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Problem setting. The system of state management of regulatory and legal regulation of social and economic relations in construction adopted by the countries of the European Union can today be considered as an effective model for international cooperation, since its creation envisaged the formation of a single economic space. North America, Europe, Asia and the Pacific, and, likewise, most of the economically advanced states in the region have a state policy of denationalizing the system of managing socio-economic relations in construction. They lose the monopoly of managing this system by passing state regulatory functions to the private sector. These actions are usually driven by a number of objective reasons, they can be both political and economic, and may be social. Therefore, in the world, the refusal of the monopoly on regulation of socio-economic relations in construction, which was formed historically and the transition to self-regulatory systems, is gradually increasing. In Ukraine, today, there is a shortage of skilled personnel, financial, material and human potential in the public sector, which prompts the transfer of the regulatory functions of the state to the private sector, which, as historically, is a state prerogative. Moreover, the situation is close to a deadlock, because simply increasing financial support and expanding the staff of skilled personnel, the problems of handling huge engineering data arrays that are accompanied by a stream of innovations will not find a solution. That is why international practice of solving such problems is so important in order to be able to identify all possible risks in a timely manner and possibly take additional measures to reduce them.Recent research and publications analysis. Theoretical and methodological analysis of public administration by the regulation of social and economic relations in construction has devoted its scientific works to such domestic scientists as: V. Averyanov, Y. Brusentsov, A. Vorobyov, D. Isaenko, A. Korotich, V. Logvinenko, O. Nepomnyashchy, N. Nyzhnik, V. Romosko and many other scholars.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Many scientific foreign and domestic studies are devoted to the analysis and evaluation of mechanisms of self-regulation in the field of socio-economic relations in construction. However, today, the situation in our country affects the development of the construction industry, which is why the issue of the dissatisfied demand of the population for services on the construction of social housing is very acute. Proceeding from the above it can be argued that the chosen topic of the article is relevant and timely.Paper main body. The purpose of the paper is to determine the essence of international approaches to the formation and implementation of mechanisms for self-regulation of socio-economic relations in construction.Emphasized on the relevance of the formation of an effective mechanism of self-regulation of socio-economic relations in construction, which requires the analysis of scientific research and will allow the formation of alternative solutions, taking into account international experience. Studies are based on the use of information resources, generalization of scientific developments of domestic and foreign scientists, personal observations. The purpose of the article is to determine the essence of international approaches to the formation and implementation of mechanisms for self-regulation of socio-economic relations in construction. Indicates the need for a conscious transfer of state functions in the regulatory and legal regulation of socio-economic relations in the construction of the non-state sector. In Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, it is these organizations that have the functions of licensing business activities, which is associated with the construction of buildings, professional certification. Such procedure is carried out by architects, design engineers, technicians and experts who regulate admission to the market of these categories of persons, etc. Thus, these organizations (the so-called chambers) have certain powers of authority, which, as a rule, are monopolistic powers of the state.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The conducted researches have shown that the change of the structure of the modern system of legal regulation of socio-economic relations in construction is determined by many factors. The most influential ones are globalization of the world economy; close economic integration; the fact that the national trade and economic frontiers collapse; a technical revolution that is increasingly affecting the construction industry and caused by the growth of various technical regulation objects. On the latter, we can say, as the biggest economic reason for the denationalization of such systems, since it is likely that, in many cases, the public sector does not have adequate resources to track new technologies, materials, products, methods and processes, and especially, for a qualified assessment their safety and suitability for practical use.In the long run, the importance of studying the state policy on strengthening the institutional capacity of self-regulatory organizations to regulate socio-economic relations in construction and formulating a legislative framework in order to be able to implement a European model of the organizational structure of the technical support system of the industry is not diminished. ; Акцентовано увагу на актуальності питання формування ефективного механізму саморегулювання в сфері соціально-економічних відносин у будівництві, що потребує здійснення аналізу наукових досліджень та дасть змогу формувати альтернативні рішення, беручи до уваги міжнародний досвід. Узагальнено інформаційні ресурси, що представляють наукові розробки вітчизняних і закордонних вчених. Визначено сутність міжнародних підходів до формування і реалізації механізмів саморегулювання в сфері соціально-економічних відносин у будівництві. Вказано на необхідність свідомої передачі державою частини функцій із нормативно-правового регулювання соціально-економічних відносин у будівництві недержавному сектору. Зазначено, що у Німеччині, Великобританії, США саме саморегулюючим організаціям належать функції з ліцензійного забезпечення господарської діяльності, яка пов'язана зі створенням будівель та споруд, проведенням професійної атестації. Зауважено, що таку процедуру професійної атестації проходять архітектори, інженери-проектувальники, інженери технічного нагляду та експерти, що дає змогу врегулювати допуск на ринок цих категорій осіб тощо. Доведено, що зазначені організації (т. зв. палати) володіють певними владними повноваженнями, що, як правило, є монопольними повноваженнями держави. Обґрунтовано, що для впровадження світових тенденцій та підтримки напряму подальшого роздержавлення національної системи нормативно-правового регулювання соціально-економічних відносин у галузі будівництва необхідно посилити інституційну спроможність організацій саморегулювання та удосконалити законодавче підґрунтя, щоб мати можливість впровадити європейські та кращі світові моделі його організаційної структури.

This study aims to explore the potential of optical remote sensing and free access radar data for the assessment and monitoring of tropical, dry or wet forest ecosystems. Different test sites located in these tropical forest ecosystems have been selected. These are: the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Oti-Keran-Mandourie Biosphere Reserve (OKM) and Togodo Wildlife Reserve (RFT) in Togo, the area around the bridge linking the city of Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock and the plain of the Kourou coast in French Guiana and the province of Monté Cristi in the Dominican Republic. Different data were used in this study: for radar images, Sentinel-1 time series, Alos-2 mosaics and, for optical images, Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8. Exogenous data such as GPS points, digital terrain models and reference maps. The methodology approach used consists of pretreatment on optical and radar images. Specific approaches, varying by study site, included: photo detailed interpretation, supervised SVM classification, forest inventory and application of allometric equations, a wavelet decomposition detection approach, a detection approach automatic changes by thresholding and the characterization of these changes. The main results are:PNVI site: land cover maps and forest, non-forest binary maps of 1987, 1997, 2007 and 2017 are produced on the PNVI. Over the 30-year period using the binary maps between 1987 and 2017 the average annual rate of deforestation is 1.07%. This high deforestation rate shows the increasing pressure on forest resources in the Virunga landscape. OKM and RFT site: a classification carried out on a combination of optical and radar images gives slightly better performances than classifications carried out on optical and radar images considered separately. The land cover maps from these classifications were used as a basis for estimating carbon stocks through forest resource assessment. At the Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock site, temporal analysis using wavelet decompositions revealed three main types of changes due to anthropogenic deforestation, seasonal changes and agricultural changes. On the site of the Monté Cristi province in the Dominican Republic, the joint analysis of radar and optical images made it possible to propose a cartography comprising 18 field-controlled land cover classes with an overall accuracy of more than 90%. Historical forest monitoring shows a decline in forest cover. At the same time, we observe a regression of the surface of mangroves between 2015 and 2018.This study has highlighted the immense potential of optical and radar remote sensing data in the characterization, mapping and monitoring of land use layers in tropical ecosystems in different regions of the world and according to seasonal conditions. While each type of remote sensing data has these discriminatory qualities and capabilities, this study has shown that the joint and combined use of two types of data significantly increases the characterization and discrimination of land-use classes and thus increases the chances of reliability of the actions to be carried out ; Cette étude se propose d'explorer les potentialités des données de télédétection optique et radar libre d'accès pour l'évaluation et le suivi des écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux, secs ou humides. Différents sites tests situés dans ces écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux, ont été sélectionnés. Il s'agit : du parc national des Virunga en République Démocratique du Congo (RDC), de la réserve de biosphère de l'Oti-Keran-Mandourie (OKM) et de la réserve de faune de Togodo (RFT) au Togo, de la zone située autour du pont faisant la liaison entre la ville de Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock et la plaine du littorale de Kourou en Guyane française et de la province de la Monté Cristi en république Dominicaine. Différentes données ont été utilisés lors de cette étude : pour les images radar, des séries temporelles Sentinel-1, des mosaïques Alos-2 et, pour les images optiques, Sentinel-2 et Landsat-8. Des données exogènes comme les points GPS, modèles numériques de terrain et les cartes de référence. L'approche méthodologie utilisé est composée de prétraitement sur les images optiques et radar. Les approches spécifiques, variables selon le site d'étude, ont comporté : photo interprétation détaillée, la classification supervisée SVM, l'inventaire forestier et l'application des équations allométriques, une approche de détection des changements par décomposition en ondelettes, une de détection des changements automatiques par seuillage et la caractérisation de ces changements. Les principaux résultats sont les suivants : Site du PNVI : les cartes d'occupation du sol et les cartes binaires forêts, non-forêt de 1987, 1997, 2007 et 2017 sont réalisées sur le PNVI. Sur la période de 30 ans en utilisant les cartes binaires entre 1987 à 2017 le taux moyen annuel de déforestation est de 1,07%. Ce taux de déforestation élevé montre la pression croissante sur les ressources forestières dans le paysage des Virunga. Site de l'OKM et du RFT : une classification menée sur une combinaison d'images optiques et radar donne des performances légèrement meilleures que des classifications menées sur des images optiques et radar considérées séparément. Les cartes d'occupation du sol issues de ces classifications ont servis de base pour l'estimation de stocks de carbone à travers l'évaluation des ressources forestières. Sur le site de Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock, l'analyse temporelle menée à partir de décompositions en ondelettes, a permis de détecter trois grands types de changements dus à : la déforestation anthropique, les évolutions saisonnières et les évolutions agricoles. Sur le site de la province de Monté Cristi en République dominicaine, l'analyse conjointe d'images radar et optiques a permis de proposer une cartographie comportant 18 classes d'occupation du sol contrôlées sur le terrain avec une précision globale de plus de 90 %. Le suivi historique des forêts montre une régression de la couverture forestière. Parallèlement, nous observons une régression de la surface des mangroves entre 2015 et 2018.Cette étude a mis en évidence l'immense potentialité des données de télédétection optique et radar dans la caractérisation, la cartographie et le suivi des strates d'occupation des sols dans les écosystèmes tropicaux dans différentes régions du monde et en fonction des conditions saisonniers. Si chaque type de données de télédétection possède ces qualités et capacités discriminatoire, cette étude a montré que l'utilisation conjointe et combinée de deux types de données permet d'augmenté significativement la caractérisation et la discrimination des classes d'occupation des sols et ainsi augmente les chances de fiabilité des actions à mener

