Suchergebnisse

The country's forest areas occupy 21.7 million ha (approximately 27.6 percent of its total surface area), and are inhabited by close to 10 percent of its total population. The forest sector generates a variety of timber and non-timber products and eco-services. The Turkish government has put great effort into reforestation and forest management, increasing the total area of forests. In their tenth national development plan (2014-2018), the Turkish Government has decided to take a series of actions, including quantifying the value of natural resources and their ecosystem services and taking them into account in making and implementing policy decisions. In response to the government's request for technical assistance in valuing natural resources, the World Bank assisted the Directorate General of Forestry (DGF) under the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (MoFWA) in conducting a pilot study in the Bolu forest area to identify and quantify the forest products and services used by humans and assess the possibility to expand and scale up forest valuation. The purpose of this report is to summarize the study's findings and discuss its policy implications and next steps. The report contains six chapters, chapter one gives introduction. Chapter two provides an overview of the forest sector in Turkey, from physical conditions to institutional aspects. Chapter three presents the justification and application of forest valuation and accounting, while the valuation methods for forest products and services are introduced in chapter four. Chapter five discusses the findings and results of the Bolu pilot study. The policy implications, areas for improvement, and recommendations for scaling up are discussed in chapter six.

What are the socioeconomic impacts of resource abundance? Are these effects different at the national and local levels? How could resource booms benefit (or harm) local communities? This paper reviews a vast literature examining these questions, with an emphasis on empirical works. First, the evidence and theoretical arguments behind the so-called resource curse, and other impacts at the country level, are reviewed. This cross-country literature highlights the importance of institutions. Then, a simple analytical framework is developed to understand how resource booms could impact local communities, and the available empirical evidence is examined. This emerging literature exploits within-country variation and is opening new ways to think about the relation between natural resources and economic development. The main message is that others factors, such as market mechanisms and local spillovers, are also relevant for understanding the impact of resource abundance. Finally, the paper discusses issues related to fiscal decentralization and provides ideas for future research.

The Tunisia Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) seeks to identify the challenges and opportunities to achieve the twin goals of reducing poverty and boosting shared prosperity in a sustainable way. This SCD takes into account Tunisia's historical sociopolitical context and the political economy of past reforms to provide the context for the challenges and opportunities that exist today to make progress toward the twin goals. The economic policies of the two decades preceding the 2011 revolution delivered widely recognized achievements, including growth rates above the regional average, impressive progress in human development indicators and reduced poverty. However, they failed to address, and even exacerbated, the deep-rooted distortions in the economy that closed the channels, in particular, productive employment and job creation, for a more equal and inclusive society. These distortions were also grounded in a tightly controlled social and political space that favored the elite while repressing others. This development model proved to be economically and socially unsustainable. With a new constitution adopted in 2014 and a democratically-elected government established in 2015, there is today an unprecedented window of opportunity for Tunisia to embark on deep structural reforms to open the channels conducive to a more equal and inclusive society and put the country on a path of more sustainable development. The SCD identifies key opportunities to build on Tunisia's multiple strengths and economic potential to help guide future development policies. It highlights the importance of social and political stability (as well as domestic security) as prerequisites for critical reforms to be undertaken, as well as the importance of voice, transparency, and accountability in all economic and institutional spheres for those reforms to be sustainable.

Between 2002 and 2012-13, most of the reduction in poverty was due to increased earnings, as opposed to higher employment or higher transfers. Although it is hard to be certain, increases in earnings are associated with: (i) a slow structural transformation away from agriculture and into industry and services that led to productivity increases; (ii) agglomeration around key urban areas that supported this structural transformation; (iii) domestic-driven growth, including public-sector investment that led to increases in labor demand, particularly in industry and services; and (iv) a commodity boom that led to higher labor earnings for agricultural workers in the context of lower agricultural employment. Sri Lanka's has had impressive development gains but there are strong indications that drivers of past progress are not sustainable. Solid economic growth, strong poverty reduction, overcoming internal conflict, effecting a remarkable democratic transition in recent months, and overall strong human development outcomes are a track record that would make any country proud. However, the country's inward looking growth model based on non-tradable sectors and domestic demand amplified by public investment cannot be expected to lead to sustained inclusive growth going forward. A systematic diagnostic points to fiscal, competitiveness, and inclusion challenges as well as cross-cutting governance and sustainability challenges as priority areas of focus for sustaining progress in ending poverty and promoting shared prosperity.

Bolivia's distinct characteristics and aspirations are a key for understanding its development trajectory. Bolivia is one of the countries with the highest share of indigenous population, representing a tapestry of different groups with different historical, cultural and economic features, with a significant influence in policy decision making. The country is landlocked and one of the most sparsely populated in the world. As a result, long distances to the nearest seaports and markets and a challenging topography pose important natural constraints to economic expansion, and hamper broad-based and inclusive growth. Bolivia is also wealthy in natural resources, not only in hydrocarbon and in mining but in forestry and arable land, with high potential for growth, which make it vulnerable to commodity price shocks. In addition, in the last decade, the country has experienced a profound economic and political paradigm shift, enshrined in the 2009 Constitution, which has been predominantly driven by a state-led development model geared at addressing the social aspirations of Bolivians. The Agenda Patriótica provides the overall policy vision to 2025 and includes 13 strategic pillars. The PDES contains a five-year rolling plan with policy actions and budgets to operationalize the Agenda Patriótica. The overarching development agenda of the Government is still, by and large, based on an economic model that emphasizes state-led public investment, but which is increasingly opening up to private investment in important areas.

A slow-moving tropical depression caused persistent heavy rains in the Solomon Islands between April 1 and 4, 2014. The highest recorded daily rainfall associated with this event was 318mm in Honiara on April 3. The rains caused flash flooding in Honiara, Guadalcanal, Isabel, Malaita, and Makira-Ulawa. More than 732mm of rain was recorded over four days at the Honiara rain gauge, although heavier rainfall was reported inland. On April 5, as the system moved away from the Solomon Islands, it was upgraded to Tropical Cyclone Ita. The Solomon Islands government has worked with the international community, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders to address humanitarian response needs. The government has sought assistance from Pacific humanitarian team personnel (which is led by the United Nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs), and has also requested supplies to support response efforts. The methodology used for assessing the effects of a disaster or extreme event proceeds from the bottom up: information about the effects of the event is captured sector by sector, and the data are aggregated to arrive at the event s total effect on society and the economy. The ultimate goal of the assessment is to measure in monetary and social terms the disaster's impact on the society, economy, and environment of the affected country or region.

A relação entre água, energia e alimento é um tema que tem recebido atenção no meio acadêmico. Diante da escassez dos recursos naturais, da degradação que tem ocorrido não somente no Brasil, mas no mundo todo, os recursos naturais têm sérios riscos de esgotarem. E há que se pensar em uma gestão que possibilite a recuperação do meio ambiente de forma eficiente e sustentável. Compreendendo que o debate de nexo envolve um conjunto de inter-relações entre os recursos naturais utilizados como insumo para os serviços básicos da vida humana, neste sentido, a presente pesquisa objetivou analisar se há possibilidade de integrar a floresta ao nexo água-energia-alimentos, com vistas a não comprometer as demandas futuras e como isso pode contribuir para alcançar os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ODS). Os objetivos específicos são identificar a interligação entre água, energia, alimento e floresta; apontar a necessidade de integrar a floresta ao nexo tradicional visando alcançar um desenvolvimento mais sustentável e controlar, prevenir as consequências dos impactos ambientais. A metodologia da revisão literária ocorreu com o levantamento por termos previamente identificados nas bases de dados Scopus, Web of Science e Periódico Capes, sendo a pesquisa classificada com abordagem qualitativa e método dedutivo. Os resultados apontaram que a floresta possui relação direta com os elementos água-energia-alimentos, sendo possível contribuir com as seguranças hídrica, energética e alimentar. Concluiu-se que vincular as florestas ao nexo existente, proporcionará uma maior preocupação para garantir a sustentabilidade e o equilíbrio ambiental.

