Suchergebnisse

The existing trajectory of U.S. policy risks sacrificing Western Europe for the sake of Ukraine, and U.S. policymakers need to wake up to this risk. If this were to happen, it would be one of the worst bargains in the entire history of U.S. strategy. Western and Central Europe, and not Ukraine, are and have been for more than a century the area of truly vital U.S. interests on the European continent. Moreover, the crippling of Western Europe and the European Union would destroy Ukraine's own real chances of future democratic prosperity and stability; for these depend chiefly on links to the E.U., not the United States. All the evidence at present suggests that the Ukrainian counter-offensive has failed, with only very small gains and enormous losses. Nor is there any evidence-based reason to hope for greater Ukrainian success next year, given the balance of military and economic forces between Ukraine and Russia. Faced with this reality, there is increasing official and unofficial talk of arming and supporting Ukraine for an indefinite struggle (though of course this cannot in fact be guaranteed given the opposition of one faction of the Republican Party). An analogy has been made to the case of Israel, which developed as a prosperous and secure quasi-democracy while remaining in a state of frozen conflict and unresolved territorial disputes with its neighbors.Quite apart from the dreadful events of recent days, there are many reasons why this idea is profoundly foolish. They include the fact that if Syria were Russia, Israel would not be Israel. In other words, if Israel had bordered not on a shambolic and impoverished country with a fraction of its GDP and technological capacity, but a nuclear armed power with fourteen times its GDP, Israel would most certainly not have developed as a successful and prosperous democracy. There is no way that the U.S. can secure Ukraine permanently in an open-ended war with Russia.Perhaps most important of all however is the way in which this vision totally ignores the effects on Europe, and U.S. interests in Europe. This would not matter much if European countries were economically successful and politically stable, but this is rapidly ceasing to be the case.In the old heartland of the EU, liberal democratic politics are crumbling. Italy is ruled by a radical conservative government. Opinion polls in France suggest that if elections were held today, Marine Le Pen would win by a wide margin. In Sweden — almost unbelievably for someone who lived through the long dull summer of Abbaesque Swedish social democracy — the army is being called on for help in combating violence by immigrant drug gangs, and the radical nationalist Sweden Democrats are the second largest party. Above all, there is Germany, without which no stable and successful European Union is possible. As German historian Tarik Cyrul Amar has written: "Germany's perfect adherence to Western policy on Russia and China has an ominous price…We have assumed that the first country to buckle under the economic strain of the war over Ukraine would be Russia. But what if it is Germany that stumbles first? Germans stressed about their economy, distrusting their elites as favoring foreign interests, and disenchanted with centrist values and methods— a picture too familiar for comfort." The state elections in Bavaria and Hesse this month showed a surge in support for the right-wing nationalist Alternative fuer Deutschland (AfD) and Freie Waehler (Free Voter) parties. According to opinion polls, AfD now has the second largest support nationwide, behind the Christian Democrats but pushing the Social Democrats into third place, and far ahead of the Greens and the Liberals.Up to now, all the traditional mainstream parties have been united in their refusal to form coalitions with the AfD. If continued, the rise in the party's support will however make this approach increasingly unworkable. Either the CDU will have to form governing coalitions with the AfD (as the CDU's sister party, the Christian Social Union, has already done with the Freie Waehler in Bavaria), or all the mainstream parties will have to form permanent coalitions to keep them out of office.The latter course would recall the last years of the Weimar Republic, and would almost certainly strengthen the radical parties still further, since critics of government policies would have nowhere else to go. The most radical proposal is to dub AfD a neo-Nazi party and ban it, but this would lead to massive protests and drive its supporters towards violence. Whatever happens, Germany seems set for a prolonged period of deep political instability and polarization.The original roots of support for AfD and similar parties in Europe lie in fear of mass migration and hostility to the centralizing (and sometimes dictatorial) tendencies of the European Union. Their support has however been greatly increased by the deepening economic recession into which Germany has been plunged by the rise in energy prices consequent on the war in Ukraine. German economic success in recent decades was largely built on cheap, plentiful and reliable Russian gas.This factor helped mask worsening structural defects in the German economy, which the present crisis is exposing. Coupled with the end of the Chinese boom and U.S.-driven economic warfare against China, the result is that there is now serious talk in Germany of "de-industrialization." Should this in fact occur, the political, social, cultural and psychological results could be catastrophic; for the rebuilding of the German national identity after 1945 took place largely on the basis of the "economic miracle," and the belief that this reflected a superior German model of cooperation between capital and labor, and a strong industry-based middle class (the so called Mittelstand). If belief in these collapses, we could be looking at something akin to a national nervous breakdown.An unending semi-frozen war in Ukraine would drastically worsen Germany's — and Europe's – economic decline and consequent political disorder. Especially if coupled with repeated crises in the Middle East, it would make the restoration of stability in energy prices impossible. Such a conflict would inevitably break out periodically into major battles, possibly leading to new Russian victories. There would be the perpetual risk that an unintended collision between Russia and NATO could escalate towards nuclear war. It should not be hard to imagine what this would do to business confidence in Europe.There is a tendency now for Americans to congratulate themselves on the submission of Europe to American strategy as a result of the war in Ukraine. This underestimates the threat to Europe and of U.S. interests there. The threat, as described, is overwhelmingly an internal one, resulting from a deadly cocktail of economic stagnation, uncontrolled migration, and political extremism, worsened by the war in Ukraine. If present patterns continue, the result will be to cripple Europe both economically and politically.Economic prosperity and liberal democracy in Europe form a key pillar of America's own power in the world and therefore a vital U.S. national interest. Without them, America's own economic power will be gravely weakened, and the prestige of democracy in the world shattered. There will be little point in the U.S. presenting itself as the leader of democracy in Asia if it has collapsed in Europe.Moreover, the United States waged two world wars and a Cold War in Europe to prevent the great economies of Western Europe from falling under the control of a hostile great power. Until a decade or so ago, no American ever dreamed of seeing Ukraine in this way. If therefore the U.S. analysis is that Ukraine cannot win, for the sake of Europe and U.S. vital interests there, Washington should lend all its efforts to bring about an early peace.Sophia Ampgkarian contributed to the research for this article.

When Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état to oust the civilian government of the Directorate in France, he justified his actions as necessary to save the spirit of the Revolution. The army, in Napoleon's view, had a solemn obligation to defend the nation against threats both at home and abroad.The notion that a military, as guardians of a national spirit, has the right to seize the authority of the state became known as Bonapartism. This seemingly persistent belief in certain militaries in Africa emphasizes the need for comprehensive reform.Military regimes can perceive themselves to be better at governance than civilians. The simplicity of efficiently carrying out orders stands in stark contrast to the seemingly endless bureaucracy impeded by incompetence and corruption. In crises where politics leads to impasses in service delivery, the military's projection as being "above politics" can help it seize and keep power in fragile states.Despite the anti-French rhetoric of coup leaders in Africa, many of them nonetheless invoke this spirit of Bonapartism in acting to "save" the state. As the French Revolution began to eat itself under the Reign of Terror, for Napoleon the only means to preserve the Revolution was for its defenders to remove the civilian leadership by force.This was no singular event. Several times in the 19th and 20th centuries, the French army forced dramatic changes in the state whenever the national spirit had been challenged. Bonapartism furthermore formed a significant part of military formation in France's colonies, particularly in Africa.The problem with Bonapartism is that it has greatly undermined attempts to professionalize security forces. When we speak of professional soldiers outside of a (former) colonial setting, we mean a trained soldier who readily accepts and defends civilian authority. Such a situation is so taken for granted today that we do not always appreciate how necessary this is for a thriving democracy.If a military perceives itself to be better, more competent, or in some way less fallible than the civilian government, then a risk of Bonapartism can persist regardless of how well trained they might be. U.S. training of officers, such as those in Niger, may unintentionally lead to a growing confidence in the military about their competence and increase the risk of a takeover.The officers leading the coups in Niger and Gabon cite persistent civilian misrule, aided in no small part by continued French dominance in domestic political and economic policies in both countries, as the primary justification for their intervention. They present themselves as acting in the best interests of the nations they are nominally intended to protect. Seizing power away from incompetent civilians is merely a continuation of their duty.Scenes of crowds celebrating the removal of decades-long dictatorships do indicate at least a modicum of legitimacy for the military's actions in Gabon. Many coup leaders across Africa have justified their actions on the demonstrable misrule by civilian governments. In almost every scenario, however, the coup leaders merely became the new dictators. These actions further emulate Napoleon's hold on power, although few did so as blatantly as Jean-Bedel Bokassa of the Central African Republic, who declared himself Emperor 4 December 1977.Bonapartism is not solely a francophone problem and can exist in any state with weak democratic institutions. In the cases of Zimbabwe and Egypt, despite the civilian façade, the spirit of Bonapartism still lingers. For both states, the military has long been the true source of the state's authority.Zimbabwe's elections are a mere formality, a political tradition rather than any substantive effort to change the civilian authority. Aside from the Egyptian military's brief foray into relinquishing power to the Muslim Brotherhood in 2012, the civilian leadership serves at the pleasure of the military, not the electorate. When the military felt that Egypt was at risk under the leadership of the Brotherhood, they acted to save the state by retaking authority, a quintessential Bonapartist action.The coup in Sudan that ousted Omar al-Bashir was a remarkably similar instance of a military acting to change the civilian leadership during a crisis. However, the current infighting among senior officers points to an entirely different matter. It's actually a misnomer to refer to states like Sudan as "weak." Rather, the problem lies in the fact that the state is too powerful in relation to other aspects of the society, particularly the economy.Such states are the 'only game in town' in terms of attaining mobility, income, and basic security. Fights over who controls the state become so violent because of a lack of options. As long as other sectors remain underdeveloped, the risks of coups will persist. In such cases, it may well be counter-productive to invest too much in the militaries, and making control of the military all the more tempting.There are steps the African Union and other international bodies can take to militate against Bonapartism. The first concerns the AU's Lomé Declaration of 2000, which established a norm against unconstitutional regime changes by stating that any extra constitutional changes in a government is grounds for immediate suspension. In practice, this commitment has been far from rock solid, with the AU making numerous exceptions over the years.Moreover, tougher penalties could be applied, especially in the form of mandating Security Sector Reform (SSR) as necessary processes to return to the AU.SSR entails a comprehensive overhaul of a state's security sector. The security sector includes not only the military but also the police, judiciary, and any intelligence services. Importantly, SSR requires more than mere training, as the Niger and Burkina Faso cases demonstrate. Therein lies the rub of military governance and strengthening democracies: the only body with the authority to restructure the military is the military itself.Save for the odd counter-example, democratic promises by army officers have rarely been realized. Even in instances where elections have been held, the military nonetheless retains inordinate influence over the civilian leadership, and the threat of future coups persists.SSR is neither cheap nor easy to adequately implement. One of the most important factors is rewriting a constitution with sufficient judicial strength to ensure that an elected legislative body has the ultimate authority over all security forces. Doing so must result in the end of Bonapartism for the military and the conclusion that they are not the sole nor ultimate defenders of the nation.The rush to hold elections after a coup is often seen as an act of good faith by coup-leaders to return a country to democracy. However, to be a democracy does not only mean having elections, as democracy contains a set of values, including civilian oversight and regulation of all coercive forces in a state.Every soldier needs to be educated on the importance of civilian leadership as they are far more likely to know what is in the best interests of the civilian population than a general. Military training by foreign experts without complementary democracy training is, as Niger bears out, counter-productive to the overall mission objectives of combating Islamist insurgencies. US foreign military training reportedly includes instruction on safeguarding democracy and human rights.While US policy is to immediately halt all military aid following a coup, the policy has not always been strictly enforced, more rigorous enforcement may be more effective in the long term. These recent coups raise the difficult question on the efficacy of democracy and human rights training for militaries who are evidently not receptive to the message.Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte attempted a similar overthrow of a civilian government as his more illustrious uncle in 1851. This more foolhardy power grab led Karl Marx to quip that "history repeats itself, the first as tragedy, the second as farce." Unless the right lessons are learned, the Bonapartism lurking in African militaries will continue the tragedy of military rule.

