-up planning work by the Government of Guyana (GoG), the World Bank, and other development partners. The findings and analysis of this initial assessment are based on a methodology designed by the Agricultural Risk Management Team (ARMT) for assessing risks in agricultural supply chains. This report provides an indicative list of potential solutions to address the dominant risks in the rice supply chain; however, the assessment or evaluation of the individual solutions was beyond the scope of this exercise. To ensure the greatest return on future public investments in implementing risk management solutions, GRDB and MoA need to undertake an exhaustive cost-benefit assessment of different options. This will enable MoA to identify and implement the necessary activities to reduce the vulnerability of the rice supply chain in Guyana.

The World Bank's assistance strategies showed strong client orientation and were aligned with Uganda's poverty reduction strategy. The programs were substantially effective in decentralization, public sector reform, growth and economic transformation, education, and water and sanitation. However, more could have been done to help counter the perception of increasing corruption, improve power supply, reduce transport costs, enhance agricultural productivity, and help with family planning and reproductive health. The AfDB's assistance was also relevant and aligned with the government's development goals. Its support substantially achieved its objectives for decentralization, public sector finance, growth and economic transformation, improved competitiveness, agriculture, and water and sanitation, as well as education and health. However, there were some shortcomings in the assistance provided for power and roads and in reducing corruption. This report evaluates World Bank and African Development Bank assistance to Uganda during 2001-07. The motivation to undertake a joint evaluation was the shift to a common strategic framework, the Uganda Joint Assistance Strategy (UJAS), to guide the formulation and delivery of their programs. Under a common strategic framework joint evaluation is, in principal, more cost effective than the equivalent separate evaluations, since at least some aspects of the evaluation can be done together. This also helps to reduce government transaction costs. The evaluation discusses the outcome of the support of each bank, rates each independently, noting that the two banks are of different size, capacity, and institutional setting. In addition, the two banks have programs that were not implemented jointly but in parallel, although they regularly engaged with one another as development partners. The outcome ratings for the two institutions are therefore not comparable and should not be used to imply that one institution did 'better' than the other.

Agriculture in Tanzania accounts for 28 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs 80 percent of its labor force. The sector is also an important source of export revenues. The data and findings presented in this report provide a summary of the performance of the agriculture sector in Tanzania using a set of indicators covering six areas. These are: 1) access to and availability of certified seed; 2) availability of and access to fertilizer; 3) access to farm machinery, particularly tractor hire services for land preparation; 4) access to agricultural and agro-enterprise finance; 5) the cost and efficiency of transporting agricultural commodities; and 6) measures of policy certainty and uncertainty as perceived by private investors and the effects these have on the enabling environment for producers and agribusinesses. The Agribusiness Indicators (ABI) team conducted interviews with Government agencies, private firms (fertilizer importers, seed companies, tractor importers and distributors, transporters), commercial banks, farmer-based organizations, donors, and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs). The ABI program is pilot testing an initial set of indicators on the ease (or difficulty) of operating agribusinesses in African countries. The indicators are used to assess whether the countries have an enabling environment that is conducive to agribusiness investment, competitiveness, and ultimately agriculture-led growth.