The present thesis analyses the evolution and accumulation of national wealth, from a cross-country perspective. It is composed of three different chapters. In chapter one, together with Miguel Artola Blanco and Clara Martínez-Toledano, we reconstruct Spain's national wealth from 1900 to 2017. Combining new sources with existing accounts, we estimate the wealth of both private and government sectors and use a new asset-specific decomposition of the long-run accumulation of wealth. We find that the national wealth to income ratio stood during the 20th century in a relatively close range -between 400 and 600%- until the housing boom of the early 2000s led to an unprecedented rise to 800% in 2007. Our results highlight the importance of land, housing capital gains and international capital flows as key elements in the accumulation of wealth. The second chapter investigates the connection between the striking rise of national housing-to-national income ratios experienced by rich countries over the last decades with the transformation of the productive system: from manufacturing to services. It explores two factors: the increase in countries' spatial concentration of economic activity and the negative shocks to manufacturing-specialized regions. To explore the first factor, I present new series of housing wealth and of spatial concentration of economic activity in seven developed economies: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, UK and USA. Results show that rising housing wealth is the consequence of higher urban land values, with this increase being tightly connected with larger concentration of market-oriented services. The second factor is investigated using urban-level data in England and Wales, thus analyzing how macro trends in house-income ratios emerge from the local level. I find that rising national values are largely the result of higher dispersion of local house prices, but not of incomes per capita. The best predictor of how house prices changed is the city-level specialization of the productive system. I estimate that one quarter of the dispersion in local house prices is explained by manufacturing output declining at the national level. A simple theoretical model is used to rationalize these two factors. The third chapter, presents updated series of national wealth and capital shares of income for the eight countries covered by Piketty and Zucman (2014a): Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the USA. It discusses the adaptation of the series from the SNA93 to the SNA2008, the inclusion of natural capital (i.e. forestry land, mineral and energy resources) within the concept of national wealth and the division of national housing across households and other sectors. I find that adopting the SNA2008 has no relevant consequences for aggregate macro wealth or for the net-of-depreciation capital share. However, gross-of-depreciation capital shares are higher, likely due to the inclusion of R&D as investment in the new system of accounts. Overall, new series reveal that average private wealth to national income ratios have been steadily increasing in recent years with capital-labor shares remaining relatively constant at their 2010 values. ; La présente thèse analyse l'évolution et l'accumulation de la richesse nationale dans une perspective transnationale. Il est composé de trois chapitres différents. Dans le premier chapitre, avec Miguel Artola Blanco et Clara Martínez-Toledano, nous reconstruisons la richesse nationale de l'Espagne de 1900 à 2017. En combinant de nouvelles sources avec des comptes existants, nous estimons la richesse des secteurs privé et gouvernemental et utilisons une nouvelle décomposition spécifique à un actif. l'accumulation à long terme de la richesse. Nous trouvons que le ratio de la richesse nationale sur le revenu était relativement étroit au cours du 20ème siècle - entre 400 et 600% - jusqu'à ce que le boom immobilier du début des années 2000 conduise à une augmentation sans précédent de 800% en 2007. Nos résultats soulignent l'importance de la terre, des gains en capital liés au logement et des flux de capitaux internationaux en tant qu'éléments clés de l'accumulation de la richesse. Le deuxième chapitre étudie le lien qui existe entre l'augmentation spectaculaire des ratios nationaux entre le logement et le revenu national enregistrés par les pays riches au cours des dernières décennies avec la transformation du système de production: de la fabrication aux services. Il explore deux facteurs: l'accroissement de la concentration spatiale de l'activité économique dans les pays et les chocs négatifs sur les régions manufacturières. Pour explorer le premier facteur, je présente de nouvelles séries de richesse immobilière et de concentration spatiale de l'activité économique dans sept économies développées: la France, l'Allemagne, l'Italie, le Japon, l'Espagne, le Royaume-Uni et les États-Unis. Les résultats montrent que la richesse croissante du logement est la conséquence de la hausse de la valeur des terrains urbains, cette augmentation étant étroitement liée à la concentration accrue de services orientés vers le marché. Le deuxième facteur est étudié à l'aide de données urbaines en Angleterre et au Pays de Galles, analysant ainsi la manière dont les tendances macro-économiques des ratios de revenus des maisons émergent du niveau local. Je trouve que la hausse des valeurs nationales est en grande partie le résultat d'une plus grande dispersion des prix de l'immobilier local, mais pas du revenu par habitant. Le meilleur prédicteur de l'évolution des prix de l'immobilier est la spécialisation du système de production au niveau de la ville. J'estime qu'un quart de la dispersion des prix locaux de l'habitation s'explique par le déclin de la production manufacturière au niveau national. Un modèle théorique simple est utilisé pour rationaliser ces deux facteurs. Le troisième chapitre présente les séries actualisées de parts de revenus de la richesse nationale et du capital des huit pays couverts par Piketty et Zucman (2014a): Australie, Canada, France, Allemagne, Italie, Japon, Royaume-Uni et États-Unis. Il aborde l'adaptation des séries du SCN93 au SCN 2008, l'inclusion du capital naturel (terres forestières, ressources minérales et énergétiques) dans le concept de la richesse nationale et la répartition des logements nationaux entre les ménages et d'autres secteurs. Je conclus que l'adoption du SCN de 2008 n'a pas de conséquence significative sur la richesse macroéconomique globale ni sur la part du capital après amortissement. Toutefois, les parts de capital en brut d'amortissement sont plus élevées, probablement en raison de l'inclusion de la RD en tant qu'investissement dans le nouveau système de comptes. Dans l'ensemble, de nouvelles séries révèlent que les ratios moyens de la richesse privée par rapport au revenu national ont régulièrement augmenté au cours des dernières années, la part capital-travail restant relativement constante à leurs valeurs de 2010.

Children's development is strongly influenced by early childhood experiences, particularly during sensitive periods such as infancy and toddlerhood. In Norway, over 80% of children aged 1-2 years are enrolled in ECEC, but despite being one of the few countries that have implemented universal ECEC from age 1 year, few studies have assessed the impact of infant/toddler enrollment on children's development. In this dissertation, we assessed the importance of ECEC quality and children's age of entry into ECEC (timing of care) on children's short-term development at age 3 years. We used both non-experimental and quasi-experimental techniques to account for selection and omitted variable bias when estimating effects. In Paper I, we estimated the effect of ECEC quality on children's cognitive development using traditional regression analysis, adjusting for covariates. In Paper II, we estimated the causal effect of age of entry (for children who entered prior to age 2 years) on children's cognitive development, using instrumental variable analysis. We exploited a 'natural experiment' caused by national ECEC enrollment regulations using children's birth month as an instrument to partial out exogenous variation in age of entry. In Paper III, we estimated the causal effect of age of entry (for children who entered prior to age 2 years) on social competence – expanding on the approach from Paper II by embedding the instrumental variable design within a structural equation modeling framework which allowed for modeling social competence as a latent outcome. The sample consisted of 700-800 children (born in 2011 & 2012) participating in the GoBaN study, who were recruited from over 80 randomly drawn ECEC centers located in 7 different urban areas in Norway. The majority of children came from relatively well-educated middle-class families and were assessed on cognitive abilities (verbal & non-verbal) and social competence. Cognition was measured using two assessments ('naming vocabulary' & 'picture similarities') from the British Ability Scales III, and social competence was measured using the Lamer Social Competence in Preschool scale. Our findings showed that ECEC quality did not predict cognitive development at age 3 years – independent of socioeconomic background. In contrast, age of entry was an important causal influence for both cognition and social competence. Children performed on average an additional 14.1% of a standard deviation higher on non-verbal ability at age 3 years for every month earlier entry prior to age 2 years; there was no impact on verbal abilities. Surprisingly, children also performed on average an additional 32% of a standard deviation lower in social competence at age 3 years for every standard deviation earlier entry. In conclusion, ECEC during the infant/toddler period exerts both a positive and negative influence on children's short-term development, resulting in a trade-off between cognition (non-verbal) and social competence for children enrolling prior to age 2 years. A policy-relevant implication of these findings is therefore that today's regulations which grant enrollment rights based on time of year of birth contribute to substantial heterogeneity in children's social and cognitive abilities in early childhood – with possible consequences for performance later in school. Although we found no relationship between ECEC quality and children's development, the use of Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale as a measure of quality in Norwegian ECEC has potential limitations and weaknesses. ; Barns utvikling er sterkt påvirket av tidlige barndomserfaringer, særlig de første leveårene. I Norge går over 80% av barn i alderen 1-2 år i barnehage, men til tross for at Norge er ett av få land som har full barnehagedekning fra ettårsalder, så har få studier undersøkt effekten av barnehage på de yngste barnas utvikling. I denne avhandlingen studerer vi viktigheten av barnehagekvalitet og alder ved barnehagestart på barns kortsiktige utvikling ved 3-årsalder. Vi benyttet oss av både ikke-eksperimentelle og kvasi-eksperimentelle statistiske teknikker for å ta høyde for konfunderende faktorer (selection/omitted variable bias) i effektestimeringen. I første artikkel estimerte vi effekten av barnehagekvalitet på barns kognitive utvikling ved bruk av tradisjonell regresjonsanalyse, justert for kovariater. I andre artikkel estimerte vi den kausale effekten av barnehagestartalder (for barn som begynte i barnehage før fylte 2 år) på barns kognitive utvikling ved bruk av instrumentvariabelanalyse. Vi utnyttet et 'naturlig eksperiment' forårsaket av lovregulert rett til barnehageplass ved å bruke barnas fødselsmåned som instrument til å isolere eksogen variasjon i barnehagestartalder. I tredje artikkel estimerte vi den kausale effekten av barnehagestartalder (for barn som begynte i barnehage før fylte 2 år) på barns sosiale kompetanse. Med utgangspunkt i tilnærmingen fra andre artikkel implementere vi instrumentvariabel-designet i en strukturell modell (Structural Equation Model) som muliggjorde å analysere sosial kompetanse som en latent utfallsvariabel. Utvalget bestod av 700-800 barn (født i 2011 & 2012) som deltok i GoBaN-prosjektet, og som ble rekruttert fra 80 tilfeldig valgte barnehager i 7 ulike urbane regioner i Norge. Flesteparten av barna kom fra høyt utdannede middelklassefamilier, og fikk kartlagt kognitive og sosiale ferdigheter. Kognitive ferdigheter ble målt ved bruk av British Ability Scales III, og sosial kompetanse ble målt ved bruk av the Lamer Social Competence in Preschool scale. Resultatene viste at barnehagekvalitet ikke predikerte kognitiv utvikling ved 3-årsalder, uavhengig av sosioøkonomisk bakgrunn. Vi fant imidlertid at barnas alder ved barnehagestart var en viktig årsaksforklaring til variasjon i både kognitive (non-verbale) og sosiale ferdigheter. Barna scoret i gjennomsnitt 14.1% av et standardavvik høyere på non-verbale ferdigheter for hver måned tidligere de begynte i barnehage før fylte 2 år; verbale ferdigheter var upåvirket av barnehagestartalder. Noe overraskende scoret barna i gjennomsnitt også 32% av et standardavvik lavere på sosial kompetanse for hvert standardavvik lavere barnehagestartalder. Konklusjonen er derfor at barnehage for de yngste både er positivt og negativt for barns utvikling på kort sikt dersom de starter i barnehage før de er 2 år; et kompromiss mellom kognisjon (non-verbal) og sosial kompetanse. En politisk relevant implikasjon av disse funnene er derfor at dagens lovregulerte rett til barnehageplass knyttet til når på året barna er født forårsaker vesentlig ulikhet i barns sosiale og kognitive ferdigheter i tidlig barndom, med mulige konsekvenser for seinere skoleresultater. Til tross for at vi ikke fant noen sammenheng mellom barnehagekvalitet og barns utvikling ved 3-årsalder, har bruken av Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale som kvalitetsmål på norske barnehager potensielle begrensninger og svakheter. ; acceptedVersion