On the second anniversary of the final debacle of U.S. involvement in Afghanistan, we should consider the lessons of that disaster for U.S. strategy elsewhere. While the case of Afghanistan itself is by nature unique, Washington's mistakes and failures reflected wider and deeper patterns — and pathologies — in U.S. policymaking and political culture. If left unaddressed, these will lead to more disasters in future.Yet most of the mainstream media and the think tank world are treating the memory of the U.S. war in Afghanistan not as a source of reflection but as an embarrassment to be forgotten as quickly and completely as possible. This parallels the approach to the memory of Vietnam in the U.S. mainstream — and the result was the disaster of Iraq. One of the most astonishing things about the U.S. debate — to give it that name — prior to the invasion of Iraq, was the general failure to consider, or even mention, what the experience of Vietnam might have taught. Today, this refusal to learn lessons applies above all to U.S. engagement in Ukraine.The failure to pursue diplomacy with the Taliban prior to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan can be explained and excused by the fury naturally felt by Americans at the terrorist attacks of 9/11, and the Taliban's refusal immediately to hand over the al-Qaida leadership that was clearly responsible. Nonetheless, given the appalling costs that resulted from the U.S. invasion, it is worth asking whether an approach that allowed the Taliban to save face and remain true to their own beliefs might have produced better results for both Americans and Afghans: for example, exploring the possibility that the Taliban could be persuaded to deliver the AQ leadership to another Muslim country. In the case of Iraq, there was no sincere diplomatic effort at all, since the Bush administration had already made the decision to invade.The second lesson of Afghanistan is as old as war itself and was emphasized by military theorist Carl von Clausewitz: that there can never be certainty of long-term victory in any war, if only because war, more than any other human activity, is liable to generate unintended ramifications and consequences. In the case of Afghanistan, the mission to eliminate al Qaida and remove the Taliban from power morphed into a far greater — and probably innately doomed — effort to create a modern democratic Afghan state through foreign intervention, aid and supervision.This in turn became related to the attempt to destroy the old and exceptionally powerful nexus between Islamic faith and Pashtun nationalism that had generated the Taliban, much of the resistance to the Communist regime and Soviet intervention in the 1980s, and numerous revolts against the British Empire before that. Given that most Pashtuns live in Pakistan, the inevitable result was an extension of the conflict to that country, leading to a Pakistani civil war in which tens of thousands died. Pakistan's refusal or inability to expel the Afghan Taliban led to the threat of direct U.S. intervention in Pakistan — which, if it had occurred, would have produced a catastrophe far worse than Afghanistan and Iraq put together.The failure to anticipate consequences is worsened by conformism and careerism; not that these tendencies are any worse in the U.S. establishment than elsewhere. But America's power and capacity to intervene across the world magnify their negative consequences. On the one hand, they mean that even experts and journalists who are in a position to know better, join officials in unthinking obedience to the establishment line of the given moment, which may have only the most tangential relationship to realities in the country concerned.Returning to Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban, I encountered journalists whom I had known when covering the Mujahedin war against the Soviets and Communists in the 1980s. I was amused — kind of — to find them parroting a new version of the line that Moscow and Kabul had put out in the 1980s: that the Afghan resistance had no real local support and was not really Afghan, and that it was entirely the creation of outside powers (including Pakistan) and money. This was despite the fact that the Taliban were recruiting exactly the same people from exactly the same areas as the Mujahedin, who were fighting for exactly the same reasons.Matters are made worse by the flood of instant shake-and-bake "experts" who are generated every time the United States embarks on a new overseas venture. Selected for their connections in Washington rather than any real knowledge of the areas concerned, they could not correct the mistakes of U.S. policy even if they had the moral courage to do so. Moreover, their ignorance of local history and culture makes them dreadfully receptive to the self-interested fantasies of their local informants. Thus I was also amused in the early 2000s to hear "advisers" on Afghanistan to the U.S. (and European) governments declare that "Afghanistan in the 1960s was a successful middle class democracy." This U.S. syndrome could well be called Oedipal, since it is both incestuous and self-blinded.Once both political parties have committed themselves to a given strategy, the bipartisan Washington establishment finds it extremely difficult to admit mistakes and change course — a tendency to which the U.S. military has also sometimes contributed in a disastrous fashion. This military refusal to admit defeat has its admirable sides — nobody should want U.S. generals to be quitters.That, however, is why America needs political leaders (including ones with personal military experience, like Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Carter) with the knowledge and courage to tell the generals when it is time to call a halt.Instead, in Afghanistan (as documented by the Special Inspector General for Afghan Reconstruction and others), generals and administration officials colluded to produce optimistic lies, which were then circulated by a credulous and subservient media. Today, this risks being the case with the Biden administration's refusal to admit that the Ukrainian counteroffensive has failed, and that it is therefore time to start developing a political strategy to end the fighting in Ukraine and the economic and political damage this is beginning to cause to vital U.S. allies in Europe.The last point about the U.S. record in Afghanistan should hardly need to be made, because it has been made over and over again since the 1950s by a whole succession of great American thinkers, including Reinhold Niebuhr, Hans Morgenthau, George Kennan, Richard Hofstadter and C. Vann Woodward. This is the tendency in the U.S. political establishment to colossally exaggerate both the malignance of the enemy of the moment, and the danger it poses to the United States. Instead of a Communist-led nationalist movement to reunify Vietnam, the Vietnamese Communists were portrayed as a force that could start toppling a row of "dominoes" that would end with Communist victory in France and Mexico. Instead of a tinpot regional dictator, Saddam Hussein became a nuclear menace to the U.S. homeland. The Taliban, an entirely Afghan force, supposedly had to be fought in Afghanistan so that we would not need to fight them in the United States. And today, U.S. officials in their rhetoric somehow manage to combine the supposed beliefs both that Russia is so weak that Ukraine can completely defeat the Russian army and catastrophically undermine the Russian state, and that Russia is so strong that if not defeated in Ukraine it will pose a mortal threat to NATO and freedom around the world.As Loren Baritz wrote in 1985 concerning the obliteration of the memory of Vietnam in the United States:"Our power, complacency, rigidity and ignorance have kept us from incorporating our Vietnam experience into the way we think about ourselves and the world… But there is no need to think unless there is doubt. Freed of doubt, we are freed of thought."It would be nice to think that on this anniversary, and faced with even greater dangers in Ukraine, the U.S. establishment and media will devote some serious thought to what happened in Afghanistan.

Moderator: Nancy Frankenberry (REL) Panelists: Brenda Silver (ENGL) and Lynn Higgins (COLT, FRIT, Dean emerita) Mary Hudson (PHYS) Deborah King (SOC) Nancy Frankenberry is the John Phillips Professor in Religion Emerita. She was the first woman hired in the Religion Department, the first woman tenured in the Religion Department, and the first female chair of that department. Since retiring from the teaching portion of her career in 2015, she has served as President of the Metaphysical Society of America (2017) and President of the Institute for American Religious and Philosophical Thought (2016-2020). Her most recent publications are "Contingency After Nagarjuna and Rorty," Review of Metaphysics (March 2019); "Map is Not Territory, Menu is Not Meal," Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 31 (2019); "The Fate of Radical Empiricism and the Future of Pragmatic Naturalism," in Pragmatism and Naturalism: Scientific and Social Inquiry After Representationalism, ed. Matthew C. Bagger (Columbia University Press 2018); and "Naturalisms, Ineffability Claims, and Symbolic Meanings," in The Question of Methodological Naturalism, ed. Jason N. Blum (Brill 2018). Her chapter "Wildman's Eff'ing Symbology" is forthcoming in a volume on Religion in Multidisciplinary Perspective (2020). Brenda R. Silver is Mary Brinsmead Wheelock Professor Emerita at Dartmouth College; she also held the position of Adjunct Professor of English at Trinity College Dublin. She joined the English Department at Dartmouth in 1972, the first year of co-education, and was one of the original founders of the Women and Gender Studies Program. She has taught courses on Twentieth-Century British Fiction, Postmodern Fiction, Popular Fiction, Cyberculture, and, always, Virginia Woolf. Her publications include Virginia Woolf's Reading Notebooks, Virginia Woolf Icon, and Rape and Representation, edited with Lynn A. Higgins, as well as articles on Woolf, Charlotte Bronté, E.M. Forster, John Le Carré, textual editing, anger, hypertext, popular fiction in the digital age, and other contemporary literary and cultural narratives. Lynn A. Higgins is the Edward Tuck Professor of French Studies at Dartmouth College. With a B.A. from Oberlin College and a PhD from the University of Minnesota, she arrived at Dartmouth in 1976, just one month after the first co-educational class graduated. She was one of the original co-founders of the Women's Studies Program, and co-taught its first course. With Brenda R. Silver, she launched the Feminist Inquiry Faculty Seminar in 1977 and directed a Humanities Institute on Gender and War in 1990. She teaches courses on 20th- and 21st century French literature and cinema, including a course on French women filmmakers. She served for eleven years as chair of her department and from 2011 to 2016 as Associate Dean of the Faculty for Interdisciplinary Programs and International Studies. Her publications include New Novel, New Wave, New Politics: Fiction and the Representation of History in Postwar France; Bertrand Tavernier; Rape and Representation, co-edited with Brenda R. Silver, and articles on an array of topics including documentary film, gender and humor, and gender and war (World War II and the French war in Algeria), and cultural figures such as Chantal Akerman, Roland Barthes, Marguerite Duras, Diane Kurys, Patrick Modiano, Alain Resnais, and others. Mary K. Hudson, Space Physicist, PhD UCLA 1974, is Professor of Physics and Astronomy Emerita and served for eight years as Chair of Physics and Astronomy at Dartmouth College. She is currently a Senior Research Associate at the High Altitude Observatory at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, CO. Hudson is a co-principal Investigator on two experiments on the NASA Van Allen Probes satellites designed to study earth's radiation belts, and on the Balloon Array for Radiation-belt Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL) along with Professor Robyn Millan of the Physics and Astronomy Department at Dartmouth. Hudson and her students study the weather patterns that originate from solar eruptions, following the energy and mass transfer through the interplanetary medium, all the way to the earth's ionosphere. Current areas of investigation include the evolution of the radiation belts; how the ionized particle outflow known as the solar wind and the magnetic field of the sun interact with the magnetic field of the earth, producing electrical currents in the ionosphere; and the effects of solar cosmic rays on radio communications near the earth's poles. Professor Hudson is also funded through NSF to study solar energetic particles and their access to the atmosphere. Deborah K. King. Born in Kansas City, Missouri during the early 1950s, Associate Professor King has been a beneficiary of the civil rights and women movements' successful court cases, legislative battles and protest demonstrations. From racially segregated public schools, she earned her B. A. from Northwestern University in Evanston, IL and her Ph. D. in Sociology from Yale University. Professor King's scholarly interests encompass law and social control; race, class and gender intersections; and historical/cultural sociology. Those scholarly endeavors have always worked synergistically with her efforts toward institutional and social change. While completing her dissertation research on the federal enforcement of affirmative action employment policies in higher education, she co-organized a group of Yale law and graduate students who wrote an amicus curiae brief for the 1978 Bakke case. Her Signs article, "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of Black Feminist Ideology," has become a classic and helped lay the conceptual foundation for intersectionality. During the 1991 congressional confirmation hearings for Clarence Thomas, Professor King along with historians Elsa Barkley Brown and Barbara Ransby organized a nation-wide campaign to challenge the misrepresentations of Black women that arose with Anita Hill's allegations of sexual harassment. Within weeks – and long before cell phones and social media -- 1,500 Black women signed the "Statement of African American Women in Defense of Ourselves (AAWIDO)" and raised over $50,000 for a full one-page ad in the New York Times plus major African American and other newspapers. More recent scholarship examines the role of First Lady Michelle Obama as an "othermother," and the survival strategies of Black women beauticians during the great recession. One of the never-ending projects is an analysis of the popular visual representations of prisons and correctional ideology as presented on picture postcards during the late 19th - early 20th century. Currently, her energies are focused on one project: the recovery of Dartmouth's relationships with the institution of slavery. Previous students in the course have established a website and conducted a campus walking tour of relevant sites. The term's seminar is preparing an exhibition in Rauner Library for the winter term. Professor King's related research examines the representations of Black women, enslaved and formerly enslaved, who are esteemed in the early histories of elite colleges, including Dartmouth, Bowdoin, Princeton, Harvard and Yale. She has been on the Dartmouth faculty since 1980, where she was the first African American woman to gain tenure. She has chaired both the Sociology and African & African American Studies Program, and served on steering and personnel committees of Women, Gender & Sexuality Studies as well as AAAS; as a committee member and mentor for both the Mellon-Mays Undergraduate Fellowship and the Chavez-Eastman-Marshall Dissertation Fellowships. As an officer of the Dartmouth Black Caucus, she was pivotal in leading its efforts to establish the E. E. Just 1907 Professorship in honor of a pioneering cellular biologist and one of Dartmouth's early Black graduates. For more than forty years, she has participated in varied initiatives to recruit historically excluded groups into academic careers and to support their professional development and success. Preparing the way for the next generations of scholars of color and women has been an enduring professional commitment and a great joy!

The exemplum is a privileged target for the cultural study of the medieval society. If the research regarding the content of those edifying anecdotes is already well advanced, the analysis of the real audiences and concrete uses of the exempla remained yet to be undertaken. Because the expansion and characterization of this typology is directly linked with the emergence of the collections of exempla, our investigation was based on this kind of works. To succeed with this project, we used the information existing in the manuscripts copies and in medieval booklists. With these two kinds of sources, we analysed books as physical objects (cover, writing, etc.), vehicles of culture (versions, surrounding works, etc.) and historical witness (purchase, legacies, etc.). The thesis focused on the following central questions: how did books of exempla diffused in time and space? Which works achieved success? Who were the owners of these books? How did they read and use them? In the first part of our analysis, the theoretical one, historiographical and historical definitions of the exemplum and the collections of exempla have been clarified. This was indispensable because a large part of the scientific literature, especially in France, only considered the exemplum as a kind of story, which appeared in the twelfth century and was used by preachers in sermons to illustrate a salutary message. By saying so, they neglected the persuasive nature of the exemplum, confining it to a literary genre. In reality, the exemplum should be primarily considered as a rhetorical argument based on a deed or a word that happened in the past. Nevertheless, its persuasive power, which comes from its visual imagery, is especially effective when the case is told in the form of a story. This phenomenon is currently studied in the storytelling management, which uses stories to improve communication. In sum, the exemplum is an argument stemming from reality in the form of a story. The history of the exemplum does not start with the mendicant orders, but within democracy and the rhetoric schools of Athena and later in Rome. With the emergence of Christianity, church fathers use it to fight against heretics and monks to share the spiritual experience of elders to novices. A pro domo use of the exempla appears with the creation of the new religious orders, first Cluny, then the Cistercians and finally the mendicants. The latter put exempla in theirs sermons to attract the attention of their audience, though not only. They use them in conversations, lectiones and also in didactic and moral treatises. This was no novelty: previous writers such as John of Salisbury in his Polycraticus uses it abundantly. If the years 1250-1350 are the magnificent era of the exemplum, since the second half of the 14th century, we can notice a decline of the exemplum, which becomes either an illustration, an allegory, or an open, facetious, entertaining or devote story. As far as the books of exempla are concerned, for a long time scholars did not try to define them precisely. They looked at these collections only for the stories they contained. To their minds, an exempla collection was simply a book in which there were exempla. To make a necessary distinction between very differing books of exempla, we need to precise: a) the proportion of exempla; b) if the exempla are used by the authors as arguments or offered to the readers for rhetorical purposes; c) if there is an organizational system. Those questions successively allow distinguishing books of exempla from books with exempla, exempla treaties from exempla collections and exempla repositories. Nonetheless, due to the fact that exemplum is not a genre but a function, it is very hard to define a clear corpus. The first important book of exempla comes from Roman Antiquity. The Facta et dicta memorabilia of Valerius Maximus was used as a text book for students in rhetoric. With the flourishing of monasticism, exempla collections of the Vitae patrum spread all over the Christian world, diffusing the good examples of the desert Fathers. In the beginning of the second millennium, religious orders continued this practice, but with the new will of putting their respective orders forward. The first alphabetical repositories of exempla appear at the end of the 13th century due to the necessity of preaching and of tidying up growing knowledge. However, alongside the existence of these collections of exempla made for preaching purposes, there are many others books and treaties of exempla, whose function is either to instruct, or to give the rules of social morality, or simply to edify readers. The second part of the thesis puts the stress on the concrete diffusion and uses of the exempla collections. The investigation on the manuscript copies shows, inter alia, an increase in their number during the centuries (13 times more in the 15th than in the 13th century), the predominant place of the German area, especially in the 15th century, and the growing importance of the treatises of exempla, taking advantage on the repertories. With regards to the incunabula, we count 172 Latin and 74 vernacular editions of exempla collections before 1500. This mainly concerns repositories for the former when the latter contains almost exclusively treaties. The production of this edition starts in the years 1470, culminates in the years 1480 and declines at the end of the century. Geographically, we notice the same importance of the German speaking area, especially in the city of Strasbourg. At the second place we find Italy, which produces mainly antique exempla collections. For the manuscript copies as for the incunabula editions, we have to keep in mind that it exists huge differences of success between books of exempla. The last chapter focuses on the diffusion and uses of the books of exempla written by the Dominicans, the biggest producer of such collections. We also see big discrepancies of success, owners and uses. For example, the Gerard of Frachet's Vitas fratrum were mainly read in continental Europe by Dominicans and Canons regular to keep conventual order and morality, while the John Herolt's Promptuarium exemplorum was used by different orders and persons in the German world for pastoral purposes and John of Bromyard's Summa praedicantium was located in England in highly intellectual institutions, such as universities and big Benedictine monasteries. A collection of exempla can also have different readers and uses. Thomas of Cantimpre's Bonum universale de apibus, written for conventual purposes, was also used either as a repertory of exempla for preaching or as a treaty of social morality. John of Cessoles' Liber de moribus was not only read by preachers and pastors but also by lay people as spiritual lecture. Across the study of the different exempla collections, we notice many German 15th century manuscripts exclusively elaborated for pastoral uses. In these Priesterhandbücher we can find, next to exempla collections, sermons, artes predicandi, treaties on the Mass, explanation of the sacraments, the Ten Commandments and Credo. Unlike a common vision of exempla collections produced and used within the preaching, this global study shows, on the one hand, the great diversity of production environments and aims intended by exempla compilers, as well as, on the second hand, an equally important variety concerning diffusion and real uses of such works. Added to the thesis, there is an appendix of more than 300 pages presenting 68 Latin books of exempla, in which the characteristics of the work are exposed, the objectives of use pursued by the author, and the modalities of diffusion (including the list of manuscripts, medieval mentions, translations and editions). ; (DOCFILO02) -- FUNDP, 2013