The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ; This is an oral history interview with Stanley Robbins. Mr. Robbins discusses the management of the Peery Estate, including operation of the White City and Virginia Ballrooms, as well as the Egyptian and Ogden Theaters. He also talks about conditions in Ogden during the Depression, including bootlegging and problems along 25th Street. ; 15p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Stanley Robbins Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Stanley Robbins Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Copyright © 2016 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. The working files, original recording, and archival copies are housed in the University Archives. Project Description The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The forty-five interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management This work is the property of the Weber State University, Stewart Library Oral History Program. It may be used freely by individuals for research, teaching and personal use as long as this statement of availability is included in the text. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Robbins, Stanley, an oral history by Mack S. Taft, circa 1960s, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. 1 Abstract: This is an oral history interview with Stanley Robbins. Mr. Robbins discusses the management of the Peery Estate, including operation of the White City and Virginia Ballrooms, as well as the Egyptian and Ogden Theaters. He also talks about conditions in Ogden during the Depression, including bootlegging and problems along 25th Street. The interviewer is Mack Taft. MT: Where did you live during the Depression years, from 1929-39? SR: In Ogden, Utah. MT: And what was your profession at that time? SR: I was manager of the D. H. Peery Estate. MT: In that capacity, what were some of the businesses that you operated for them? SR: The Peery Estate owned large holdings. They owned the Egyptian Theatre, and the Ogden Theater in Ogden, the White City Ballroom, many business houses which were rented to tenants in the operation of business, as well as farm lands in Utah and Canada MT: In 1921 a large, frame dance hall existed on the east part of the Peery Estate property, of the old Ogden Theater. During October of that year, the large frame ballroom was burned to the ground. Do you recall anything of this? SR: A large fire took place and, as a result of this, there wasn't anything left. After the cleanup of all debris, we started to build a new ballroom 150 feet wide by 250 long in an oval position. This was conceived in early spring of 1922. We had a very beautiful ballroom, with the pathway leading from 25th Street back to the center of the block. This ballroom was very attractive, and we decided to utilize the "Virginia," which was the home of Mr. and Mrs. D. H. Peery. However they 2 had passed on, and we remodeled this beautiful old mansion, using it as a dining and club area adjoining the White City, facing 24th Street and Adams Avenue. This, however, after five years, did not fulfill the merits of the dancing unit. Therefore we had decided to discard it. Mr. Harmon W. Peery, the manager of the Peery Estate, issued the order to tear it down, and it was then taken off the property. We built a large, open-air cement dance floor, 100 by 150 feet, on the north side of the White City Ballroom, which we utilized during the summer months, opening the doors to the outside ballroom and using both places. During the years 1923-38, we utilized various methods to establish our business firm and make it a very profitable business. In connection with the Ogden Theater and the Egyptian Theatre, which we built, we worked out a proposition to give away two-door Chevrolet automobiles to the lucky number drawn at the dance hall on a certain date, usually allowing three months between periods in which we gave the car away. On the fourth Saturday night, we gave the Chevrolet away, and usually the attendance at the ballroom outside and in was somewhere around 4,800 to 5,000. This was one of our methods during the Depression time to increase the business and keep the profits coming to the Peery Estate. The theaters did good business, and the dance hall did good business while this method was being used (of giving a new car to the winning number). MT: Do you have any idea how far your clientele came from into the White City? SR: We had people come from as far south as Salt Lake City, as far east as Evanston, Wyoming, as far north as Idaho Falls, and as far west as the lake in 3 Weber County. MT: What was the cost for the dance at that time? SR: Fifty cents for the dance ticket on the night of the drawing, 35 cents each on the nights when the attendance was accumulating toward the giving away of the car. MT: What was the cost of a show ticket at this time? SR: At this Depression time, Mr. Glassman, the owner and manager of the Paramount Theater, the Orpheum Theater, the Rex Theater, and the Utah Theater had decided that to meet this competition they would try to obtain the largest productions from the main makers in the film industry. He obtained United Artists, Paramount Pictures, Metro Golden Pictures, and ArKo. That would give him a sufficient number of first-run pictures to make it so that the Peery Estate holdings would not be able to utilize all first-run pictures. In order that we might meet this competition, we decided that we would buy the major film producing company's films as "second runs." By that we mean 30-day showing after the first run. Then I placed a lesser film company's production, such as Warner Brothers, Columbia Pictures, and the smaller producers, utilizing their pictures as first-run, and then placing the products of Mr. Glassman as second runs. At this time, by doing so, we made a reduction in the prices in the Ogden and Egyptian Theaters. This did prove to be a definite step toward increasing the business. As a result, we had very good business in both theaters. MT: What do you remember about the Depression personally? I would assume that you were fully employed during the Depression. What do you remember about the people around you and how they got along? 