This study aims to explore the potential of optical remote sensing and free access radar data for the assessment and monitoring of tropical, dry or wet forest ecosystems. Different test sites located in these tropical forest ecosystems have been selected. These are: the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Oti-Keran-Mandourie Biosphere Reserve (OKM) and Togodo Wildlife Reserve (RFT) in Togo, the area around the bridge linking the city of Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock and the plain of the Kourou coast in French Guiana and the province of Monté Cristi in the Dominican Republic. Different data were used in this study: for radar images, Sentinel-1 time series, Alos-2 mosaics and, for optical images, Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8. Exogenous data such as GPS points, digital terrain models and reference maps. The methodology approach used consists of pretreatment on optical and radar images. Specific approaches, varying by study site, included: photo detailed interpretation, supervised SVM classification, forest inventory and application of allometric equations, a wavelet decomposition detection approach, a detection approach automatic changes by thresholding and the characterization of these changes. The main results are:PNVI site: land cover maps and forest, non-forest binary maps of 1987, 1997, 2007 and 2017 are produced on the PNVI. Over the 30-year period using the binary maps between 1987 and 2017 the average annual rate of deforestation is 1.07%. This high deforestation rate shows the increasing pressure on forest resources in the Virunga landscape. OKM and RFT site: a classification carried out on a combination of optical and radar images gives slightly better performances than classifications carried out on optical and radar images considered separately. The land cover maps from these classifications were used as a basis for estimating carbon stocks through forest resource assessment. At the Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock site, temporal analysis using wavelet decompositions revealed three main types of changes due to anthropogenic deforestation, seasonal changes and agricultural changes. On the site of the Monté Cristi province in the Dominican Republic, the joint analysis of radar and optical images made it possible to propose a cartography comprising 18 field-controlled land cover classes with an overall accuracy of more than 90%. Historical forest monitoring shows a decline in forest cover. At the same time, we observe a regression of the surface of mangroves between 2015 and 2018.This study has highlighted the immense potential of optical and radar remote sensing data in the characterization, mapping and monitoring of land use layers in tropical ecosystems in different regions of the world and according to seasonal conditions. While each type of remote sensing data has these discriminatory qualities and capabilities, this study has shown that the joint and combined use of two types of data significantly increases the characterization and discrimination of land-use classes and thus increases the chances of reliability of the actions to be carried out ; Cette étude se propose d'explorer les potentialités des données de télédétection optique et radar libre d'accès pour l'évaluation et le suivi des écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux, secs ou humides. Différents sites tests situés dans ces écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux, ont été sélectionnés. Il s'agit : du parc national des Virunga en République Démocratique du Congo (RDC), de la réserve de biosphère de l'Oti-Keran-Mandourie (OKM) et de la réserve de faune de Togodo (RFT) au Togo, de la zone située autour du pont faisant la liaison entre la ville de Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock et la plaine du littorale de Kourou en Guyane française et de la province de la Monté Cristi en république Dominicaine. Différentes données ont été utilisés lors de cette étude : pour les images radar, des séries temporelles Sentinel-1, des mosaïques Alos-2 et, pour les images optiques, Sentinel-2 et Landsat-8. Des données exogènes comme les points GPS, modèles numériques de terrain et les cartes de référence. L'approche méthodologie utilisé est composée de prétraitement sur les images optiques et radar. Les approches spécifiques, variables selon le site d'étude, ont comporté : photo interprétation détaillée, la classification supervisée SVM, l'inventaire forestier et l'application des équations allométriques, une approche de détection des changements par décomposition en ondelettes, une de détection des changements automatiques par seuillage et la caractérisation de ces changements. Les principaux résultats sont les suivants : Site du PNVI : les cartes d'occupation du sol et les cartes binaires forêts, non-forêt de 1987, 1997, 2007 et 2017 sont réalisées sur le PNVI. Sur la période de 30 ans en utilisant les cartes binaires entre 1987 à 2017 le taux moyen annuel de déforestation est de 1,07%. Ce taux de déforestation élevé montre la pression croissante sur les ressources forestières dans le paysage des Virunga. Site de l'OKM et du RFT : une classification menée sur une combinaison d'images optiques et radar donne des performances légèrement meilleures que des classifications menées sur des images optiques et radar considérées séparément. Les cartes d'occupation du sol issues de ces classifications ont servis de base pour l'estimation de stocks de carbone à travers l'évaluation des ressources forestières. Sur le site de Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock, l'analyse temporelle menée à partir de décompositions en ondelettes, a permis de détecter trois grands types de changements dus à : la déforestation anthropique, les évolutions saisonnières et les évolutions agricoles. Sur le site de la province de Monté Cristi en République dominicaine, l'analyse conjointe d'images radar et optiques a permis de proposer une cartographie comportant 18 classes d'occupation du sol contrôlées sur le terrain avec une précision globale de plus de 90 %. Le suivi historique des forêts montre une régression de la couverture forestière. Parallèlement, nous observons une régression de la surface des mangroves entre 2015 et 2018.Cette étude a mis en évidence l'immense potentialité des données de télédétection optique et radar dans la caractérisation, la cartographie et le suivi des strates d'occupation des sols dans les écosystèmes tropicaux dans différentes régions du monde et en fonction des conditions saisonniers. Si chaque type de données de télédétection possède ces qualités et capacités discriminatoire, cette étude a montré que l'utilisation conjointe et combinée de deux types de données permet d'augmenté significativement la caractérisation et la discrimination des classes d'occupation des sols et ainsi augmente les chances de fiabilité des actions à mener

The present thesis analyses the evolution and accumulation of national wealth, from a cross-country perspective. It is composed of three different chapters. In chapter one, together with Miguel Artola Blanco and Clara Martínez-Toledano, we reconstruct Spain's national wealth from 1900 to 2017. Combining new sources with existing accounts, we estimate the wealth of both private and government sectors and use a new asset-specific decomposition of the long-run accumulation of wealth. We find that the national wealth to income ratio stood during the 20th century in a relatively close range -between 400 and 600%- until the housing boom of the early 2000s led to an unprecedented rise to 800% in 2007. Our results highlight the importance of land, housing capital gains and international capital flows as key elements in the accumulation of wealth. The second chapter investigates the connection between the striking rise of national housing-to-national income ratios experienced by rich countries over the last decades with the transformation of the productive system: from manufacturing to services. It explores two factors: the increase in countries' spatial concentration of economic activity and the negative shocks to manufacturing-specialized regions. To explore the first factor, I present new series of housing wealth and of spatial concentration of economic activity in seven developed economies: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, UK and USA. Results show that rising housing wealth is the consequence of higher urban land values, with this increase being tightly connected with larger concentration of market-oriented services. The second factor is investigated using urban-level data in England and Wales, thus analyzing how macro trends in house-income ratios emerge from the local level. I find that rising national values are largely the result of higher dispersion of local house prices, but not of incomes per capita. The best predictor of how house prices changed is the city-level specialization of the productive system. I estimate that one quarter of the dispersion in local house prices is explained by manufacturing output declining at the national level. A simple theoretical model is used to rationalize these two factors. The third chapter, presents updated series of national wealth and capital shares of income for the eight countries covered by Piketty and Zucman (2014a): Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the USA. It discusses the adaptation of the series from the SNA93 to the SNA2008, the inclusion of natural capital (i.e. forestry land, mineral and energy resources) within the concept of national wealth and the division of national housing across households and other sectors. I find that adopting the SNA2008 has no relevant consequences for aggregate macro wealth or for the net-of-depreciation capital share. However, gross-of-depreciation capital shares are higher, likely due to the inclusion of R&D as investment in the new system of accounts. Overall, new series reveal that average private wealth to national income ratios have been steadily increasing in recent years with capital-labor shares remaining relatively constant at their 2010 values. ; La présente thèse analyse l'évolution et l'accumulation de la richesse nationale dans une perspective transnationale. Il est composé de trois chapitres différents. Dans le premier chapitre, avec Miguel Artola Blanco et Clara Martínez-Toledano, nous reconstruisons la richesse nationale de l'Espagne de 1900 à 2017. En combinant de nouvelles sources avec des comptes existants, nous estimons la richesse des secteurs privé et gouvernemental et utilisons une nouvelle décomposition spécifique à un actif. l'accumulation à long terme de la richesse. Nous trouvons que le ratio de la richesse nationale sur le revenu était relativement étroit au cours du 20ème siècle - entre 400 et 600% - jusqu'à ce que le boom immobilier du début des années 2000 conduise à une augmentation sans précédent de 800% en 2007. Nos résultats soulignent l'importance de la terre, des gains en capital liés au logement et des flux de capitaux internationaux en tant qu'éléments clés de l'accumulation de la richesse. Le deuxième chapitre étudie le lien qui existe entre l'augmentation spectaculaire des ratios nationaux entre le logement et le revenu national enregistrés par les pays riches au cours des dernières décennies avec la transformation du système de production: de la fabrication aux services. Il explore deux facteurs: l'accroissement de la concentration spatiale de l'activité économique dans les pays et les chocs négatifs sur les régions manufacturières. Pour explorer le premier facteur, je présente de nouvelles séries de richesse immobilière et de concentration spatiale de l'activité économique dans sept économies développées: la France, l'Allemagne, l'Italie, le Japon, l'Espagne, le Royaume-Uni et les États-Unis. Les résultats montrent que la richesse croissante du logement est la conséquence de la hausse de la valeur des terrains urbains, cette augmentation étant étroitement liée à la concentration accrue de services orientés vers le marché. Le deuxième facteur est étudié à l'aide de données urbaines en Angleterre et au Pays de Galles, analysant ainsi la manière dont les tendances macro-économiques des ratios de revenus des maisons émergent du niveau local. Je trouve que la hausse des valeurs nationales est en grande partie le résultat d'une plus grande dispersion des prix de l'immobilier local, mais pas du revenu par habitant. Le meilleur prédicteur de l'évolution des prix de l'immobilier est la spécialisation du système de production au niveau de la ville. J'estime qu'un quart de la dispersion des prix locaux de l'habitation s'explique par le déclin de la production manufacturière au niveau national. Un modèle théorique simple est utilisé pour rationaliser ces deux facteurs. Le troisième chapitre présente les séries actualisées de parts de revenus de la richesse nationale et du capital des huit pays couverts par Piketty et Zucman (2014a): Australie, Canada, France, Allemagne, Italie, Japon, Royaume-Uni et États-Unis. Il aborde l'adaptation des séries du SCN93 au SCN 2008, l'inclusion du capital naturel (terres forestières, ressources minérales et énergétiques) dans le concept de la richesse nationale et la répartition des logements nationaux entre les ménages et d'autres secteurs. Je conclus que l'adoption du SCN de 2008 n'a pas de conséquence significative sur la richesse macroéconomique globale ni sur la part du capital après amortissement. Toutefois, les parts de capital en brut d'amortissement sont plus élevées, probablement en raison de l'inclusion de la RD en tant qu'investissement dans le nouveau système de comptes. Dans l'ensemble, de nouvelles séries révèlent que les ratios moyens de la richesse privée par rapport au revenu national ont régulièrement augmenté au cours des dernières années, la part capital-travail restant relativement constante à leurs valeurs de 2010.