The exemplum is a privileged target for the cultural study of the medieval society. If the research regarding the content of those edifying anecdotes is already well advanced, the analysis of the real audiences and concrete uses of the exempla remained yet to be undertaken. Because the expansion and characterization of this typology is directly linked with the emergence of the collections of exempla, our investigation was based on this kind of works. To succeed with this project, we used the information existing in the manuscripts copies and in medieval booklists. With these two kinds of sources, we analysed books as physical objects (cover, writing, etc.), vehicles of culture (versions, surrounding works, etc.) and historical witness (purchase, legacies, etc.). The thesis focused on the following central questions: how did books of exempla diffused in time and space? Which works achieved success? Who were the owners of these books? How did they read and use them? In the first part of our analysis, the theoretical one, historiographical and historical definitions of the exemplum and the collections of exempla have been clarified. This was indispensable because a large part of the scientific literature, especially in France, only considered the exemplum as a kind of story, which appeared in the twelfth century and was used by preachers in sermons to illustrate a salutary message. By saying so, they neglected the persuasive nature of the exemplum, confining it to a literary genre. In reality, the exemplum should be primarily considered as a rhetorical argument based on a deed or a word that happened in the past. Nevertheless, its persuasive power, which comes from its visual imagery, is especially effective when the case is told in the form of a story. This phenomenon is currently studied in the storytelling management, which uses stories to improve communication. In sum, the exemplum is an argument stemming from reality in the form of a story. The history of the exemplum does not start with the mendicant orders, but within democracy and the rhetoric schools of Athena and later in Rome. With the emergence of Christianity, church fathers use it to fight against heretics and monks to share the spiritual experience of elders to novices. A pro domo use of the exempla appears with the creation of the new religious orders, first Cluny, then the Cistercians and finally the mendicants. The latter put exempla in theirs sermons to attract the attention of their audience, though not only. They use them in conversations, lectiones and also in didactic and moral treatises. This was no novelty: previous writers such as John of Salisbury in his Polycraticus uses it abundantly. If the years 1250-1350 are the magnificent era of the exemplum, since the second half of the 14th century, we can notice a decline of the exemplum, which becomes either an illustration, an allegory, or an open, facetious, entertaining or devote story. As far as the books of exempla are concerned, for a long time scholars did not try to define them precisely. They looked at these collections only for the stories they contained. To their minds, an exempla collection was simply a book in which there were exempla. To make a necessary distinction between very differing books of exempla, we need to precise: a) the proportion of exempla; b) if the exempla are used by the authors as arguments or offered to the readers for rhetorical purposes; c) if there is an organizational system. Those questions successively allow distinguishing books of exempla from books with exempla, exempla treaties from exempla collections and exempla repositories. Nonetheless, due to the fact that exemplum is not a genre but a function, it is very hard to define a clear corpus. The first important book of exempla comes from Roman Antiquity. The Facta et dicta memorabilia of Valerius Maximus was used as a text book for students in rhetoric. With the flourishing of monasticism, exempla collections of the Vitae patrum spread all over the Christian world, diffusing the good examples of the desert Fathers. In the beginning of the second millennium, religious orders continued this practice, but with the new will of putting their respective orders forward. The first alphabetical repositories of exempla appear at the end of the 13th century due to the necessity of preaching and of tidying up growing knowledge. However, alongside the existence of these collections of exempla made for preaching purposes, there are many others books and treaties of exempla, whose function is either to instruct, or to give the rules of social morality, or simply to edify readers. The second part of the thesis puts the stress on the concrete diffusion and uses of the exempla collections. The investigation on the manuscript copies shows, inter alia, an increase in their number during the centuries (13 times more in the 15th than in the 13th century), the predominant place of the German area, especially in the 15th century, and the growing importance of the treatises of exempla, taking advantage on the repertories. With regards to the incunabula, we count 172 Latin and 74 vernacular editions of exempla collections before 1500. This mainly concerns repositories for the former when the latter contains almost exclusively treaties. The production of this edition starts in the years 1470, culminates in the years 1480 and declines at the end of the century. Geographically, we notice the same importance of the German speaking area, especially in the city of Strasbourg. At the second place we find Italy, which produces mainly antique exempla collections. For the manuscript copies as for the incunabula editions, we have to keep in mind that it exists huge differences of success between books of exempla. The last chapter focuses on the diffusion and uses of the books of exempla written by the Dominicans, the biggest producer of such collections. We also see big discrepancies of success, owners and uses. For example, the Gerard of Frachet's Vitas fratrum were mainly read in continental Europe by Dominicans and Canons regular to keep conventual order and morality, while the John Herolt's Promptuarium exemplorum was used by different orders and persons in the German world for pastoral purposes and John of Bromyard's Summa praedicantium was located in England in highly intellectual institutions, such as universities and big Benedictine monasteries. A collection of exempla can also have different readers and uses. Thomas of Cantimpre's Bonum universale de apibus, written for conventual purposes, was also used either as a repertory of exempla for preaching or as a treaty of social morality. John of Cessoles' Liber de moribus was not only read by preachers and pastors but also by lay people as spiritual lecture. Across the study of the different exempla collections, we notice many German 15th century manuscripts exclusively elaborated for pastoral uses. In these Priesterhandbücher we can find, next to exempla collections, sermons, artes predicandi, treaties on the Mass, explanation of the sacraments, the Ten Commandments and Credo. Unlike a common vision of exempla collections produced and used within the preaching, this global study shows, on the one hand, the great diversity of production environments and aims intended by exempla compilers, as well as, on the second hand, an equally important variety concerning diffusion and real uses of such works. Added to the thesis, there is an appendix of more than 300 pages presenting 68 Latin books of exempla, in which the characteristics of the work are exposed, the objectives of use pursued by the author, and the modalities of diffusion (including the list of manuscripts, medieval mentions, translations and editions). ; (DOCFILO02) -- FUNDP, 2013

The exemplum is a privileged target for the cultural study of the medieval society. If the research regarding the content of those edifying anecdotes is already well advanced, the analysis of the real audiences and concrete uses of the exempla remained yet to be undertaken. Because the expansion and characterization of this typology is directly linked with the emergence of the collections of exempla, our investigation was based on this kind of works. To succeed with this project, we used the information existing in the manuscripts copies and in medieval booklists. With these two kinds of sources, we analysed books as physical objects (cover, writing, etc.), vehicles of culture (versions, surrounding works, etc.) and historical witness (purchase, legacies, etc.). The thesis focused on the following central questions: how did books of exempla diffused in time and space? Which works achieved success? Who were the owners of these books? How did they read and use them? In the first part of our analysis, the theoretical one, historiographical and historical definitions of the exemplum and the collections of exempla have been clarified. This was indispensable because a large part of the scientific literature, especially in France, only considered the exemplum as a kind of story, which appeared in the twelfth century and was used by preachers in sermons to illustrate a salutary message. By saying so, they neglected the persuasive nature of the exemplum, confining it to a literary genre. In reality, the exemplum should be primarily considered as a rhetorical argument based on a deed or a word that happened in the past. Nevertheless, its persuasive power, which comes from its visual imagery, is especially effective when the case is told in the form of a story. This phenomenon is currently studied in the storytelling management, which uses stories to improve communication. In sum, the exemplum is an argument stemming from reality in the form of a story. The history of the exemplum does not start with the mendicant orders, but within democracy and the rhetoric schools of Athena and later in Rome. With the emergence of Christianity, church fathers use it to fight against heretics and monks to share the spiritual experience of elders to novices. A pro domo use of the exempla appears with the creation of the new religious orders, first Cluny, then the Cistercians and finally the mendicants. The latter put exempla in theirs sermons to attract the attention of their audience, though not only. They use them in conversations, lectiones and also in didactic and moral treatises. This was no novelty: previous writers such as John of Salisbury in his Polycraticus uses it abundantly. If the years 1250-1350 are the magnificent era of the exemplum, since the second half of the 14th century, we can notice a decline of the exemplum, which becomes either an illustration, an allegory, or an open, facetious, entertaining or devote story. As far as the books of exempla are concerned, for a long time scholars did not try to define them precisely. They looked at these collections only for the stories they contained. To their minds, an exempla collection was simply a book in which there were exempla. To make a necessary distinction between very differing books of exempla, we need to precise: a) the proportion of exempla; b) if the exempla are used by the authors as arguments or offered to the readers for rhetorical purposes; c) if there is an organizational system. Those questions successively allow distinguishing books of exempla from books with exempla, exempla treaties from exempla collections and exempla repositories. Nonetheless, due to the fact that exemplum is not a genre but a function, it is very hard to define a clear corpus. The first important book of exempla comes from Roman Antiquity. The Facta et dicta memorabilia of Valerius Maximus was used as a text book for students in rhetoric. With the flourishing of monasticism, exempla collections of the Vitae patrum spread all over the Christian world, diffusing the good examples of the desert Fathers. In the beginning of the second millennium, religious orders continued this practice, but with the new will of putting their respective orders forward. The first alphabetical repositories of exempla appear at the end of the 13th century due to the necessity of preaching and of tidying up growing knowledge. However, alongside the existence of these collections of exempla made for preaching purposes, there are many others books and treaties of exempla, whose function is either to instruct, or to give the rules of social morality, or simply to edify readers. The second part of the thesis puts the stress on the concrete diffusion and uses of the exempla collections. The investigation on the manuscript copies shows, inter alia, an increase in their number during the centuries (13 times more in the 15th than in the 13th century), the predominant place of the German area, especially in the 15th century, and the growing importance of the treatises of exempla, taking advantage on the repertories. With regards to the incunabula, we count 172 Latin and 74 vernacular editions of exempla collections before 1500. This mainly concerns repositories for the former when the latter contains almost exclusively treaties. The production of this edition starts in the years 1470, culminates in the years 1480 and declines at the end of the century. Geographically, we notice the same importance of the German speaking area, especially in the city of Strasbourg. At the second place we find Italy, which produces mainly antique exempla collections. For the manuscript copies as for the incunabula editions, we have to keep in mind that it exists huge differences of success between books of exempla. The last chapter focuses on the diffusion and uses of the books of exempla written by the Dominicans, the biggest producer of such collections. We also see big discrepancies of success, owners and uses. For example, the Gerard of Frachet's Vitas fratrum were mainly read in continental Europe by Dominicans and Canons regular to keep conventual order and morality, while the John Herolt's Promptuarium exemplorum was used by different orders and persons in the German world for pastoral purposes and John of Bromyard's Summa praedicantium was located in England in highly intellectual institutions, such as universities and big Benedictine monasteries. A collection of exempla can also have different readers and uses. Thomas of Cantimpre's Bonum universale de apibus, written for conventual purposes, was also used either as a repertory of exempla for preaching or as a treaty of social morality. John of Cessoles' Liber de moribus was not only read by preachers and pastors but also by lay people as spiritual lecture. Across the study of the different exempla collections, we notice many German 15th century manuscripts exclusively elaborated for pastoral uses. In these Priesterhandbücher we can find, next to exempla collections, sermons, artes predicandi, treaties on the Mass, explanation of the sacraments, the Ten Commandments and Credo. Unlike a common vision of exempla collections produced and used within the preaching, this global study shows, on the one hand, the great diversity of production environments and aims intended by exempla compilers, as well as, on the second hand, an equally important variety concerning diffusion and real uses of such works. Added to the thesis, there is an appendix of more than 300 pages presenting 68 Latin books of exempla, in which the characteristics of the work are exposed, the objectives of use pursued by the author, and the modalities of diffusion (including the list of manuscripts, medieval mentions, translations and editions). ; (DOCFILO02) -- FUNDP, 2013