4 SR: These times were very difficult. There were many of the people who were unemployed, and the conditions were such that there just wasn't enough work in this territory to supply the numbers who wanted to work. As a result, many were without funds. However, the period that I remember the most was from 1936-38. The conditions didn't seem to get very much better, and as there were a number of younger people growing up, and I had managed the properties from 1923-38, I asked Mr. Peery if I could not be released from my management responsibilities because I had a better offer with more money if I would go to the Kiesel Estate and become the manager of their estate. This estate was larger than the Peery Estate, having properties in nearly all the western states – that is Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and California, and parts of Wyoming. Their property was extensive, and I found that during the Depression many of these properties had closed their doors. After I had been employed for a year, my job was to make the properties of the Kiesel Estate become paying properties in order that they might be able to solve their problems. I immediately set to work, and I sold all of the properties in all the states which were secondary properties and had been lying idle for a number of years with taxes being paid on them. These properties were obtained many times when Mr. Kiesel, who had in his warehouse at Corinne – he was a merchant, he had a liquor store and a business institution whereby he supplied all the needs of the community right from this great warehouse of his. He would use his horses and wagons in what he termed a freight train, taking the merchandise to the various outlets. When 5 they couldn't pay for the merchandise, they usually had a property which they deeded to Mr. Kiesel. As a result of this particular condition, Mr. Kiesel had in nearly every state an abundance of property. As an example of this, in Ontario, Oregon, on the other side of the Snake River, between Idaho and Oregon, he owned nearly all of this city. It had a railroad running through there eventually, but he owned nearly all of this city. He took 2,500 acres of ground between the Snake River and the highway leading from Parma, Idaho, to Ontario, Oregon. He also donated enough ground for a schoolhouse on the west side of the highway for the students at Nessa, Oregon. MT: Do you recall any people who were destitute and would ask you for a handout on the street, or anything like that? SR: In 1936, I can't determine whether that was the right year or not, but anyway Mr. Peery became mayor during that particular period of time. He asked me because of the conditions in the city at that time – many of our poor people didn't have sufficient food or clothing or fuel to meet their conditions of existing. In the winter months and in the fall months, the city commission had established a relief fund, and that relief fund extends over into Mayor Bundy's region. They asked me to come over and set up a condition where those who would come over and need it could receive proper amounts for their sustenance. As a result of that, this was done. But we found that the welfare program, in its initiatory state, took place during that particular period of time, even not only in the city, but in our church. I was, at this particular time, the first counselor in the bishopric of the [LDS] 17th 6 Ward. During this Depression, we found the widows of our ward – there were 32 in our ward – they were in need of food, clothing, and fuel, among other things. As an example of this, in connection with the city, this took quite a load off the city in supplying the needs and wants within the church realm to the widows of this particular ward. We recommended the condition to the various wards of the stake. An example, Thomas Young, president of the Thomas Young Sign Company, who was getting started in this great business of his, was the president of the elder's quorum in our ward. He and Patterson, under our supervision, went up into the Cottonwood Canyon in Morgan County, and [found] all these cottonwood trees lying in this canyon, and loaded load after load of wood. They brought it down to the vacant lot on the west side of the 17th Ward, and there we got a saw and the president of the elders quorum sawed many, many cords, which lasted all during the particular winter from the wood obtained in the Cottonwood Canyon. MT: What do you remember about the meeting of the unemployed in your ward there? SR: Unfortunately I wasn't there at that meeting. I was detained away in Oregon in the supervision of the leveling of ground for farming, preparing the ground for farming – 2,500 acres had never been drained and was alkali soil. I had to level this ground, and I'm injecting this phase of it to show that it was a project, all this 