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Este trabajo presenta el desarrollo del estudio de las concentraciones de los 16 hidrocarburos aromáticos policíclicos (HAPs) prioritarios por la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los Estados Unidos (US-EPA) en matrices marinas de la bahía de Tumaco en la costa Pacífica colombiana, donde se evaluaron tres sub-áreas de estudio de interés de acuerdo a sus fuentes de contaminación. El análisis de HAPs fue realizado en muestras de sedimentos marinos y bivalvos (Anadara tuberculosa), adicionalmente se recolectaron muestras de agua marina para la caracterización fisicoquímica. Para el estudio de bivalvos se seleccionó la especie Anadara tuberculosa debido a su gran abundancia en el área de estudio y a su importancia comercial. En total se seleccionaron trece puntos de muestreo distribuidos así: siete en el área portuaria, cuatro en el área de desembocadura del río Rosario y dos en el área residencial. En cuatro puntos se realizó muestreo combinado de sedimentos marinos, Anadara tuberculosa y agua marina, en ocho puntos se realizó solo muestreo de sedimentos marinos y en un punto solo se obtuvieron muestras Anadara tuberculosa compradas a recolectores de bivalvos del área de desembocadura. Fueron recolectadas de 3 a 5 muestras de Anadara tuberculosa en cada punto de muestreo, dependiendo de la cantidad que fueran encontradas. El muestreo fue realizado el día 11 de septiembre de 2019 en dos períodos de bajamar. La metodología de muestreo para las diferentes matrices se basó en los siguientes protocolos analíticos: US-EPA 823-B-01-002, el protocolo analítico de INVEMAR y la guía de muestreo del Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMA). En sedimentos marinos, las más altas concentraciones de Ʃ16HAPs fueron encontradas en el área de la desembocadura del río Rosario, con un un valor de 76.2 ng g-1 en la muestra marina y un rango de 171.4 a 564 ng g-1 en las muestras estuarinas, seguida por el área portuaria con un rango de 15.5 a 77.5 ng g-1 y finalmente el área Residencial con un rango de 16.5 a 26.5 ng g-1. Asimismo, en Anadara tuberculosa las más altas concentraciones de Ʃ16HAPs fueron encontradas en el área de desembocadura del río Rosario, con un rango de 31 a 169 ng g-1, seguida por el área residencial con un rango de 78 a 157 ng g-1 y por último el área portuaria con un rango de 24 a 63 ng g-1. Ningunas de las concentraciones de Ʃ16HAPs en las muestras de sedimentos marinos analizadas superaron la norma establecida por la Administración Oceánica y Atmosférica Nacional de los Estados Unidos (NOAA) (1684.1 ng g-1). Sin embargo, la concentración de algunos HAPs individuales como fenantreno (98.7 ng g-1), fluoranteno (160.7 ng g-1) y pireno (292.5 ng g-1) en la muestra SD5 y, acenafteno (8.6 ng g-1) y fluoreno (24.1 ng g-1) en la muestra SD6, ambas muestras en el área desembocadura, superaron la norma establecida por la guía de calidad de sedimentos (SQG, por sus siglas en inglés) para la protección de la vida acuática de Canadá (fenantreno = 87 ng g-1, fluoranteno = 113 ng g-1, pireno = 153 ng g-1, acenafteno = 6.7 ng g-1 y fluoreno = 21 ng g-1). Las concentraciones en cuatro muestras de Anadara tuberculosa excedieron el límite regulatorio para consumo humano colombiano (35 ng g-1) y cinco muestras el límite regulatorio de la Unión Europea (30 ng g-1). Límites reportados como la sumatoria de cuatro HAPs Ʃ4HAPs: benzo(a)pireno, benzo(a)antraceno, benzo(b)fluoranteno y criseno. Relaciones diagnósticas de algunos HAPs isómeros (fluoranteno-pireno y antraceno-fenantreno) fueron aplicadas en sedimentos marinos para estimar las posibles fuentes de contaminación. Se encontró que ambas relaciones diagnósticas para las dos muestras recolectadas en el estuario de la desembocadura del río Rosario sugieren que los HAPs provienen de fuentes petrogénicas. Para la muestra recolectada en el área desembocadura más externa (más alejada del estuario) sugieren que los HAPs provienen de combustión de biomasa, carbón o madera. Mientras que para las muestras de las áreas portuaria y residencial sugieren una combinación de fuentes petrogénicas y de combustión. Los equivalentes carcinogénicos (EqT) y mutagénicos (EqM) fueron determinados para las muestras de sedimentos marinos y Anadara tuberculosa para evaluar el riesgo toxicológico. En sedimentos marinos los equivalentes tóxicos variaron entre 0.07 y 7.56 EqT-BaP, por lo tanto, ninguno de los EqT-BaP obtenidos excedieron el valor recomendado por la guía canadiense de calidad de suelo para HAPs (600 EqT-BaP). Asimismo, los equivalentes mutagénicos variaron entre 0.17 y 9.45 EqM-BaP. Por su parte en Anadara tuberculosa los equivalentes tóxicos variaron entre 0.11 y 5.01 EqT-BaP, de la misma manera, los equivalentes mutagénicos variaron entre 0.15 y 6.12 EqM-BaP. Debido a la problemática ambiental por el uso de solventes orgánicos que presentan la mayoría de los métodos analíticos para la determinación de HAPs en matrices ambientales, se usaron métodos con bajo consumo de solventes orgánicos como extracción miniaturizada por ultrasonido y dispersión de la matriz en fase sólida. Con base en la eco-escala de análisis verde, se determinó que los métodos usados en este estudio presentan un análisis verde excelente (eco-escala de 80) para el análisis de sedimentos y aceptable para el análisis de Anadara tuberculosa (eco-escala de 58). ; This work presents the concentrations of the 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) prioritized by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) in marine matrices of the Tumaco Bay on the Colombian Pacific coast. Three study sub-areas of interest were evaluated according to their sources of contamination. The analysis of PAHs was carried out in samples of marine sediments and bivalves (Anadara tuberculosa). Additionally, samples of marine water were collected for the physicochemical characterization. For the bivalve species, the Anadara tuberculosa specie was selected due to its great abundance in the study area and its commercial importance. In total, thirteen sampling points were selected, they were distributed as follows: seven in the port area, four in the Rosario river mouth area, and two in the residential area. Combined sampling of marine sediments, Anadara tuberculosa and seawater were carried out at four points, at eight points only sampling of marine sediments were carried out, and at one point only Anadara tuberculosa samples were obtained, purchased from bivalve collectors in the mouth area. From 3 to 5 samples of Anadara tuberculosa were collected at each sampling point, depending on the quantity that were found. The sampling campaign was carried out on September 11, 2019 in two periods of low tide. The methodology of the sampling, for the different matrices, was based on the following analytical protocols: US-EPA 823-B-01-002, INVEMAR analytical protocol and the sampling guide of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). In marine sediments, the highest concentrations of Ʃ16PAHs were found in the area of Rosario river mouth, with a value of 76.2 ng g-1 (marine sediments), and in the estuarine samples ranged from 171.4 to 564 ng g-1; followed by the port area ranged from 15.5 to 77.5 ng g-1 and finally the Residential area ranged from 16.5 to 26.5 ng g-1. Likewise, in Anadara tuberculosa the highest concentrations of Ʃ16PAHs were found in the Rosario river mouth, ranged from 31 to 169 ng g-1, followed by the residential area with ranged of 78 to 157 ng g-1 and the port area ranged from 24 to 63 ng g-1. No concentrations of Ʃ16PAHs in the analyzed marine sediment samples exceeded the regulatory limit established by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (1684.1 ng g-1). However, the concentration of individual PAHs of two samples located in the river mouth area exceeded the standard established by the sediments quality guides (SQG) for the protection of aquatic life in Canada (phenanthrene =87 ng g-1, fluoranthene = 113 ng g-1, pyrene = 153 ng g-1, acenaphthene = 6.7 ng g-1 and fluorine = 21 ng g-1). These samples are SD5 and SD6, which had higher concentrations of these congeners such as phenantrene (98.7 ng g-1), fluoranthene (160.7 ng g-1) and pyrene (292.5 ng g-1) in the SD5 sample, and acenaphthene (8.6 ng g-1) and fluorene (24.1 ng g-1) in sample SD6. The concentrations of four samples of Anadara tuberculosa exceeded the regulatory limit of Colombia for human consumption (35 ng g-1) and five samples the regulatory limit of the European Union for human consumption (30 ng g-1). Limits reported as the sum of four PAHs Ʃ4PAHs: benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene. Diagnostic relationships of some isomeric PAHs (fluoranthene-pyrene and anthracene-phenanthrene) were applied in marine sediments to estimate possible sources of contamination. It was found that the diagnostic relationships, for the two samples collected in the estuary of the Rosario river mouth, suggest that the PAHs come from petrogenic sources. For the sample collected in river mouth more external (farthest from the estuary) suggest that the PAHs come from combustion of biomass, coal, or wood. While for the samples from the port and residential areas suggest a combination of petrogenic and combustion sources. Carcinogenic (TEQ) and mutagenic (MEQ) equivalents were determined for marine sediment samples and Anadara tuberculosa to assess toxicological risk. In marine sediments, toxic equivalents ranged from 0.07 to 7.56 BaP-TEQ, therefore, no BaP-TEQ obtained exceeded the value recommended by the Canadian soil quality guide for PAHs (600 BaP-TEQ). Likewise, mutagenic equivalents ranged from 0.17 to 9.45 BaP-MEQ. On the other hand, in Anadara tuberculosa the BaP-TEQ the TEQ ranged from 0.11 to 5.01 BaP-TEQ. Additionally, the BaP-MEQ ranged from 1.5 to 61.2 BaP-MEQ. Due to the environmental problems due to the use of organic solvents that most analytical methods present for the determination of PAHs in environmental matrices, methods with low consumption of organic solvents were used such as miniaturized extraction by ultrasound and dispersion of the matrix in solid phase. Based on the eco-scale for assessing the greenness of analytical procedures, it was determined that the methods used in this study present an excellent green analysis for sediment analysis (eco-scale 80) and acceptable for the analysis of Anadara tuberculosa (eco-scale 58). ; Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Manizales ; Líquenes como potenciales indicadores pasivos de la contaminación atmosférica ; Trabajo final de maestría presentado como requisito para optar al título de: Magister en Ingeniería – Ingeniería Ambiental. -- Grupo de Investigación: Grupo de Trabajo Académico en Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental – GTAIHA. ; Maestría