From the Dust Jacket: McNarmara, Clifford and the Burdens of Vietnam, 1965-1969, volume VI in the newly-named Secretaries of Defense Historical Series, covers the incumbency of Robert S. McNamara, as well as the brief, but significant, tenure of Clark M. Clifford. McNamara's key role in the ever-deepening U.S. involvement in Vietnam between 1965 and 1968 forms the centerpiece of the narrative. During these years, Vietnam touched every aspect of Lyndon B. Johnson's administration, determining budget priorities, provoking domestic unrest, souring relations with NATO, and complicating negotiations with the Soviet Union. McNamara's early miscalculations about Vietnam became the source of deep disappointments. Relations with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, never good, frayed almost to the breaking point as McNamara repeatedly rejected military advice in favor of his civilian experts. McNamara's carefully crafted plans failed, his frustrations grew, and he became estranged from the President. His private attempts to check the war's momentum contradicted his public statements supporting the military effort and tarred McNamara as a hypocrite. McNamara's successor, Clark Clifford, arrived with a reputation as a hawk, but focused most of his effort on extricating the United States from Vietnam. McNamara and Clifford presided over the Department of Defense during momentous and dangerous times. Vietnam was one of a series of wars, emergencies, and interventions involving U.S. interests. Intervention in the Dominican Republic, declining U.S. prestige and power in Europe and NATO, war in the Middle East, heightened tensions on the Korean peninsula, arms control talks with the Soviet Union, and violent protests at home competed for attention. Overseeing the Vietnam War and contending with these complex policy issues taxed even McNamara's enormous energy and brilliant intellect as he struggled to manage DoD programs. His long-cherished cost-cutting programs fell by the wayside; his favored weapons systems were swept aside; his committed efforts to limit strategic arms faltered; and his reputation was permanently tarnished. McNamara, Clifford and the Burdens of Vietnam highlights the interaction of McNamara and Clifford with the White House, Congress, the JCS, the Department of State, and other federal agencies involved in policy formulation. The two secretaries increasingly found that the cost of winning the war became a morally prohibitive as the price of losing. ; Volumes 1-5 have series title: History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense. ; Includes bibliographical references (p. 654-671) and index. ; Arms Control : An Elusive Goal. Multilateral force ; Test ban and nonproliferation ; Threshold test ban treaty debate ; Comprehensive test ban treaty ; Nuclear nonproliferation treaty ; Arms control-through 1967 ; Arms control 1968 -- ABM: Centerpiece Of Strategic Defense. Strategic forces, 1965 ; Civil defense ; Soviet buildup ; Old bombers, new bombers, advanced bombers ; ABM debate ; To Glassboro ; Announcing the deployment of the ABM ; Clifford's approach to strategic arms -- NATO Readjustment. France secedes ; Nuclear planning group ; Flexible response ; NATO and Vietnam -- NATO: Burden-Sharing And U.S. Troop Reduction. Framing the issue ; Force structures ; Reduction of U.S. forces in Europe ; Assessing Germany's share of the load ; OSD, the JCS, and troop reductions in Germany ; Tripartite talks ; Clark Clifford and NATO ; Aftermath of Czechoslovakia -- Crisis In The Middle East. Genesis of the crisis ; Onset of an emergency ; Personal diplomacy ; To the breaking point ; Six-day war ; Arab reaction ; Attack on the Liberty and the U S -Soviet crisis ; Aftermath ; Rearming Israel -- Battle Over Military Assistance. FY 1966 MAP request ; Vietnam assistance and FY 1966 MAP ; FY 1967 MAP ; More is needed ; Export-import bank credit controversy ; FY 1969 MAP ; Final MAP proposal -- Year Of Crises. Losing H-bombs ; Pueblo and the Blue House ; Prague spring: Moscow summer ; REDCOSTE and the Czech effect -- Strategy And Cost-Effectiveness. Cost-efficient war? ; Strategic forces ; Procurement contracting impact ; Cost reduction ; Global drawdown ; Conclusion. ; Movers and Shakers. DoD's senior leadership ; Civilian-military divide ; Commander in chief ; National security policymaking apparatus ; Mastering the Pentagon -- Vietnam : Escalation Without Mobilization. Pondering escalation ; Hidden escalation ; More troops, more money ; Enemy dictates the course of action ; McNamara's 180-degree turn ; Conflicting assessments ; President's decision -- Air War Against North Vietnam, 1965-1966. Targeting North Vietnam ; Rolling thunder ; Working toward an extended bombing pause ; Resuming rolling thunder ; POL debate ; Rolling thunder: indecision, discord, and escalation -- Paying For A War: Budgets, Supplements, And Estimates, 1965-1967. FY 1966 defense budget ; 1965 supplemental ; August supplemental amendment to the 1966 budget ; FY 1966 supplemental ; FY 1967 defense budget ; Vietnam spending and the economy -- Vietnam: Escalating A Ground War, July 1965-July 1967. Planning a ground war ; Hard choices ; Cost-effective deployments ; Barrier concept ; More troops, more questions ; Search for a winning formula -- More Than Expected: Supplementals And Budgets, 1966-1968. Enacting the FY 1966 supplemental ; FY 1967 defense budget ; Need for a FY 1967 supplemental budget ; Price of escalation ; Enacting the FY 1967 supplemental ; FY 1968 budget request ; Defending the FY 1968 budget -- Vietnam: An Endless War, 1967-1968. Accelerating troop deployments ; Shaping public opinion ; Manning the barrier ; Khe Sanh ; Tet offensive ; New secretary ; Ground war grinds on ; Settling in or getting out ; Fighting while negotiating -- Air War Against North Vietnam: Escalation To Cessation, 1967-1968. State of the air war at the outset of 1967 ; Targeting debate ; Rift widens ; Pennsylvania initiative ; After tet -- Bills Come Due: Budgets And Supplementals, 1968-1970. Final FY 1968 defense budget ; How big a tax increase? ; Proposed FY 1969 budget submission ; Juggling the numbers ; Passage of the FY 1968 SEA supplemental ; Enactment of the FY 1969 budget ; FY 1970 defense budget -- Home Front. Conscripts and volunteers: lower standards, greater inequality ; Project 100,000 ; Race and casualties ; Burning cities: rising protest ; March on the Pentagon ; 1968 riots -- Another Cuba?. Intervention in the Dominican Republic ; Justifying intervention ; Operational plans and planning operations ; Perils of peacekeeping ; Withdrawal ; From the Dust Jacket: McNarmara, Clifford and the Burdens of Vietnam, 1965-1969, volume VI in the newly-named Secretaries of Defense Historical Series, covers the incumbency of Robert S. McNamara, as well as the brief, but significant, tenure of Clark M. Clifford. McNamara's key role in the ever-deepening U.S. involvement in Vietnam between 1965 and 1968 forms the centerpiece of the narrative. During these years, Vietnam touched every aspect of Lyndon B. Johnson's administration, determining budget priorities, provoking domestic unrest, souring relations with NATO, and complicating negotiations with the Soviet Union. McNamara's early miscalculations about Vietnam became the source of deep disappointments. Relations with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, never good, frayed almost to the breaking point as McNamara repeatedly rejected military advice in favor of his civilian experts. McNamara's carefully crafted plans failed, his frustrations grew, and he became estranged from the President. His private attempts to check the war's momentum contradicted his public statements supporting the military effort and tarred McNamara as a hypocrite. McNamara's successor, Clark Clifford, arrived with a reputation as a hawk, but focused most of his effort on extricating the United States from Vietnam. McNamara and Clifford presided over the Department of Defense during momentous and dangerous times. Vietnam was one of a series of wars, emergencies, and interventions involving U.S. interests. Intervention in the Dominican Republic, declining U.S. prestige and power in Europe and NATO, war in the Middle East, heightened tensions on the Korean peninsula, arms control talks with the Soviet Union, and violent protests at home competed for attention. Overseeing the Vietnam War and contending with these complex policy issues taxed even McNamara's enormous energy and brilliant intellect as he struggled to manage DoD programs. His long-cherished cost-cutting programs fell by the wayside; his favored weapons systems were swept aside; his committed efforts to limit strategic arms faltered; and his reputation was permanently tarnished. McNamara, Clifford and the Burdens of Vietnam highlights the interaction of McNamara and Clifford with the White House, Congress, the JCS, the Department of State, and other federal agencies involved in policy formulation. The two secretaries increasingly found that the cost of winning the war became a morally prohibitive as the price of losing. ; Mode of access: Internet.

Диссертация на соискание научной степени доктора гуманитарных наук по специальности "история" (Ph.D.). Люблинский католический университет Иоанна Павла II. – Люблин, 2007. На фоне массовой активности либеральных идеологий конца XIX – начала XX вв. в Европе развернуло свою деятельность католическое общественное движение мирян, поддержанное епископатом Католической Церкви. Позже оно получило название "Католическая акция", являясь важным фактором Римского Апостольского престола в противостоянии различным враждебным по отношению к Церкви идеологиям. Стимулом к созданию светских корпоративных объединений стала энциклика Rerum novarum папы Льва XIII с 1891 г., в которой было подробно изложено содержание социальной доктрины Церкви. После стран Западной Европы (Италия, Франция, Бельгия, Германия) католической движение и его идеи обрели активных сторонников и в центрально-восточной её части. С момента обретения Польшей независимости в 1918 г. Римско-Католическая Церковь активно поддерживала развитие католических обществ и организаций, вплоть до внедрения Католической акции. В 1926 г. в Варшаве состоялся первый Католический съезд, на котором основано Католическую лигу, которая должна была действовать во всех епархиях. В 1928 г. была создана Комиссия епископата по делам акции, в которую вошли, кардиналы Август Гльонд, Александр Краковский, митрополиты Адам Стефан Сапега и Андрей Шептицкий, а также епископ Станислав Адамский. 24 ноября 1930 г. кардинал А. Гльонд провозгласил создание Генерального института католической акции (NIAK) с центром в Познани. Не была исключением и Греко-Католическая Церковь, предстоятель которой Андрей Шептицкий в 1931 г. задекларировал начало деятельности Католической акции в Галицкой митрополии во главе с Генеральным институтом (ГИКА) во Львове, консолидируясь таким образом с общекатолическим движением мирян. Генеральным ассистентом Католической акции в Галицкой митрополии вначале был епископ Иван Бучко, а впоследствии епископ Никита Будка. Пост президента Института с момента его создания и до ликвидации занимал д-р Маркиян Дзерович. Официальным изданием Генерального института являлся журнал "Католическая Акция", который регулярно издавался с 1934 до 1939 года. На страницах журнала обсуждали общественно-политические, религиозно-церковные, обрядовые, научные и воспитательные вопросы. Институт при помощи епископата стал одним из важнейших центров апостольства мирян в Галицкой митрополии. На счету этого учреждения успешное проведение праздников "Украинская молодежь Христу" в 1933 г., празднование 950-летия Крещения Руси-Украины в 1938 г., основание обширной сети католических обществ для юношей (КАУМ) и девушек (КАУЖМ), мощная издательская деятельность, ангажирование в различные сферы социальной и духовной жизни греко-католиков Восточной Галичины. В 1937 году после долгих дискуссий с польскими властями удалось на государственном уровне утвердить устав КАУМ, частично изменив название организации с Католическая акция украинской молодежи на Католическая ассоциация украинской молодежи "Орлы". Новым лозунгом общества стали слова: "За Христа и Украину". В процессе своей деятельности молодёжно-мирянское объединение приобрело спортивно-скаутские приметы, исповедуя в идеологии так называемый "христианский национализм" ("христианский патриотизм"). На конец 1939 г. КАУМ "Орлы" насчитывала 450 кружков и 30 тыс. членов. С 1930 г. во Львовской архиепархиии активно работало ещо одно объединение для украинцев-католиков под названием Украинский католический союз (УКС). Союз стал альтернативой для тех украинцев Галичины, которые не разделяли идеологий левого спектра и не воспринимали тех методов, которые использовали националистические организации. Объединение формировало предпосылки для внедрения и распространения идей Католической акции среди греко-католиков Галиции. Таким образом, на украинских землях существовало два центра деятельности Католической акции: Львов и Станиславов. В Станиславовской епархии вели активную деятельность под непосредственным руководством епископа Григория Хомишына Общество "Скала" и политическая партия Украинское народное обновление (УНО). Эти организации конкурировали из Генеральным институтом и УКС во Львовской архиепархии. Вступление же на земли Западной Украины Красной армии в 1939 г. постепенно уничтожило не только общественно-политическую систему, но и духовно-культурную атмосферу, в которой воспитывалось и действовало молодое поколение галицких греко-католиков, полностью изменив предыдущий мир, начиная историю заново, "с чистого листа", где уже не было места не только для украинского католического движения, но и для самой Греко-Католической Церкви. ; На тлі масової активності ліберальних ідеологій кінця XIX – початку XX ст. у Європі розгорнув діяльність католицький суспільний рух мирян, що знайшов підтримку єпископату Католицької Церкви. Згодом він отримав назву "Католицька акція", ставши важливим чинником Римського Апостольського престолу у протистоянні різним ворожим Церкві ідеологіям. Почавшись у країнах Західної Європи (Італія, Франція, Бельгія, Німеччина), католицький рух та його ідеї знайшли активних прихильників і в центрально-східній її частині. З моменту здобуття Польщею незалежності у 1918 р. Римо-Католицька Церква активно підтримувала розвиток католицьких товариств та організацій аж до впровадження у 1930 р. Католицької акції. Винятком не була і Греко-Католицька Церква, предстоятель якої Андрей Шептицький у 1931 р. оголосив про поширення діяльності Католицької акції в Галицькій митрополії на чолі з Генеральним інститутом (ГІКА) у Львові, консолідуючись таким чином зі світовим рухом католиків-мирян. Інститут при підтримці єпископату став одним із поважних осередків апостольства мирян у Галицькій митрополії. На рахунку цієї інституції успішне проведення свята "Українська молодь Христові" у 1933 р., святкування 950-ліття Хрещення Руси-України у 1938 р., заснування великої мережі католицьких товариств для хлопців (КАУМ) та дівчат (КАУЖМ), потужна видавнича діяльність, ангажування у сфери соціального та духовного життя греко-католиків Східної Галичини. На українських землях було два центри діяльності Католицької акції: Львів та Станіславів. У Станіславській єпархії активно діяли Товариство "Скала" та політична партія Українська народна обнова (УНО). Прихід же в Західну Україну Червоної Армії у 1939 р. поступово знищив не лише унікальний клімат, у якому виростала і творила нова генерація української молоді, але й повністю змінив попередній світ, починаючи історію з "чистого аркуша", де не було місця не лише українському католицькому рухові, але й Греко-Католицькій Церкві. ; The activities of the Catholic social movement of laypeople, which found support from the episcopate of the Catholic Church, developed against the background of mass activities of liberal ideologies from the end of the 19th to the start of the 20th century in Europe. Eventually, it received the name Catholic Action, becoming an important factor of the Roman Apostolic See in opposition to various ideologies hostile to the Church. Starting with the countries of western Europe (Italy, France, Belgium, Germany), the Catholic movement and its idea found active support also in its central-eastern part. From the moment Poland gained independence in 1918, the Roman Catholic Church actively supported the development of Catholic societies and organizations to the introduction of Catholic Action in 1930. The Greek Catholic Church was no exception. Its head, Andrey Sheptytsky, in 1931 announced the spread of the activities of Catholic Action in the metropolitanate of Halych at the head of the General Institute in Lviv, in this way consolidating it with a secular movement of lay Catholics. With the support of the episcopate the institute became one of the recognized centers of the lay apostolate in the metropolitanate of Halych. Under the auspices of this institution the Ukrainian Youth for Christ event was successfully conducted in 1933, the celebration of the 950th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus-Ukraine held in 1938, and the establishment of a large network of Catholic societies for boys (KAUM) and girls (KAUZhM), strong publishing activities, and involvement in the sphere of the social and spiritual life of the Greek Catholics of eastern Galicia occurred. The activities of Catholic Action had two centers in Ukrainian lands; the first was Lviv and the second Stanislaviv. The Skala society and the political party Ukrainian People's Renewal actively operated in the Stanislaviv eparchy. The arrival of the Red Army in western Ukraine in 1939 gradually destroyed not only the unique climate in which the new Ukrainian generation arose and grew but totally changed the world of that time, starting history with, one could say, a "clean leaf," where there was no place either for the Ukrainian Catholic movement or the Greek-Catholic Church.