2,500 acres. I could have purchased it had I money for $12.50 an acre, and that included the water rights on the Ouiau Ditch Company coming out at the reservoir. However it wasn't sufficient to handle this 2,500 acres. We leveled it, 7 making drains, and I went to the State of Oregon and obtained permits for the pumping plants off the Snake River and approved the water rights for them, and they are in operation today. We leveled this ground and flushed the alkali off, and after it had been prepared taking the drains, we ran it right back into the Snake River. After we planted barley, white sweet clover, and allowing it to get up so high and then plowing it under, we did this for two years, adding the dynaclover [sic] in the planting. On the third year after this was plowed under and the soil was properly fixed, we placed beets in this land, and watered those beets very thoroughly from the pumping plants on the Snake River. We grew 30 tons of beets per acre on this ground from preparing and making it. The cost, however, of doing this was great, and the Kiesel Estate had money to authorize such work, which proved very successful. Today that land is worth $1,000 an acre. It's between the Nessa Sugar Factory and owned by the Amalgamated Sugar Factory, and Ontario, about in the center between the two cities and east of the highway line. MT: Do you think of anything else now that might be of interest to people concerning the Depression years? SR: We were in the Depression longer than I feel was necessary because of the lack of foresight and cooperation between the city and county governments and the officers of the United States government, who were trying to assist and bring the Depression to a halt. However much good resulted from the Depression, as to our seeing what might happen to the people if another Depression came, and preparation in all phases of life in the education of people, in the knowing where 8 to go, and the kind of work, and ability to supervise, organize, and carry forth in such work whenever a Depression came. This would benefit any people in the country in the future. MT: Who would have been responsible for providing the money or the food and clothing and so forth that you mentioned as being distributed by the city administration? SR: At this time, the need was from the poor class of people living in Ogden City. So many of them had come to the City Commission Office. Mayor Bundy and the Commission decided that this great need out-balanced the other needs for the funds which had been allocated in the budget. Therefore they voted to use a surplus taken from other funds to help and assist the needy of our city. MT: About what year would that have been? SR: It was during the Depression, which was very, very acute here in Ogden City at that time. It was the latter part of 1930. MT: Do you have any recollection of when other funds became available, and in what proportions? Were there federal funds that came through there? SR: Not at that particular time. The matter was discussed in meetings between city and county officials, and the decision was to take the matter up with the government and see if funds could be appropriated for this cause within the city realm. The matter had not been settled when I was called to another field of labor. MT: Do you remember anything later on, which the state did in helping the poor? SR: No, I do not because I went into this field of labor and was not connected closely 9 after that with the affairs of the city and county. MT: What do you remember about the Ogden State Bank closing? SR: I remember that very well because I was one of the depositors in the Ogden State Bank. When the bank was in the condition with the government feeling insecure, the officers of the Ogden State Bank notified all the depositors. As a result of that, the bank was closed. Of course there was quite a furor pertaining to it – the misuse of funds and such as that, not knowing the conditions actually existed. Then the officials of the bank notified the stockholders of the bank that they would receive certain percentages as time went on. The monies came in to the depository of the Ogden State Bank, and the officials lived up to what they stated in their letter. Before the final settlement was made, the depositors received around 80 percent of the money they had deposited in the bank. That was the amount that I received, and I remember that very well. I had the savings account and the checking account. The officials of the bank decided to sell the assets and placed them up for bid. Mr. George Eccles and P. E. Thomas, who was the owner of the P. E. Thomas Plumbing Company, and he had quite a sum of money in this bank, the assets were sold to these two. This P. E. Thomas was awarded referee in bankruptcy, and he then received these funds. The final settlement was made from the funds after the sale was made. MT: What about the bootlegging and 25th Street and that type of thing? During those years, was it stimulated by the Depression? Was it cut back? What's your opinion on it? SR: As a result of many of the lower classes – that is, they were not lower classes, 10 only from the point that they were out of work and did not have employment, thus they had more time on their hands and accumulated on 25th Street – the activity there as far as drunkenness and like that became greater and needed more strict supervision. The officers of the law had received their instructions. Many, many times people were taken to the courts, and as a result of this unemployment condition.