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :사회과학대학 지리학과,2020. 2. 이건학. ; 본 연구는 사회·경제적 네트워크에 대한 주요 견해와 스리랑카 농촌 및 도시 지역에서 홍수 범람의 취약성을 개선에 대한 영향을 다루고 있다. 남아사이 중산층 개발도상국에 속하는 스리랑카는 수십 년 전부터 폭우와 이로 인한 홍수로 인해 여러 부작용을 겪어 왔다. 이에 스리랑카 사회에서는 강력한 사회경제적 네트워크와 상호 호혜적인 인력 동원 및 협력과 이타적 성격으로 홍수로 인한 여러 부작용을 이겨 내었다. 이러한 맥락에서 본 연구는 스리랑카의 홍수 범람에 대한 사회경제적 네트워크의 지리와 관련된 사회적 자본 행위자에 대해 파악하고자 한다. 이에 대한 실증적 연구를 진행하기 위해 스리랑카의 21개의 행정 단위(Grama Niladhari Division, GND)에서 거주하고 있는 405개의 침수 가구를 대상으로 설문 조사를 진행하였다. 설문 조사 대상은 크게 농촌 지역과 도시 지역으로 나눌 수 있으며, 농촌 지역의 경우 15개 GND에 소속된 327 가구, 도시 지역의 경우 6개 GND에 속한 78가구가 이에 해당한다. 또한 추가적인 데이터 수집을 위해 13개월에 걸친 가계 설문 조사, 비공식 인터뷰, 포커스 그룹 토론, 현장 관찰을 수행하였다. 주요 연구 방법으로는 사회적 네트워크 분석 기법, 사회적 취약성 다변량 지수를 사용하였으며, 일부 질적 연구 방법을 추가적으로 적용하였다. 연구 결과 네트워크의 성격과 이에 대한 측정치는 시간에 따라 서로 다른 방향 및 크기로 변화 하였으며, 시간과 지리적 공간에 따른 네트워크 연결의 진화적 변화도 관찰할 수 있었다. 특히, 모든 시골 지역 GND와 관련하여 밀도, 근접성, 중심성과 같은 주요 네트워크 측정치들은 홍수 발생 전 단계 및 발생 단계에서는 감소세를 보이다가, 홍수 발생 이후에는 증가세를 보였다. 이와는 대조적으로 도시에서는 홍수 발생 이전과 발생 단계에서는 주요 네트워크 측정치가 증가세를 보였지만, 발생 이후에는 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 또한, 네트워크 클러스터는 시골 및 도시 지역 모두 홍수 발생 이전 시점과 발생 시점에서 보여지고 있으며 발생 이후에는 감소하는 것으로 나타났다. 네트워크 구조는 대부분의 시골 지역에서 홍수 발생 이후에 지원 네트워크의 조직화가 더욱 짜임새 있는 형태로 전개되었다. 반대로 모든 네트워크의 구조적인 변화는 상호 지원 유대의 행동과 특징에만 기초하고 있다. 사회적 네트워크는 홍수 발생의 이전과 밣생 및 이후의 시기에 있어 홍수에 대응하는데 중심 역할을 해왔다. 특히 정보, 음식, 물 및 기타 생필품의 제공, 살림살이에 대한 청소와 이동, 대피소 제공, 살림살이를 다시 집으로 옮기는 과정, 오염된 주거 환경과 공공 장소에 대한 청소, 각종 재정적 지원의 경우 홍수로 입은 피해를 복구하는데 큰 도움이 된 것으로 나타났다. 더욱 중요한 것은 지원 네트워크 행동에 있어 주요한 차이점이 도시와 지방 그리고 작은 규모의 시골 지역들 사이에서 관찰된다는 점이다. 즉, 홍수 사건에서의 지역 지원 네트워크 행동은 도시 네트워크 행동이 다양한 방식으로 다양화되는 것과는 극명한 대조를 이룬다. 즉, 도시에 비해 농촌에서 더 깊은 유대를 바탕으로 한 지원이 이루어지고 있었다. 또한 본 연구는 마을 주민들이 홍수에 대응하기 위하여 사회경제적 네트워크를 강하게 구축하였고, 이에 대한 사회자본의 역사적 배경이 매우 깊다는 것을 관찰하였다. 홍수 범람에 대한 사회적 취약성 점수는 매우 다양한 분포를 보였다. Kuruwita의 가구 표본은 Elapatha, Colombo의 가구 표본에 비하여 상당히 낮은 수준의 취약성을 보였다. 구체적으로 Kuruwita, Elapatha, Colombo DSD에서 평균 취약성 점수는 0.39(최소: 0.01, 최대: 0.875), 0.48(최소: 0.113, 최대: 0.996). 0.56(최소: 0.211, 최대: 0.9999)으로 각각 관찰되었다. 또한 취약성 점수에 대한 지역적 다양성도 관찰된다. 취약성 분포의 공간적 패턴에 대한 차이 또한 취약성 지도(가구 및 GND 수준)를 통해 확인할 수 있었다. ; This dissertation coupled together with the considering dominating ideas of socio-economic networks, related social capital and their influences on the ameliorating social vulnerability to flood inundation in rural and urban areas of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka as a South Asian middle-income developing country has been experiencing adverse effects and consequences from torrential rains and related flood disasters since decades. In particular, in Sri Lankan society, strong socioeconomic networks and reciprocal resource sharing and mobilizations, their collaborations, and altruistic nature of helping others (this is such a de-facto tradition) have affectively been forestalled the adverse effects and consequences of mass flooding events. On this context, this research seeks to examine the key research puzzle of 'What are the roles, efficacies and the Geographies of socioeconomic networks and related social capital behaviors in the ameliorating social vulnerability to flood inundation in Sri Lankan soil?' For the empirical study, 405 flood-inundated households were selected prior to their consent for household questionnaire survey covering 21 local administrative divisions (e.g. GNDs) in Sri Lanka. The study areas comprised 21 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GNDs) which are belonged to rural (15 GNDs covering 327 households) and urban (6 GNDs covering 78 households) geographical settings. For empirical data collection, household questionnaire survey, informal interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations were carried out during 13 months (from January, 2018 to January, 2019). The study mainly used Social Networks Analysis (SNA) methods, quantification of social vulnerability to flood inundation by applying Multi Facets Composite Social Vulnerability Index (MFCSVI), and some of qualitative methods in accordance with the mixed research method approach. The empirical findings revealed that network characteristics and measures have changed over time (at before, during, and after phases) in different magnitudes and also observed evolutionary changes of network ties over time and among different geographical settings. In particular, related to all the rural GNDs, the key network measures (e.g. degree density, closeness, and betweenness centralities) are decreased from before flood inundation phase to during phase and then increased at after phase. On the contrary, in urban networks, those measures have increased from before phase to during phase and then decreased at the after phase. And also, network clusters are observed at both before and during phases similarly in rural and urban areas. Network structures are became more distributed forms at after phase in almost all the rural support networks. By contrast, all the structural changes of networks solely depend on the behaviors and characteristics of reciprocal support ties and their resource mobilizations. Social networks have been played a pivotal role in flood disaster responding at before, during, and after flooding events. Particularly, provision of information, food, water and other basic needs; evacuation and moving out belongings; provision of shelters; moving in belongings back; cleaning up contaminated households and public places; provisions of emotional and financial supports are strongly helped and mattered for securing and reviving flood-affected livelihoods. More importantly, major differences of support networks behaviors are observed in related to the urban-rural dichotomy and also among rural areas at lesser magnitudes. In other words, the regional support network behaviors in the flooding events are in stark contrast to the urban networks behaviors is diversified a plenty of ways. Much dense support ties are exemplified in rural areas compared to the urban contexts. Study also revealed that the villagers have very strong historical background of socio-economic networks and social capital in response to flooding events by the ways in which identified it as Traditional Social Capital (TSC) in this study. The scores of social vulnerability to flood inundation are varied between sectors as well as within sectors. Kuruwita sampled households exemplified with fairly low scores of vulnerability compared to Elapatha and Colombo sampled households. For examples, in Kuruwita, Elapatha, and Colombo DSDs, the average vulnerability scores observed as 0.39 (with Min 0.01 and Max 0.875), 0.48 (with Min 0.113 and Max 0.996), and 0.56 (with Min 0.211 and Max 0.999) respectively. Regional diversities of vulnerability scores also are identified. Vulnerability mapping (household level and GND level) also revealed the different spatial patterns of social vulnerability distribution. Results show that MFCSVI is a suitable and sophisticated empirical application for regional level social vulnerability assessment in reference to the key vulnerability components. Most notably, this study made some of contributions and theoretical implications to the existing body of literatures of related disciplines, for instances, analyzing of spatiotemporal dynamics of socio-economic networks of different flood-inundated geographical settings, the examining of the traditional social capital perspective of affected villages, and the empirical application of MFCSVI approach for social vulnerability quantification. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Background and research problem 1 1.2. Research questions and objectives 9 1.3. Relevance and significance 11 1.4. Scope and theoretical background 13 1.5. Organization of chapters 14 Chapter 2. Literature review and conceptual background 16 2.1. Social networks 16 2.1.1. Conceptual background of social networks 17 2.1.2. Measurement and representation of social networks 19 2.1.3. Social capital and social networks 25 2.1.4. Social networks and social capital in the context of disaster preparedness and recovery 29 2.2. Social vulnerability in the context of natural disasters 33 2.2.1. Vulnerability in different perspectives and notions 36 2.2.2. Determinants of social vulnerability 41 2.2.3. Exposure, coping capacity, adaptive capacity, and resilience of social vulnerability 44 2.2.4. Social vulnerability assessment and key applications 49 Chapter 3. Materials and methodologies 56 3.1. Study areas 56 3.1.1. Kuruwita DSD 57 3.1.2. Elapatha DSD 60 3.1.3. Colombo DSD 63 3.2. Research methods and empirical applications 69 3.2.1. Data collection 69 3.2.2. Quantitative and qualitative analysis methods and measures 76 Chapter 4. Spatio-temporal dynamics of socio-economic networks for flood disaster preparedness and recovery 91 4.1. Spatio-temporal evolutionary dynamics of reciprocal supports, network measures, and network graphs 91 4.1.1. Kuruwita DSD – Reciprocal supports and socio-economic networks 92 4.1.2. Elapatha DSD – Reciprocal supports and socio-economic networks 102 4.1.3. Colombo DSD – Reciprocal supports and socio-economic networks 112 4.1.4. Overall perspectives of empirical findings 121 4.1.5. Organizational networks behaviors on rural-urban flooding events 147 Chapter 5. Social capital legacies for flood disaster preparedness and recovery 152 5.1. Implications of Social capital legacies 152 5.1.1. Socio-economic associations and groups 153 5.1.2. Feeling trust and solidarity among respondents 157 5.1.3. Collective actions and cooperation in daily life 160 5.1.4. Information and communication among villagers 162 5.1.5. Social cohesion and inclusion among respondents 163 5.1.6. Towards empowering people and political actions 165 5.2. Traditional social capital (TSC) in the flood inundation events 168 5.2.1. Past experiences of social capital 168 5.2.2. Legacies of traditional Native-ethos and floods preventive apparatuses 171 Chapter 6. Characteristics and geographies of social vulnerability to flood inundation 180 6.1. Measurement of multi-facets composite social vulnerability to flood inundation 181 6.1.1. Social vulnerability to flood inundation - Kuruwita DSD 181 6.1.2. Social vulnerability to flood inundation - Elapatha DSD 187 6.1.3. Social vulnerability to flood inundation - Colombo DSD 192 6.2. Spatial distribution of social vulnerability to the flood inundation 198 6.2.1. Spatial patterns of social vulnerability at the household Level 198 6.2.2. Spatial patterns of social vulnerability for the GNDs 207 6.3. Geographies of social vulnerability to the flood inundation and rural-urban dichotomy 216 Chapter 7. Conclusion and discussion 229 7.1. Key findings 229 7.2. The Research gaps, empirical contributions and theoretical implications 230 7.3. Policy implications and recommendations 234 7.4. Future research foci 237 7.5. Limitations 238 Bibliography 240 Abstract in Korean 259 Appendixes 261 ; Doctor