Our motivation for writing this synthesis is the personal and collective trauma caused by a new wave of attacks in France in 2015 and their aftershocks in Belgium, Germany and Great Britain. These dramatic events have rekindled important professional and existential questions worth consideration. They encouraged thinking anew about the aims and functioning of the educational institutions in which we are involved.Our research question therefore starts from an appreciation of a contemporary humanity and state of the world that seem distant from what would have been hoped for amid immense modern technological advances, for instance massive access to information and to primary education . The working hypothesis is that the ontological dimension would certainly already be present in the educational curricula and the common core, but that it would be exercised unconsciously, even repressed, which would have the effect of slowing down the emergence of responsible individuals able to act positively toward themselves, others and the planet. The objective is therefore to try to better understand and support, in view of realizing this goal, the multi-referential process of our humanization, as long as, as the Renaissance humanist Erasmus once said: "We are not born human, but rather become human". The main theoretical frameworks and concepts that we mobilize to build this work and our proposals in Education and Training Sciences are based on three fields. First, Transdisciplinarity (complex thinking , systems of systems and consciousness ). Then, transpersonal psychology (on issues of freedom, responsibility and ethics). Finally, Digital Humanities, from technological artifacts and educational technologies , to technontology .In the form of insets, we will regularly report moments from our "life story", thus inserting us into the current of biographisation , as evidence of the evolution of our own journey.In the first part, we work on the construction of a hypothetico-deductive ontological model of Being, taking into account the human condition in its spatiotemporal context – Being as it unfolds in time and space – to understand how this model functions in terms of rooting, need, capacity, desire, surpassing etc. We represent man by a metaphorical schema, called "structure-temple", comprising seven parts. The pedestal of the building symbolizes its affiliation with the "anthropological / cultural" context of birth, currently the Anthropocene (which begins with the transformative action of sustainable human action on the planet, mainly because of its technical actions) (Wallenhorst, 2019). The first column expresses the "physical / biological / energy" dimension; the second, the "emotional / sensitive" part; the third, the "mental / cognitive"; the fourth, the "groupal / social"; and the fifth, the "axiological / existential / (post) metaphysical". The pediment is the "aperture / ontological" headdress of the ensemble, which invites an optimistic conclusion according to the maxim of the Greek temple of Delphi attributed to Socrates: "Know thyself and you will know the universe and the gods".We then analyse this approach through two temporal dimensions: the big history or long cosmic history from the big bang to the creation of our planet and the development of the biosphere, as well as the ephemeral human life during which each of us will try to accomplish an "involved project" . A third timeless dimension completes them: the life of the spirit. We observe the evolutionary dynamics of the temple-structure thanks to the complementarity that it achieves with the logic of the included third and the "Hidden Third", as well as its non-reductionist character. This model is fractal because it tends toward intra-infinity, and holographic because it is multilayered. It builds a system of "cosmodern" equilibrium, testifying to the historical epistemological separation between the world of subjects and that of the objects it brings together through the theory of "Transreality" . Ultimately, it proposes to surpass an apparent dichotomy by adopting a non-dual approach intended to be effective through the "project approach" .We thus develop a model that could be useful for an ontoformation . The action links updated in the temple-structure by the exercise of the thirds (included and hidden) can be mobilized in the "essence" of the teacher's practice. The teacher must be able to evaluate his or her professional "situated action", which we would evaluate in the context of time (Pedestal and Columns) and in the "vertical" dimension of the whole structure (From Pedestal to Pediment). This approach would shift the quasi-unidirectional binary master-student relationship in the exclusive application of the programs to a dynamic sensitive process of a ternary relationship through the mobilization of the structure-temple tool, for evaluative and then truly educational purposes, as much for the position of the master as for that of the pupil. This holistic approach integrates educational proposals that can be grouped under the terms self-training and self-co-training: "Training here refers to the vital and permanent process of shaping by interaction between oneself (self), others (socio, hetero, co) and the world (eco). Self-training is then defined as the awareness, understanding and transformation by the subject of this interaction. It is the transformation of the relationship with oneself, with others and with the world" .We therefore seek to examine, through the model of the temple-structure in an educational situation, whether the poles and various elements are invested in a correctness (the right ingredient, at the right time, in an adequate quantity) that avoids imbalances, for example disturbances of other moments of life dedicated to transmission and learning and, more broadly, life outside educational spaces. To deepen this question, we will explore the model in other contexts of learning and other educational situations, such as knowledge and disciplines, practices and pedagogies, educational technologies etc.The second part of the work contextualizes the temple-structure metaphor in the field of education and training. From a harmonious reciprocal approach of a triple development, operated on personal, professional and collective levels, emerges a proposal of "Integrative and Implicative Pedagogy" (P2i). It is anchored in the long history of New Education born in the early twentieth century. Through the technicalized updating of the socioconstructivist project approach, the P2i cultivates the efficient consideration of learners, teachers and third parts (staff, parents and other partners) in all their dimensions. This reflection requires discussing the evolution of the role of the teacher in the acquisition of the fundamental learning of primary school, from "read, write, count" to "respect others", thus passing from quantitative performance to qualitative subtlety. It is a question of anticipating the passage from an "integrative" character of educational objects in all their varieties, to the "integral" dimension of the subjects in formation. The temple-structure metaphor is then presented as a multidimensional project. The research therefore applies to the field of disciplines, peri-, para- and extra-curricular activities as well as cross-cutting issues such as eco-citizenship, empowerment, happiness and well-being, emotion management, positive education etc.The P2i studies the places, the means, the methods and the tools made available to institutions and teachers (philosophical debate, yoga or laical meditation ) to allow a secular approach allowed of spirituality , which is interested in the "life of the mind". As a method of analysis and foresight, it can be mobilized to study any question related to the Sciences of Education and Training, from secularism or evaluation to open access or big data. The temple-structure and the P2i jointly propose a theoretical and practical framework favoring the application of educational "strategies of success" by the establishment of "virtuous circles" while developing our "part of humanity". For example: "class management" x "adapted learning" x "support for personalities" x "learners' skills" x "existential dimension" and so on, situating ourselves in the current of slow education and alternatives approaches to / from education. Then a question emerges: should we be guided, by need or necessity, towards a paradigm shift in education? And if so, what should we strive for?The most important aspect would ultimately be an ability to lead multi-referential lives that are connected with each other, with educational partners, with institutions, in relation to knowledge. Examples abound, especially in the field of active pedagogies. In the manner of design thinking, which manages innovation by synthesising analytical thought and intuitive thought as it mobilizes processes of co-creativity that will involve end-users, or like the operating rules stemming from sociocracy and holacracy (as decision with zero objection, election without self-declared candidates, revocability of mandates). Such examples are an extension of work that emphasizes the spiritual dimension – the opposite of routine. It is therefore essential in teacher training not to develop only professional skills, but rather to promote the development of full-fledged human beings. As if reconciling a posture of legitimacy of the teacher with that of a permission of the student. Without force or manipulation. By focusing on the "educational flow" to better enter in the learning of "content stocks". By putting more freedom in learning while maintaining ethics. With freedom of conscience in the face of ideological approaches between normality and (relative) deviance, between independence and the need for connection. By passing from the class group to the subject group. The learner becomes an actor with the acquisition of autonomy. And when the learner realizes this, it is the beginning of emancipation, which can cause shocks. Because this dynamic in progress can also create resistance, as much for the actors concerned as for the institutions. Because we must first accept the discomfort of these new situations. Accompaniment, integration and inventiveness are practices that facilitate these processes of creation, which must each time be new, in order to prevent falling back into reproducing pre-established models.The third part presents an assessment of our journey as a researcher-practitioner in the form of a reflexive return, with its strong points and its gray areas: the examination of the slow professional and spiritual "drying up" as the technicization of our research after our appointment at the Paris IUFM in 1998; our "revivification" thanks to the action involved in non-institutional teams, the first fruits of the adventure described by the present overview; the misunderstandings of our peers and the difficulties in sharing and pursuing administratively and scientifically our work orientations.This report is completed by a presentation of the research perspectives with our laboratory on the question of the uses of digital education; international collaborations with the National Institute of Informatics (NII) in Japan and the Centro de Tecnologia da Informação (CTI) in Brazil on stress at work; by the continuity of our work in the context of current teaching (integration in the axes of GIS Rreefor-Espe); the continued testing of P2i in teacher training or the deepening of the Culture of Peace. The extent of the engagement in our research community and our actions for the promotion of the discipline of the Sciences of Education and Training are particularly notable in relation to cooperation initiatives with foreign universities for teacher training in Romania (Cluj-Napoca), Spain (Valencia), Russia (Moscow), Ecuador (Chuquipata) and China (Chengdu), through the endorsement of editorial responsibilities as a reviewer, through the organization of scientific meetings, by answering requests for expert opinions…In conclusion, in the era of the Anthropocene, which is characterized by societal and lethal environmental risks for the human species, questioning what constitutes society is now absolutely necessary. Starting from our specialty, education, this problem is tackled by the study of conditions and modalities, a strategy that allows surpassing a mere "doing together" to a true "living together". At the heart of the areas to explore further are secularism and the relationship with religion . As the pedagogue Philippe Meirieu has noted: "'Believing' divides while 'knowing' brings together" . Experience facilitates passing from the first verb to the second. Massification and longer study times seem to go hand in hand with the standardization of training courses. The latter would then risk rejecting the otherness of those who follow them and tend to format them, which would be the opposite of the search for creative solutions that society needs. Finding interest and constructing the "common points" that respect diversity, based on real benevolence, with co-constructed rules, would be a pragmatic solution to consider. Fundamental principles may include but are not limited to: citizenship, partnership, democracy, team and collaborative learning, acceptance of different ideas, small group work, and extended teacher roles beyond traditional disciplines.The apparently intuitive point of convergence between these principles can be seen by taking into account our "common point of humanity" in all its various expressions. And this common point could in turn be guided by a call for a transcendence of each individual "little person", in a transcendence that is necessarily collective. If it were a matter of something informal and unspoken, all would benefit from having it brought to consciousness. Should it not then become a subject of discussion between the stakeholders, in order to encourage more and more the expression of this common point of humanity, so that everyone finds nourishment as needed, while maintaining the broadest possible respect for others and the world? In the tradition of Metagogy Theorem , we would approach a meta-science of education: a scientific and transversal model supported by an integral pedagogical paradigm that would provide a necessary and sufficient space for the ontological and spiritual dimensions.The objective of this research is to participate in the understanding of the question of consciousness and its deployment in human activities (subject / object / project), particularly in educational situations, with intention as the first criterion of analysis. ; Notre motivation à entrer dans l'écriture de cette note de synthèse trouve sa source à la suite du séisme traumatisant personnel et collectif provoqué par une nouvelle vague d'attentats en France en 2015 et par leurs répliques en Belgique, en Allemagne et en Grande-Bretagne. Ces événements dramatiques ont ravivé chez nous des questionnements professionnels et existentiels jusque-là mis de côté faute de lieu et de moment institutionnel dédié pour réfléchir aux finalités et aux fonctionnements des instances éducatives dont nous sommes partie prenante.Notre question de recherche part donc de l'appréciation d'une humanité et d'un état du monde contemporains qui semblent loin d'être à la hauteur qu'auraient laissé espérer les immenses avancées technologiques modernes, parmi lesquelles l'accès à l'information, conjuguées à une éducation primaire dispensée à très grande échelle sur la planète .Une hypothèse est que si la dimension ontologique est d'une certaine façon déjà présente dans les programmes scolaires et dans le socle commun de connaissances, de compétences et de culture de l'école et du collège notamment au travers des humanités et des compétences relationnelles et psycho-sociales, elle s'y exercerait toutefois de façon non ou insuffisamment conscientisée, ce qui amoindrirait ses effets positifs. Cet état de fait, attaché à une sorte de refoulement, aurait pour effet de ralentir la capacité de formation et d'émergence d'une personne qui soit responsable et qui agisse de manière positive envers elle-même, envers les autres et envers la planète. L'objectif poursuivi est donc de chercher à mieux comprendre et à accompagner vers ce but le processus multi-référentiel de notre humanisation au travers de l'éducation, pour autant que, comme l'affirmait déjà Érasme à la Renaissance : « On ne naît pas homme, on le devient ». Les principaux cadres théoriques et les concepts que nous mobilisons pour construire ce travail et nos propositions en Sciences de l'Éducation et de la Formation s'appuient sur trois domaines. D'abord la Transdisciplinarité , avec la pensée complexe , la théorie des systèmes et la question de la conscience . Ensuite la Psychologie Transpersonnelle , sur les questions de liberté, de responsabilité et d'éthique. Enfin les Humanités Numériques, depuis les artefacts technologiques et les technologies éducatives jusqu'à la technontologie (technique plus ontologie).Sous forme d'encarts, nous relaterons régulièrement des moments issus de notre « histoire de vie », nous insérant ainsi dans le courant de la biographisation , en tant que témoignages de l'évolution de notre propre parcours.Dans une première partie, nous travaillons à la construction d'un modèle ontologique hypothético-déductif, « l'être en tant qu'être », en tenant compte de la condition humaine dans son contexte spatio-temporel - « l'être dans le temps de l'être »- pour en comprendre le fonctionnement en termes d'enracinement, de besoin, de capacité, de désir, de dépassement… Nous représentons l'Être humain par un schéma métaphorique, appelé « structure-temple », comprenant sept éléments. Le socle de l'édifice symbolise sa filiation dans le contexte « anthropologique / culturel » de la naissance, actuellement l'anthropocène (qui débute avec l'action transformative durable de l'action humaine sur la planète, essentiellement du fait des agissements techniques et industriels, Wallenhorst, 2019). La première colonne exprime la dimension « physique / biologique / énergétique » ; la deuxième, la part « émotionnelle / sensible » ; la troisième, le « mental / cognitif » ; la quatrième, le « groupal / social » et la cinquième, l' « axiologique / existentiel / (post-)métaphysique ». Enfin, le fronton est la coiffe « ouverture / ontologique » de l'ensemble, qui invite à une conclusion optimiste selon la maxime du temple grec de Delphes attribuée à Socrate : « Connais-toi toi-même et tu connaîtras l'univers et les dieux ».Nous procédons ensuite à une analyse de cette approche au travers de deux dimensions temporelles : la big history ou longue histoire cosmique depuis le big bang jusqu'à la création de notre planète et le développement de la biosphère ainsi que l'éphémère vie humaine durant laquelle chacun tentera d'accomplir son projet « implié » . Une troisième dimension intemporelle les complète : la vie de l'esprit . Nous observons la dynamique évolutive de la structure-temple grâce à la complémentarité qu'elle opère avec les logiques du tiers inclus et du « Tiers Caché », ainsi que son caractère non-réductionniste. Ce modèle est fractal par son caractère intra-reproductible et holographique car multicouche. Il construit un système d'équilibre « cosmoderne » témoignant de la séparation épistémologique historique entre le monde des sujets et celui des objets qu'il réunit par la théorie de la « Transréalité » . Il propose in fine de dépasser cette dichotomie apparente en adoptant une approche non-duelle destinée à être opérante au moyen de la « démarche de projet » .La deuxième partie du travail contextualise la métaphore de la structure-temple dans le domaine de l'éducation et de la formation. À partir d'une démarche en réciprocité harmonieuse d'un triple développement, opéré sur les plans personnel, professionnel et collectif, émerge une proposition de « Pédagogie Intégrative et Implicative » (P2i). Elle procède d'un cadre théorique intégratif et aboutit à un dispositif implicatif ancré dans la longue histoire de l'Éducation Nouvelle dont Philippe Meirieu décèle « les prémices dès le XVIIIème siècle » . Par l'actualisation technicisée de la démarche de projet socioconstructiviste, la P2i cultive la considération efficiente des apprenants, des enseignants et des tiers (personnels, parents et autres partenaires), et ce, dans toutes leurs dimensions. Cette réflexion nécessite de discuter de l'évolution du rôle de l'enseignant dans l'acquisition des apprentissages fondamentaux de l'école primaire, depuis le « lire, écrire, compter » jusqu'au « respecter autrui », passant ainsi de la performance quantitative à la sensibilité qualitative. Il s'agit d'anticiper le passage d'un caractère « intégratif » des objets pédagogiques dans toutes leurs variétés à la dimension « intégrale » des sujets en formation. La métaphore de la structure-temple est alors déclinée comme un projet multidimensionnel. La recherche s'applique donc aussi bien au domaine des disciplines, des activités péri-, para- et extra-scolaires qu'aux questions transversales comme l'éco-citoyenneté, le pouvoir d'agir, le bonheur et le bien-être, la gestion des émotions, l'éducation positive…La P2i étudie les lieux, les moyens, les méthodes et les outils mis à disposition des institutions et des enseignants (débat philosophique, yoga ou encore méditation ) pour permettre une approche laïque autorisée de la spiritualité , qui s'intéresse à la vie de l'esprit. Tenant lieu de méthode d'analyse et de prospective, elle peut être mobilisée pour étudier toute question touchant aux Sciences de l'Éducation et de la Formation, depuis la laïcité ou l'évaluation jusqu'à l'open access ou le big data. La structure-temple et la P2i proposent conjointement un cadre théorique et pratique favorisant l'application de « stratégies de réussite éducatives » par l'instauration de cercles vertueux tout en développant notre part d'humanité. Par exemple des notions pédagogiques ou didactiques comme « la gestion de classe », « les apprentissages adaptés », « l'appui sur les personnalités », « les compétences des apprenants », « la dimension existentielle » etc. tous envisagés et pris en compte simultanément ou à tour de rôle multiplient les effets positifs de chacune de ces dimensions. Nous situant dans le courant de la slow education et des approches alternatives de/à l'éducation, une question, qui pourrait devenir « vive », se fait jour : faudrait-il nous orienter, par besoin ou par nécessité, vers un changement de paradigme éducatif ? Et si oui, vers lequel nous diriger ?La troisième partie présente un bilan de notre trajet de chercheur-praticien sous forme de retour réflexif, avec ses points forts et ses zones d'ombre : l'examen du lent « assèchement » professionnel et spirituel au fur et à mesure de la technicisation de nos recherches après notre nomination à l'Iufm de Paris en 1998 ; notre « revivifiance » grâce à l'action impliquée dans des équipes para-institutionnelles, prémices de l'aventure de cette note de synthèse ; les incompréhensions de nos pairs et les difficultés à partager et poursuivre administrativement et scientifiquement nos orientations de travail…Ce bilan est complété par un exposé des perspectives de recherche au sein de notre laboratoire sur la question des usages du numérique en éducation ; par des collaborations internationales avec le National Institute of Informatics (Tokyo, Japon) et le Centro de Tecnologia da Informação (Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brésil) sur le stress au travail ; par la continuité de nos travaux dans le contexte d'enseignement actuel (intégration dans les axes du GIS Rreefor-Espe) ; la poursuite de la mise à l'épreuve de la P2i dans la formation des enseignants ou encore l'approfondissement de la Culture de Paix. L'ampleur de l'engagement dans notre communauté de recherche et nos actions pour le rayonnement de la discipline des Sciences de l'Éducation et de la Formation s'apprécient notamment par des initiatives de coopération avec des instituts et des universités étrangères de formation des enseignants comme le National Pedagogical College (Cluj-Napoca, Roumanie), le Florida Grup Educatiu (Valencia, Espagne), la Moscow City University (Russie), l'Universidad Nacional de Educación (Chuquipata, Équateur) et l'École Normale de Chengdu (Chine) ; par la prise de responsabilités éditoriales dans des revues relevant de la section ; par l'organisation de rencontres scientifiques ; par la réponse à des demandes d'expertises nationales et internationales…En conclusion, il ressort que l'objectif de cette recherche est de participer à la compréhension de la question de la conscience et de son déploiement dans les activités humaines (sujet/objet/projet), et particulièrement en situation éducative, avec l'intention pour premier critère d'analyse.