The present thesis analyses the evolution and accumulation of national wealth, from a cross-country perspective. It is composed of three different chapters. In chapter one, together with Miguel Artola Blanco and Clara Martínez-Toledano, we reconstruct Spain's national wealth from 1900 to 2017. Combining new sources with existing accounts, we estimate the wealth of both private and government sectors and use a new asset-specific decomposition of the long-run accumulation of wealth. We find that the national wealth to income ratio stood during the 20th century in a relatively close range -between 400 and 600%- until the housing boom of the early 2000s led to an unprecedented rise to 800% in 2007. Our results highlight the importance of land, housing capital gains and international capital flows as key elements in the accumulation of wealth. The second chapter investigates the connection between the striking rise of national housing-to-national income ratios experienced by rich countries over the last decades with the transformation of the productive system: from manufacturing to services. It explores two factors: the increase in countries' spatial concentration of economic activity and the negative shocks to manufacturing-specialized regions. To explore the first factor, I present new series of housing wealth and of spatial concentration of economic activity in seven developed economies: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, UK and USA. Results show that rising housing wealth is the consequence of higher urban land values, with this increase being tightly connected with larger concentration of market-oriented services. The second factor is investigated using urban-level data in England and Wales, thus analyzing how macro trends in house-income ratios emerge from the local level. I find that rising national values are largely the result of higher dispersion of local house prices, but not of incomes per capita. The best predictor of how house prices changed is the city-level specialization of the productive system. I estimate that one quarter of the dispersion in local house prices is explained by manufacturing output declining at the national level. A simple theoretical model is used to rationalize these two factors. The third chapter, presents updated series of national wealth and capital shares of income for the eight countries covered by Piketty and Zucman (2014a): Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the USA. It discusses the adaptation of the series from the SNA93 to the SNA2008, the inclusion of natural capital (i.e. forestry land, mineral and energy resources) within the concept of national wealth and the division of national housing across households and other sectors. I find that adopting the SNA2008 has no relevant consequences for aggregate macro wealth or for the net-of-depreciation capital share. However, gross-of-depreciation capital shares are higher, likely due to the inclusion of R&D as investment in the new system of accounts. Overall, new series reveal that average private wealth to national income ratios have been steadily increasing in recent years with capital-labor shares remaining relatively constant at their 2010 values. ; La présente thèse analyse l'évolution et l'accumulation de la richesse nationale dans une perspective transnationale. Il est composé de trois chapitres différents. Dans le premier chapitre, avec Miguel Artola Blanco et Clara Martínez-Toledano, nous reconstruisons la richesse nationale de l'Espagne de 1900 à 2017. En combinant de nouvelles sources avec des comptes existants, nous estimons la richesse des secteurs privé et gouvernemental et utilisons une nouvelle décomposition spécifique à un actif. l'accumulation à long terme de la richesse. Nous trouvons que le ratio de la richesse nationale sur le revenu était relativement étroit au cours du 20ème siècle - entre 400 et 600% - jusqu'à ce que le boom immobilier du début des années 2000 conduise à une augmentation sans précédent de 800% en 2007. Nos résultats soulignent l'importance de la terre, des gains en capital liés au logement et des flux de capitaux internationaux en tant qu'éléments clés de l'accumulation de la richesse. Le deuxième chapitre étudie le lien qui existe entre l'augmentation spectaculaire des ratios nationaux entre le logement et le revenu national enregistrés par les pays riches au cours des dernières décennies avec la transformation du système de production: de la fabrication aux services. Il explore deux facteurs: l'accroissement de la concentration spatiale de l'activité économique dans les pays et les chocs négatifs sur les régions manufacturières. Pour explorer le premier facteur, je présente de nouvelles séries de richesse immobilière et de concentration spatiale de l'activité économique dans sept économies développées: la France, l'Allemagne, l'Italie, le Japon, l'Espagne, le Royaume-Uni et les États-Unis. Les résultats montrent que la richesse croissante du logement est la conséquence de la hausse de la valeur des terrains urbains, cette augmentation étant étroitement liée à la concentration accrue de services orientés vers le marché. Le deuxième facteur est étudié à l'aide de données urbaines en Angleterre et au Pays de Galles, analysant ainsi la manière dont les tendances macro-économiques des ratios de revenus des maisons émergent du niveau local. Je trouve que la hausse des valeurs nationales est en grande partie le résultat d'une plus grande dispersion des prix de l'immobilier local, mais pas du revenu par habitant. Le meilleur prédicteur de l'évolution des prix de l'immobilier est la spécialisation du système de production au niveau de la ville. J'estime qu'un quart de la dispersion des prix locaux de l'habitation s'explique par le déclin de la production manufacturière au niveau national. Un modèle théorique simple est utilisé pour rationaliser ces deux facteurs. Le troisième chapitre présente les séries actualisées de parts de revenus de la richesse nationale et du capital des huit pays couverts par Piketty et Zucman (2014a): Australie, Canada, France, Allemagne, Italie, Japon, Royaume-Uni et États-Unis. Il aborde l'adaptation des séries du SCN93 au SCN 2008, l'inclusion du capital naturel (terres forestières, ressources minérales et énergétiques) dans le concept de la richesse nationale et la répartition des logements nationaux entre les ménages et d'autres secteurs. Je conclus que l'adoption du SCN de 2008 n'a pas de conséquence significative sur la richesse macroéconomique globale ni sur la part du capital après amortissement. Toutefois, les parts de capital en brut d'amortissement sont plus élevées, probablement en raison de l'inclusion de la RD en tant qu'investissement dans le nouveau système de comptes. Dans l'ensemble, de nouvelles séries révèlent que les ratios moyens de la richesse privée par rapport au revenu national ont régulièrement augmenté au cours des dernières années, la part capital-travail restant relativement constante à leurs valeurs de 2010.

It is undisputed that children are vulnerable and must be protected from abuse, neglect, and trauma. While this is commonly understood as the role of parents, there is a considerable number of children who do not grow up in the care of their parents or other dedicated caregivers. The reasons for this are manifold and range from unintentional loss or separation to initiated removals due to abuse, neglect, or abandonment. Children in these situations are considered to be among the most vulnerable and 'left-behind' members of society (the relation to the SDG principle "to leave no one behind" has been emphasized). They become 'wards of the state' and subject to the state's decision on how to provide care for them. For centuries, one of the standard solutions provided by state and (faith-based) welfare bodies has been what is colloquially called 'orphanages' or 'children's homes'. However, the 'norms' in the field have changed. Modern best practice standards are based on the 'UN Guidelines for the Alternative Care of Children' (2009) and envision an overall 'de-institutionalization' (DI) of care systems. This study explored this development in the context of the debate on international norm diffusion processes in the discipline of International Relations. An initial analysis of the global rise of the norm example and the state of it in the controversial case of South Africa set the contextual frame for an empirical-analytical and micro-level case study of Cape Town's children's home sector. This specific microcosm became the target locality for observing actual outcomes of and reactions to norm-diffusion processes at the implementation level on the ground. The selection of the specific case example at hand was based on a special opportunity for maximizing what can be learned, due to the availability of a baseline from 2009 (the author's MA thesis, year of the UN Guidelines) and a special familiarity with the sector. Based on this, the norm adjustment/non-adjustment of Cape Town's children's home sector could be assessed in two steps: a diachronic comparison of indicators (2009 and 2017) was followed by Grounded-Theory-guided interviews with leading practitioners. So, has the new norm been accepted by local actors and implemented by the practitioners in charge? After all, orphanages/children's homes have a long tradition and are evaluated differently in different contexts and world regions. How has this impacted this norm's diffusion and translation across global, national, and local levels? In sum, the findings confirmed the non-linearity and complexity of norm adoption, localization, contestation, and implementation. At all dimensions - the global, the national, and the local - various co-existing and competing norms, realities and interests shape and influence the realities of DI translation. In the light of the empirical-analytical insights gathered, the author suggests adding two concepts to the theory when it comes to observing and understanding the translation of norms into implementation at the practice level on the ground: Firstly, a state of 'translation diversity' which implies that one norm diffusion process may lead to a variety of co-existing translation outcomes. This study showed that even in a precisely defined micro-level case and locality, cases of norm compliance, resistance, and ignorance, as well as ambivalent subtypes and mixed forms, can exist next to each other. Secondly, a concept of 'translation soundness' which refers to the observation that all types of outcomes can be justified or contradictory when it comes to protecting the best interest of the concerned target group on the ground. Some local leaders resist the new norm based on an informed and moral-based judgment in the light of the realities they experience in their local contexts. Others may comply and adjust but yet not deliver in terms of the actual goal to safeguard children. These phenomena were termed 'justified resistance' and 'contradictory compliance'. Further, the study found that decisions on how and which norms were translated into practice depended to a far extent on the local context - rather than transnational and funding influences - and on the personal convictions, leadership types, and capabilities of the people in charge. Overall, the study concludes that any general assumptions and policies/guidelines need to be handled with care. The appropriateness of different solutions depends on many factors. Listening to actors on the ground, as well as leaving space for a middle ground and a 'both-and' approach, may be crucial to ensure that interventions do actually benefit or protect the target group of concern. ; Die Doktorarbeit behandelt das Thema, inwieweit die UN Richtlinien für die alternative Betreuung von Kindern (Teil der UN Kinderrechtskonvention) auf lokaler Ebene umgesetzt werden und welche Rolle die Akteure der transnationalen Zivilgesellschaft, insbesondere als Geldgeber, in diesem Bereich dabei spielen. Das Fallbeispiel dafür ist Kapstadts Kinderheimsektor, in dem die Autorin auch 2009 Daten für ihre Masterarbeit in Bezug auf dieselbe Thematik erhob und fünf Jahre lang tätig war. Verortet in der theoretischen Debatte um die Diffusion internationaler Normen, zielt die Studie darauf ab, die oft zu wenig berücksichtigte Komplexität von Norm-Diffusions-Prozessen auf der lokalen Umsetzungsebene an einem ganz spezifischen Beispiel zu untersuchen. In diesem Sinne ist die Studie eine von empirisch-analytischem Interesse motivierte qualitative Fallstudie zur Diffusion einer spezifischen internationalen Kinderschutz-Norm in dem spezifischen, lokalen Mikrokosmos Kapstadt. Die Studie analysiert zunächst die Entwicklung der Norm auf der globalen Ebene, untersucht dann ihren Stand auf der nationalen Ebene Südafrikas und konzentriert sich schließlich auf die lokale Ebene Kapstadts: Zuerst wird anhand ausgewählter Indikatoren die Entwicklung von ca. 25 Kinderheimen zwischen 2009 (Jahr der letzten Erhebung und Jahr der UN Richtlinien) und heute beobachtet und im nächsten Schritt eine 'grounded-theory-style' Analyse der Umstände konkreter Entwicklungen durch Interviews mit 15 ausgewählten Fällen durchgeführt. Die Leitfrage ist, wie die Normbewegung sich an der Basis auswirkt und unter welchen Umständen eine Anpassung, Nicht-Anpassung, oder Resistenz stattfindet. Insgesamt zeigt sich deutlich, dass die Komplexität und Multi-Dimensionalität von Normanpassung, Normlokalisierung und Normumsetzung mit der Nähe der Betrachtung kontinuierlich steigt. Während eine Linearität und 'Effektivität' von Norm-Diffusions-Prozessen auf lokaler Policy- und Diskursebene ersichtlich sein mag, kann die Realität auf der Umsetzungsebene 'on the ground' eine ganz andere sein. Die Umsetzungsebene ist von einer enormen Pluralität und Diversität von Akteuren und Verhältnissen geprägt, die eine Vielzahl von Norm-Umsetzungs-Ergebnissen nach sich ziehen, in der sich kaum Regelmäßigkeiten abzeichnen. Für dieses Phänomen entwickelt die Autorin den Begriff der 'translation diversity'. Es lassen sich zwar Typen identifizieren, aber auch innerhalb einer Typengruppe zeigen sich gravierende Diskrepanzen. Zudem wird deutlich, dass die Norm-Umsetzungs-Ergebnisse in jedem einzelnen Fall von zahlreichen Faktoren abhängen. Unter diesen ist auch die potenzielle Einflussnahme von Geldgebern stark abhängig, vor allem von den persönlichen Überzeugungen, Einstellungen und Fähigkeiten der leitenden Personen. Bestimmte starke Leadership-Typen sind in der Lage ihre finanzielle Versorgung durch diverse Fundraising-Methoden sicherzustellen und nehmen eine selbstbewusste Haltung konträr zu der internationalen Normbewegung ein. Sie stimmen dem Prinzip der Deinstitutionalisierung zwar zu, aber argumentieren, dass eine voreilige und rabiate Vorgehensweise in diesem Sinne die Kinder noch mehr in Gefahr bringt. Solange die gravierenden Herausforderungen und Dilemmata in diesem Kinderschutzfeld nicht sinnvoll und umfassend behandelt werden können, bleibt eine strikte Deinstitutionalisierung des Sektors ein wenig realistisches Ideal. Im Kontext dieser Beobachtungen arbeitet die Autorin das Konzept der 'translation soundness' heraus. Insgesamt stellt die Studie die Diskrepanz zwischen theoretischen und linearen Annahmen und der komplexen Realität an der Basis heraus und zeigt auf, dass bei der Verallgemeinerung von 'good practice' Normen Vorsicht geboten ist.