This thesis analyzes micro-level causes of forest fires in the Brazilian Amazon, and the impact of policies and droughts on smallholders' decisions to use and control fires. Fires in the Brazilian Amazon are an important driver of forest degradation, doubling biodiversity losses from deforestation. Fires have burned an area equivalent to half of the whole forest over the past 15 years1, and produce yearly carbon emissions equivalent to 5% of the global amount. Fires affect local people, who suffer direct damages to their crops, houses and infrastructures, and are exposed to health hazards from air pollution. But fire is also "cheap labor" and an important livelihood tool for Amazonian smallholders. They rely on fire to clear land, fertilize soil and control pests. The same people suffering the most direct damages from forest and accidental fires are also the main fire users. The first article elaborates on this apparent paradox, and seek to explain the persistence of low yield and land degrading practices through fire use. It is shown that fire risk externalities, arising outside the farmer's property, reduce investments in fire control and the uptake of fire-free techniques. Preventing own fire to escape to the rest of the property is costly, and a wasted effort if fires originating from outside are likely to destroy the farm anyway. If fire risk is too high, there is no incentive to invest in alternative fire free techniques, because more assets would be at stake in case of a fire. Fire risk causes more fire use and less fire control. The coordination nature of fire risk, fire use and related income makes these and inputs choices simultaneous to revenue. Generated instrumental variables are used to overcome this identification challenge, and to estimate the revenue elasticity to fire risk externalities for fire and non-fire users. The negative impact of externalities is large, and higher for the non-fire users, supporting the use of a coordination model to analyze fire use decisions. The other three articles of the thesis report on a framed field experiment based on a coordination game. They assess the joint impact of droughts and policies on coordination for fire risk mitigation. Droughts cause fires to spread beyond the boundaries of the neighborhood or the community, affecting other groups. I test the impact of stable vs. increasing drought risk, miming a climate change scenario. In a within design, I also test three fire mitigation policies: command and control against uncontrolled fire, payments for environmental services conditional on uptake of fire-free techniques, and community-based fire management in the form of face-to-face communication. The first article contrasts the impact of command and control vs. payments for environmental services, finding that both policies equally increase the adoption of fire-free techniques, but that the latter fails to mitigate fire risk because it crowds out fire control investments among the fire users. Farmers respond to drought risk with more uncontrolled fires, suggesting that the impact of droughts might partially be human mediated. All policies perform better in the increasing drought risk treatment, suggesting that participants are more reactive to policies in a climate change scenario. The third article analyzes the impact of community based fire management through communication on coordination. A level-k model shows that communication fosters coordination. A social norm produces the same effect, by converging expectations, and by breeding a taboo on the proscribed choice. If communication and the norm operate together and the norm fails to provide sufficient assurance for coordination, the outcome is worse than for communication alone because the taboo hampers the self-signaling property of communication. Finally, communication of requests can improve coordination under a weak social norm if players are believed to be credulous enough. I find evidence of a weak fire control norm into the experiment, and support for the level-k model predictions. I conclude that community based fire management is more likely to mitigate fire risk when drought risk is high enough to weaken the norm, and when requests from community leaders are more influential. The last article analyzes the impact of social and risk preferences and perceptions on coordination in stated and experimental data, and provides an external validity test of the experiment. Social and risk preferences and perception are theoretically relevant for coordination, affecting whether coordination tipping points are passed and even the number of equilibria in the game. Standard external validity tests based on correlation between experimental behavior and a counterfactual measure are prone to spurious correlation and may be theoretically inconsistent. It is described and implemented a novel test based on commonality of behavior predictors in and out of the experiment: predictor validity. The out-of-the-experiment counterfactual is built using stated behavior. Both stated and incentive compatible measures of preferences are also collected. It is found that risk perception but not risk aversion causes miscoordination. Pro-social preferences improve coordination outside but not within the experiment. Other predictors are also analyzed to exemplify the functioning and limits of predictor (external) validity tests. We conclude that the experiment is likely externally valid concerning fire use decisions. The tests seem to dismiss external validity of fire control choices, but not all assumptions of the test are met, leading to ambiguous interpretations. Policies to mitigate fire risk should target a reduction in perceived fire risk and consider pro-social preferences. Fire risk traps farmers in low yield and environmentally degrading land use practices, namely uncontrolled fire use. Mitigating fire risk likely achieve three often competing goals: to reduce carbon emissions, to preserve biodiversity and to pave the way for economic development. ; Denne avhandlingen analyserer årsakene til skogbrann i den brasilianske delen Amazonas, og virkningen av tørke og politiske virkemidler på småbønders beslutninger om å bruke og kontrollere skogbranner. Branner i den brasilianske delen av Amazonas er en viktig drivkraft bak skogsforringelse, og dobler tapet av biologisk mangfold knyttet til avskoging. Et areal tilsvarende halvparten av hele regnskogen har brent ned de siste 15 årene2, og karbonutslippene fra disse skogbrannene tilsvarer 5% av de globale utslippene. Branner påvirker lokalbefolkningen gjennom direkte skader på avlinger, hus og infrastrukturer og samt gjennom helseeffekter ved luftforurensning. Bruk av ild er imidlertid "billig arbeidskraft" ved oppdyrking, og utgjør dermed et viktig del av livsgrunnlaget for småbrukere i Amazonas. De bruker ild for å rydde land, gjødsle jorda og kontrollere ugras og skadedyr. Den samme befolkningsgruppen som påføres de mest direkte skader fra skogbranner, er dermed også de viktigste brukerne av ild. Den første artikkelen tar sikte på å forklare dette tilsynelatende paradokset, og forsøker å forklare hvordan lav avkastning og landdegradering opprettholdes ved bruk av brann. Den viser at eksternaliteter ved brann, dvs. negative effekter av branner som oppstår utenfor småbondens eiendom, reduserer deres investeringer i brannkontroll og opptak av brannfrie dyrkingsteknikker. Å forhindre egenpåsatt brann i å spre seg til resten av eiendommen er dyrt, og bortkastet innsats hvis branner som kommer fra andre eiendommer trolig vil ødelegge gården uansett. Hvis brannrisikoen er for høy, har ikke småbøndene insentiv til å investere i alternative brannfrie dyrkingsteknikker fordi de likevel vil være utsatt for tap av eiendeler ved branner forårsaket av andre småbønder. Økt brannfare forårsaker mer brannbruk og mindre brannkontroll. Sammenhengen mellom graden av koordinering av brannrisiko, brannbruk og den tilhørende gårdsinntekten gjør at beslutningene må analyseres simultant. Utfordringene som dette skaper kan overvinnes ved bruk av instrumentelle variabler. Artikkelen estimerer inntektselastisiteten til eksternaliteter av brannrisiko, både for småbrukere som bruker brann og de som ikke bruker brann. Den negative eksternalitetene er store, og større for ikke-brannbrukere. Det støtter bruk av en koordinasjonsmodell for å analysere brannbeslutninger. De tre andre artiklene i avhandlingen rapporterer om et økonomisk felteksperiment basert på et koordineringsspill. De vurderer den samlede effekten av tørke og politiske virkemidler på koordinering for å redusere brannrisikoen. Tørke fører til at branner lettere sprer seg utenfor nabolaget eller lokalsamfunnet og dermed påvirker andre befolkningsgrupper. Her testes virkningen av konstant vs. økende tørkerisiko, noe som gjenskaper et mulig klimaendringsscenario. Tre ulike politiske virkemidler for å redusere brannrisiko testes: i) direkte reguleringer av ukontrollert brann, ii) betalinger for miljøtjenester betinget av bruk av brannfrie teknikker, og iii) fellesskapsbaserte løsninger gjennom direkte kommunikasjon. Den første artikkelen kontrasterer effekten av direkte reguleringer (forbud og straff) med betalinger for miljøtjenester; og finner at begge virkemidlene øker bruken av brannfrie teknikker, men at sistnevnte ikke reduserer brannrisikoen fordi det reduserer investeringer i brannkontroll. Bønder reagerer på tørkerisiko med mer bruk av ukontrollerte branner. Det kan tyde på at virkningen av tørke delvis kan være menneskeskapt. Alle virkemidler har større effekt i scenariet med økende tørkerisiko; noe som tyder på at småbøndene påvirkes mer av virkemidlene i tørkeår. Den tredje artikkelen analyserer virkningen av fellesskapsbasert brannhåndtering gjennom kommunikasjon om koordinering. En nivå-k modell viser at kommunikasjon fremmer koordinering. En sosial norm gir samme effekt, ved at forventningene konvergerer, og skaper et tabu for det forbudte valget (brann uten kontroll). Hvis kommunikasjon og normen virker sammen, og normen ikke gir tilstrekkelig garanti for koordinering, er utfallet verre enn for kommunikasjon alene fordi tabuet hemmer troverdigheten ved signalisering til kommunikasjon. Til slutt kan kommunikasjon av forespørsler forbedre samordningen under en svak sosial norm hvis spillerne antas å være troverdige. Jeg finner bevis på en svak brannkontrollnorm i eksperimentet, og støtter prediksjonene fra nivå-k modellen. Jeg konkluderer med at lokal og kommunikasjonsbasert brannhåndtering har større sannsynlighet til å redusere brannrisiko når tørkerisikoen er høy nok til å svekke normen, og når forespørsler kommer fra innflytelsesrike ledere i lokalsamfunnet. Den siste artikkelen analyserer virkningen av sosiale- og risiko-preferanser og oppfatninger på koordinering i feltobservasjoner og eksperimenter, og gir en ekstern validitetstest av eksperimentet. Sosial- og risikopreferanser og oppfatninger er teoretisk relevant for koordinering, og påvirker om koordineringstippepunktene er passert, og til og med antall likevekter i spillet. Standard eksterne validitetstester basert på korrelasjon mellom eksperimentell oppførsel og et kontrafaktisk mål er sårbart for falsk korrelasjon og kan være teoretisk inkonsistent. Vi implementerer en ny test basert på sammenfall av atferds-prediktorer i og utenfor eksperimentet: prediktorvaliditet. Kontrafaktumet utenfor eksperimentet er basert på oppgitt atferd. Data for både oppgitte og insentivkompatible tiltak av preferanser er innsamlet. Vi finner at risikooppfattelsen, men ikke risikoaversjon, forårsaker feilkoordinering. Pro-sosiale preferanser forbedrer koordineringen utenfor, men ikke innenfor eksperimentet. Andre forklaringsvariabler analyseres også for å eksemplifisere funksjonen og grensene for prediktor (ekstern) validitetstesten. Vi konkluderer med at eksperimentet sannsynligvis er eksternt gyldig når det gjelder bruk av brannbruk. Testene synes å avvise ekstern validitet av brannkontrollvalg, men siden ikke alle forutsetninger for testen er oppfylte er ikke denne tolkningen entydig. Virkemidler som tar sikte på å redusere brannrisikoen bør være rettet mot en reduksjon i oppfattet brannrisiko og ta hensyn til pro-sosiale preferanser. Brannrisiko fanger småbønder i en ond sirkel av lav avkastning og miljøforringende arealbrukspraksis i form av ukontrollert brannbruk. Virkemidler for å redusere brannrisiko kan derfor oppnå tre, ofte konkurrerende mål: i) å redusere karbonutslipp, ii) å bevare biologisk mangfold, og iii) å legge grunnlaget for økonomisk utvikling.