Our motivation for writing this synthesis is the personal and collective trauma caused by a new wave of attacks in France in 2015 and their aftershocks in Belgium, Germany and Great Britain. These dramatic events have rekindled important professional and existential questions worth consideration. They encouraged thinking anew about the aims and functioning of the educational institutions in which we are involved.Our research question therefore starts from an appreciation of a contemporary humanity and state of the world that seem distant from what would have been hoped for amid immense modern technological advances, for instance massive access to information and to primary education . The working hypothesis is that the ontological dimension would certainly already be present in the educational curricula and the common core, but that it would be exercised unconsciously, even repressed, which would have the effect of slowing down the emergence of responsible individuals able to act positively toward themselves, others and the planet. The objective is therefore to try to better understand and support, in view of realizing this goal, the multi-referential process of our humanization, as long as, as the Renaissance humanist Erasmus once said: "We are not born human, but rather become human". The main theoretical frameworks and concepts that we mobilize to build this work and our proposals in Education and Training Sciences are based on three fields. First, Transdisciplinarity (complex thinking , systems of systems and consciousness ). Then, transpersonal psychology (on issues of freedom, responsibility and ethics). Finally, Digital Humanities, from technological artifacts and educational technologies , to technontology .In the form of insets, we will regularly report moments from our "life story", thus inserting us into the current of biographisation , as evidence of the evolution of our own journey.In the first part, we work on the construction of a hypothetico-deductive ontological model of Being, taking into account the human condition in its spatiotemporal context – Being as it unfolds in time and space – to understand how this model functions in terms of rooting, need, capacity, desire, surpassing etc. We represent man by a metaphorical schema, called "structure-temple", comprising seven parts. The pedestal of the building symbolizes its affiliation with the "anthropological / cultural" context of birth, currently the Anthropocene (which begins with the transformative action of sustainable human action on the planet, mainly because of its technical actions) (Wallenhorst, 2019). The first column expresses the "physical / biological / energy" dimension; the second, the "emotional / sensitive" part; the third, the "mental / cognitive"; the fourth, the "groupal / social"; and the fifth, the "axiological / existential / (post) metaphysical". The pediment is the "aperture / ontological" headdress of the ensemble, which invites an optimistic conclusion according to the maxim of the Greek temple of Delphi attributed to Socrates: "Know thyself and you will know the universe and the gods".We then analyse this approach through two temporal dimensions: the big history or long cosmic history from the big bang to the creation of our planet and the development of the biosphere, as well as the ephemeral human life during which each of us will try to accomplish an "involved project" . A third timeless dimension completes them: the life of the spirit. We observe the evolutionary dynamics of the temple-structure thanks to the complementarity that it achieves with the logic of the included third and the "Hidden Third", as well as its non-reductionist character. This model is fractal because it tends toward intra-infinity, and holographic because it is multilayered. It builds a system of "cosmodern" equilibrium, testifying to the historical epistemological separation between the world of subjects and that of the objects it brings together through the theory of "Transreality" . Ultimately, it proposes to surpass an apparent dichotomy by adopting a non-dual approach intended to be effective through the "project approach" .We thus develop a model that could be useful for an ontoformation . The action links updated in the temple-structure by the exercise of the thirds (included and hidden) can be mobilized in the "essence" of the teacher's practice. The teacher must be able to evaluate his or her professional "situated action", which we would evaluate in the context of time (Pedestal and Columns) and in the "vertical" dimension of the whole structure (From Pedestal to Pediment). This approach would shift the quasi-unidirectional binary master-student relationship in the exclusive application of the programs to a dynamic sensitive process of a ternary relationship through the mobilization of the structure-temple tool, for evaluative and then truly educational purposes, as much for the position of the master as for that of the pupil. This holistic approach integrates educational proposals that can be grouped under the terms self-training and self-co-training: "Training here refers to the vital and permanent process of shaping by interaction between oneself (self), others (socio, hetero, co) and the world (eco). Self-training is then defined as the awareness, understanding and transformation by the subject of this interaction. It is the transformation of the relationship with oneself, with others and with the world" .We therefore seek to examine, through the model of the temple-structure in an educational situation, whether the poles and various elements are invested in a correctness (the right ingredient, at the right time, in an adequate quantity) that avoids imbalances, for example disturbances of other moments of life dedicated to transmission and learning and, more broadly, life outside educational spaces. To deepen this question, we will explore the model in other contexts of learning and other educational situations, such as knowledge and disciplines, practices and pedagogies, educational technologies etc.The second part of the work contextualizes the temple-structure metaphor in the field of education and training. From a harmonious reciprocal approach of a triple development, operated on personal, professional and collective levels, emerges a proposal of "Integrative and Implicative Pedagogy" (P2i). It is anchored in the long history of New Education born in the early twentieth century. Through the technicalized updating of the socioconstructivist project approach, the P2i cultivates the efficient consideration of learners, teachers and third parts (staff, parents and other partners) in all their dimensions. This reflection requires discussing the evolution of the role of the teacher in the acquisition of the fundamental learning of primary school, from "read, write, count" to "respect others", thus passing from quantitative performance to qualitative subtlety. It is a question of anticipating the passage from an "integrative" character of educational objects in all their varieties, to the "integral" dimension of the subjects in formation. The temple-structure metaphor is then presented as a multidimensional project. The research therefore applies to the field of disciplines, peri-, para- and extra-curricular activities as well as cross-cutting issues such as eco-citizenship, empowerment, happiness and well-being, emotion management, positive education etc.The P2i studies the places, the means, the methods and the tools made available to institutions and teachers (philosophical debate, yoga or laical meditation ) to allow a secular approach allowed of spirituality , which is interested in the "life of the mind". As a method of analysis and foresight, it can be mobilized to study any question related to the Sciences of Education and Training, from secularism or evaluation to open access or big data. The temple-structure and the P2i jointly propose a theoretical and practical framework favoring the application of educational "strategies of success" by the establishment of "virtuous circles" while developing our "part of humanity". For example: "class management" x "adapted learning" x "support for personalities" x "learners' skills" x "existential dimension" and so on, situating ourselves in the current of slow education and alternatives approaches to / from education. Then a question emerges: should we be guided, by need or necessity, towards a paradigm shift in education? And if so, what should we strive for?The most important aspect would ultimately be an ability to lead multi-referential lives that are connected with each other, with educational partners, with institutions, in relation to knowledge. Examples abound, especially in the field of active pedagogies. In the manner of design thinking, which manages innovation by synthesising analytical thought and intuitive thought as it mobilizes processes of co-creativity that will involve end-users, or like the operating rules stemming from sociocracy and holacracy (as decision with zero objection, election without self-declared candidates, revocability of mandates). Such examples are an extension of work that emphasizes the spiritual dimension – the opposite of routine. It is therefore essential in teacher training not to develop only professional skills, but rather to promote the development of full-fledged human beings. As if reconciling a posture of legitimacy of the teacher with that of a permission of the student. Without force or manipulation. By focusing on the "educational flow" to better enter in the learning of "content stocks". By putting more freedom in learning while maintaining ethics. With freedom of conscience in the face of ideological approaches between normality and (relative) deviance, between independence and the need for connection. By passing from the class group to the subject group. The learner becomes an actor with the acquisition of autonomy. And when the learner realizes this, it is the beginning of emancipation, which can cause shocks. Because this dynamic in progress can also create resistance, as much for the actors concerned as for the institutions. Because we must first accept the discomfort of these new situations. Accompaniment, integration and inventiveness are practices that facilitate these processes of creation, which must each time be new, in order to prevent falling back into reproducing pre-established models.The third part presents an assessment of our journey as a researcher-practitioner in the form of a reflexive return, with its strong points and its gray areas: the examination of the slow professional and spiritual "drying up" as the technicization of our research after our appointment at the Paris IUFM in 1998; our "revivification" thanks to the action involved in non-institutional teams, the first fruits of the adventure described by the present overview; the misunderstandings of our peers and the difficulties in sharing and pursuing administratively and scientifically our work orientations.This report is completed by a presentation of the research perspectives with our laboratory on the question of the uses of digital education; international collaborations with the National Institute of Informatics (NII) in Japan and the Centro de Tecnologia da Informação (CTI) in Brazil on stress at work; by the continuity of our work in the context of current teaching (integration in the axes of GIS Rreefor-Espe); the continued testing of P2i in teacher training or the deepening of the Culture of Peace. The extent of the engagement in our research community and our actions for the promotion of the discipline of the Sciences of Education and Training are particularly notable in relation to cooperation initiatives with foreign universities for teacher training in Romania (Cluj-Napoca), Spain (Valencia), Russia (Moscow), Ecuador (Chuquipata) and China (Chengdu), through the endorsement of editorial responsibilities as a reviewer, through the organization of scientific meetings, by answering requests for expert opinions…In conclusion, in the era of the Anthropocene, which is characterized by societal and lethal environmental risks for the human species, questioning what constitutes society is now absolutely necessary. Starting from our specialty, education, this problem is tackled by the study of conditions and modalities, a strategy that allows surpassing a mere "doing together" to a true "living together". At the heart of the areas to explore further are secularism and the relationship with religion . As the pedagogue Philippe Meirieu has noted: "'Believing' divides while 'knowing' brings together" . Experience facilitates passing from the first verb to the second. Massification and longer study times seem to go hand in hand with the standardization of training courses. The latter would then risk rejecting the otherness of those who follow them and tend to format them, which would be the opposite of the search for creative solutions that society needs. Finding interest and constructing the "common points" that respect diversity, based on real benevolence, with co-constructed rules, would be a pragmatic solution to consider. Fundamental principles may include but are not limited to: citizenship, partnership, democracy, team and collaborative learning, acceptance of different ideas, small group work, and extended teacher roles beyond traditional disciplines.The apparently intuitive point of convergence between these principles can be seen by taking into account our "common point of humanity" in all its various expressions. And this common point could in turn be guided by a call for a transcendence of each individual "little person", in a transcendence that is necessarily collective. If it were a matter of something informal and unspoken, all would benefit from having it brought to consciousness. Should it not then become a subject of discussion between the stakeholders, in order to encourage more and more the expression of this common point of humanity, so that everyone finds nourishment as needed, while maintaining the broadest possible respect for others and the world? In the tradition of Metagogy Theorem , we would approach a meta-science of education: a scientific and transversal model supported by an integral pedagogical paradigm that would provide a necessary and sufficient space for the ontological and spiritual dimensions.The objective of this research is to participate in the understanding of the question of consciousness and its deployment in human activities (subject / object / project), particularly in educational situations, with intention as the first criterion of analysis. ; Notre motivation à entrer dans l'écriture de cette note de synthèse trouve sa source à la suite du séisme traumatisant personnel et collectif provoqué par une nouvelle vague d'attentats en France en 2015 et par leurs répliques en Belgique, en Allemagne et en Grande-Bretagne. Ces événements dramatiques ont ravivé chez nous des questionnements professionnels et existentiels jusque-là mis de côté faute de lieu et de moment institutionnel dédié pour réfléchir aux finalités et aux fonctionnements des instances éducatives dont nous sommes partie prenante.Notre question de recherche part donc de l'appréciation d'une humanité et d'un état du monde contemporains qui semblent loin d'être à la hauteur qu'auraient laissé espérer les immenses avancées technologiques modernes, parmi lesquelles l'accès à l'information, conjuguées à une éducation primaire dispensée à très grande échelle sur la planète .Une hypothèse est que si la dimension ontologique est d'une certaine façon déjà présente dans les programmes scolaires et dans le socle commun de connaissances, de compétences et de culture de l'école et du collège notamment au travers des humanités et des compétences relationnelles et psycho-sociales, elle s'y exercerait toutefois de façon non ou insuffisamment conscientisée, ce qui amoindrirait ses effets positifs. Cet état de fait, attaché à une sorte de refoulement, aurait pour effet de ralentir la capacité de formation et d'émergence d'une personne qui soit responsable et qui agisse de manière positive envers elle-même, envers les autres et envers la planète. L'objectif poursuivi est donc de chercher à mieux comprendre et à accompagner vers ce but le processus multi-référentiel de notre humanisation au travers de l'éducation, pour autant que, comme l'affirmait déjà Érasme à la Renaissance : « On ne naît pas homme, on le devient ». Les principaux cadres théoriques et les concepts que nous mobilisons pour construire ce travail et nos propositions en Sciences de l'Éducation et de la Formation s'appuient sur trois domaines. D'abord la Transdisciplinarité , avec la pensée complexe , la théorie des systèmes et la question de la conscience . Ensuite la Psychologie Transpersonnelle , sur les questions de liberté, de responsabilité et d'éthique. Enfin les Humanités Numériques, depuis les artefacts technologiques et les technologies éducatives jusqu'à la technontologie (technique plus ontologie).Sous forme d'encarts, nous relaterons régulièrement des moments issus de notre « histoire de vie », nous insérant ainsi dans le courant de la biographisation , en tant que témoignages de l'évolution de notre propre parcours.Dans une première partie, nous travaillons à la construction d'un modèle ontologique hypothético-déductif, « l'être en tant qu'être », en tenant compte de la condition humaine dans son contexte spatio-temporel - « l'être dans le temps de l'être »- pour en comprendre le fonctionnement en termes d'enracinement, de besoin, de capacité, de désir, de dépassement… Nous représentons l'Être humain par un schéma métaphorique, appelé « structure-temple », comprenant sept éléments. Le socle de l'édifice symbolise sa filiation dans le contexte « anthropologique / culturel » de la naissance, actuellement l'anthropocène (qui débute avec l'action transformative durable de l'action humaine sur la planète, essentiellement du fait des agissements techniques et industriels, Wallenhorst, 2019). La première colonne exprime la dimension « physique / biologique / énergétique » ; la deuxième, la part « émotionnelle / sensible » ; la troisième, le « mental / cognitif » ; la quatrième, le « groupal / social » et la cinquième, l' « axiologique / existentiel / (post-)métaphysique ». Enfin, le fronton est la coiffe « ouverture / ontologique » de l'ensemble, qui invite à une conclusion optimiste selon la maxime du temple grec de Delphes attribuée à Socrate : « Connais-toi toi-même et tu connaîtras l'univers et les dieux ».Nous procédons ensuite à une analyse de cette approche au travers de deux dimensions temporelles : la big history ou longue histoire cosmique depuis le big bang jusqu'à la création de notre planète et le développement de la biosphère ainsi que l'éphémère vie humaine durant laquelle chacun tentera d'accomplir son projet « implié » . Une troisième dimension intemporelle les complète : la vie de l'esprit . Nous observons la dynamique évolutive de la structure-temple grâce à la complémentarité qu'elle opère avec les logiques du tiers inclus et du « Tiers Caché », ainsi que son caractère non-réductionniste. Ce modèle est fractal par son caractère intra-reproductible et holographique car multicouche. Il construit un système d'équilibre « cosmoderne » témoignant de la séparation épistémologique historique entre le monde des sujets et celui des objets qu'il réunit par la théorie de la « Transréalité » . Il propose in fine de dépasser cette dichotomie apparente en adoptant une approche non-duelle destinée à être opérante au moyen de la « démarche de projet » .La deuxième partie du travail contextualise la métaphore de la structure-temple dans le domaine de l'éducation et de la formation. À partir d'une démarche en réciprocité harmonieuse d'un triple développement, opéré sur les plans personnel, professionnel et collectif, émerge une proposition de « Pédagogie Intégrative et Implicative » (P2i). Elle procède d'un cadre théorique intégratif et aboutit à un dispositif implicatif ancré dans la longue histoire de l'Éducation Nouvelle dont Philippe Meirieu décèle « les prémices dès le XVIIIème siècle » . Par l'actualisation technicisée de la démarche de projet socioconstructiviste, la P2i cultive la considération efficiente des apprenants, des enseignants et des tiers (personnels, parents et autres partenaires), et ce, dans toutes leurs dimensions. Cette réflexion nécessite de discuter de l'évolution du rôle de l'enseignant dans l'acquisition des apprentissages fondamentaux de l'école primaire, depuis le « lire, écrire, compter » jusqu'au « respecter autrui », passant ainsi de la performance quantitative à la sensibilité qualitative. Il s'agit d'anticiper le passage d'un caractère « intégratif » des objets pédagogiques dans toutes leurs variétés à la dimension « intégrale » des sujets en formation. La métaphore de la structure-temple est alors déclinée comme un projet multidimensionnel. La recherche s'applique donc aussi bien au domaine des disciplines, des activités péri-, para- et extra-scolaires qu'aux questions transversales comme l'éco-citoyenneté, le pouvoir d'agir, le bonheur et le bien-être, la gestion des émotions, l'éducation positive…La P2i étudie les lieux, les moyens, les méthodes et les outils mis à disposition des institutions et des enseignants (débat philosophique, yoga ou encore méditation ) pour permettre une approche laïque autorisée de la spiritualité , qui s'intéresse à la vie de l'esprit. Tenant lieu de méthode d'analyse et de prospective, elle peut être mobilisée pour étudier toute question touchant aux Sciences de l'Éducation et de la Formation, depuis la laïcité ou l'évaluation jusqu'à l'open access ou le big data. La structure-temple et la P2i proposent conjointement un cadre théorique et pratique favorisant l'application de « stratégies de réussite éducatives » par l'instauration de cercles vertueux tout en développant notre part d'humanité. Par exemple des notions pédagogiques ou didactiques comme « la gestion de classe », « les apprentissages adaptés », « l'appui sur les personnalités », « les compétences des apprenants », « la dimension existentielle » etc. tous envisagés et pris en compte simultanément ou à tour de rôle multiplient les effets positifs de chacune de ces dimensions. Nous situant dans le courant de la slow education et des approches alternatives de/à l'éducation, une question, qui pourrait devenir « vive », se fait jour : faudrait-il nous orienter, par besoin ou par nécessité, vers un changement de paradigme éducatif ? Et si oui, vers lequel nous diriger ?La troisième partie présente un bilan de notre trajet de chercheur-praticien sous forme de retour réflexif, avec ses points forts et ses zones d'ombre : l'examen du lent « assèchement » professionnel et spirituel au fur et à mesure de la technicisation de nos recherches après notre nomination à l'Iufm de Paris en 1998 ; notre « revivifiance » grâce à l'action impliquée dans des équipes para-institutionnelles, prémices de l'aventure de cette note de synthèse ; les incompréhensions de nos pairs et les difficultés à partager et poursuivre administrativement et scientifiquement nos orientations de travail…Ce bilan est complété par un exposé des perspectives de recherche au sein de notre laboratoire sur la question des usages du numérique en éducation ; par des collaborations internationales avec le National Institute of Informatics (Tokyo, Japon) et le Centro de Tecnologia da Informação (Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brésil) sur le stress au travail ; par la continuité de nos travaux dans le contexte d'enseignement actuel (intégration dans les axes du GIS Rreefor-Espe) ; la poursuite de la mise à l'épreuve de la P2i dans la formation des enseignants ou encore l'approfondissement de la Culture de Paix. L'ampleur de l'engagement dans notre communauté de recherche et nos actions pour le rayonnement de la discipline des Sciences de l'Éducation et de la Formation s'apprécient notamment par des initiatives de coopération avec des instituts et des universités étrangères de formation des enseignants comme le National Pedagogical College (Cluj-Napoca, Roumanie), le Florida Grup Educatiu (Valencia, Espagne), la Moscow City University (Russie), l'Universidad Nacional de Educación (Chuquipata, Équateur) et l'École Normale de Chengdu (Chine) ; par la prise de responsabilités éditoriales dans des revues relevant de la section ; par l'organisation de rencontres scientifiques ; par la réponse à des demandes d'expertises nationales et internationales…En conclusion, il ressort que l'objectif de cette recherche est de participer à la compréhension de la question de la conscience et de son déploiement dans les activités humaines (sujet/objet/projet), et particulièrement en situation éducative, avec l'intention pour premier critère d'analyse.