Problem setting. Since the creation of the United Nations, it has been 73 years since, the world has changed dramatically, and accordingly, the Organization must change, rebuild under new realities. Due to the increase in the number of international conflicts, global problems of our time, the intensification of world globalization, informatization and computerization of all spheres of society, old methods and ways of getting out of crisis situations either cease to work or become ineffective. Therefore, the way in which the United Nations is transformed will determine the state of affairs in the international arena, world peace and security.Recent research and publications analysis. In the sociology of international relations and related academic disciplines, the issue of UN activity and development was studied by such scholars as B.M. Ashavsky, M.P.O. Baccarini, M.O. Baimuratov, Z. Bauman, S. Browne, M.V. Buromensky, R. Butler, S. Chesterman, K. Engelbrekt, Y.P. Godovnik, R.V. Guban, J.M. Hanhimaki, D. Howell, I. Johnstone, D. Malone, P. Nadin, O.V. Serdyuk, B.I. Tarasyuk, N. Turchin, Yu.O. Voloshin, T.J. Weiss, I.V. Yakovuk, Y.M. Zhukovsky, A.M. Zlenko et al. The situation on the international scene is changing, and today the United Nations is faced with new challenges and challenges that have not been studied by the authors or have been studied fragmentarily, so the appeal to comprehend the possible models of reforming the UN in today's conditions is quite expedient.Paper objective ‑ identification of problems in the activities of the United Nations and its ability to perform the tasks set before the organization, as well as proposals to overcome the problems identified to ensure the effectiveness of the UN work.Paper main body. The UN structure is rather complex and includes a large number of different organizational units of committees, commissions, departments, etc. Main structural units the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the International Court of Justice, Trusteeship Council (suspended on 1 November 1994), the Secretariat. From the point of view of the level of authority, the General Assembly and the UN Security Council are the most important.The beginning of the active reform process of the United Nations is linked to the election of Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997. During the 52nd session of the UN General Assembly, the main directions for updating the UN were proposed, including structural changes in the Secretariat, coordination of organizations of the UN system at the country level, and improving interaction with civil society. This topic was developed at the Millennium Summit in 2000 immediately after the 55th session of the UN General Assembly, which took place in September of the same year.Summing up the achievements of the United Nations during its existence, it is worth pointing out the process of its transformation from the organization, which was focused mainly on conference services, to a truly global provider of services, which operates in virtually every corner of the world, thereby helping to improve the lives of people in need of assistance. The following statistical information confirms the progress achieved: more than 70% of the annual budget is allocated to peacekeeping and other field operations, which is almost 20% more than in the mid-1990s; the number of humanitarian missions increased from 12 to 43; the number of human rights defenders of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in the states has increased by almost four times. However, there remain problems that have not yet been overcome, the most important of them is the reform of the Security Council. Discussions about reforming the UN Security Council have been taking place since the first years of its existence. The need for the reform of the UN Security Council is due to significant changes in the world that took place after the Second World War: economic, military-political, demographic, etc. The current composition of the UN Security Council does not proportionally represent the geographical zones of the conflict. Among the 15 members of the UN Security Council, 5 seats were assigned to the Western Europe and other Western European countries (including three permanent members), 2 to Eastern Europe (including Russia), 3 to the Asia-Pacific region (APR, including China), 3 to Africa and 2 ‑ Latin America and the Caribbean. These regional quotas show that one-third of the seats in the UN Security Council are in the «golden billion», while Eastern Europe, in which there are many unsettled conflicts, is represented only by Russia and one non-permanent member, and the Middle East is the source of the most severe conflicts, has only one representative from the APR group. In addition, the Asian quota can not always take into account the positions of States whose interests affect a number of territorial conflicts in the South China and East China Seas through which the main sea routes of the world pass.Conclusions of the research. There is a need for further UN reform. It is necessary to consistently carry out the reform of the UN Security Council, forming within its framework the agreed conceptual framework and practical measures to preserve and strengthen it as the central UN body, but the transformation is necessary: the world has changed, the structure that protects it must be changed. At the initial stage it is necessary to increase the number of members of the Council, the number of permanent members should reflect the regional picture of the world, new permanent members do not have veto power for 15-20 years. ; В статье исследуется деятельность ООН, ее институты и структура. Доказывается, что ООН нуждается в реформировании, прежде всего, ее главных структур: Генеральной Ассамблеи и Совета Безопасности, превращение их в эффективно работающие структуры. Кроме того требуют своего реформирования и совершенствования деятельность по поддержанию мира и разоружению, создание эффективной системы обеспечения прав человека, укрепление судебной системы, координация деятельности специализированных учреждений и специальных комиссий и фондов ООН, укрепление кадрового потенциала. ; У статті досліджується діяльність ООН, її інститути і структура. Доводиться, що ООН потребує реформування, насамперед, її головних структур: Генеральної Асамблеї і Ради Безпеки, перетворення їх в ефективно працюючу структуру. Крім того вимагають свого реформування та вдосконалення діяльність з підтримки миру і роззброєння, створення ефективної системи забезпечення прав людини, зміцнення судової системи, координація діяльності спеціалізованих установ та спеціальних комісій і фондів ООН, зміцнення кадрового потенціалу.

Problem setting. Since the creation of the United Nations, it has been 73 years since, the world has changed dramatically, and accordingly, the Organization must change, rebuild under new realities. Due to the increase in the number of international conflicts, global problems of our time, the intensification of world globalization, informatization and computerization of all spheres of society, old methods and ways of getting out of crisis situations either cease to work or become ineffective. Therefore, the way in which the United Nations is transformed will determine the state of affairs in the international arena, world peace and security.Recent research and publications analysis. In the sociology of international relations and related academic disciplines, the issue of UN activity and development was studied by such scholars as B.M. Ashavsky, M.P.O. Baccarini, M.O. Baimuratov, Z. Bauman, S. Browne, M.V. Buromensky, R. Butler, S. Chesterman, K. Engelbrekt, Y.P. Godovnik, R.V. Guban, J.M. Hanhimaki, D. Howell, I. Johnstone, D. Malone, P. Nadin, O.V. Serdyuk, B.I. Tarasyuk, N. Turchin, Yu.O. Voloshin, T.J. Weiss, I.V. Yakovuk, Y.M. Zhukovsky, A.M. Zlenko et al. The situation on the international scene is changing, and today the United Nations is faced with new challenges and challenges that have not been studied by the authors or have been studied fragmentarily, so the appeal to comprehend the possible models of reforming the UN in today's conditions is quite expedient.Paper objective ‑ identification of problems in the activities of the United Nations and its ability to perform the tasks set before the organization, as well as proposals to overcome the problems identified to ensure the effectiveness of the UN work.Paper main body. The UN structure is rather complex and includes a large number of different organizational units of committees, commissions, departments, etc. Main structural units the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the International Court of Justice, Trusteeship Council (suspended on 1 November 1994), the Secretariat. From the point of view of the level of authority, the General Assembly and the UN Security Council are the most important.The beginning of the active reform process of the United Nations is linked to the election of Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997. During the 52nd session of the UN General Assembly, the main directions for updating the UN were proposed, including structural changes in the Secretariat, coordination of organizations of the UN system at the country level, and improving interaction with civil society. This topic was developed at the Millennium Summit in 2000 immediately after the 55th session of the UN General Assembly, which took place in September of the same year.Summing up the achievements of the United Nations during its existence, it is worth pointing out the process of its transformation from the organization, which was focused mainly on conference services, to a truly global provider of services, which operates in virtually every corner of the world, thereby helping to improve the lives of people in need of assistance. The following statistical information confirms the progress achieved: more than 70% of the annual budget is allocated to peacekeeping and other field operations, which is almost 20% more than in the mid-1990s; the number of humanitarian missions increased from 12 to 43; the number of human rights defenders of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in the states has increased by almost four times. However, there remain problems that have not yet been overcome, the most important of them is the reform of the Security Council. Discussions about reforming the UN Security Council have been taking place since the first years of its existence. The need for the reform of the UN Security Council is due to significant changes in the world that took place after the Second World War: economic, military-political, demographic, etc. The current composition of the UN Security Council does not proportionally represent the geographical zones of the conflict. Among the 15 members of the UN Security Council, 5 seats were assigned to the Western Europe and other Western European countries (including three permanent members), 2 to Eastern Europe (including Russia), 3 to the Asia-Pacific region (APR, including China), 3 to Africa and 2 ‑ Latin America and the Caribbean. These regional quotas show that one-third of the seats in the UN Security Council are in the «golden billion», while Eastern Europe, in which there are many unsettled conflicts, is represented only by Russia and one non-permanent member, and the Middle East is the source of the most severe conflicts, has only one representative from the APR group. In addition, the Asian quota can not always take into account the positions of States whose interests affect a number of territorial conflicts in the South China and East China Seas through which the main sea routes of the world pass.Conclusions of the research. There is a need for further UN reform. It is necessary to consistently carry out the reform of the UN Security Council, forming within its framework the agreed conceptual framework and practical measures to preserve and strengthen it as the central UN body, but the transformation is necessary: the world has changed, the structure that protects it must be changed. At the initial stage it is necessary to increase the number of members of the Council, the number of permanent members should reflect the regional picture of the world, new permanent members do not have veto power for 15-20 years. ; В статье исследуется деятельность ООН, ее институты и структура. Доказывается, что ООН нуждается в реформировании, прежде всего, ее главных структур: Генеральной Ассамблеи и Совета Безопасности, превращение их в эффективно работающие структуры. Кроме того требуют своего реформирования и совершенствования деятельность по поддержанию мира и разоружению, создание эффективной системы обеспечения прав человека, укрепление судебной системы, координация деятельности специализированных учреждений и специальных комиссий и фондов ООН, укрепление кадрового потенциала. ; У статті досліджується діяльність ООН, її інститути і структура. Доводиться, що ООН потребує реформування, насамперед, її головних структур: Генеральної Асамблеї і Ради Безпеки, перетворення їх в ефективно працюючу структуру. Крім того вимагають свого реформування та вдосконалення діяльність з підтримки миру і роззброєння, створення ефективної системи забезпечення прав людини, зміцнення судової системи, координація діяльності спеціалізованих установ та спеціальних комісій і фондів ООН, зміцнення кадрового потенціалу.