RIJEČ UREDNIŠTVAZa ovogodišnje lipanjske Dane hrvatskoga šumarstva održana je panel rasprava o trenutnoj situaciji u šumama Hrvatske. Naziv rasprave bio je "Hoće li nas šume nadživjeti?". Svrha skupa bila je informirati širu javnost o stanju šumskih ekosustava, ali i o promjenama koje se događaju u njima. Govori li sam naziv skupa dovoljno o ozbiljnosti situacije u kojoj se nalaze naše šume? Promijenjeni klimatski uvjeti koji vladaju na početku 21. stoljeća, donijeli su mnogo neprilika u šumama posljednjih pet godina. Tome treba pribrojiti i nikad veću trgovačku globalizaciju, što doprinosi bržem i lakšem širenju invazivnih vrsta bolesti i štetnika. Danas gotovo da nema ni jedne značajnije šumske vrste drveća koja nema svojih problema. Šume Gorskog kotara sastavljene od jele, bukve i smreke stradale su uslijed klimatskih ekstrema, a potom potkornjaka, nizinske šume hrasta lužnjaka napadnute su hrastovom mrežastom stjenicom, a šume poljskog jasena ubrzano propadaju uslijed više čimbenika, posebice Halare, dok dalmatinske borove šume ozbiljno ugrožava borov potkornjak. Tu su i šumski požari nakon kojih uslijed erozija nestaje i šumsko tlo, što umnogome onemogućuje sanaciju i vodi degradaciji šume. Tako ugroženim šumama smanjuju se financijska sredstva za njihov zaštitu i obnovu, što je sad i definitivno ozakonjeno Zakonom o šumama (NN 68/2018) koji je stupio na snagu 4. kolovoza 2018. O prijedlogu zakona pisali smo u Šumarskom listu 5-6/2018. Saborska rasprava nije donijela zaokret u odnosu na zakonski prijedlog koji je usvojila Vlada Republike Hrvatske. Zakon je ustvari na tragu programa Vlade RH za područje gospodarstva, poljoprivrede i ruralnog razvoja iz listopada 2016. godine. Šumarstvo se u tom programu spominje u potpoglavlju "Aktivno upravljanje šumama, veća proizvodnja i više radnih mjesta u domaćoj drvnoj industriji" s rečenicom: Izmjenom zakonske regulative Vlada će poboljšati i otkloniti poteškoće u načinu raspolaganja šumama i šumskim zemljištima, provoditi razminiranje šuma i šumskog zemljišta, sprječavati ilegalne sječe i trgovine i poticati razvoj domaće drvne industrije koja proizvodi drvni proizvod. Smatramo da takav program baš i nije poticajan za šume i šumska zemljišta. Razminiranje je svakako unaprjeđenje u upravljanju i gospodarenju šumama koje se provodi godinama, kao i najavljeno sprječavanje ilegalne sječe i trgovine, samo za to nema dovoljno pozitivnih pokazatelja, jer je takva djelatnost postala jako unosna na štetu šume i šumovlasnika / šumoposjednika. Početkom godine donesen je i Zakon o poljoprivrednom zemljištu (NN 20/2018, na snazi od 9. ožujka 2018.) koji je propisao, kao i Zakon o šumama, izdvajanje iz šumsko-gospodarske osnove zapuštenog poljoprivrednog zemljišta koje se može privesti poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji i mogućnost davanja takvog zemljišta sukladno Programu raspolaganja u zakup ili prodaju. Omogućeno je i za zemljišta izvan građevinskog područja koja se u katastru vode kao poljoprivredna zemljišta, a u pravilu su zapuštena, da se uključe u šumskogospodarsko područje, jer su troškovi njihovog privođenja poljoprivrednoj namjeni veći od tržišne vrijednosti ili ukupnog iznosa zakupnine toga zemljišta. Ove odredbe trebale bi napokon omogućiti svrsishodnu raspodjelu zemljišta na poljoprivredno i šumsko te njihovo stvarno korištenje. Novi Zakon o šumama uvažio je višegodišnje primjedbe obveznika plaćanja naknade za općekorisne funkcije šuma (OKFŠ), što je u javnosti i medijima često prvo bilo na udaru kao nepotreban i neshvaćen "parafiskalni" namet. Sad se 90 % dosadašnjih obveznika (oko 180 tisuća) izuzima iz plaćanja naknade, jer je prag za obvezu plaćanja godišnji prihod ili primitak veći od 3 milijuna kuna uz zadržanu visinu stope naknade od 0,0265 %. Uvaženo je i traženje jedinica lokalne samouprave o povećanju stopa šumskog doprinosa, pa su one povećane s 3,5 % na 5 % i za jedinice na potpomognutim područjima s 5 % na 10 % prodajne cijene proizvoda na panju. Zakon je uveo i definiciju šumoposjednika: javni šumoposjednik ovlašten za gospodarenje šumom i/ili šumskim zemljištem u vlasništvu Republike Hrvatske, javna ustanova čiji je osnivač Republika Hrvatska i njezine znanstveno-nastavne sastavnice, koje svoju znanstveno-nastavnu djelatnost i znanstvenoistraživački rad obavljaju iz područja šumarstva, pravna osoba čiji je osnivač i vlasnik jedinica lokalne samouprave, a kojoj se odlukom Vlade povjerava gospodarenje te privatni šumoposjednik s podjelom na male (do 20 ha šume i/ili šumskog zemljišta), srednje (od 20 do 300 ha) i velike (većim od 300 ha) šumoposjednike. Za šumskogospodarsko područje ustanovljuje se Registar pri Ministarstvu koji se vodi u elektroničkom obliku, a bit će dostupan pod određenim uvjetima. Registar će sadržavati i dio za izvješćivanje potreban za ispunjavanja međunarodnih i nacionalnih obveza iz sektora šumarstva. Zakon predviđa i izdvajanje namjenskih sredstva u poseban fond za razvoj drvne industrije, što je također jedna od predviđenih aktivnosti u programu Vlade iz 2016. godine.Novi Zakon o šumama pokušao je uvažiti razne promjene koje su se dogodile od donošenja prošloga zakona iz 2005. godine, a koje su nivelirane izmjenama i dopunama kroz proteklih 13 godina, njih ukupno osam. Pokušao se uskladiti i s drugim zakonima iz područja poljoprivrede, zaštite pri­ro­de i okoliša, te strategije EU za šume i sektor koji se temelji na šumama. Potrebno je još uskladiti i donijeti sve podzakonske akte vezane uz zakon.Pitamo se hoće li odredbe novog Zakona o šumama biti na tragu rješavanja nagomilanih problema u šumama Hrvatske?Uredništvo ; EDITORIALA panel addressing the current condition of Croatian forests was organized on the occasion of Days of Croatian Forestry that were held in June 2018. The title of the discussion was "Will forests outlive mankind?" The purpose of the panel was to inform broader public of the condition of forest ecosystems, as well as of the changes taking place in them. Does the title of the panel reflect the seriousness of the danger facing our forests? In the last five years, changed climate conditions occurring at the beginning of the 21st century have inflicted major problems to the forests. Add to this general market globalisation, which contributes to the faster and easier spread of invasive diseases and pests. There is not one important forest tree species today that does not have problems. Forests of Gorski Kotar, which are composed of fir, beech, and spruce, have succumbed to climatic extremes and to attacks of bark beetles. Lowland forests of pedunculate oak are infested with the oak lace bug, while forests of narrow-leaved ash are rapidly deteriorating under the cumulative action of several factors, particularly Halare. Dalmatian pine forests are severely threatened by the pine bark beetle. Forest fires also cause extensive damage. The subsequent erosions lead to the loss of forest soils, which greatly hinders recovery and contributes to the degradation of forests. The financial means needed to protect and regenerate such forests are being minimized and this has now definitely been incorporated in the new Forest Act (Official Gazette 68/2018), which came into effect on August 4th, 2018. A parliamentary discussion did not bring about any changes with regard to the proposed act, which was adopted by the Government of the Republic of Croatia. The Act in fact follows the Government programme for the field of economy, agriculture and rural development of October 2016. In the said programme forestry is addressed in the sub-chapter "Active management of forests, higher production and more work places in the domestic wood industry" with the following sentence: By changing legal regulations, the Government will remove obstacles and improve ways of managing forests and forest land. It will also undertake demining operations in forests and forest land, prevent illegal felling and trade and stimulate the development of domestic wood industry which produces wood products. In our opinion, such programme is not really stimulative for forests and forest land. Demining is certainly an improvement in the management of forests and it has been carried out for years, and so is the announced prevention of illegal felling and trade. However, there are not enough positive indicators for this, since these activities have become very profitable at the detriment of forests and forest owners. At the beginning of the year the Agricultural Land Act was passed (Official Gazette 20/2018, in effect since March 9th, 2018), which regulated, as did the Forest Act, the exclusion of abandoned agricultural land from the forest-management plan and its conversion to agricultural production, as well as the possibility of leasing or selling such land in accordance with the Disposition Programme. The Act also allows for the land outside construction areas, which is listed as agricultural land in the land register but is abandoned in reality, to be included in the forest-management area, since the cost of converting the land for agricultural purposes is higher than the market value or the total amount of rent for such land. These provisions should finally enable a rational division of land into agricultural and forest land, and consequently its proper usage. The new Forest Act has also adopted long-lasting objections made by those obliged to pay a non-market forest function fee. The public and the media often harshly criticized this fee as an unnecessary and incomprehensible "parafiscal" tax. Now, 90% of those obliged to pay the fee (about 180 thousand subjects) are exempt from paying the fee, since the threshold for the obligation has been set down at an annual income or profit higher than 3 million kuna, while the rate of the fee has been retained at 0.0265 %. Demands by local self-management units to raise the rate of forest contribution have also been adopted, and it has accordingly been raised from 3.5 % to 5 %, while for units in subsidized areas it has been raised from 5 % to 10 % of the selling price of the product before felling. The Act also defines a forest owner: a public forest owner authorized to manage a forest and/or forest land owned by the Republic of Croatia, a public institution whose founder is the Republic of Croatia and its scientific-teaching components which carry out their scientific-teaching activity and scientific-research work in the field of forestry, a legal person whose founder and owner is the local self-management unit and which is entrusted with management by a Government decision, and a private forest owner. Private forest owners are divided into small (up to 20 ha of forests and/or forest land), medium (from 20 to 300 ha) and large (more than 300 ha) forest owners. A Register of a forest-management area in the electronic form will be established by the Ministry, and it will be available under certain conditions. The Register will contain a reporting part needed to fulfil international and national obligations in the forestry sector. The Act also provides for the allocation of earmarked means into a special fund for the development of the wood industry, which is also one of the activities in the Government programme from 2016. The new Forest Act has attempted to incorporate different changes taking place since the previous Act of 2005 was passed. There have been a total of eight changes, which have been adjusted by revisions and amendments over the past 13 years. The Act is also coordinated with other laws from the field of agriculture, nature and environment protection, and the EU strategy for forests and forest-based sector. All by-laws related to the Act need to be coordinated and passed.We wonder whether the regulations of the new Forest Act will try to solve the growing problems in the forests of Croatia. Editorial Board