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Kranton (Sir Paul Collier) -- Reto Cueni recommends "Too much Finance?" by Jean Louis Arcand, Enrico Berkes and Ugo Panizza (Reto Cueni) -- Jakob de Haan recommends "Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty" by Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson (Jakob de Haan) -- Reiner Eichenberger recommends "Self-Interest through Delegation: An Additional Rationale for the Principal-Agent Relationship" by John Hamman, George Loewenstein and Roberto Weber (Reiner Eichenberger) -- Lars P. Feld recommends "Happiness, Economy and Institutions" by Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer (Lars P. Feld) -- Reto Foellmi recommends "Firms in International Trade" by Andrew B. Bernard et al. (Reto Foellmi) -- Nicolai J. Foss recommends "Economics and Identity" by George A. Akerlof and Rachel E. Kranton (Nicolai J. Foss) -- Bruno S. Frey recommends "Mindful Economics: The Production, Consumption, and Value of Beliefs" by Roland Bénabou and Jean Tirole (Bruno S. Frey) -- Jetta Frost recommends "Collective Action and the Evolution of Social Norms" by Elinor Ostrom (Jetta Frost) -- Clemens Fuest recommends "Yes, Economics Is a Science" by Raj Chetty (Clemens Fuest) -- Allan Guggenbühl recommends "Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human" by Jonathan Gottschall (Allan Guggenbühl) -- Jochen Hartwig recommends "In It Together: Why Less Inequality Benefits All" by OECD (Jochen Hartwig) -- Jürg Helbling recommends "Capital in the 20th Century" by Thomas Piketty (Jürg Helbling) -- Sir David F. Hendry recommends "An Analysis of the Indicator Saturation Estimator as a Robust Regression Estimator" by Søren Johansen and Bent Nielsen (Sir David F. Hendry) -- Gerard Hertig recommends "Legal Origins" by Edward L. Glaeser and Andrei Shleifer (Gerard Hertig) -- Bruno Heyndels recommends "Gender Quotas and the Crisis of the Mediocre Man: Theory and Evidence from Sweden" by Timothy Besley et al. (Bruno Heyndels) -- David Iselin recommends "The Superiority of Economists" by Marion Fourcade, Etienne Ollion and Yann Algan (David Iselin) -- Beat Kappeler recommends "Beyond the Keynesian Endpoint: Crushed by Credit and Deceived by Debt — How to Revive the Global Economy" by Tony Crescenzi (Beat Kappeler) -- John Kay recommends "The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter" by Joseph Henrich (John Kay) -- Martin Killias recommends "Crime and Everyday Life" by Marcus Felson and Rachel Boba (Martin Killias) -- Hartmut Kliemt recommends "Violence and Social Orders" by Douglass C. North, John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast (Hartmut Kliemt) -- Kai A. Konrad recommends "Lenders' Blind Trust and Borrowers' Blind Spots: A Descriptive Investigation of Personal Loans" by Linda Dezsö and George Loewenstein (Kai A. Konrad) -- George Loewenstein recommends "Self-Signaling and Diagnostic Utility in Everyday Decision Making" by Ronit Bodner and Drazen Prelec (George Loewenstein) -- Ulrich Matter recommends "Towards a Political Theory of the Firm" by Luigi Zingales (Ulrich Matter) -- Peter Nijkamp recommends "The False Duality of Work and Leisure" by Joy E. Beatty and William R. Torbert (Peter Nijkamp) -- Karl-Dieter Opp recommends "Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness" by Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein (Karl-Dieter Opp) -- Margit Osterloh recommends "Do Women Shy Away from Competition? Do Men Compete Too Much?" by Muriel Niederle and Lise Vesterlund (Margit Osterloh) -- Martin Ravallion recommends "Poverty Traps" by Samuel Bowles, Steven Durlauf and Karla Hoff (Martin Ravallion) -- Susan Rose-Ackerman recommends "Corruption, Norms, and Legal Enforcement: Evidence from Diplomatic Parking Tickets" by Raymond Fisman and Edward Miguel (Susan Rose-Ackerman) -- Katja Rost recommends "The Network Structure of Social Capital" by Ronald S. Burt (Katja Rost) -- Mark Schelker recommends "Salience and Taxation: Theory and Evidence" by Raj Chetty, Adam Looney and Kory Kroft (Mark Schelker) -- Sascha L. Schmidt recommends "Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game" by Michael Lewis (Sascha L. Schmidt) -- Friedrich Schneider recommends "Public Choice III" by Dennis C. Mueller (Friedrich Schneider) -- Ronnie Schöb recommends "Economics and Identity" by George A. Akerlof and Rachel E. Kranton (Ronnie Schöb) -- Gerhard Schwarz recommends "Why Capitalism?" by Allan H. Meltzer (Gerhard Schwarz) -- David Stadelmann recommends "Public Policy and the Initiative and Referendum: A Survey with Some New Evidence" by John G. Matsusaka (David Stadelmann) -- Bruno Staffelbach recommends "The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil" by Philip Zimbardo (Bruno Staffelbach) -- Tobias Straumann recommends "This Time Is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly" by Carmen M. Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff (Tobias Straumann) -- Alois Stutzer recommends "Political Selection" by Timothy Besley (Alois Stutzer) -- Cass R. Sunstein recommends "Scarcity: Why Having Too Little Means So Much" by Sendhil Mullainathan and Eldar Shafir (Cass R. Sunstein) -- Guido Tabellini recommends "A Model of Social Identity with an Application to Political Economy: Nation, Class and Redistribution" by Moses Shayo (Guido Tabellini) -- Mark Thoma recommends "Learning and Expectations in Macroeconomics" by George Evans and Seppo Honkapohja (Mark Thoma) -- Benno Torgler recommends "Economics Rules: The Rights and Wrongs of the Dismal Science" by Dani Rodrik (Benno Torgler) -- Jean-Robert Tyran recommends "Patience and the Wealth of Nations" by Thomas Dohmen et al. (Jean-Robert Tyran) -- Ruut Veenhoven recommends "The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions" by Barbara Fredrickson (Ruut Veenhoven) -- Carl Christian von Weizsäcker recommends "Trills Instead of T-Bills: It's Time to Replace Part of Government Debt with Shares in GDP" by Mark J. Kamstra and Robert J. Shiller (Carl Christian von Weizsäcker) -- Gert G. Wagner recommends "Homo Ignorans: Deliberately Choosing Not to Know" by Ralph Hertwig and Christoph Engel (Gert G. Wagner) -- Hannelore Weck-Hannemann recommends "Orchestrating Impartiality: The Impact of 'Blind' Auditions on Female Musicians" by Claudia Goldin and Cecilia Rouse (Hannelore Weck-Hannemann) -- Barry R. Weingast recommends "Economic Backwardness in Political Perspective" by Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (Barry R. Weingast) -- Barbara E. Weissenberger recommends "Management Control Systems. Performance Measurement, Evaluation, and Incentives" by Kenneth A. Merchant and Wim A. Van der Stede (Barbara E. Weissenberger) -- Ludger Woessmann recommends "Measuring the Impacts of Teachers II: Teacher Value-Added and Student Outcomes in Adulthood" by Raj Chetty, John N. Friedman and Jonah E. Rockoff (Ludger Woessmann) -- Klaus F. Zimmermann recommends "Identity Economics: How Our Identities Shape Our Work, Wages, and Well-Being" by George A. Akerlof and Rachel E. Kranton (Klaus F. Zimmermann) -- Postscript (Bruno S. Frey and Christoph A. Schaltegger)