Britain had emerged from the Second World War victorious and willing to take its place in the post-war world alongside other great powers, the US and the USSR. However, the war had taken its toll on the British Empire, and its resources along with its international prestige were wearing thin. The newly elected Labour Government was not about to allow Britain's status as a great power to fade. Instead it attempted to secure the country's rank in the international community by directing its imperial aspirations towards strengthening Britain's position in the Middle East and the Mediterranean. In the Potsdam Conference of 1945 a Council of Foreign Ministers was established to prepare the necessary post-war peace treaties. Britain along with the US, the USSR and France were responsible for the Italian peace treaty which included settling the fate of the former Italian colony of Libya. Libya consisted of three separate regions: Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan. From early on, Britain had its eyes set on acquiring a UN trusteeship of Cyrenaica where it had been the occupying power since 1943. The trusteeship would make Britain the formal administrative power there, and thus support its great-power ambitions in the Middle East. The Labour Cabinet decided to pursue this trusteeship but was met with more obstacles than it had expected. In the end, Britain was unable to obtain the trusteeship. This research study focuses on analysing what the Labour Cabinet's pursuit for a British trusteeship of Cyrenaica reveals about Britain's status as a great power during the immediate post-war years from 1945 to 1949. The issue is explored through three main themes: Cyrenaica's strategic meaning for Britain, Britain's relations with the US and the USSR, and Britain's imperialistic nature. The final assessment of Britain's great-power position is based on the four requirements for a great power set in this research study, and on evaluating what the failure to acquire the trusteeship meant for Britain's status. The aim of this research study is to offer a new perspective on Britain's post-war great-power position by examining it through this particular case of Britain trying to obtain the trusteeship of Cyrenaica, and to demonstrate that Cyrenaica deserves more attention in the research of British history. The main primary sources for this research study are selected Cabinet conclusions, Cabinet memoranda and the Cabinet Secretary's notes from July 1945 when Labour took Office, to November 1949 when the UN decided that Libya would become an independent state. The Cabinet papers were screened by using a wide keyword search on the online database of the National Archives. The keyword search was essential for finding the relevant documents for this research study from the vast amount of material. The focus in studying the material was on Libya, the Council of Foreign Ministers and its parties, British Middle Eastern policy especially in Egypt, British imperialism, and the most significant Cabinet members in this case: Prime Minister Clement Attlee and Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin. The two represented opposing views on whether a trusteeship of Cyrenaica would be beneficial for Britain. Attlee remained unenthusiastic but Bevin was determined to obtain the trusteeship. The Cabinet papers provide an overall picture of the main events, discussions and decisions, spiced with occasional intriguing details found in the Secretary's notes. The problem with the Cabinet papers as source material is that even if differing opinions are expressed in the memoranda, the conclusions are designed to portray unity, and can therefore be very vague. To be able to make good use of the Cabinet papers requires extensive knowledge of their historical context, as well as support from such research that has been able to access more detailed departmental documents, such as papers from the Foreign Office and the Chiefs of Staff. The findings of this research study support the generally accepted view that Britain was no longer a considerable great power after the Second World War. In the case of trying to acquire a British trusteeship of Cyrenaica, Britain fails to meet three out of the four set requirements for a great power: its military resources were underwhelming, it was not equal to the undeniable great powers - the US and the USSR - in either military capacity or prestige, and it was not acknowledged as a great power by the international community. The one requirement that Britain does meet is that it kept on acting as if it still was a great power, and conducted its policies accordingly. The stubborn belief expressed especially by Bevin that Britain could and would obtain the trusteeship it so greatly desired by relying on its old imperial great-power strategies is evidence of this. This research study continues to argue, that not only does the case of the Cyrenaican trusteeship reveal Britain's lost great-power status, it does it better than the major imperial events of that time which are usually at the forefront of studies regarding this topic. The situation in both India and Palestine was such that it would have been impossible for any great power to keep them under control. Withdrawing help from Greece and Turkey for the US to take over, can be seen as a strategic move to cut overseas expenditure while making sure that the US was tied up in world affairs and thus unable to pull back into isolationism, which would have left Britain to face the USSR alone in Europe. Cyrenaica, on the other hand, was an underdeveloped area that mostly consisted of inhospitable desert. Its only value was its location by the Mediterranean and on the western border of Egypt - and it had paramount strategic value only to Britain. This issue has been deemed so insignificant that it is tragically underrepresented in research of history and barely mentioned in the history books - and no wonder since much bigger events were taking place at the same time as the Cold War realities began to set in. However, by failing to acquire the trusteeship of this small and next to unknown territory where it was already the occupying power, Britain truly fell flat on its face. It had been a dominant power in the Middle East for a long time and was one of the victorious Three Powers in Potsdam - this rather humble objective was something it should have easily accomplished. Yet it did not. Failing in small world affairs rather than in the major ones speaks volumes of a country's great-power status - or the lack of it.

1. Introduction Important political, administrative and economic changes occurred in Turkey and the world in the last 50 years, especially during post-1980 neo-liberal era. Decentralization, rapid urbanization and metropolization processes that emerged by means of these changes have boosted authority, spending and responsibility of local governments. Local governments gradually came to the fore in the process of service delivery. However, especially, allocation of self-income and resources to local governments have not shown a similar level of increase. In this study, this dilemma is analyzed in cases of municipalities in Turkey. The purpose of this study is to reveal the contradiction between the increased burden of duty and income of the municipalities. By this way, it is aimed to provide a scientific basis for policy makers in solving self-income problems. In this context, the situation of the municipalities in Turkey has been analyzed. The case is studied with both theoretical and numerical data and the problem has been clearly demonstrated. 2. Trends of Fiscal Autonomy, Fiscal Decentralization and Decentralization Although a single, universal and unique definition cannot be made, decentralization is generally defined as the transfer/assignment of decision-making responsibility, power and authority of resource creation from higher level administration (central government) to lower levels of administration (regions, local governments and NGOs) (Cheema & Rondinelli, 2007: 1, Leung, 2004: 1, Edquist, 2005: 9, Yuliani, 2004, Hinsz vd., 2006: 2, Eryılmaz, 2002: 225). According to the definition of Litvack ve Seddom (1999: 2) and World Bank, decentralization is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations or the private sector (Keskin, 2008: 2). Fiscal decentralization forms the financial aspect of devolution to regional and local administrations. Moreover, European and American writers use terms like "centrallocal (or intergovernmental) financial relations" and "fiscal federalism" in order to refer to fiscal decentralization. The first phase of fiscal decentralization is the division of spending responsibilities and revenue sources between levels of government (national, regional, local etc.). The second phase is the amount of discretion given to regional and local governments to determine their expenditures and revenues (both in aggregate and detail). This discretion gives regional and local governments the ability to determine their budgets by levying taxes and fees and allocating resources (Davey, 2003: 1). The essence of fiscal decentralization is the authority and responsibility of subnational governments to finance their local services to a certain extent (Ebel & Yılmaz, 2002: 34). In other words, fiscal decentralization occurs when higher levels of government cede influence over budgets and financial decisions to lower levels (Sharma, 2008). Decentralization and fiscal decentralization trend that has developed in the framework of thinking that local governments should be strengthened has also created the infrastructure of financial autonomy. Fiscal Autonomy aims to enable local governments to have adequate, healthy and sustainable resources in order to ensure the institutionalization of democracy and effective implementation of their services. In that framework, it is defined as local governments' fulfillment of their duties and responsibilities independently from the center. To achieve this aim, local governments manage/spend assets and resources in line with their laws (in accordance with the interests of the local population). They also make budgets and borrowings (Ulusoy & Akdemir, 2009: 260-265, Yontar & Dağ, 2014: 150, Çelik, 2013: 22). 3. Increased Responsibility of Municipalities as a Result of Urbanization and Metropolization in Turkey The urbanization rate was very slow in the early years of the Republic of Turkey. The population living in rural areas began to migrate to urban areas in the 1950s due to improvements in transportation infrastructure, change of the land ownership regime, mechanization and modernization of agriculture, technological developments, increase in industrialization, and other economic/social changes. In particular, migration to cities increased in line with the population growth. This accelerated the need for better highway networks and settlement areas, and new housing (Tosun, 2015: 202- 203, Şahin, 2013: 79). There have been serious population increases in cities such as Istanbul, Izmir, Adana, Ankara and Bursa. This trend caused significant problems in terms of urban services in these cities (Keleş, 2009: 289). Local governments and especially municipalities took on the most important tasks of on-site analysis of the mentioned problems and solving them with practical - permanent proposals. 4. Comparative Analysis of Revenues and Expenditures of Municipalities in Turkey Municipalities became center-dependent units from financial, political and administrative aspects. It is mainly due to inefficient income structure that is dependent on central transfers, not on self-income. It is clear that this situation causes many negative effects on the functioning of municipalities. However, inadequacy of self-income or dependency needs to be demonstrated with numerical data in order to see the adverse trend in a concrete way. This enables a comparison in an international scale and identification of appropriate sample countries for the planned changes for these comparisons. Furthermore, it becomes possible to analyze financial interdependence among different municipal levels and all municipalities. Through detailed assessments, the dilemma between metropolization and fiscal decentralization in Turkey has been put forward in this study. 5. Basic Financial Problems of Municipalities in Turkey The main financial problems of the municipalities can be listed as lack of sustainable revenue sources, ineffective use of available resources, over-dependence on shares transferred from general budget tax revenues collection, inadequacy of self-income sources (Yüksel, 2004). Because of these financial problems, there are many negative situations faced at the local level. 6. Conclusion There is a trend of urbanization and metropolization in Turkey. 93% of the total population lives within the municipal boundaries. 84% of the population within municipal boundaries is within the borders of the metropolitan municipalities. Metropolitan municipalities have the highest burden of responsibilities. Then comes the provincial municipalities, district and town municipalities. However, amount of incomes is in the opposite order. This situation, prevents municipalities from enjoying the benefits of fiscal autonomy and fiscal decentralization. Instead, they become highly dependent on the central government. To get rid of this dilemma, a three-stage policy must be followed. Firstly, efficiency in spending should be achieved. Secondly, steps should be taken to make the most out of available income sources. Finally, municipalities should be provided with new sources of revenue in order to get rid of the fiscal dilemma. While these steps are being taken, rather than applying a general method, political characteristics and administrative, economic, cultural of Turkey should be taken into consideration and Turkey-specific system should be established.