As a cradle of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow River Basin has a very long human-environment interrelationship, where early anthropogenic activities re- sulted in large scale landscape modifications. Today, the impact of this relationship has intensified further as the basin plays a vital role for China's continued economic development. It is one of the most densely-populated, fastest growing, and most dynamic regions of China with abundant natural and environmental resources providing a livelihood for almost 190 million people. Triggered by fundamental economic reforms, the basin has witnessed a spectacular economic boom during the last decades and can be considered as an exemplary blueprint region for contemporary dynamic Global Change processes occurring throughout the country, which is currently transitioning from an agrarian-dominated economy into a modern urbanized society. However, this resourcesdemanding growth has led to profound land use changes with adverse effects on the Yellow River social-ecological systems, where complex challenges arise threatening a long-term sustainable development. Consistent and continuous remote sensing-based monitoring of recent and past land cover and land use change is a fundamental requirement to mitigate the adverse impacts of Global Change processes. Nowadays, technical advancement and the multitude of available satellite sensors, in combination with the opening of data archives, allow the creation of new research perspectives in regional land cover applications over heterogeneous landscapes at large spatial scales. Despite the urgent need to better understand the prevailing dynamics and underlying factors influencing the current processes, detailed regional specific land cover data and change information are surprisingly absent for this region. In view of the noted research gaps and contemporary developments, three major objectives are defined in this thesis. First (i), the current and most pressing social-ecological challenges are elaborated and policy and management instruments towards more sustainability are discussed. Second (ii), this thesis provides new and improved insights on the current land cover state and dynamics of the entire Yellow River Basin. Finally (iii), the most dominant processes related to mining, agriculture, forest, and urban dynamics are determined on finer spatial and temporal scales. The complex and manifold problems and challenges that result from long-term abuse of the water and land resources in the basin have been underpinned by policy choices, cultural attitude, and institutions that have evolved over centuries in China. The tremendous economic growth that has been mainly achieved by extracting water and exploiting land resources in a rigorous, but unsustainable manner, might not only offset the economic benefits, but could also foster social unrest. Since the early emergence of the first Chinese dynasties, flooding was considered historically as a primary issue in river management and major achievements have been made to tame the wild nature of the Yellow River. Whereas flooding is therefore largely now under control, new environmental and social problems have evolved, including soil and water pollution, ecological degradation, biodiversity decline, and food security, all being further aggravated by anthropogenic climate change. To resolve the contemporary and complex challenges, many individual environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by various Chinese ministries. However, these policies often pursue different, often contradictory goals, are too general to tackle specific problems and are usually implemented by a strong top-down approach. Recently, more flexible economic and market-based incentives (pricing, tradable permits, investments) have been successfully adopted, which are specifically tailored to the respective needs, shifting now away from the pure command and regulating instruments. One way towards a more holistic and integrated river basin management could be the establishment of a common platform (e.g. a Geographical Information System) for data handling and sharing, possibly operated by the Yellow River Basin Conservancy Commission (YRCC), where available spatial data, statistical information and in-situ measures are coalesced, on which sustainable decision-making could be based. So far, the collected data is hardly accessible, fragmented, inconsistent, or outdated. The first step to address the absence and lack of consistent and spatially up-to-date information for the entire basin capturing the heterogeneous landscape conditions was taken up in this thesis. Land cover characteristics and dynamics were derived from the last decade for the years 2003 and 2013, based on optical medium-resolution hightemporal MODIS Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series at 250 m. To minimize the inherent influence of atmospheric and geometric interferences found in raw high temporal data, the applied adaptive Savitzky-Golay filter successfully smoothed the time series and substantially reduced noise. Based on the smoothed time series data, a large variety of intra-annual phenology metrics as well as spectral and multispectral annual statistics were derived, which served as input variables for random forest (RF) classifiers. High quality reference data sets were derived from very high resolution imagery for each year independently of which 70 % trained the RF models. The accuracy assessments for all regionally specific defined thematic classes were based on the remaining 30 % reference data split and yielded overall accuracies of 87 % and 84 % for 2003 and 2013, respectively. The first regional adapted Yellow River Land Cover Products (YRB LC) depict the detail spatial extent and distribution of the current land cover status and dynamics. The novel products overall differentiate overall 18 land cover and use classes, including classes of natural vegetation (terrestrial and aquatic), cultivated classes, mosaic classes, non-vegetated, and artificial classes, which are not presented in previous land cover studies so far. Building on this, an extended multi-faceted land cover analysis on the most prominent land cover change types at finer spatial and temporal scales provides a better and more detailed picture of the Yellow River Basin dynamics. Precise spatio-temporal products about mining, agriculture, forest, and urban areas were examined from long-trem Landsat satellite time series monitored at annual scales to capture the rapid rate of change in four selected focus regions. All archived Landsat images between 2000 and 2015 were used to derive spatially continuous spectral-temporal, multi-spectral, and textural metrics. For each thematic region and year RF models were built, trained and tested based on a stablepixels reference data set. The automated adaptive signature (AASG) algorithm identifies those pixels that did not change between the investigated time periods to generate a mono-temporal reference stable-pixels data set to keep manual sampling requirements to a minimum level. Derived results gained high accuracies ranging from 88 % to 98 %. Throughout the basin, afforestation on the Central Loess Plateau and urban sprawl are identified as most prominent drivers of land cover change, whereas agricultural land remained stable, only showing local small-scale dynamics. Mining operations started in 2004 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which resulted in a substantial loss of pristine alpine meadows and wetlands. In this thesis, a novel and unique regional specific view of current and past land cover characteristics in a complex and heterogeneous landscape was presented by using a multi-source remote sensing approach. The delineated products hold great potential for various model and management applications. They could serve as valuable components for effective and sustainable land and water management to adapt and mitigate the predicted consequences of Global Change processes. ; Der Gelbe Fluss - in der Landessprache Huange He genannt - ist für die Ausprägung und Entwicklung der chinesischen Kultur von großer Bedeutung. Aufgrund der frühen Einflussnahme auf die natürlichen Ökosysteme in dieser Region durch den Menschen, entwickelte sich dort eine ausgeprägte Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Diese Wechselbeziehung hat sich infolge der gegenwärtigen rapiden sozioökonomischen Veränderungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten weiter intensiviert. Das Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses bildet die Lebensgrundlage für fast 190 Millionen Menschen, die zum Großteil von natürlichen Ressourcen abhängig sind. Zudem gehört es zu den wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten und am schnellsten wachsenden Regionen in ganz China. Durch weitreichende Reformen wurde ein wirtschaftlicher Aufstieg forciert, um den Agrarstaat China zu einem modernen Industrie- und Dienstleistungsstaat weiterzuentwickeln. Ein derartiges rasantes wie auch ressourcenintensives Wirtschaftswachstum führte schließlich zu einem enormen Wandel in den Bereichen der Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Hinzu kamen neue und komplexere wirtschafts-, sozial- und umweltpolitische Herausforderungen, die bis heute eine langfristige und nachhaltige Entwicklung der Region gefährden. Aus diesem Blickwinkel kann das Becken des Gelben Flusses als regionales Spiegelbild der durch den Globalen Wandel bedingten, gegenwärtigen Veränderungsprozesse in ganz China gelten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den adäquaten Umgang mit den Herausforderungen des Globalen Wandels sind kontinuierliche Informationen über aktuelle sowie historische Veränderungen von Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Infolge der technologischen Entwicklung steht heute eine Vielfalt an Satellitenbildsystemen mit immer höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung zur Verfügung. In Verbindung mit kostenfreien und offenen Datenzugriffen ist es möglich, daraus neue Forschungsperspektiven im Bereich der Landoberflächenkartierung - insbesondere für heterogene Landschaften - zu entwickeln. Zur Generierung thematischer Karten werden häufig Klassifikationen entlang verschiedener räumlicher und zeitlicher Skalen vollzogen. Daraus können zusätzlich die nötigen Informationen für lokale wie auch regionale Entscheidungsträger abgeleitet werden. Trotz dieser neuen Möglichkeiten sind regionalspezifische Informationen, die einem besseren Verständnis der Dynamiken von Landoberflächen im Bereich des Gelben-Fluss-Beckens dienen, noch rar. Dieses Forschungsdesiderat wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen, wobei folgende Schwerpunkte gesetzt werden: (i) Zunächst werden die vorherrschenden sozioökologischen Herausforderungen für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses dargestellt sowie verschiedene Management- sowie Politikmodelle für eine nachhaltigere Ressourcennutzung diskutiert. (ii) Darauf aufbauend wird die fernerkundliche Ableitung von Landbedeckungs- und Landnutzungsveränderungen der letzten Dekade im Gebiet des gesamten Gelben Flusses flächendeckend durchgeführt und anschließend interpretiert. (iii) Im letzten Schritt werden basierend auf den zuvor abgeleiteten Informationsprodukten die dominierenden Landoberflächendynamiken in höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung detailliert untersucht. Insbesondere die dynamischen Prozesse der Minenausbreitung, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebiete und der urbanen Räume rücken in den Fokus. Aufgrund jahrzehntelanger Übernutzung der natürlichen Ressourcen im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses in Verbindung mit politischen Entscheidungen, der vorherrschenden kulturellen Prägung wie auch der Entwicklung der dort ansässigen Institutionen ist eine vielschichtige Problematik entstanden, die für die gesamte Region eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Durch frühzeitige Maßnahmen der Flutbekämpfung und Flussregulierung konnte den zahlreichen Überflutungen der Vergangenheit entgegengewirkt und das Risiko großflächiger Überschwemmungen minimiert werden. Trotz dieser Erfolge ergeben sich laufend neue, komplexere Herausforderungen mit verheerenden Auswirkungen auf Ökologie und Gesellschaft, wie zum Beispiel Boden- und Wasserdegradation, Entwaldung, Rückgang der Artenvielfalt, Ernährungsunsicherheiten und ein steigendes soziales Ungleichgewicht. Durch den anthropogenen Klimawandel werden diese negativen Probleme noch weiter verstärkt. Zwar wurden sie von der chinesischen Regierung als solche erkannt, dennoch scheiterten die Versuche, mit zahlreichen Gesetzen und Verordnungen die genannten Folgen einzudämmen, an unkonkreten Formulierungen, so dass diese der Komplexität der Herausforderungen nicht gerecht wurden. Die in jüngster Zeit verfolgten modernen und deutlich flexibleren, marktorientierten Ansätze (z.B. Subventionen, Wasserzertifikate), die speziell an die lokalen Gegebenheiten angepasst wurden, zeigen bereits Erfolge. Mit Hilfe einer gemeinsamen Daten- und Informationsplattform, beispielsweise in Form eines Geographischen Informationssystems (GIS), wäre eine integrierte und holistische Flussmanagementstrategie für den Gelben Fluss leichter realisierbar. Auf diese Weise könnten alle verfügbaren statistischen-, räumlichen- und Feldaufnahmen gespeichert, harmonisiert und geteilt und so die bisher noch unvollständigen und veralteten Daten laufend aktualisiert werden. Die Flussbehörde des Gelben Flusses (Yellow River Conservancy Commission) böte sich an, ein solches System zu verwalten. In dieser Arbeit wird die heterogene Landbedeckungsstruktur für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses für die Jahre 2003 und 2013 erfasst und interpretiert. Die fernerkundlichen Eingangsdaten für die einzelnen Klassifikationen bestehen aus optischen MODIS NDVI-Zeitserien, aus denen jährlich phänologische Parameter berechnet werden. Da die Qualität optischer Satellitenbilder häufig durch Wolken und Schatten beeinträchtigt ist, müssen die betroffenen Flächen maskiert und entfernt werden. Die so entstandenen Lücken in der Zeitserie werden durch einen Filteralgorithmus (SavitskyGolay) aufgefüllt und geglättet. Die verwendeten RandomForest-Klassifikationsverfahren ermöglichen die Ableitung von Landbedeckungen und -dynamiken. Diese neuen und räumlich detaillierten Produkte unterscheiden insgesamt 18 verschiedene Landbedeckungsund Landnutzungsklassen. Erstmals liefern diese eine regional spezifische Charakterisierung der vorherrschenden Landbedeckung im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine sowohl zeitlich als auch räumlich detailliertere Untersuchung der wichtigsten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landbedeckung, die auf dichten Landsat-Zeitserien basiert. Jährliche Informationen über Dynamiken von Minenabbaugebieten, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebieten und urbanen Räumen zeigen präzise lokale Veränderungen im Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse lassen insbesondere auf dem Lössplateau die Auswirkungen ökologischer Restorationsmaßnahmen erkennen, bei denen degradierte Flächen in Waldsysteme umgewandelt wurden. Auf dem Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau zeigt sich eine dramatische Ausbreitung von Kohletagebau zu Lasten der besonders anfälligen alpinen Matten und Feuchtgebiete. Auch der anhaltende Trend zur Urbanisierung spiegelt sich in den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen deutlich wider. Durch die Kombination von Fernerkundungsdaten unterschiedlicher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösungen liefert diese Arbeit neue und bisher einzigartige Einblicke in historische und aktuelle Landbedeckungsdynamiken einer heterogenen Landschaft. Die regionalen Analysen wie auch die thematischen Informationsprodukte besitzen somit großes Potential zur Verbesserung der Informationsgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse dienen außerdem als aussagekräftige Entscheidungsgrundlage mit dem Ziel eines angemessenen und nachhaltigen Land- und Wassermanagements für die natürlichen Ökosysteme im Becken des Gelben Flusses.