Donald Trump and Kamala Harris not only proved last night that they have no fleshed out foreign policy visions of their own, but that they feel most comfortable pantomiming like they do, using bafflingly cartoonish language about each other, playing so fast and loose with history, facts, and figures so as to make the entire debate over what to do in Ukraine and Gaza absolutely incoherent.So much for "America First."An "America First" answer to the question posed to Harris about what she would do about the more than 40,000 Palestinian deaths in Gaza — which the moderator pointed out Harris was "concerned" about nine months ago — would be to say that continuing to fund it directly would ultimately hurt America, put our troops in the region at risk, and doom our integrity as nation of laws and a beacon of moral clarity forever. At the very least, she could point out that Benjamin Netanyahu is a bad faith actor who represents his people but not the American people, and we cannot aid or assist him if he continues to flout the Geneva Conventions in a desperate bid to stay in power. Full stop.Instead she says: "What we know is that this war must end it and immediately, and the way it will end is we need a ceasefire deal, and we need the hostages out, and so we will continue to work around the clock on that, also understanding that we must chart a course for a two state solution, and in that solution, there must be security for the Israeli people and Israel, and an equal measure for the Palestinians. But the one thing I will assure you always, I will always give Israel the ability to defend itself, in particular, as it relates to as it relates to Iran, and any threat that Iran and its proxies pose to Israel."Trump for his part, decided to lay napalm down, but unlike the Trump of 2016 who emphasized that it was not in the best interest of the United States to be sucked into other countries' wars and conflicts, that we should not be the world's police, he chose to accuse Kamala of "hating Israel." When asked how he would negotiate with Netanyahu and Hamas to get the hostages out and to stop civilian suffering — a layup question for the man who loves "to talk" really — he said this:"(Harris) she hates Israel. She wouldn't even meet with Netanyahu when he went to Congress to make a very important speech. She refused to be there because she was at a sorority party of hers. She went to go to the sorority party. She hates Israel. If she's president, I believe that Israel will not exist within two years from now, and I've been pretty good at predictions, and I hope I'm wrong about that one. She hates Israel at the same time, in her own way, she hates the Arab population because the whole place is going to get blown up, Arabs, Jewish people, Israel will be gone. It would have never happened. Iran was broke under Donald Trump." Onto Ukraine. Trump had one of his brighter moments in an otherwise dim evening of missed opportunities (like saying nothing when Harris boasted endorsements from Iraq War architect Dick Cheney and daughter Liz) when he said he wanted to end the war in Ukraine and would do so by bringing Ukrainian President Zelensky and Russian President Putin together in a room to resolve it in order to avoid more death and "World War III." He then repeated unexplained assertions about "millions" dead (without clarifying who, by whom, or where) and ticked off a few points in his usual jag about NATO members not paying enough into the system. But his grasp of why that war happened and how it would suddenly "end" began and ended with his concept that Biden was "weak," and that Harris is "weak." It was, frankly, weak.Harris, for her part, acted as though it was still 2022 and would be forever as long as the U.S. kept funding the war. Again, no real explanation as to why this was in anyone's best interest, even Ukraine's, to continue on this course, other than, you know, Russian domination of the rest of Europe."If Donald Trump were president, Putin would be sitting in Kyiv right now and understand what that would mean, because Putin's agenda is not just about Ukraine. Understand why the European allies and our NATO allies are thankful that you are no longer president, and that we understand the importance of the greatest military alliance the world has ever known, which is NATO, and what we have done to preserve the ability of Zelensky and the Ukrainians to fight for their independence. Otherwise, Putin would be sitting in Kyiv with his eyes on the rest of Europe, starting with Poland."On Afghanistan, oh my. It was a good idea to get out, agreed by both. But why? Doesn't matter. What matters is that according to Harris, Trump, "negotiated directly with a terrorist organization called the Taliban. The negotiation involved the Taliban getting 5000 terrorists, Taliban terrorists, released. And get this. No, get this. And the president at the time, invited the Taliban to Camp David, a place of storied significance for us as Americans, a place where we honor the importance of American diplomacy, where we invite and receive respected world leaders." She also pulled the "as of today, there is not one member of the United States military who is in active duty in a combat zone," which is a lie and everyone knows it. Just ask our troops getting droned in Iraq and Syria. And the U.S. Navy might have something to say about what they have been doing stationed in the Red Sea for the last 10 months.Instead of owning that his negotiations helped to end one of the biggest U.S. foreign policy failures of the last century, Trump boasted that he threatened to blow up the Taliban leader's house and that is how he got the Taliban to stop shooting our soldiers. He briefly mentioned the negotiations with the Taliban, and how it was right to get out of the war, but then went straight into blaming the Biden administration for the catastrophic withdrawal of August 2021. "And by the way, that's why Russia attacked Ukraine, because they saw how incompetent she and her boss are." China, where's China? The only mention of Asia in the debate last night was over Trump's proposed new tariffs and Harris avoiding the question as to why Biden never lifted the ones he imposed during Trump's presidency. Oh yeah, and Harris accusing Trump of saying nice things about Xi Jinping during COVID. The rest of the foreign policy discussion went like this: Harris: "It is well known he exchanged love letters with Kim Jong Un and it is absolutely well known that these dictators and autocrats are rooting for you to be president again because they're so clear, they can manipulate you with flattery and favors, and that is why so many military leaders who you have worked with have told me you are a disgrace."Trump: "(Hungary's president) Victor Orban said you need Trump back as president. They were afraid of him. China was afraid. And I don't like to use the word afraid, but I'm just quoting him. North Korea was afraid of him. Look at what's going on with North Korea. By the way, he said Russia was afraid of him. … He said the most respected, most feared person is Donald Trump. We had no problems when Trump was president."After this debate, the American voter, the American people, should be afraid. To be sure, they will be voting on a whole host of issues and opinions that likely have nothing to do with Gaza, Ukraine, NATO, or the whims of the world's strongmen. But to call any of this "America first" is pure gaslighting. On foreign policy, we come in dead last.

I was recently asked whether I'd like to share my thoughts on monetary policy in a post-pandemic world. Sure, why not? Thanks to Jan Eckhout for thinking of me. The panel was hosted by the European Economic Association last month and moderated by Diane Coyle. I was honored to speak alongside Ricardo Reis and Beata Javorcik, both of whom provided riveting presentations. For what it's worth, I thought I'd provide a transcript of my remarks here. Lunch Panel EEA-ESEM CopenhagenAugust 25, 2021I want to focus my discussion on the U.S. economy
and from the perspective of a Fed official concerned with the challenges the
Fed may face in fulfilling its Congressional mandates in a post-pandemic world.

First, to provide a bit of context, let me offer
a bit of history on policy and, in particular, on what I think were some
policy mistakes. Let me begin with the 2008-09 financial crisis, which is
something I think most people would agree should never have happened. Whether a sufficiently aggressive Fed lender-of-last-resort operation would have averted the crisis remains a open question. Even if it had been successful, such an operation would have had costs. It may, for example, have elicited
an even greater political backlash than we saw at the time--and who knows how this
may have manifested itself as undesirable changes to the FRA. As well, such an
intervention may have just pushed mounting structural problems down the road.
In particular, while it's now clear that some private sector lending practices
needed to change, it's not clear where the incentive to do so would have come
from absent a crisis. In any case, the crisis happened. How was it managed?

The ensuing recession was deep and the recovery
dynamic very slow. The prime-age employment-to-population ratio did not reach
its pre-pandemic level until 2019, a full decade later. Nevertheless, on the
whole, I think the Fed followed an appropriate interest rate policy. There were
one or two times the FOMC exhibited a little too much enthusiasm for
"normalizing" policy, but I think the slow recovery dynamic had more to do with
insufficient fiscal stimulus—especially at the state and local level—rather
than a consequence of inappropriate monetary policy. The evidence for this can
also be seen by the fact that inflation remained below the Fed's 2% target for
most of the time the policy rate was close to its ELB. The Fed has interpreted
this low inflation episode as partly a monetary policy mistake, something its
new AIT regime is designed to address. But my own view is that persistently low
inflation—and the low money market yields that go along with it—have more to do
with the supply and demand for U.S. Treasury securities. This is something the
Fed does not have very much direct control over.

I know many people are skeptical of fiscal
theories of the price-level, but in virtually every economic model I know, a
fiscal anchor is necessary to pin down the long-run rate of inflation. Monetary
policy—specifically, interest rate policy—can, of course, influence the
price-level, so monetary policy can influence inflation dynamics. But it can do
so only in the "short run." Interest rate policy alone cannot, in my view,
determine the long-run rate of inflation, at least, not without appropriate
fiscal support.

Now, I know many of you may be asking how I can
think fiscal policy has very much to do with inflation given how rapidly the
debt has risen since the financial crisis and again with the C-19 crisis, all
with little apparent pressure on long-run inflation expectations and on
long-term bond yields. We should, however, keep in mind that an observed change
in the quantity of an object may entail both supply and demand considerations.
And one can easily point to several forces that have contributed to increases
in the global demand for UST securities in recent decades. For example, the
growing use of USTs as collateral in repo and credit derivatives markets
beginning in the 1970s and accelerating through the 1980s. The growing demand
for USTs as a safe store of value from EMEs. The evaporation of private-label
safe assets during the financial crisis that left a gaping hole for USTs to
fill. Next, we had a large increase in the regulatory demand for USTs coming
out of Dodd-Frank and Basel III. The Fed's SRF and FIMA facility should further
enhance the demand for USTs. On top of all this, we've witnessed an emergent
class of money funds called "stablecoins" that are further contributing to the
demand for USTs. These forces have been disinflationary, leading bond investors
to revise down their expectation of the future path of policy interest rates.
It is interesting to ponder a counterfactual here. In particular, think of what
may have transpired absent an accommodating U.S. fiscal policy. We may very
well have experienced the mother of all deflations. If this is correct, then an
elevated debt-to-GDP ratio, given a relatively stable inflation and interest
rate structure, reflects an elevated real demand for outside assets. The
problem is not that the debt-to-GDP ratio is going up. The problem is what
disruptions might occur if it goes down
owing to a sudden and unexpected inflation.

The recent rise in inflation is concentrated in
durable goods, and I think is mostly attributable to ongoing supply-chain
issues associated with the pandemic. This effect is likely to reverse itself,
the way lumber prices recently have. Some of what I think is temporarily high
inflation may not reverse itself, leading to a permanently higher price-level. In
this case, households will worry whether their wages will keep pace with the
higher the cost of living. There is even the possibility—though I think less
likely—that the rate of inflation itself will remain elevated and that
inflation expectations will rise well above the Fed's 2% target. This may
happen, for example, if the traditional bipartisan support for fiscal anchoring
in the new generation of Congressional representatives is perceived to wane, or
if the global demand for safe assets slows. If either or both of these things happen
and are persistent, then the Fed may find itself faced with what Sargent and
Wallace phrase an "unpleasant monetarist arithmetic." That paper, which was
published exactly 40 years ago, warned how tightening monetary policy without
fiscal support might actually make inflation go higher rather than lower.

The implications for U.S. monetary policy are
quite interesting should an event like this unfold. A determined Fed may try to
fight inflation by raising its policy rate. The result is likely to be a temporary
disinflation and recession.  Should fiscal policy remain unaltered, the
logic provided by Sargent and Wallace implies that inflation will return even
higher than before as the deficit must increase to finance a larger interest
expense on the debt. The best the Fed can do in this case is to lower its
policy rate, announce a temporarily higher inflation target, and hope that the
fiscal authority gets its house in order. The notion that a Volcker-like policy
would lower the long-run rate of inflation depends on fiscal capitulation. This
capitulation to some extent did happen under Volcker, although keep in mind he
had considerable Congressional support from both sides of the aisle. I do not
think this type of political support is something one can count on, especially
given today's political climate. So, you may want to buckle up, as we may be in
for some interesting times ahead.Related Readings:Is it Time for Some Unpleasant Monetarist Arithmetic? Link to blog post. Link to paper.

The paper addresses the issues of analysis of the Ulus of Jochi armament complex on the basis of burial monuments. The author is convinced that the development of an integrated approach to the study of military archaeology and history of Eurasian nomads is required, and provides an example in the form of the results of studies on the archaeology of the nomadic burials of the Ulus of Jochi (the Golden Horde) conducted using the technique of statistical analysis of mass archaeological material. The archaeological source base of this study is composed of 1273 burial complexes revealed and investigated in the steppes of Eurasia. A total of 37.4% of these burials were containing armament items. This series is used by the author as a basis for conclusions on the nature of the armament of the nomadic population of the Golden Horde. ; Статья посвящена вопросам анализа комплекса вооружения Улуса Джучи по данным погребальных памятников. Автор считает, что требуется разработка комплексного подхода к изучению военной археологии и истории кочевников Евразии, и в качестве опыта предлагает результаты своих исследований по археологии кочевнических погребений Улуса Джучи (Золотой Орды), проведенных по методике статистического анализа массового археологического материала. Источниковую базу по археологии этого исследования составляют 1273 погребальных комплексов, выявленных и исследованных в степях Евразии. Из них 37,4% составляют погребения, содержащие предметы вооружения. На основе этой выборки автором делаются выводы о характере вооружения кочевого населения Золотой Орды. Библиографические ссылки Акматов К.Т. Железные наконечники стрел кочевников Тянь-Шаня в мон-гольское время // Вестник НГУ. Серия: История, филология. 2015. Т. 14. № 7. С. 193–202. Генинг В.Ф., Бунятян Е.П., Пустовалов С.Ж., Рычков Н.А. Формализованно-статистические методы в археологии (анализ погребальных памятников). К.: Наук. думка, 1990. 304 с. Горелик М.В. Армии монголо-татар X–XIV веков. Воинское искусство, снаряжение, оружие. М.: Восточный горизонт, 2002. 84 с. Горелик М.В. Монгольский костюм и оружие в XIII-XIV веках: традиции имперской культуры // Военное дело Золотой Орды. Проблемы и перспективы изучения / Отв. ред. И. М. Миргалеев. Казань: Изд- во: ИИ им. Ш. Марджани АН РТ, 2011. С. 121−137. Горелик М.В. Шлемы золотоордынских воинов Северного Кавказа из частных собраний // Степи Европы в эпоху средневековья. Т. 8. Золотоордынское время / Гл. ред А.В. Евглевский. Донецк: ДонНУ, 2010. С. 253−270. Горелик М.В., Ковпаненко Г.Т. Погребение знатного латника у западных границ Золотой Орды // Археология Поволжья / Отв. ред. Г.Н. Белорыбкин. Пенза: ПГУ, 2001. C. 154−164. Дружинина И.А. Шестопер из кургана у станицы Абинская (по материалам раскопок В.Г. Тизенгаузена в Кубанской области, 1879 г.) // Археология Евразийских степей. 2017. № 5. С. 99–107. Дружинина И.А., Чхаидзе В.Н., Нарожный Е.И. 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