Listas de espécies ameaçadas identificam taxa com real ou potencial risco de extinção em uma escala regional e global, embasando a tomada de decisões e a formulação de políticas públicas. A construção da primeira lista estadual de espécies ameaçadas de extinção na Bahia teve início em 2013. Este artigo descreve a avaliação do status de conservação de mamíferos na Bahia e seus principais resultados. A construção da lista ocorreu em três etapas: (1) preparatória, (2) avaliação e (3) final (validação). Uma espécie foi considerada regionalmente extinta, 41 foram incluídas em categorias de ameaça ('Criticamente em Perigo', 'Em Perigo' ou 'Vulnerável') e quatro foram consideradas 'Quase Ameaçadas'. Além disso, 51 espécies foram classificadas como 'Dados Insuficientes'. Perda e fragmentação de habitat, caça e atropelamento foram listadas como as principais ameaças para os mamíferos da Bahia. Trinta e três das 45 espécies ameaçadas ou 'Quase Ameaçadas' tiveram registros em 21 Unidades de Conservação (UC) de proteção integral, localizadas inteira ou parcialmente na Bahia, e 32 das 45 espécies são cobertas por Planos de Ação Nacional (PAN). A lista de mamíferos ameaçados de extinção na Bahia inclui percentual elevado de carnívoros, mamíferos aquáticos, primatas e ungulados, seguindo o padrão observado em listas vermelhas. O alto número de espécies 'Dados Insuficientes' e a concentração de esforços de pesquisa em regiões restritas do estado são alarmantes e sugerem ausência de planejamento e baixa aplicação de recursos para descrever a biodiversidade, resultando em um conhecimento limitado sobre as populações de mamíferos e suas distribuições geográficas. A Bahia ocupa uma posição de destaque para a conservação de alguns taxa cuja distribuição é total ou majoritariamente incluída no estado. Os biomas Caatinga, Cerrado e Marinho carecem de UC de proteção integral para representar sua mastofauna característica. A publicação da lista de mamíferos ameaçados de extinção, investimentos para a criação e proteção efetiva de UC existentes e outras ações previstas em PAN são instrumentos complementares que devem ser fomentados por instituições governamentais e não-governamentais no intuito de proteger a rica diversidade demamíferos da Bahia.ABSTRACT - FIRST EVALUATION OF MAMMALS CONSERVATION STATUS IN BAHIA, BRAZIL Endangered species lists identify real and potential taxa extinction risks at global and regional scales, supporting decision-making processes and public policy. The construction of the first list of threatened species in Bahia state started in 2013. This paper describes the evaluation of conservation status of mammals in Bahia and its main results. The list was built in three phases: (1) preparatory, (2) evaluation and (3) final (validation). One species was considered regionally extinct, 41 were included in categories of threat ('Critically Endangered', 'Endangered' or 'Vulnerable') and four were considered 'Near Threatened'. Moreover, 51 species were classified as 'Data Deficient'. Habitat loss and fragmentation, hunting and roadkill were listed as the main threats for mammals in Bahia state. Thirty three out of 45 threatened or 'Near Threatened' species were recorded in 21 strictly protected areas (PA), completely or partially located in Bahia, and 32 of the 45 species are included in National Action Plans (PAN). The list of threatened mammals of Bahia includes a high percentage of carnivores, aquatic mammals, primates and ungulates, following the pattern of red lists. The high number of 'Data Deficient' species and research effort concentration in relatively small regions along the state are alarming and suggest the absence of planning and insufficient resource destination for biodiversitydescription, resulting in a limited knowledge on mammal populations and geographic distributions. Bahia occupies a prominent position regarding the conservation of taxa whose distribution range is totally or mainly included in the state. Caatinga, Cerrado and Marine biomes lack of strict PA to represent their diversity of mammal species. The publication of the list of mammals threatened with extinction, efforts to create and effectively protect current PA, and further actions considered in PAN are complementary tools that should be fomented by the government and nongovernment institutions aiming at protecting the rich mammal diversity of Bahia. ; Listas de espécies ameaçadas identificam taxa com real ou potencial risco de extinção em uma escala regional e global, embasando a tomada de decisões e a formulação de políticas públicas em conservação. Em 2013, a Bahia iniciou a elaboração da primeira lista estadual de espécies ameaçadas de extinção, cujos resultados ainda não foram oficialmente publicados. Este artigo descreve o processo de avaliação de mamíferos ameaçados de extinção na Bahia e os principais resultados. A construção da lista ocorreu em três fases: (1) fase preparatória, (2) oficina de avaliação e (3) oficina de validação, e contou com a participação de 31 pesquisadores com experiência nas diferentes ordens de mamíferos. Uma espécie foi considerada regionalmente extinta, 41 foram incluídas em categorias de ameaça ('Criticamente em Perigo', 'Em Perigo' ou 'Vulnerável') e outras quatro foram consideradas 'Quase Ameaçadas'. Além disso, 51 espécies foram classificadas como Dados Insuficientes. Perda e fragmentação de hábitat, caça e atropelamento foram listadas como as principais ameaças para os mamíferos da Bahia. Trinta e três das 45 espécies ameaçadas ou 'Quase Ameaçadas' tiveram registros em 21 Unidades de Conservação (UC) de proteção integral, localizadas inteira ou parcialmente na Bahia, e 32 dessas 45 espécies são cobertas por Planos de Ação Nacional (PAN). A lista de mamíferos ameaçados de extinção na Bahia inclui percentual elevado de carnívoros, mamíferos aquáticos, primatas e ungulados, seguindo o padrão observado em outras avaliações. O alto número de espécies consideradas como 'Dados Insuficientes' e a concentração de esforços de pesquisa em regiões restritas do estado são alarmantes e sugerem ausência de planejamento e baixa aplicação de recursos para descrever a biodiversidade, resultando em um conhecimento limitado sobre as populações de mamíferos e suas distribuições geográficas. A Bahia ocupa uma posição de destaque para a conservação de alguns táxons cuja distribuição é total ou majoritariamente incluída no estado. Os biomas Caatinga, Cerrado e Marinho carecem de UC de proteção integral para representar sua mastofauna característica. A publicação da lista de mamíferos ameaçados de extinção, investimentos para a criação e proteção efetiva de UC existentes e outras ações previstas em PAN são instrumentos complementares que devem ser fomentados por instituições governamentais e não-governamentais no intuito de proteger a rica diversidade de mamíferos da Bahia.

Tropical forests store and exchange carbon through biomass, supporting biodiversity cycles while acting as sources of timber and Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP), and are biomes inclusive of human habitation. For centuries, most tropical forest communities actively stewarded forests through sustainable management processes. The sustainment of living conditions through livelihoods continues to be an important contributing driver of environmental conservation and the climate control. These conservation based livelihoods are being increasingly threatened and disincentivized over the last few decades by commercial timber, cropland and pasture industry that plunders tropical forests for the extraction of valuable timber or farming purposes. This thesis presents an option of how the economic and social livelihood of tropical forest communities can be secured and improved while contributing to the sustainable tropical forest management, and thus stabilizing the climate. The first part of this dissertation describes the results of a field research of economic activities from two Brazilian forest communities. Brazil has been chosen as the research site as it has the largest area of tropical forests in the world and experiences one of the highest rates of deforestation. After conducting the field research, three stages of a longitudinal experimental research were conducted while applying the Fair Trade concept. A team of NTFP harvesters has been organized and a harvesting strategy was developed with the provision of pre-financing capital for the stock creation of NTFP. Analysis of these interventions suggested that through organizational support and pre-financing, harvesters are able to organize themselves, to increase their income and to manage forest territories sustainably. Interdependency could be identified between the external support continuity, the size of pre-financing and the number of participants, their income as well as the size of managed forest territory. Clear land tenure as well as technical, organizational and marketing assistance is essential throughout the first years of intervention. In the second part of this thesis the aim was to generalize the results of the previous study and to develop a global concept of how tropical forest conservation and livelihood creation can be achieved in tropical forest communities. Based on the global Poverty and Environment Network (PEN) study organized by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) which analyzed 334 forest villages from 24 tropical forest countries of Asia, Latin America and Africa, global conclusions on social, economic and ecological interrelations could be made. After formalizing qualitative causal relations it could be concluded that sustainable development in forest communities cannot be achieved without 1) legal rights for forest management, 2) targeted investments and initial capital for the organization of economic activities with ecological and social responsibility, and 3) organizational, technical, and methodical support. As the result the compatibility of the forest communities' realities with the theoretical concept of the sustainable development could be analyzed and the concept of the Small Scale Forest Enterprise with Social and Ecological Responsibility (SSFESR) introduced. The SSFESR is defined as an enterprise managed and employed by indigenous and other local forest communities, which is aimed at making profit from sustainable harvesting, processing and trade of NTFP and sustainable timber management practices. In the third part of this thesis, a quantitative assessment of the ecological, social, and economic returns on investments into the development of the SSFESR is presented. The Optimal Investment Forest Conservation and Livelihood Creation Model (OIFC) has been developed 1) which determines the environmental and social benefits of investments into SSFESR and 2) mathematically formalizes the interdependencies between the investments into development of SSFESR, poverty alleviation, forest conservation, and carbon benefits in conserved forest territory. The extent of forest conservation is restricted by the number of people living and working in the forest community and the maximal sustainable yield for the chosen NTFPs. This model can become a tool for policy makers for decision making on allocation of resources into the forest conservation and poverty alleviation in tropical forest regions. The model results show that investments into the SSFESR can simultaneously address social, economic and environmental objectives. In particular, it can increase the income of local inhabitants from the sale of processed NTFP, expand the range of activities, increase the conserved forest area covered, and also create new jobs and decrease the level of poverty. ; Tropische Wälder speichern Kohlenstoff, unterstützen Biodiversitätszyklen, dienen als Quelle für Holz und Nicht-Holz-Waldprodukte (NHWP) und bilden einen Lebensraum für Lebewesen. Seit Jahrhunderten bewirtschaften die meisten tropischen Waldgemeinden die Wälder durch nachhaltige