La biodiversidad no sólo se compone de una variedad de ecosistemas, especies y genes, sino que constituye nuestro capital natural, al prestar servicios ecosistémicos en provecho de nuestra economía. Su pérdida y deterioro ponen en peligro estos servicios al desaparecer especies, hábitats, su riqueza y el empleo que obtenemos de ellos, amenazando nuestro bienestar, convirtiéndose en una de las grandes amenazas medioambientales. Las especies exóticas invasoras plantean una clara amenaza a la biodiversidad que puede intensificarse en el futuro, a menos que se tomen medidas enérgicas a todos los niveles para controlar su introducción y establecimiento y abordar el problema que presentan las ya existentes. La presente tesis doctoral se enmarca dentro de uno de los proyectos de investigación concedido por el Organismo Autónomo de Parques Nacionales (ref. OAPN 042/2007) que ha pretendido definir las vías y mecanismos de entrada y la detección precoz de la especie invasora Spartina densiflora (Brongn.) en espacios naturales y en zonas restauradas del Parque Nacional de Doñana y su entorno, así como valorar los efectos de su presencia y testar distintas técnicas para su control y erradicación. En el primer capítulo y a modo de introducción, se hace una breve revisión de la definición de especie exótica invasora y de los posibles mecanismos de entrada de estas especies, así como de los convenios y la legislación que han ido surgiendo en los estamentos internacionales y su transcripción a la normativa nacional, hasta la redacción final del Catálogo Español de Especies Exóticas Invasoras. Así mismo, se describe cómo S. densiflora ha llegado a colonizar las marismas del Golfo de Cádiz desde su origen sudamericano y su situación regional actual, lo que permite plantear los objetivos principales de esta Tesis. El capítulo 2 se ha centrado en caracterizar ambientalmente las poblaciones de Spartina densiflora en distintas localizaciones dentro de los límites del Parque Nacional de Doñana para delimitar su hábitat potencial. Esta especie ha mostrado una gran plasticidad, similar a lo reflejado en otras marismas cercanas que ha invadido. En relación con los factores ambientales estudiados, algunos podrían haber estado limitando la invasión de Spartina hacia el interior del Parque Nacional (pH más básicos y potenciales redox más negativos asociados a periodos prolongados de inundación durante la estación húmeda y a bajas cotas topográficas, mayor compactación y dureza del suelo durante el largo periodo de estío). Aunque esto pudiera verse alterado tras la permeabilización de la Montaña del Río por medio de la Actuación Nº8 del Proyecto Doñana 2005. En el capítulo 3 se valora el alcance ecológico de la invasión de Spartina densiflora, estimando su biomasa (B), la producción primaria aérea neta (NAPP), el cociente de ambas (NAPP/B) y el tiempo que permanecen estantes hojas y tallos muertos en sus rodales de vegetación, comparando estos valores con los de las especies autóctonas que pueden verse afectadas en las marismas del Parque Nacional de Doñana, como son Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) C. Koch, Juncus subulatus Forssk., Scirpus litoralis Schrad. [=Schoenoplectus litoralis (Schrad.) Palla], Scirpus maritimus [=Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla]. S. densiflora ha alcanzado no solo valores más altos de biomasa área y producción primaria respecto al resto de especies estudiadas, especialmente en localizaciones con ausencia de la influencia mareal, sino que posee tiempos de renovación mayores, esto último en consonancia con los largos periodos registrados de permanencia de sus hojas y tallos estantes muertos. Así mismo, se ha evaluado su capacidad de regeneración tras fuego y S. densiflora es capaz de recuperar en tres años sus valores de biomasa y producción. En el capítulo 4, se han estudiado experimentalmente los procesos de lixiviado de hojas, en laboratorio, y los procesos de descomposición de la biomasa, in situ, de S. densiflora y de las especies autóctonas seleccionadas (A. macrostachyum, J. subulatus, S. litoralis, S. maritimus). La especie invasora no ha mostrado un comportamiento diferencial que permita confirmar que retiene más nutrientes que las especies autóctonas analizadas en relación al lixiviado, aunque la pérdida de biomasa de S. densiflora tanto en medio con y sin azida fue relativamente baja. En relación con la descomposición, S. densiflora no es la especie que más tarda en descomponerse, sino una de las especies autóctonas, J. subulatus. S. litoralis fue la que presentó una mayor tasa de descomposición. Por último, en el capítulo 5, se determinó el potencial para la dispersión a larga distancia de semillas de Spartina densiflora por dos de las anátidas más abundantes en nuestros humedales (ánades reales, Anas platyrhynchos, y gansos comunes, Anser anser), y se comparó con el potencial de dispersión de semillas de otras especies autóctonas (Arthrocnemum macrostachyum y Suaeda vera) y exóticas (Ludwigia grandiflora). Se recuperaron semillas intactas de las heces hasta 4 días después de la ingestión. La proporción de semillas recuperadas intactas varió significativamente entre las especies de plantas, pero no de entre las aves. El porcentaje de semillas recuperadas de S. densiflora fue el menor (3%), aunque el tracto digestivo de las anátidas redujo su tiempo de germinación. Sin embargo, éste aumentó con el tiempo de retención, que fue mayor en patos. Ninguna semilla de S. densiflora germinó transcurridas más de ocho horas desde el inicio de la ingesta forzosa de semillas a gansos y patos. Al final de la tesis aparecen las conclusiones generales extraídas del conjunto de los capítulos. ; The biodiversity does not only mean a variety of ecosystems, species and genes, but also the natural capital from the ecosystem to our economy. The biodiversity loss and decline is one of the major environmental risks and threaten ecological processes, habitats, species richness, and consequently, the employment associated with ecosystems, our economical capacity as well as our own welfare state. Currently, invasive alien species are a serious threat to the biodiversity and unless some measures to control their introduction and establishment are firmly adopted at every level the problem will become very complicated in the future, or even, insurmountable. The current thesis is framed within the project 'Ecological implications of the presence of the invasive alien cordgrass Spartina densiflora (Brongn.) in the Doñana National Park and its surroundings. Prevention, control and eradication' of the Organismo Autónomo de Parques Nacionales (ref. OAPN 042/2007) that aims to define the mechanics of introduction and the early detection of this exotic species throughout this highly protected natural area, to evaluate the ecological effects of its presence and to study several techniques focused on its control and eradication. In the first chapter and as an introduction to the project, a brief review of the alien species definition and their mechanics of introduction are done. Special attention is paid to the recent International Conventions and legislation in terms of invasive species and how they were progressively adopted in Spain until the publication of the Spanish Catalog of Invasive Alien Species. In the same way, it is described the colonization process of S. densiflora in the coastal marshes of the Golfo de Cádiz coming from South America and its current regional distribution. Both crucial aspects will be considered for the establishment of the main objectives of this thesis. Chapter 2 is focused on the environmental characterization of the S. densiflora populations in several locations within Doñana National Park in order to delimit its potential habitat. This species presents a high plasticity, similar to what has been described in other coastal marshes close to our study site. In relation to this, some of the studied environmental factors could have restricted the colonization of S. densiflora towards the core of the National Park depending on the season. On one hand, basic pH levels and more negative redox potential associated with longer flooding periods and lower elevational limits may play an important role during the wet season. On the other hand, higher compaction and soil hardness, as a consequence of dry conditions, become more significant in summer. However, this situation could be altered after the Action nº8 from the Doñana 2005 Project which aims the partial removal of the embankment Montaña del Río. Chapters 3 addresses the assessment of the ecological extent to which the S. densiflora invasion takes place by quantifying the total biomass (B), the net aboveground primary productivity (NAPP), the ratio NAPP/B and the retention time of dead leaves and tillers in vegetation stands, making comparisons between these values and those for native species from Doñana National Park as Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) C. Koch, Juncus subulatus Forssk., Scirpus litoralis Schrad. [=Schoenoplectus litoralis (Schrad.) Palla], Scirpus maritimus [=Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla]. In summary, S. densiflora has not only reached higher biomass and primary productivity values in comparison with these other species (especially in places without tidal influence), but also higher renovation rates, which means longer remaining time of its dead leaves and tillers. Moreover, this chapter deals with the regeneration capacity of S. densiflora after fire, obtaining as a result that this species is able to recover its values of biomass and productivity in three years. In Chapter 4, the leaves leaching rate and the biomass decomposition rate have been experimentally studied in the laboratory and in the field, respectively, for S. densiflora and the four native species considered (A. macrostachyum, J. subulatus, S. litoralis and S. maritimus). According to the results, although the alien species has not showed relevant differences in terms of nutrients retention during the leaching in comparison with the native species, its biomass loss rate was relatively lower with different treatments (with and without azide). Regarding to the decomposition rates, S. densiflora is not the one that takes the longest time, which is the native species J. subulatus. By contrast, S. litoralis was the one with the highest decomposition rate. Finally, Chapter 5 is focused on the experimental determination of the potential for long-distance dispersal of the alien species S. densiflora by two abundant waterfowl: mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and greylag geese (Anser anser), in comparison with the long-distance dispersal of the native species A. macrostachyum and Suaeda vera and another exotic species, Ludwigia grandiflora. Intact seeds were retrieved from faeces for up to 4 days after ingestion and the proportion of seeds retrieved intact varied significantly between plant, but not bird, species. The retrieval proportion was the lowest for S. densiflora (<3%), although its germination time was reduced by gut passage in waterfowl and increased with retention time. No S. densiflora seeds germinated after retention for over 8 hours in geese and mallards. At the end of this thesis, general conclusions of the whole study are exposed.

Oilseed rape is the third most important oil crop worldwide. Under many conditions it is characterised by relatively low nitrogen efficiency. In Germany a nitrogen supply of 240 kg N ha 1 is aimed at which derives from soil mineral nitrogen and nitrogen fertiliser. Thus, large amounts of fertiliser are applied. But only about 50 % of fertilised nitrogen are recovered by the crop. Furthermore nitrogen losses appear with leaf shedding that starts during flowering. Only little amounts of nitrogen are taken up between end of flowering and maturity. With a nitrogen harvest index of 0.7 to 0.8 at least 20 % to 30 % of plant nitrogen remain on the field after harvest. As a result nitrogen surpluses of 90 kg N ha 1 to 100 kg N ha 1 were reported after cultivation of oilseed rape. EU legislative restrictions address greenhouse gas emissions in production of biodiesel made of oilseed rape (EU directive 2009/28/EG) and nitrogen surpluses in agricultural production (EU nitrate directive). These restrictions have moved nitrogen efficiency into focus of rapeseed breeders. Nitrogen use efficiency can be defined as seed yield per unit available nitrogen. Nitrogen use efficiency is the product of nitrogen uptake efficiency, i.e. the amount of nitrogen which can be taken up per unit available nitrogen, and nitrogen utilisation efficiency measured as grain yield which is produced per unit nitrogen which was taken up. Nitrogen efficiency is a difficult trait to select for as seeds and straw need to be harvested and analysed for nitrogen content. This is laborious and time consuming. Indirect selection methods would facilitate selection. Reflectance of plants is reported to be related to chemical composition and structural features particularly of leaves. Also the nitrogen status of plants and crop stands were shown to be predicted by reflectance. Roots are important for nitrogen uptake and thus, for nitrogen efficiency. Therefore, it may also be worth to consider the root when selecting for nitrogen efficiency. Phenotyping of roots is difficult, often destructive and only possible for a very limited number of genotypes. Electrical capacitance has been discussed for decades to be related to root characteristics like root surface area or root mass. If so, it may be also related to nitrogen uptake and thus nitrogen efficiency. In contrast to other methods for root phenotyping it is a flexible, non-destructive method that allows quick phenotyping of large numbers of genotypes in the field at any time and any place. Field experiments were conducted to explore nitrogen efficiency of winter oilseed rape and its prediction by hyperspectral canopy reflectance and electrical capacitance in the field. A diversity set consisting of 29 genotypes was tested at five Central and Northern German environments in seasons 2011/12 and 2012/13. Genotypes were grown at high (160 kg N ha 1 to 180 kg N ha 1) and without nitrogen supply. Two parallel trials were conducted – one was harvested at end of flowering, the other one at maturity. Aboveground biomass at end of flowering, nitrogen uptake at end of flowering, nitrogen uptake efficiency at end of flowering, seed yield, nitrogen uptake at maturity, nitrogen uptake efficiency at maturity, nitrogen utilisation efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency, nitrogen harvest index and nitrogen uptake between end of flowering and maturity were analysed for genetic variation and heritability. The genotype by nitrogen level interaction was examined to answer the question whether selection for nitrogen efficiency parameters should be conducted at different nitrogen levels. Two populations of 15 DH lines each and their test hybrids were tested at three environments in season 2013/14. They were grown at high (N1) and without nitrogen (N0) fertilisation and harvested at maturity. Seed yield, nitrogen uptake at maturity, nitrogen uptake efficiency at maturity, nitrogen utilisation efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency and nitrogen harvest index were analysed to test variation, difference between DH lines and test hybrids, interactions between variety type and nitrogen level, heritability and mid-parent heterosis. For the diversity set and DH lines and test hybrids the contributions of variances of nitrogen uptake efficiency and nitrogen utilisation efficiency to nitrogen use efficiency were computed. Hyperspectral canopy reflectance was measured with a portable field spectrometer in each plot before flowering and during fruit development. Reflectance from 305 nm to 1800 nm was used to develop calibrations for nitrogen uptake at end of flowering and at maturity and for seed yield. Calibrations were developed across and within nitrogen levels. Calibrations were validated in tenfold cross validations and external validations. Electrical capacitance of the diversity set, DH lines and test hybrids was measured in the field at end of flowering and during fruit development. Its relation to nitrogen efficiency and agronomic parameters was tested. To examine the relationship between electrical capacitance and root characteristics ten genotypes of the diversity set selected for differences in electrical capacitance were tested in the field and under controlled conditions. Next to electrical capacitance stem diameter and root masses in three horizons were determined in the field trials. Under controlled conditions single plants were grown in plastic tubes in the greenhouse. Electrical capacitance, stem diameter and fresh mass of whole root system, taproot and lateral roots were measured directly. Image-base analysis was used to analyse further root characteristics like root diameter, root area, root system width and root tips. Field trials with the diversity set revealed high heritabilities from 0.67 to 0.92 for aboveground biomass at end of flowering, nitrogen uptake at end of flowering, nitrogen uptake efficiency at end of flowering, seed yield, nitrogen uptake at maturity, nitrogen uptake efficiency at maturity, nitrogen utilisation efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency, nitrogen harvest index and nitrogen uptake between end of flowering and maturity. Thus, these traits can be used as selection criteria for nitrogen efficiency. Except nitrogen uptake efficiency all traits were significantly affected by the interaction between genotype and nitrogen level. Therefore, selection environments should resemble nitrogen supply of target environments. At both nitrogen levels nitrogen utilisation efficiency contributed more to the variation in nitrogen use efficiency than nitrogen uptake efficiency. All traits but nitrogen harvest index showed significant variation among pairs of DH line and descending test hybrid. Heritabilities ranged from 0.31 to 0.82. Most traits were not affected by nitrogen level. Only nitrogen uptake efficiency at maturity and nitrogen use efficiency were significantly higher at N0 than at N1. Significant differences between DH lines and test hybrids were observed only for nitrogen utilisation efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency – both higher for test hybrids than for DH lines. Interactions between nitrogen level and variety type and between nitrogen level and descent (describes the pair of a DH line and the test hybrid derived from this DH line) were not significant for any trait. Mid-parent heterosis at both nitrogen levels was detected for seed yield, nitrogen utilisation efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency and nitrogen harvest index. Hybrids surpassed the parental mean for nitrogen uptake and nitrogen uptake efficiency at N1 but at N0 the heterosis was negative, i.e. hybrids performed worse than the parental mean. For seed yield, nitrogen uptake, nitrogen uptake efficiency at maturity and nitrogen use efficiency heterosis was higher at N1 than at N0. But for nitrogen utilisation efficiency and nitrogen harvest index higher heterosis was expressed at N0. In contrast to the diversity set nitrogen use efficiency of DH lines and test hybrids was dominated by nitrogen uptake efficiency while nitrogen utilisation efficiency only contributed to a small portion to nitrogen use efficiency. DH lines and test hybrids were only grown in one season which was characterised by an extraordinary warm winter and early spring. Therefore, the findings for DH lines and test hybrids need to be confirmed in further field trials. Best calibrations with hyperspectral reflectance showed coefficient of determinations up to 0.87 for calibration and up to 0.85 for cross validation though lower for seed yield than for nitrogen uptake. That suggests the application of hyperspectral reflectance as indirect selection method. Calibrations based on spectral data before flowering resulted in better predictions than calibrations based on spectral data during fruit development. There was no general pattern when calibrations across nitrogen levels were compared with separate calibrations within nitrogen levels. For nitrogen uptake best calibrations across nitrogen levels outperformed best calibrations within nitrogen levels. Best calibrations for seed yield within low nitrogen supply outperformed best calibrations within high nitrogen supply and across nitrogen levels. Most calibrations lost their predictive ability when tested with external datasets. Thus, they need to be further improved before they can be applied in breeding programs. Electrical capacitance revealed significant genetic variation and high heritabilities in the diversity set (h² = 0.81) and for the ten genotypes tested for root characteristics in the field (h² = 0.91) and under controlled conditions (h² = 0.95). Thus, electrical capacitance can in principal be used as selection criterion. But only few significant phenotypic correlations were found between electrical capacitance and nitrogen efficiency parameters in field trials with the diversity set. At N1 electrical capacitance at end of flowering correlated negatively with dry matter content of aboveground biomass at end of flowering ( r = -0.70) and positively with nitrogen uptake (r = 0.57) and nitrogen uptake efficiency at maturity (r = 0.57). At N0 electrical capacitance at end of flowering correlated positively with oil content (r = 0.57). It cannot be suggested to employ electrical capacitance as selection criterion for nitrogen efficiency parameters. The ten selected genotypes did not show significant differences in root masses and stem diameter in the field trial. Accordingly, they did not reveal significant phenotypic correlations between electrical capacitance and root masses or stem diameter. On plot level electrical capacitance correlated weakly with root mass in the middle (r = 0.46) and bottom (r = 0.34) horizon and strongly with stem diameter (r = 0.78). Under controlled conditions only the phenotypic correlation between electrical capacitance and stem diameter was significant (r = 0.78). Genetic correlations between electrical capacitance and root characteristics and stem diameter were detected. Correlation coefficients ranged from 0.55 for root fresh mass to 1.11 for root tip diameter. The same root traits that were related to electrical capacitance also correlated with stem diameter. Genetic correlation coefficients between stem diameter and root characteristics were higher than those between electrical capacitance and root characteristics. Although electrical capacitance might be related to root characteristics, stem diameter, which is much easier to measure, also correlates to root characteristics and often with higher correlation coefficients. By the current study it could be shown that nitrogen efficiency and related parameters can be implemented as traits in plant breeding as they revealed high heritabilities. Selection should be conducted at nitrogen levels that resemble target nitrogen supply. Hyperspectral canopy reflectance measured before flowering can be applied to facilitate selection. Nevertheless, calibrations must be further improved. Electrical capacitance cannot be suggested as selection criterion for nitrogen efficiency parameters. It remained open which trait is captured by electrical capacitance. Yet, the high heritabilities confirm that it is a heritable trait.

This short article, "The Appalachian Forest Reserve" was written for the "Manufacturers' Record." The article argues for support of Senate bill 5228, which "provides for the purchase of a national forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian mountains." Concerned about the destruction of forests, the article states that the bill would "prevent the destruction of the forests on the lands which should never be cleared." The article was penned by Chase P. Ambler (1865-1932), a founding member and long-time secretary of the Appalachian National Park Association ; p*Y- H°l 434 MANUFACTURERS' RECORD. THE APPALACHIAN FOREST RESERVE. By Dk. 0. P. Amblek of Asheville, N. 0., Secretary of the Appalachian National Park Association. [Written for the Manufacturers' Record.] During the past thirty years there has probably been no legislation in Congress which more materially affected any section of the Southeastern States than the passage of the Senate bill No. 5228 on the 24th of June. This bill provides for the purchase of a national forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian mountains, to be known as the "National Appalachian Forest Reserve." The measure has been agitated both before the public and before Congress by an association which was formed for this purpose three years ago, and has reached a point where the prospects are that the same will become a law before many months. This bill, now passed by the Senate, has also been favorably reported by the House committee on agriculture, and the friends of the measure claim that they have sufficient strength in the House to carry the same with an overwhelming majority when the opportune time arrives for bringing the matter up. The appropriations made by the present session of Congress have already reached such magnitude that the many supporters of the bill doubt the propriety of pushing the matter to a vote before the adjournment this month, but claim that as the measure has now passed the o,.,.,i" ,.,. ti,. T>,;r,c.;,1"n+ J,ns SPI,f a sro. cial message to Congress endorsing the Ji. eWEHEHSHt agriculture has favorably reported the bill, it certainly has the best possible chance at the coming short session. The benefit to the South which will follow this legislation will be far-reaching in its character, and will be felt alike by the rich and the poor, by the mechanic and the agriculturist, by both the cotton manufacturer and the cotton planter. This measure will insure for all time to come the protection of the water supply of the Southeastern lowlands, which lands during the past ten years have been threatened with destruction, both by the failure of their water supply in summer and floods in winter. Senator Pritchard of North Carolina, in his speech before the Senate on this subject, made April 26, produced government statistics showing that since April 45-*&-Ajm4LV1002, there had been a joss Ttr~"^ju5jutKt,"voo try flood along—tirrrr course of the rivers which have their headwaters in the region where it is now proposed to establish this national forest reserve. Senator Pritchard showed most conclusively that these floods were due to the denudation of the forests on the steep mountain lauds, both by the lumbermen and the agriculturalist. The purpose of this bill is to prevent the destruction of the forests on the lands which should never be cleared. As lumber and agricultural lands have advanced in price during the past few years, many thousand acres on these steep lands have been cleared, with the result that only two or three crops could be raised on the lands cleared before the soil has been washed into the streams and valleys and the mountainsides rendered a waste. It is the purpose of this bill to reforest such wasted and abandoned lands, as well as to also prohibit the carrying out of such destruction. During the past fifteen years thousands of acres of the river bottoms and valley lands along the foot of the Southern Appalachian mountains have been abandoned on account of the floods which sweep these valleys; thousands of acres which were formerly the best cotton lands are now buried under sands and detritus from the mountain country. If the next decade is to see these floods increased in proportion in their destructiveness as they have in the past few years, the fairest portion of many of our Southern States will be practically ruined. The passage of this act at this time is urged by the promoters of this cause for the purpose of preventing an increase in the volume of these floods, and with the hope that when such mountain-sides as have already been cleared have been reforested, that this terrible destroyer of flood and sand may be stayed. The experience of France, Spain and Switzerland proves that it is only by such measure that the destruction of the lowlands may be prevented. Senator Pritchard in this speech above- mentioned produced government statistics showing that the water-power of the streams flowing out of these mountains where it is proposed to establish the national forest reserve had available 1,000,- 000 horse-power, and that up to the present time only 00,000 horse-power had been developed. A few years ago North Carolina had never been heard of as a manufacturing State; today she takes the lead in the number of cotton mills, and many of these manufacturers are preparing at tliis time to equip their plants with water- power, while some others hesitate against __ ; agaijts —o --"= v^y, j.or tne reason mat they are fearful both of the floods and the low waters which appear concomitant with the destruction of the forests in the mountains above. The past few years have clearly shown that the South has before it a great manufacturing future, and that this 1,000,000 horse-power flowing out of the mountains in the Southern Appalachian region (if the streams are protected by government supervision at the headwaters) will/during the next few years, to a great extent be harnessed and producing the bulk of cotton goods which go to supply the demand of the world. In the lowlands of North Carolina, where over one-half of the surface has been cleared and is now under cultivation, there have for many years back been many water-powers in use for manufacturing purposes. During the past few up, these water-powers have failed; and, whereas, in the past these water-powers have been on comparatively small streams, the same reasoning holds true as to the larger rivers in the future. The gathering of tanbark has grown to immense proportions throughout the hardwood regions of the South. Almost every side-track in the entire hardwood region of the Southern Appalachian mountains contains box cars, which are being loaded with tanbark. This tanbark is bringing from $8 to $0 per cord, while the trees from which it has been stripped are rotting on the ground where they were felled. The government proposes that this wholesale waste shall not go unchecked. As the larger forests in the North and Northeast have disappeared the lumbermen have turned their attention to the Southern hardwood forests. The largest operations being carried on in these mountains today are being done by foreign capital. These corporations are now in the field for the money there is in it; they have no thought and care nothing for the future of these mountains. If by stripping the land absolutely bare they are increasing their proceeds, then that is the policy. The bill which is now under consideration in Congress does not necessarily work any hardship for any lumber corporation, but it provides that the lumber operator shall carry out his work on a scientific basis and under government supervision. It provides that the young and growing timber shall not be destroyed in marketing the mature and ripe trees; it also provides that any person owning timber lauds shall be allowed to carry on lumber operations, provided he conducts these operations under government supervision and sanction. It is the purpose of the government that this great garden spot and recreation ground of the South; this region which has probably the finest climate to be found anywhere in the whole Southeastern section, shall not become a region of stumps, as has been produced by the selfish short-sighted lumbermen of the Northern States, particularly iu Michigan. The government takes the position that this destruction and. devastation should be prevented for the benefit of the people of the whole Southeastern section, and, if necessary, would even condemn the land and seize it for the purpose needed in cases where the owner persists in the wanton destruction of the mountain forests, and refuses to sell to the government at a reasonable figure. The Appalachian National Park Association, with headquarters in Asheville, N. 0., has been instrumental in having this matter brought to the attention of Congress, and has also secured special legislation in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee and '" ^J—•—r*a—«—c—*--—tri. mmmavn Trrvrn— ment the right to acquire title to such lands as are desired and exempting the same from taxes. This means that all these States thoroughly understand the gravity of their present position, and while any State should hesitate toward ceding a large track of its territory to the national government and exempting the same from taxation, these States have, nevertheless, realized that it is only by doing this that they will be able to protect themselves from their own destruction, which now stares them in the face, both in the mountains and in the agricultural lands. The final passage of this act by Congress will certainly stimulate and encourage the manufacturers who are locating their plants along the rivers which rise in the Southern Appalachian mountains to equip the same with water-power. It will also encourage not only those who have already located their ruttoiiea^ but will stimulate others to locate on these streams where water-power is available. For years back it has been one of the cherished dreams of every citizen living in the extreme South to spend at least a portion of the hot months in some part of the Appalachian mountains. Here they find an ideal climate, fishing, hunting, camping and scenery which compares favorably with any to be found in the world. These mountains are the recreation grounds of the Southern people. Every Southern man should endorse the present administration for its effort toward guarding this great section of beautiful country against the inroads of the lumber vandals from other sections who have not a care for the future of our country, and every person who is engaged in agriculture south of the Mason and Dixon line, from the Mississippi to the Atlantic, should realize that this pending legislation will indirectly affect every crop that he plants, and as time goes on will still be far-reaching in its benefits to all Southern people, both those of today and their descendants. If we destroy the timber in our mountains we also cripple the agricultural low lands both by flood and drought.