Managementprozesse. Die Erhaltung der Lebensbedingungen durch die Gemeindeeinwohner ist nach wie vor ein wichtiger Beitrag zum Umweltschutz und zur Klimakontrolle. Diese naturschutzbasierten Lebensgrundlagen wurden in den letzten Jahrzehnten zunehmend von der Holz-, Acker- und Weideindustrie, die die tropischen Wälder zur Gewinnung von wertvollem Holz oder für landwirtschaftliche Zwecke plündern, bedroht und abgebaut. In diesem Kontext stellt sich die Frage, wie die nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung der Wälder unterstützt und gefördert werden kann. Diese Dissertation präsentiert daher eine Möglichkeit, wie die soziale und ökonomische Lebenssituation der Tropenwaldgemeinden gesichert und verbessert werden kann, während sie zur nachhaltigen Tropenwaldbewirtschaftung beitragen und so das Klima stabilisieren. Im ersten Teil dieser Dissertation werden die Ergebnisse der Feldforschung über die wirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten zweier brasilianischer Waldgemeinden beschrieben. Brasilien wurde als Forschungsstandort gewählt, da es weltweit das größte Gebiet von tropischen Wäldern umfasst und momentan eine hohe Entwaldungsrate aufweist. Nach der Durchführung der Feldforschung wurden unter Anwendung des Fair-Trade-Konzepts drei Phasen eines Langzeitexperiments umgesetzt. Durch die Bereitstellung von Vorfinanzierungskapital für die Erstellung von NHWP-Lagerbeständen konnte ein Team von NHWP-Sammlern organisiert und eine nachhaltige Erntestrategie entwickelt werden. Die Analyse dieser Interventionen zeigte, dass die organisatorische Unterstützung sowie das Vorfinanzierungskapital dazu führen, dass sich die NHWP-Sammler organisieren, ihr Einkommen steigern und in der Lage sind, Waldgebiete nachhaltig zu bewirtschaften. Es konnte eine Wechselwirkung zwischen der Kontinuität der externen organisatorischen Unterstützung, dem Vorfinanzierungsumfang, der Anzahl der Sammler und der Größe des verwalteten Waldgebietes identifiziert werden. Klare Landbesitzrechte sowie technische, organisatorische und Vertriebsunterstützungen sind entscheidend während der ersten Jahre der Interventionen. Der zweite Teil der Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Verallgemeinerung der Ergebnisse der vorherigen Studie und der Entwicklung eines globalen Konzepts, wie der tropische Wald geschützt und die Existenzsicherung in tropischen Waldgemeinden erreicht werden kann. Auf Grundlage der internationalen Studie des Zentrums für internationale Forstwissenschaft (CIFOR), die 334 Waldgemeinden aus 24 tropischen Waldländern Asiens, Lateinamerikas und Afrikas analysierte, konnten globale Schlussfolgerungen zu sozialen, ökonomischen und ökologischen Zusammenhängen gezogen werden. Nach der Formalisierung qualitativer Kausalbeziehungen kann festgestellt werden, dass eine nachhaltige Entwicklung in Waldgemeinden nicht ohne 1) Rechte für die Waldbewirtschaftung, 2) gezielte Investitionen und Anfangskapital für die Organisation von Wirtschaftsaktivitäten mit ökologischer und sozialer Verantwortung und 3) organisatorische, technische und methodische Unterstützung erreicht werden kann. Als Ergebnis konnte die Vereinbarkeit der Waldgemeinden-Realität mit dem theoretischen Konzept der nachhaltigen Entwicklung analysiert und das Konzept des Kleinwirtschaftsunternehmens mit sozialer und ökologischer Verantwortung (SSFESR) vorgeschlagen werden. Das SSFESR ist definiert als ein Unternehmen, welches von indigenen und anderen lokalen Waldgemeindeeinwohnern verwaltet wird, mit dem Ziel, durch Verarbeitung und Handel von NHWP und durch nachhaltiges Holzmanagement Gewinn zu erzielen. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit wird eine quantitative Bewertung der ökologischen, sozialen und ökonomischen Rentabilität der Investitionen in SSFESR anhand eines Investitions-Optimierungsmodels durchgeführt. Das Investitions-Optimierungsmodel zum Waldschutz und zur Schaffung von Existenzgrundlagen wurde entwickelt, um 1) die ökologischen und sozialen Vorteile von Investitionen in die SSFESR zu ermitteln und 2) die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen diesen Investitionen, dem Waldschutz und der Armutsminderung mathematisch zu formalisieren. Die Modellergebnisse zeigen, dass Investitionen in die SSFESR gleichzeitig soziale, ökonomische und umweltpolitische Ziele ansprechen können. Insbesondere kann es das Einkommen der örtlichen Einwohner aus dem Verkauf von verarbeiteten NHWP steigern, das Spektrum der Wirtschaftsaktivitäten erweitern, den Erhalt der bewirtschafteten Waldflächen erhöhen und die Schaffung neuer Arbeitsplätze sowie die Verringerung des Armutsniveaus bewirken.

Since 2003, more than 400 popular districts categorized as sensitive urban zones and 4 million inhabitants have become part of a program initiated by the Framework Act on Town Planning and Urban Renewal (so-called "Borloo law"). In order to achieve district transformation and social diversity, the program has led to demolition/rebuilding operations, the refurbishment of existing dwellings and the redefinition of public urban areas (street network and green spaces, etc.)The municipalities of Clichy-Sous-Bois and Montfermeil in the Seine-Saint-Denis region were part of this program. Whilst being the largest program in France (in terms of allocated budget and demolished dwellings), it also had the singularity to involve the destruction of dilapidated privately-owned buildings such as Les Bosquets in Montfermeil and La Forestière in Clichy-sous-Bois. All the new buildings reconstructed there are under social housing management.All re-housed inhabitants consequently moved from the status of owner-occupiers or private housing tenants to that of social housing tenants. In addition to their change in status, this situation implies regular interactions between these 'displaced'people and the professionals (of the city, of nonprofit organizations, social landlords who operate in the area, in these buildings within the frame of pre- and post-rehousing accompaniment.Based on an analysis supported by interviews, observations and archives, this thesis aims at understanding the genesis of this policy as much as the effects of the will for district transformation through generalizing social housing, on professional practices and the trajectories of the re-housed inhabitants.To this end, archives and interviews help understanding that the degradation of the former co-ownership properties was attributable primarily to their conditions of marketing, construction and management. Yet, all the measures of public action, up to the signature of the urban renewal program, systematically present the inhabitants and their features (popular classes or migrants) as solely responsible for this deterioration.The ethnography of professional practices then shows how in the new homes the professionals use the interactions with the inhabitants to regulate the way they live there. This work is done with a view to avoiding new damage to the buildings.Eventually the interviews with the inhabitants (made before and after re-housing) illustrate how re-housing and the interactions with professionals destabilize them within their individual anchorages and shake the sense of hierarchies within this social group. While former owners made up the upper class in their previous housing, they now feel the most downgraded. Conversely, tenants who were the most dominated are today the most rehabilitated.Beyond empirical results, this analytical approach rates the issues of the thesis on sevral scales. First, this work illustrates how, in a constructivist perspective, these co-ownership properties and their inhabitants have been built as a problem and a category of public action. Then, starting from the practices of professionals, this thesis discloses how within the frame of urban policy, some forms of regulation and domination over certain targeted publics (here working classes and migrants) are still exerted. Finally this thesis is consistent with a sociology of popular classes who are attentive to their internal differences as much as to the various ways a measure of public action can be perceived. ; Depuis 2003, plus de 400 quartiers populaires classés en Zones Urbaines Sensibles (ZUS) et 4 millions d'habitants sont devenus les destinataires d'un Programme de Rénovation Urbaine (PRU) instauré par la « loi Borloo » d'orientation et de programmation pour la ville. Dans un objectif de transformation des quartiers et de mixité sociale, ces programmes entraînent des opérations de démolition/reconstruction de logements, la réhabilitation du parc existant et la redéfinition des espaces urbains collectifs (voirie, espaces verts, etc.).Les communes de Clichy-sous-Bois et de Montfermeil en Seine-Saint-Denis font l'objet d'un de ces PRU. Tout en étant le plus important de France (en termes de budget et de logements détruits), il a aussi la particularité d'entraîner la démolition d'immeubles en copropriétés privées dégradées : les Bosquets à Montfermeil et la Forestière à Clichy-sous-Bois. À leur place, toutes les nouvelles constructions et les relogements se font dans le parc social. L'ensemble des habitants relogés passe donc du statut de propriétaires occupants ou locataires du parc privé à celui de locataires du parc social. Outre ce changement de statut résidentiel, cette situation s'accompagne de la mise en interactions régulières de ces « délogés » aux professionnels (de la ville, associatifs et des bailleurs) qui interviennent sur ce quartier, dans ces immeubles dans le cadre d'accompagnement pré et post relogement.Basée sur une enquête conduite par entretiens, observations et archives, cette thèse vise autant à saisir la genèse de cette politique, que les effets de la volonté de transformation des quartiers, par la généralisation du parc social, sur les pratiques professionnelles et les trajectoires des habitants relogés.Dans cette optique, les archives et les entretiens donnent à comprendre que la dégradation des anciennes copropriétés s'explique en priorité par leurs conditions de commercialisation, de production et de gestion. Or, toutes les mesures d'actions publiques, jusqu'à la signature du programme de rénovation urbaine, présentent systématiquement les habitants et leurs caractéristiques (populaires et immigrées) comme les principaux responsables de cette dégradation.L'ethnographie des pratiques professionnelles illustre ensuite comment dans les résidences neuves, ces acteurs se servent des interactions avec les habitants pour encadrer leurs manières d'habiter. Ce travail se faisant dans l'idée d'éviter une nouvelle dégradation des bâtiments.Enfin, les entretiens auprès des habitants (réalisés avant et après relogement) dévoilent comment le relogement et la rencontre avec les professionnels les déstabilisent dans leurs ancrages individuels et ébranlent le sens des hiérarchies internes à ce groupe social. Alors que les anciens propriétaires constituaient dans la copropriété la frange supérieure de ce groupe, ils sont aujourd'hui ceux qui se sentent le plus déclassés. À l'inverse, les locataires qui dans la copropriété occupaient les positions les plus dominées sont aujourd'hui les plus réhabilités.Au-delà des résultats empiriques, ces pistes analytiques situent les enjeux de la thèse à plusieurs échelles. D'abord, c'est dans une perspective constructiviste que ce travail illustre comment ces copropriétés et leurs occupants ont été construits comme un problème et une catégorie d'action publique. Ensuite, c'est en partant de la pratique des professionnels que cette thèse dévoile comment dans l'espace de la politique de la ville se maintiennent des formes d'encadrement et de domination à l'égard de certains publics cibles (ici issus des catégories populaires et immigrées). Enfin, cette thèse s'inscrit dans une sociologie des classes populaires autant attentives à leurs différences internes qu'aux modalités de réception variée d'une mesure d'action publique.